Brendan Maletski

Mrs. Tallman
AP Calculus
19 February 2016
Calculus Paper #1
Calculus is a subject in math which is integral to many fields, big and small, from
the entirety of physics to three dimensional modeling. It is crucial in physics as it allows
physicists, as an example, to find acceleration and displacement equations from only
the velocity equation using derivatives and integrals. These building blocks of calculus
are also found in the three dimensional modeling, finding the volume of various shapes
constructed by revolving functions. There is a broad array as to what calculus can be
used for.

Area Under the Curve:

f (x)

dx

Figure 1. Area under the Curve of a Function (Dawkins)

To find the area under the curve of the graph of a function between two x values,
the definite integral must be used. The first step in finding the area under the curve
using the definite integral is finding the anti-derivative of the function f(x) by integrating
it. The next step is using this integrated function represented by F(x) plug the starting x
value (referenced by the letter a). Finally F(a) is subtracted by F(x) with the end x value
(referenced by the letter b), so that the area under the curve is equal to F(a) (or f(a))
minus F(b) (or f(b)). This process is notated, where dx is the change in the x values, by
the following equation:
b

f ( x ) dx= Areaunder the curve

a

Which leads to the equations:

f ( a ) f ( b )=F ( a )F ( b )= Area under the curve

To display this equation, this method will be used to find the area under the example
function f(x) = 3x2 + x + 2 between the x values 1 and 5. This would lead to the equation:
3x
( 2+ x+ 2)dx= Areaunder the curve
5

Then f(x) is integrated:

x 3+

x
+2 x 5 = Area under the curve
2
1

Next, F(x) is separated into F(a) minus F(b) and solved:

53 +

52
12
+2 ( 5 ) 13+ +2 ( 1 ) = Areaunder thecurve=144
2
2

)(

Thus, the area under the example function f(x) = 3x 2 + x + 2 between x values 1
and 5 is 144 units squared.

Area Between Two Curves:

Figure 2. The Area between Two Functions (Dawkins)

Finding the area between two curves of functions between two x values is very
similar to the process of finding area of a single curve. Finding the area between these
two functions is simply subtracting the area under the higher function (referenced as
f(x)) by the area under the lower function (referenced as g(x), which is done by
subtracting their definite integrals between the start point a and end point b. Using
previously explained methods, the following equations are derived:
b

f ( x ) dx g ( x ) dx= Area between the curves

a

Which when integrated leads to the separated integrals:

f (b)
g (b )
g ( a )

Area between the curves

f ( a )

Then end result of the integrated functions:

( F ( a )F ( b ) )( G ( a ) G ( b ) )= Areabetween the curves

To exemplify this calculus, this method will be used to find the area of a region R under
the examples functions f(x) = x and g(x) = x/3 between the x values 0 and 9, which
starts with this equation:
9

( x )dx ( 3x ) dx= Areabetween the curves

Then the functions are integrated:
3

2 x2 9 2 9
= Area between the curves
3 0 x 0
6

Finally, the a and b values are plugged into the newly integrated functions and solved:

3
2

( )

2 (9)
( 9 )2
( 0 ))(
( 0 ))=4.5
3
6

( )

Thus region R between f(x) = x and g(x) = x/3 in the middle of the x values 0
and 9 is 4.5 units squared.

Solids of Revolution:

Figure 3. Example of Disk Method (Dawkins)

When concerning solids of revolution in which segments of functions between the
start x value a and end x value b are rotated about axes, there are three methods to find
these volumes. Firstly, there is the disks method uses the cylinder volume formula as its

base. In V = r2h, r is the integral of the f(x) since the area under the rotated curve acts
like the radius of a cylinder. To account for the height of the cylinder, dx is used since
this will deal with the irregular shape of functions that are revolved around the x axis.
Therefore the formula:
b

f ( x )2 dx=Volume of revolved function

a

Figure 4. Example of Ring Method (Dawkins)

This leads to the ring method, which is a continuation of the disk method. In this
technique the two functions are used to find a solid with a hole in it, thus the name ring
method. Instead of V = r2h, this method uses V = (R2 - r2)h in which R is the larger

function and r is the smaller function, which shows the region in between rotating
around the axis of rotation. This means that the equation for the ring method is:
f (x)
( 2g ( x) ) dx=Volume of revolved region
2

For the disk and ring methods, there is a way to alter the axis of rotation to a
value that isnt the x axis. This works by altering the equations of the functions to alter
the radius of the revolved solid. To complete this, take the new value that serves as the
axis rotation and if the axis is above the functions, subtract the value by the functions. If
the functions are above the value, subtract the value from the functions. To exemplify
this method, the region R will be rotated around the axis y=-2. To do this, the ring
method will be used for the area bound by f(x) and g(x) in between the x values 0 and 9:

( x +2 )
2

x
( 2( +2) )dx=Volume of revolved region
3
9

Firstly, simplify the equations:

( x +4 x +4 )(
9

2
x2 4 x
+
+4)
9 3

dx =Volume of revolved region

0

Then the equations are integrated:

3
2

9
x 8x
3
+
+4 x
x 9 =Volume of revolved region
x 4 x2
2
3
0 +
+4 0
27 6
2

The variables are plugged in and solved for:

)(

))

( 9 )2 8 ( 9 ) 2
( 9 )3 4 ( 9 ) 2
+
+ 4 ( 9)
+
+ 4 ( 9 ) =31.5
2
3
27
6

Thus the volume of the solid of region R rotated around the axis y=-2 between
the x values of 0 and 9 is 31.5 units cubed.

Figure 5. Example of Shell Method (Dawkins)

The final method for finding the volume of a solid of revolution is the shell
method. This technique is useful for when the axis being revolved around is also the
axis the also the axis of the dependent variable between two x values as shown above.
The way to find the volume of this solid is to find it through numerous shells within the
revolved function. This is found using the equation:
b

2 radiusheightdx=2 ( ( x )f ( x ) ) dx= Area of revolved function

a

Such that radius is x since that is the independent variable and height is the
function since that solves for y.

Cross-Sectional Method:
Another way to find the volume of a solid is to use the cross-sectional method.
This method takes a shape such as a triangle or square and uses the cross section of
the area between curves for one side whilst the other sides of that shape are at a fixed
ratio with the known side, thus the name cross-sectional. The equation depends

partially on the shape being formed, for example if it was an isosceles triangle being
formed by the cross sections of the region R, the following equation would be utilized:
9

.5( R)2 dx=Volume of the solid

0

.5( x 3x ) dx =Volume of the solid

0
First simplify and integrate the equation:
5

)|

x3 4 x 2 x2 9
.5

+
=Volume of the solid
27 15 2 0

Then plug in the a and b variables:

5
2

(9) 4 (9) (9)

.5

+
=1.35
27
15
2

Thus the volume of that isosceles triangle solid utilizing the cross sections of
region R is 1.35 units cubed.

Works Cited
Dawkins, Paul. "Area Problem." Paul's Online Math Notes. Lamar University, n.d. Web.
21 Feb. 2016. <http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/AreaProblem.aspx>.

Dawkins, Paul. "Area Between Curves." Paul's Online Math Notes. Lamar University,
n.d. Web. 21 Feb. 2016.
<http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/AreaBetweenCurves.aspx>.
Dawkins, Paul. "Volumes of Solids of Revolution/Method of Rings." Paul's Online Math
Notes. Lamar University, n.d. Web. 21 Feb. 2016.
<http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/Classes/CalcI/VolumeWithRings.aspx>.