Chapter7:ReflectionSeismologyHomeworkSolutions(Jan.

2010)
1. Whydomarineseismicreflectionsurveysnotrecord(a)Swaves?(b)refractedrays?

a) Foridealfluid,=0,thus, vs2 =

2.

3.

4.

5.

= 0

b) Reflectionoffsetsbydefinitionareatoffsetlessthanthecriticalrefractiondistance

Howdoesamigratedreflectionseismicsectiondifferfromanunmigratedone?In
whatcircumstanceswouldtheybethesame?

Migrationisthespatialrepositioning(migration)ofseismicarrivalsfromtheinitial
assumptionthatthearrivalscomefromflatandcontinuouslayers.Migrationsdothree
primarythings:a)steepensdippinglayers,b)collapsesdiffractions,c)movesreflectorsto
deeperlevels.

Theywouldbethesameifthelayers(interfaces)areflatandcontinuous.

Howcanaprimaryreflectionbedistinguishedfromamultipleone?

Multiplereflectionshavegreatertemporalmoveoutcomparedtoprimaryreflections.Thus,
multiplesstackwithalowervelocity.

Willamigratedsectioncorrectforsideswipe?

Sideswipeisdueto3dimensionaleffectsthatcontaminatea2Dmigration.Theonlyway
toaccountforsideswipeistodoafully3Dmigration.

Isthedipofareflectorinanunmigratedseismicsectionmoreorlessthanitsactual
dip?Explainwiththeaidofasketch.

Unmigratedapparentdipsarelessthanthetruemigrateddips.Thisisbecausethedeeper
reflectionmigrationarcshavearadiusofcurvaturethatislargerthantheshallower
migrationarcsandconsequentlyhavealargerdepthcorrection.

6. WhatisthemainwayinwhichtheVibroseissystemdiffersfromotherdata

acquisitionsystems?Nametwoadvantagesthatithasoverothermethodsofland
surveying.

Thesourceisafrequencysweep(chirp).
Advantages:
(a) Allowsbettermatchingofrecordeddatabecausetheentirepulsecanbecorrelated.
(b) Requiredenergyislowerwhichisbeneficialfornoninvasivesurveys.
(c) Truckscanbemovedinandoutwithoutdrilling.

7.areflected
Whatarethemainpurposesofstacking?
v 1v1
R=
= 2 2

aincident
2 v2 + 1v1
Stackingistheseismicequivalentofaveragingnumberstoimproveonesestimateofthe
quantity.Stackingconstructivelyaddstogetherthesignal,whiletherandomnoisetendsto
cancel,therebyincreasingthesignaltonoiseratio.

8. Howcanareflectioncoefficientbenegative?Howcanitberecognized?

Thesignofthereflectioncoefficientdependsontheseismicimpedencedifferencebetween
thelowerlayer(assumingdowngoingwave)andtheupperlayer.

R=

areflected
aincident

2v2 1v1

2v2 + 1v1

Thus,if Z 2 = 2 v2 > Z1 = 1v1 ,thenR>0.If Z 2 = 2 v2 < Z1 = 1v1 ,thenR<0.Thewaythata

negativereflectioncoefficientismanifestedinaseismogram,isthatthewaveisinverted.

9. Howmanysynclinesandanticlinesappearinanunmigratedseismicsection?

Itdependsontheindividualseismicsection!Wouldhavetostudyasectiontoidentify
them.Anticlinesappearspatiallybroaderonanunmigratedsection.Thesignatureofa
synclinedependsonitsdepthrelativetoitscurvature.Ifitisshallowerthantheradiusof
curvature,ittendstobenarrowerontheunmigratedsection.Ifthereflectorisdeeperthan
theradiusofcurvature,itproducesthebowtieontheunmigratedsection.

10. Asuccessionconsistsofalternatingsandstonesandshales,withthetoplayerbeing

sandstone.Calculatehowtheamplitudediminishesforreflectionsfromeachofthe
topfourinterfaces(ignorespreadingofthewavefrontandabsorption),ifthe
densitiesandvelocitiesareasfollows:sandstone=2Mg/m3,v=2.6km/s;shale=2.3
Mg/m3,v=2.8km/s.

R=

2 v2 1v1
2 v2 + 1v1

T=

2 1v1
2 v2 + 1v1

R=

2 v2 1v1
2 v2 + 1v1

T=

2 1v1
2 v2 + 1v1

R and T for ss 'over' sh

Rss , sh =

sh vsh ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )

=
= 0.106
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )

Tss , sh =

( 2 )( 2.0 )( 2.6 )
2 ss vss
=
= 0.893
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )

R and T for sh 'over' ss

Rsh , ss =

ss vss sh vsh ( 2.0 )( 2.6 ) ( 2.3)( 2.8 )

=
= 0.106
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )

Tsh , ss =

( 2 )( 2.3)( 2.8 )
2 ss vss
=
= 1.106
sh vsh + ss vss ( 2.3)( 2.8 ) + ( 2.0 )( 2.6 )

Reflection coefficients (effective)

R1 = Rss = 0.106

R2 = (Tss , sh )( Rsh , ss ) (Tsh , ss ) = ( 0.893)( 0.106 )(1.106 ) = 0.105

R3 = (Tss , sh )(Tsh , ss )( Rss , sh )(Tss , sh )(Tsh , ss )

= ( 0.893 )(1.106 )( 0.106 )( 0.893)(1.106 ) = 0.103

R4 = (Tss , sh )(Tsh , ss )(Tss , sh )( Rsh , ss )(Tsh , ss )(Tss ,sh )(Tsh , ss )

= ( 0.893 )(1.106 )( 0.893 )( 0.106 )(1.106 )( 0.893)(1.106 ) = 0.102

3

11. Seismicsectionsarenotalwayswhattheyappear.Explainhowanapparentreflector

may(a)haveanincorrectslope,(b)mayhaveanincorrectcurvature,or(c)maynot
existatall,while(d)threehorizontalreflectorsspacedequallyoneabovetheother
maynotbeequqllyspaced,inreality?

(a) Unmigratedsectionshavelesserdips.
(b) Synclines(concaveup)andanticlines(concavedown)willhavetheircurvatures
modifiedinunmigratedsections.
(c) Multiplereflectionscanproduceanapparentreflector
(d) ThescaleonaseismicsectionisTWT,notdistance. TWT =

2(thickness )
,hence,
velocity

variationsinthecombinationofthicknessandvelocitycanmakeitappearthattheyare
equallyspaced,wheninreality,theyareonlyequallyspacedinTWT.

12. Whatdeterminesverticalresolution?Whydoeslessthantherequiredresolution
sometimeshavetobeaccepted?

Forallwaves(elastic,electromagnetic,etc),thespatialresolutionincreaseswithhigher
frequenciesthathavesmallerwavelengths( =

v
).Atypicalreflectionsurveyhasa
f

frequencyof40Hzandavelocityof5km/s,hencethewavelengthof125meters,anda
quarterwavelengthofapproximately31.2meters.
Becausehigherfrequencieshavemoreattenuation(dissipatedenergy),theydonttravelas
farindepth.Thus,ifwewanttolookfordeepreflectors,wemustsettleforlookingforlarge
layersaswell.

13. Explainwhyareflectoronaseismicsectionneednotcorrespondtoaparticular
interface.
Whenlayersarethinnerthanaquarterwavelength,thereflectionsandtransmittedwaves
caninterferecausingwavesthatdontnecessarilycorrespondwitharealreflector.

14. Whyisaverystronghorizontalreflectionusuallyindicativeofagaswaterinterface?
Whymayagaswaterinterfacenotalwaysappearasahorizontalreflector?
Becausetheacousticimpedanceofagasliquidisverydifferentthanthesurroundingrock,
itcanproduceabrightspotonasection.Sincegasliquidisgenerallylessdensethanthe
surroundingrock,itwilltendtomoveupwarduntilitreachesanimpermeableboundary,
whichisoftenhorizontal.
However,trapscanexistthatarenothorizontal,thereforetheinterfacemaynotalwaysbe
horizontal


15. Astrongreflectorthatliesbelowseverallayerswithdifferentseismicvelocitieshas
thesameTWTasthebaseofasinglelayerelsewhere.Whatdothetotalthicknesses
abovethetworeflectorshaveincommon?

ThetotalthicknessesabovethereflectorwouldhavetohavethesameRMSvelocitytohave
thesameTWTtothereflector.

16. Explainwhyaseismicinterfacemaynotbealithologicalboundary,andviceversa.
Giveanexampleofeach.
Aseismicinterfacemaybeanartifactfromreflectiveinterferenceofseverallayers.An
exampleisalternatinglayersofsandstoneandshale,whichcanproducespuriousreflectors.
Alithologicboundarymaynotproduceaseismicreflectorbecausethecombinationof
densityandvelocity(impedance)maynotbesuchastoproduceasignificantreflectoreven
thoughtheyaredistinctlydifferent.Anexampleisgiveninsection7.8.1withtheexample
ofsandstoneandlimestone.
17. Inwhatwaysdoesshallowseismiclandsurveyingdifferfromdeepsurveying?

Shallowlandsurveysrequirehigherresolution,hencehighfrequencysourcesandreceivers
thatcandetectthehigherfrequencies.,typicallyuptoaround400Hz.
18. Athin,horizontallayerofshale(vp=2.8km/sec)lieswithinsandstone(vp=2.5

km/sec).WhatistheminimumthicknessofshalethatcanberesolvedinaVibroseis
survey?(Useanaveragefrequency.)

Useanaveragefrequencyof50Hz.

v 2.8 103
=
= 56 meters
f
50
56
Resolution = =
= 14 meters
4 4

19. Explainhow(a)aninterfacemayshowupbyseismicreflection,butnotbyseismic

refraction,and(b)viceversa?

a) 1:Sourcereceiverdistancelessthanthecriticaldistance..2:Athinhiddenlayerwill
possiblybevisibleonreflection,butnotonrefraction.3:Alowvelocitylayerispresent
thereforenocriticalangle,hencenorefractedwave.
b) Agradualinterfacecanbeseenwithrefraction,butnotwithreflection