---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SOLAR WATER PURIFICATION BY

USING THERMAL METHOD
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTENTS
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO

PARTICULARS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT

1. SYNOPSIS
2. INTRODUCTION
3. LITERATURE SURVEY
4. TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR
5. COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION
6. BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR PARABOLIC DISH
7. WORKING PRINCIPLE
8. DRAWINGS
9. CONTROL OF HEAT LOSS
10.ADVNATAGES
11.LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS
12.LIST OF MATERIALS
13.COST ESTIMATION
14.CONCLUSION

PAGE NO.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SYNOPSIS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-1
SYNOPSIS

Solar water purification by using thermal method is used as a principle of

solar thermal heating system. Solar thermal systems convert sunlight into heat.
"Flat-plate" solar thermal collectors produce heat at relatively low temperatures (80
to 140F [27 to 60C]), and are generally used to heat air or a liquid for space and
water heating or drying agricultural products. Concentrating solar collectors
produce higher temperatures.
They are most often used where higher temperature heat is desirable, there
are large thermal loads, and/or where there are limitations in the area available for
installing solar collectors, since they provide more energy per unit of collector
surface area. They can also be applied in the production or refining of chemicals
and fuels or to produce mechanical or electrical energy. The following is a
discussion of concentrating systems for space or water heating. Such collectors can
also be used to produce heat for absorption cooling.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTRODUCTION
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION

Parabolic trough technology is currently the most proven solar thermal electric
technology. This is primarily due to nine large commercial-scale solar power plants, the
first of which has been operating in the California Mojave Desert since 1984. Large fields
of parabolic trough collectors supply the thermal energy used to produce steam for a
Rankine steam turbine/generator cycle.
There are two basic types of parabolic trough solar heating collectors that have
been commercially developed: cylindrical parabolic troughs and compound water heaters.
A standard cylindrical parabolic trough has a fixed receiver/absorber positioned in the
middle of the trough at or slightly above the radius across the edges of the reflector. The
shape of the trough (rim angle) determines the focal point, and thus the position of the
receiver. The reflector surface is usually polished aluminum, aluminized plastic, silvered
glass, or stainless steal.
The receiver usually has an absorber tube coated with a selective material that has
a high absorption for the solar spectrum and low emittance for infrared radiation. The
absorber tube may be enclosed in glass with a vacuum to reduce heat loss due to
convection and radiation. Receiver temperatures can reach 750F (400C)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

LITERATURE SURVEY
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER-3
LITERATURE SURVEY

Man relied mostly on the sun for his energy needs. With increasing in population of the
world and especially our country, coupled with the desire for higher standard of living
and better quality of life, it is imperative that the basic energy needs are met.

However, about 250 years ago, the picture changed radically by the invention of steam
engine and the increasing use of fossil fuels for producing electricity and for industrial
purposes. The recent rapid escalation in the cost fossil fuels, the awareness regarding
environmental pollution issues, the finite size of the fossil resources, and the ever
increasing demand to satisfy better standard of living resulted in harnessing alternate
energy source to supplement and eventually replace fossil fuels. This is a rediscovery of
mans old concern. The number of conceivable ways to collect, store, convert, distribute
were carried out and finally the use of solar energy to immense.

The origin to the solar energy utilization was initiated in the year 1800 by a
scientist Mr. CHARLES FRITTIS. The invention of light meter which is used for
determining the intensity of light was the initiative for solar energy utilization. This
meter was used in the field of photo graphics. This was implemented in practice at the
year 1930.

Later in 1954 the bell laboratories of U.S.A. made a research in generation of

electricity without any moving parts by using the principle of light meter. They were
successful in that research and there came the generation of electricity without any
moving parts, where sunlight was the main source for energy for generation of electricity.
In order to effectively harness the solar radiation one must know the spectral
distribution of sunlight to evaluate absorbing by the atmosphere and near by terrain and
the types of instruments used to measure different aspects of the solar flux. Direct photo
voltaic conversion of sunlight to electricity is a very enticing prospect for clean
production of electric power. This method is based on the use of solar cell. The transfer
of energy from the photons of solar light directly to electrons in a potential semi
conductor barrier layer without an intermediate thermal step is the photo voltaic effect.
The principle of the photo voltaic effect is closely associated with the theory of diode and
an introduction to the essential principle of the elements of semiconductor physics is
helpful in understanding the harnessing of solar energy. Useful applications vary from
production of few watts to several mega watts. It is successfully exploited both in space
and small scale applications on earth.

GLOBAL SOLAR RADIATION:

The performance of any solar system requires information on the availability of

energy in direct beam, diffuse energy from the sky or the reflected energy from the
ground and other objects.

For empirical estimation, solar radiation of possible sun sine and cloud are used
from meteorological exist data, and at location where no measured data a linear
interpolation is made by using total horizontal data from the nearest location.

SOLAR RADIATION DATA:

Many countries through networks under meteorological organizations record and

maintain solar radiation data mostly in long leys received on a horizontal surface in
different observations centers. Data are available for daily or hourly solar radiation, wind
velocity, temperature and duration of sun sine and cloudiness for over three decades.
This information are available in different forms and they are to be used carefully
because the records may provide bean, diffuse or total radiation, instantaneous values
integrated over an hour in a day, measurements in incline or fixed slope or normal, daily
measurements averaged by month and hourly average by month.

Average solar radiation data provide information about general trends. Based on
accurate values of daily means of solar radiation at one location, solar radiations for
every month in different parts of the world are complied. The daily average total fluxes
for sunlight on a horizontal surface for the month of June, in various parts of the world
are given. The greatest amount of solar energy is found around the earth between the 15
degree and 35 degree north and south parallels, where there is a minimum monthly mean
radiation of 20MJ/m/day. These regions are on the equatorial side of the worlds arid
deserts. In some of the areas there is usually over 3000 hrs sunshine/year, over 90% of
which come as direct radiation.

The next favorable region for solar energy applications is in the belt between 15 degree
north and 15 degree south parallels. The scattered radiation is high with about 1500 hrs
sunshine/year. The influx of solar radiation ranges from 12 to 20MJ/m/day. Between 35
degree and 45 degree parallels, at the edge of deserts the solar radiation averages 16 to
20MJ/m/day. The regions beyond 45 degree north to 45 degree south are limited in their
year-round direct use of solar energy. More than 80% of the worlds inhabitants live
between 40 degree latitude in about 14MJ/m/day. In U.K. the average daily total solar
radiation is about 16 MJ/m/day, in summer and about 2 MJ/m/day in winter. The total
on a horizontal surface is about 3500 MJ/m/year.

On the other hand, Australia which is enjoying quite the opposite weather and
vegetation receives about 6500MJ/m/year nearly twice as much.

Because

of

the

inclination of the earth axis to the plane of its orbit, the maximum altitude of the sun and
the length of the day vary substantially with latitude and season. This effect can be seen
in the measurements of solar radiation over the seasons for various latitudes. In summer
they are compensating so that the on a clear day the total energy falling on a horizontal
surface is 30MJ/m/day at all latitudes up to the polar area.

The distribution of the total duration of bright sunshine in India ranges form 2500
to 3600hrs/Year. The global solar radiation of nearly 27 MJ/m/day is available on a
horizontal surface over arid and semi arid regions. During monsoon and winter months
the global solar radiation falls to 10 to 20 MJ/m/day. Nearly 10% of area of the country
receives global radiation exceeding 20 MJ/m/day and about 70% of the area 17 to 20
MJ/m/day. These are favorable regions for harnessing solar radiation.

The desert zones of the earth are having highest insulation. Arid and semi arid
regions of the country comprise 10% and 30% respectively of the area of the whole
country.

The average solar radiations (MJ/m/day) in some cities in India are given.

STATION

WINTER

SUMMER

MONSOON

DEC-FEB

MAR-MAY

JUN-SEP

POST
MONSOO
N

PUNE
CHENNAI
KOLCUTTA
NEW DELHI

19.2

25.2

18.2

OCT-NOV
18.3

18.9

24.3

19.9

16.6

15.7

21.6

16.4

16.1

15.2

24.1

20

17.6

INDIAN SCENARIO IN THE SOLAR FIELD:

India lies between 7 N and 37 N latitudes, and the prospects of using solar energy
here is very bright. The average intensity of solar radiation in India is 500-600 cal/cm
per day, and the solar energy annually received by it is 5 x 10 KWH. If India can tap
one percent of the incident solar radiation, it can generate many times the energy of its
actual requirement at present.

A study of the average solar radiation falling on major Indian cities in different
months of the year shows how easily Indian cities receive a huge quantity of solar energy
at practically no cost. This free and easy availability of solar energy has forced India to

develop its use.

As a result, in the fifties, Indian government laid stress on the

development of devices which used solar energy to meet specific needs. Scientists at the
national physical laboratory in New Delhi devised solar cookers, water heaters and water
pumps among other things, for the use in the country.

In the seventies, a committee headed by the energy and petroleum ministry

recommended that basic research on solar energy by carrying out in all universities and
frontal research organization. Several universities and institutes such as central building
research institute, Tata energy research institute and IITs subsequently took up research
work on the development of solar energy technologies. The main thrust was application
of solar energy in rural sector and supplementing commercial energy in urban areas.

In the eighties the department of non conventional energy sources was assigned
the main responsibility for advancement of solar energy utilization. A 1991-1992 report
published by the ministry of non conventional energy sources revealed that despite head
way made in India in the utilization of solar energy, the ratio of energy used to energy
available, was extremely low. India annually received 5 x 10 / 15 KW hr. of solar
Energy, but utilizes only 13 x 10/7 KW hr., or 0.0000026% of it.

How ever there has been a significant growth in the use of solar heating systems in
India, in the form of solar water purification by using thermal methods, domestic and
industrial solar cookers, solar crop diverse, kilns, desalination, systems etc.

India is now in touch with many developing countries for the development of
renewable energy. It coordinates the applications of solar energy among G-15 countries,
and provides fellow ships to scientists from those countries. Solar shops that sell solar
energy appliances are coming up fast. One example is Aditya, owned by the Delhi
energy development agencies. It has branches in Kolkata, Trivandrum, Bhubaneswar,
Bhopal, Jaipur, Patna, Baroda and Chandigarh. In Kerala, ANERT is doing well in solar
energy products.

We get both light and heat from the sun, these can be converted into other forms
of energy.(a) light from the sun can be directly converted in to electricity with the help of
solar cells, by photo voltaic (PV) effect which was first discovered by Beckured in 1839.
The cells are usually made of crystalline silicon, a substance found abundantly in earths
crust. Solar cells have many potential uses. They can run machines ranging from pocket
calculators to water pumps of 230 V/60W. The cost and efficiency depend on the
material used.

In India the PV program started in 1976, while the commercial production of solar
cells started in 1984. India ranks high among the worlds producers of PV systems.
Indian companies produce 40% of the worlds supplies. According to the MNES sources,
until 1995, 1 lakh PV systems were I operation in India. MNES had setup a target of
operating 1, 50,000 lanterns, 5000 house hold lights and 3000 solar water pumps. Solar

PV has been projected as the energy source of the future. The progress of the PV
program has been hindered by the high cost of these systems. Amoco-Envon solar power
development (A joint venture by 2 American multinationals) proposed to MNES to setup
a 2400MW solar PV power plant in the Thar Desert in Rajasthan, which enjoys Indias
highest solar radiation of 2173 KWH/M/year, and the highest sunshine hours at 3285 a
year.

The plant would start with a production of 10 MW and increase it to 100MW

annually. In west Bengal, a 50MW solar plant went in to operation on Mausuni Island in
sundarban area on March 4, 01. The plant which cost RS.1.5 crore to setup, could
supply power to 400 houses on the island, and is reported to be the largest of its kind in
India by WBREDA. It has plans to augment this plant and supply power to all 4000
houses there. WBREDA established a 26 KW solar power plant at Mrityujpur in 1998,
and has supplied power generated from solar energy to 2 villages-kamalpur and South
Haradanpur. In October last year, a 2.2 KW solar power plant was inagurated at a height
of 14,000 feet in the Himalayas, near the Sikkim border.

The plant was designed by WBREDA and executed by exide at a cost of RS.15
lakhs, provided by MNES. The power generated here utilized by the trainees of the
Himalayan mountaineering institute at their base camp. This plant is the first in the world
to be at such a high altitude.

In UP, there were plans to setup 2 large solar power plants of 100MW capacity
each, at Kaluanpur and Surat village, to supply power to 400-600 houses in the locality.
At Borodia, on the UP-MP border, a solar power plant of 4KW power capacity has been
established by UPENDA for domestic supply and street lighting.

From the above mentioned details, it is clear that India has tremendous potential to
lap the solar energy.

There are many scattered villages without electricity. These villages need water
pumping and electrification. Due to the location of the villages remote from the cities, a
conventional power plant may be too costly because of the length of transmission lines.
Diesel generators also need transports of fuel and maintenance. In such circumstances
photo voltaic generation of electricity for pumping water will be a most economical
method.

TYPES OF SOLAR COLLECTOR

Not only are there many different ways that solar energy can be applied, but there
are also many different methods for collecting the solar energy from incident radiation.
Below is a listing of some of the more popular types of solar collectors.
Glazed flat-plate solar collectors
Unglazed flat-plate solar collectors
Unglazed perforated plate collectors
Back-pass solar collectors
Concentrating solar collectors
Air based solar collectors
Batch solar collectors
Solar cookers
Liquid-based solar collectors
Parabolic dish systems
Parabolic trough systems
Power tower systems
Stationary concentrating solar collectors
Vacuum tube solar collectors

1.

Glazed flat-plate collectors

Glazed flat-plate collectors are very common and are available as liquidbased and air-based collectors. These

collectors

are

better

suited

for

moderate

temperature applications where the demand temperature is 30-70C and/or for applications
that require heat during the winter months. The liquid-based collectors are most
commonly used for the heating of domestic and commercial hot water, buildings,
and indoor swimming pools. The air-based collectors are used for the heating of
buildings, ventilation air and crop-drying.
In this type of collector a flat absorber efficiently transforms sunlight into heat. To
minimize heat escaping, the plate is located between a glazing (glass pane or transparent
material) and an insulating panel. The glazing is chosen so that a maximum amount of
sunlight will pass though it and reach the absorber.
2. Unglazed flat-plate solar collectors
Unglazed flat-plate collectors are usually made of black plastic that has been
stabilized to withstand ultraviolet light. Since these collectors have no glazing, a larger
portion of the suns energy is absorbed. However, because they are not insulated a large
portion of the heat absorbed is lost, particularly when it is windy and not warm outside.
They transfer heat so well to air (and from air) that they can actually capture heat during
the night when it is hot and windy outside!

3. Unglazed perforated plate collectors

The key to this type of collector is an industrial-grade siding/cladding that is
perforated with many small holes at a pitch of 2-4 cm. Air passes through the holes in the
collector before it is drawn into the building to provide preheated fresh ventilation air.
Efficiencies are typically high because the collector operates close to the outside air
temperature. These systems can be very cost-effective, especially when they replace
conventional cladding on the building, because only incremental costs need be compared
to the energy savings.
The most common application of this collector is for building ventilation air
heating. Other possible components for this system are: a 20-30cm air gap between the
buildings, a canopy at the top of the wall that acts as a distribution manifold and by-pass
dampers so that air will by-pass the system during warm weather.
4. Back-pass solar collectors
Air-based collectors use solar energy to heat air. Their design is simple and they
often weigh less than liquid-based collectors because they do not have pressurized
piping. Air-based collectors do not have freezing or boiling problems. In these systems, a
large solar absorber is used to heat the air. The simplest designs are single-pass open
collectors. Collectors that are coated with a glaze can also be used to heat air for space
heating.

This type of collector may be integrated in the building and combined with
thermal mass such as in the Trombe wall described at the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory.
5. Concentrating solar collectors
By using reflectors to concentrate sunlight on the absorber of a solar collector, the
size of the absorber can be dramatically reduced, which reduces heat losses and increases
efficiency at high temperatures. Another advantage is that reflectors can cost substantially
less per unit area than collectors.
This Glass of collector is used for high-temperature applications such as steam
production for the generation of electricity and thermal detoxification. These collectors
are best suited to climates that have an abundance of clear sky days and therefore are not
so common in Canada. Stationary concentrating collectors may be liquid-based, airbased, or even an oven such as a solar cooker.
There are four basic types of concentrating collectors:
Parabolic trough
Parabolic dish
Power tower
Stationary concentrating collectors
6. Air based solar collectors

The energy collected from air-based solar collectors can be used for
ventilation air heating, space heating and crop drying. The most common application in
Canada is for ventilation air heating. Three types of air-based collectors and their
corresponding suitably for three applications are listed:

Type of collector

Ventilation Air Heating

Space Heating Crop Drying

Unglazed perforated plate

Very Good

Poor

Very Good

Glazed flat-plate

Good

Poor

Good

Back Pass

Fair

No

Fair-Good

Trombe wall

No

Good

No

Designs for the first three collector types are simple. The collectors usually weigh
less than liquid-based collectors because they do not have pressurized piping. Another
advantage of air-based collectors is that they do not have freezing or boiling problems.
All four of these air-based collectors can be integrated into buildings and form part of a
buildings envelope.

7. Batch solar collectors

One hundred years ago, water tanks that were painted black were used as simple
solar residential water heaters.

Today their primary market is for residential water heating in warm countries. In
Canada, they can be effectively used in campgrounds and for residential water heating in
temperate climates such as Vancouver Island; during winter the tanks must be protected
from freezing or they must be drained.
Modern batch collectors have a glazing that is similar to the one used on flat plate
collectors and/or a reflector to concentrate the solar energy on the tank surface. Because
the storage tank and the solar absorber act as a single unit, there is no need for other
components. On an area basis, batch collector systems are less costly than glazed flatplate collectors but also deliver less energy per year.
8. Solar cookers
Though there are many types of solar cookers, all of them have a couple of basic
components:
concentrator or lenses to increase the available solar energy and
Insulation to reduce heat loss.
Often there is also an oven type cavity to place food into for cooking. Hot dog
cookers, which do not need an 'oven, can also be made. Solar cookers are commonly
able to reach cooking temperatures of 90-150 C (200-300 F) and some can even reach
230 C (450 F)! With these temperatures, it is possible to cook virtually any food as long
as it is sunny outside.

9.

Liquid-based solar collectors

Liquid-based collectors use sunlight to heat a liquid that is circulating in a "solar

loop". The fluid in the solar loop can be water, an antifreeze mixture, thermal oil, etc. The
solar loop transfers the thermal energy from the collectors to a thermal storage tank.
The type of collector you need depends on how hot the water must be and the local
climate. The most common liquid-based solar collectors are:

Glazed flat-plate

Unglazed flat-plate

Vacuum tube

Batch collector

Concentrating

10. Parabolic dish systems

A parabolic dish collector is similar in appearance to a large satellite dish, but has
mirror-like reflectors and an absorber at the focal point. It uses a dual axis sun tracker.
A parabolic dish system uses a computer to track the sun and concentrate the sun's
rays onto a receiver located at the focal point in front of the dish. In some systems, a heat
engine, such as a Stirling engine, is linked to the receiver to generate electricity. Parabolic
dish systems can reach 1000 C at the receiver, and achieve the highest efficiencies for
converting solar energy to electricity in the small-power capacity range.

Parabolic trough system

Parabolic troughs are devices that are shaped like the letter u. The troughs
concentrate sunlight onto a receiver tube that is positioned along the focal line of the
trough. Sometimes a transparent glass tube envelops the receiver tube to reduce heat
loss.
Parabolic troughs often use single-axis or dual-axis tracking. In rare instances,
they may be stationary. Temperatures at the receiver can reach 400 C and produce steam
for generating electricity. In California, multi-megawatt power plants were built using
parabolic troughs combined with gas turbines.
Power tower system
A heliostat uses a field of dual axis sun trackers that direct solar energy to a large
absorber located on a tower. To date the only application for the heliostat collector is
power generation in a system called the power tower.
A power tower has a field of large mirrors that follow the sun's path across the sky.
The mirrors concentrate sunlight onto a receiver on top of a high tower. A computer keeps
the mirrors aligned so the reflected rays of the sun are always aimed at the receiver,
where temperatures well above 1000C can be reached. High-pressure steam is
generated to produce electricity.

Stationary concentrating solar collectors

Stationary concentrating collectors use compound parabolic reflectors and flat
reflectors for directing solar energy to an accompanying absorber or aperture through a
wide acceptance angle. The wide acceptance angle for these reflectors eliminates the need
for a sun tracker. This Glass of collector includes parabolic trough flat plate collectors,
flat plate collectors with parabolic boosting reflectors, and solar cookers. Development of
the first two collectors has been done in Sweden. Solar cookers are used throughout the
world, especially in the developing countries.
Vacuum tube solar collectors
Vacuum (also evacuated) tube solar collectors are amongst the most efficient
and most costly types of solar collectors. These collectors are best suited for moderate
temperature applications where the demand temperature is 50-95C and/or for very cold
climates such as in Canadas far north. Like with glazed flat-plate solar collectors,
applications of vacuum tube collectors include heating of domestic and commercial hot
water, buildings, and indoor swimming pools. Due to their ability to deliver high
temperatures efficiently another potential application is for the cooling of buildings by
regenerating refrigeration cycles.
Vacuum tube solar collectors have a selective absorber for collecting sunlight that
is in vacuum-sealed tube. Their thermal losses are very low even in cold climates.

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

The main components of this project are,

Solar Kettle
Reflector
Tilting Mechanism
Cooker
Frame stand
Filter

1. SOLAR KETTLE:-

The most common types of concentrating solar thermal heating collectors are
based on the parabolic trough. Parabolic troughs are U-shaped, concentrators that focus
sunlight onto a linear receiver tube located along the focal line of the trough. The receiver
may be enclosed in a transparent glass tube to reduce heat loss from the absorber and
maximize absorption of solar energy. They generally have single-axis tracking.

Other types of concentrating systems have an array of reflectors that individually

track the sun and focus sunlight onto a central receiver located on a tower. Development
of these systems has focused on electric power generation. There are two basic types of
parabolic trough solar heating collectors that have been commercially developed:
cylindrical parabolic troughs and compound water heaters.

In our project, the type of concentrating system that is possible to use in a heating
application is the parabolic dish. This has a bowl shaped reflector that focuses the sun
onto a relatively small receiver. For optimum performance they require dual axis tracking
and the receiver moves with the reflector. This complicates their practical application for
water and space heating. Most parabolic dish systems are very sophisticated systems used
for electricity generation or very simple systems for cooking food on a small-scale.

The dish can be oriented east to west or north to south. They are typically singleaxis tracking. In our project, the type of tracking is single axis (east to west). Most
applications of tracking parabolic troughs are relatively large systems to supply heat for
domestic water and space heating in commercial and institutional buildings.

2. REFLECTOR:-

One side coated glass mirror is used as a Reflector. The reflector is used to
reflecting the sun rays to the collecting chamber. The Glass thickness is 2.4 mm. The
Glass is one side coated by the mercury.

3. TILTING MECHANISM:-

There are two types of tilting mechanism are used for solar thermal heating
system. They are,

Single axis Tracking (From east to west)

Double Axis tracking (East to west or north to south)

The tilting mechanism is having central pipe, guide bush and nut. The parabolic
disk is tilted in one direction from ease to west.

4. COOKER:-

The cooker is fixed to the center of the parabolic dish collector. This is made upof
aluminium materials. The reflected sun rays are concentrated on this center of the cooker,
so that the substance is heating efficiently. The clamp is used to hold the cooker.

5. FRAME STAND:-

Frame stand is made upof mild steel round pipe. The diameter of the pipe is 50
mm. The total height of the stand is 900 mm.

6. FILTER:-

A water filter removes impurities from water by means of a fine physical barrier, a
chemical process or a biological process. Filters cleanse water to various extents for
irrigation, drinking water, aquariums, and swimming pools.

METHODS OF FILTRATION
Filters use sieving, adsorption, ion exchanges and other processes. Unlike a sieve
or screen, a filter can remove particles much smaller than the holes through which the
water passes.

TYPES OF FILTRATION
Water treatment plant filters
Types of water filters include media filters, screen filters, disk filters, slow sand
filter beds, rapid sand filters and cloth filters.
Point-of-use filters
Point-of-use filters for home use include granular activated carbon filters (GAC)
used for carbon filtering, metallic alloy filters, microporous ceramic filters, carbon block
resin (CBR) and ultrafiltration membranes. Some filters use more than one filtration
method. An example of this is a multi-barrier system. Jug filters can be used for small
quantities of drinking water. Some kettles have built-in filters, primarily to reduce
limescale buildup.
Portable water filters
Water filters are used by hikers, by aid organizations during humanitarian
emergencies, and by the military. These filters are usually small, portable and light (1-2
pounds/0.5-1.0 kg or less), and usually filter water by working a mechanical hand pump,
although some use a siphon drip system to force water through while others are built into
water bottles. Dirty water is pumped via a screen-filtered flexible silicon tube through a
specialized filter, ending up in a container.

These filters work to remove bacteria, protozoa and microbial cysts that can cause
disease. Filters may have fine meshes that must be replaced or cleaned, and ceramic
water filters must have their outside abraded when they have become clogged with
impurities. These water filters should not be confused with devices or tablets that are
water purifiers, some of which remove or kill viruses such as hepatitis A and rotavirus.
Homemade water filters
Water filters can be made on-site using local materials such as grass, charcoal (e.g.
from burned firewood), and sand. These filters have been used by soldiers and outdoor
enthusiasts.[2] Due to their low cost they can be made and used by anyone, including the
poor, who often do not have access to safe drinking water. Regrettably such filters do
little if anything to mitigate against pathogens and other harmful constituents and can
give a false sense of security that the water so produced is potable.
Water polishing
The term water polishing can refer to any process that removes small (usually
microscopic) unwanted material from a portion of water. The process and its meaning
vary from setting to setting: a manufacturer of aquarium filters may claim that its filters
perform water polishing by capturing "micro particles" within nylon or polyester pads[3]
just as a chemical engineer can use the term to refer to the removal of magnetic resins
from a solution by passing the solution over a bed of magnetic particulate. [4] In this sense,
water polishing is simply another term for water filtration

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF SOLAR PARABOLIC DISH

FOCUSSING TYPE SOLAR COLLECTORS:-

These collectors are not generally used in domestic application. However, to

achieve high temperatures and to meet thermal energy requirements these systems can
also find place in near future for domestic application. Based on the present trend in
research taking place, a brief description may help readers to absorb the basis for better
understanding. A focusing collector is a special device where the surface of the collector
is so modified to reflect or refract the falling radiation on to the absorber which is situated
either along the focus line or at the focal point. But in case of flat plate collectors of water
or air heating systems, the absorber is just below the glass panel (collector) all along,
where collector (panel) and absorber are flat.

These focussing collectors can increase radiation effect on absorber from as

low as 2 times to 10,000 times of the incident radiation. At this absorber point, a suitable
device to hold a pot can be fitted to receive the concentrated radiation cook or to boil
water. However, the same radiation can be carried away by heat transfer in a tube
containing water/ liquids on circulation basis.

The structure of the reflector can be divided into two parts as (a) the shell- the
supportive structure & the living area exposed to sun.

(a)

The shell must be strong to withstand various environmental factors like

wind, seasons, etc., to maintain its required shape. This shape decides
efficiency of the whole system supported by selective lining.

(b)

The lining of the parabolic surface plays major role on over all efficiency of
the system. In fact, achieving near 100% smooth and uniform surface is
advised to avoid spreading of beam due to micro-roughness/undulations. For
doing so, coating with aluminium foil with minimum 80-85% reflectivity is
recommended. Even silver coating of the source reflectivity will do the job.
However, alluminium having lighter thermal conductivity may constitute to
the heat losses due to conduction.

To avoid this very thin foil is

recommended to minimize the losses.

Selective coating of reflector surface with black crome (Cr Ox) is more attractive and
cost effective. This can be electroplated on various metallic surfaces like steel,
alluminium & copper. This black crome can also withstand above 100%C operating
temperatures.

Basic principle of solar concentrators:In a laymans language, when the surface of a reflector has curvature
indicates that, reflector surface is optical in nature, depending on the degree of curvature.
Solar rays reach and fall on earth at an angle on any given point. As shown in the
picture, the sun rays falling on a point (A)of the parabolic concentrator form an image of
the sun at the focal point of the. This means, the receiver

or absorber which is at the

point / center of such image will have maximum intensity as in the case of sun. The
concentrating nature of the reflector thus increases the temperature at its focal point. This
basis principle is employed in designing various types of solar concentrator to suit enduse requirements.

As seen in the picture, the radius is the focal point and the diameter of the rim of
the reflector is the area exposed to sun. This is referred as aperture (a) or opening. In the
case of parabolic structure the extent of diameter is the opening for sun and in case of
cylindrical concentrators, the extent of width is the opening for the sun. The aperture (a)
determines the total radiation received by the reflector per unit area, whereas the focal
length determines the size and sharpness of the images of sun. As a result the ratio of a/f
is the index of energy flux concentrated at the focal point /on receiver. To increase the
intensity of energy flux on receiver, one should know the other physical relationship
exists between aperture and receiver. This is known as Concentration Ratio

(CR) =

(Aa) / (Ar)

Where,
Aa

Area of the concentrator aparature

Ar

Area of the receiver absorbing the energy

This relationship determines the effectiveness of the concentration.

Design aspects:-

Sun rises from east and sets on west. During this travel intensity of sun on earth
also varies. Under these circumstances, the design of the focussing concentrators must
suit these phenomena. If the field view of the concentrator is much larger than the angular
size of the sun, then there is no need to follow the travel path (tracking) of sun. Designs
based on this are known as non-tracking concentrators.

In non-tracking concentrators ratio Aa/Ar is less when compared with tracking

systems. Based on these facts, a wide range of solar focussing concentrators are being
designed to provide heat energy ranging from 100 C to 500 C.

Economics: This depends on advantages and disadvantages of the system.

A.

Out of the total radiation, only beam (direct) radiation is collected on

concentrators.

B.

In small stationery systems, the absorber also should be small to

accommodate

tracking

the

sun;

otherwise

constant

manual

tracking/adjustment is required.

C.

In addition to this, the reflector coating or lining must be durable and

needs less maintenance.

D.

The flux on the absorber is not uniform in non-tracking systems when

compared to flat plate systems.

Designs keeping the above in mind to minimize losses will become more
popular, since focussing collectors collect more solar energy per unit area compared to
flat plate collectors. Already these focussing collectors are employed in various hostels,
hotels and institutions for cooking purpose.

FINANCIAL MATTERS

The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) was

established in March 1987, as a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control
of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES).The main objective of this
IREDA is to administrating a revolving fund to promote, develop and finance renewable
energy technologies. IREDA has completed 11 years of service in MNES activities.
IREDA is also involved in activities like

(1)

Energy conservation and environment.

(2)

Financial resource mobilization (both external and internal)

(3)

Dissemination of information of NRSE activities

(4)

Development of institutions to MNES activities

(5)

And promotional schemes to adopt NRSE systems in various walks of life.

FINANCING SOLAR COOKERS

This program was launched in 1982-83 with subsidy of Rs.150/- per cooker.
Later in due course of time, subsidy was withdrawn and loans are arranged through
nationalized banks at zero % interest.

This concept increases the area of operation for the State Nodal Agencies and
popularization is also increased since banking industry is involved. Funds are also made
available for manufactures for market development, organizing cooking demonstrations,
training; for establishing sales centers, repair and maintenance and the like. Based on the
identification of potential and recommendations made by the State Nodal Agencies, NonGovernmental Organization (NGOs) and manufactures are eligible for this financial
incentive. There are 39 active manufactures in the country with the manufacturing
capacity of 95,000 box type cooker per year and as of now 4,43,000 Nos. of cooker are in
use.

(A)

Awareness program in Institutions like schools, colleges, universities,

anganwadis, etc.
Considering that teachers / students of schools, colleges, universities,

anganwadis, etc., are the potential users / promoters of solar cookers, provision of
providing one cooker in such institution will continue. The financial assistance from
MNES will be to the extent of Rs-1,000/- per cooker or the actual price after state subsidy
whichever is less. Balance cost if any will be ment by state nodal agency or the
concerned institution State nodal agencies will provide necessary literature in solar
cooking to these institutions and will also monitor their activities on training in cooking.
Only one cooker will be supplied to each institution. If a cooker has already been

supplied in previous years, the institution will not be eligible for a cooker in the current
financial year.
(b)

Solar food restaurants:

The concept of establishing solar food restaurants will continue during

the year. The restaurants will be run / managed by the implementing agencies. They will
be established at prime locations where people gather in large number during lunch time
or early evenings e.g. office complexes / commercial places. The restaurants could be
run on subsidized / on profit no loss basis depending on the involvement of state Govt.
funds MNES will provide Rs-50,000/- per restaurants as one time grant towards rent for
hiring a place, solar cookers, establishment etc.

(c) Quality control and eligibility for financial support / incentives to manufactures
& SEWs.
To ensure quality product in the market, it has been decided to make
BIS approval on solar cooker mandatory for manufacturers and SEWs for availing any
incentive from MNES/ States. The standards have been revised by the BIS and could be
obtained from their Regional offices established all over the country.
These standards are:

1. IS 13429 (Part1 Requirements):2000Solar Cooker-Box Type-Specification;

2. IS 13429 (Part2 Components): 2000Solar Cooker- Box Type-Specification;

3. IS 13429 (Part3 Test Methods):2000Solar Cooker-Box Type- Specification;

In the scheme of IREDA, the same interest subsidy loans as offered by MNES through
Nationalized Banks are also made available.

However, to ease the operation and

maintenance of loan records, only bulk purchasers are encouraged availing this loan.
These include private or public sector corporate bodies, public institutions, cooperative
societies and the like. State Renewable Energy Agencies, non-profit making institutions
also can act as financial intermediaries to IREDA for on-lending loans to above said
institutions or for individuals.

This arrangement also covers the concept of supply solar cookers on lease / hire
purchase basis. These loans from IREDA are to be repaid in two years on quarterly
installment basis with six months initial period as moratorium. IRDEA also offers soft
loans at lower rate of interest to the manufactures for purchase of equipments/ machinery
and related cooker activities.

Range of solar Thermal Devices Eligible for Loans:

Based on the range of temperatures, these systems are classified as:

S.No
1.

Grade
Low thermal system

T C
Below 100 C

Application
For water heating, air heating
(drying and space heating) and
desalination of water.

2.

Medium thermal systems

100 C-300 C

For cooking , steam generation

in industries, water pumping

3.

High
systems

grade

thermal Above 300 C

For generation of grid quality

power

In the present context, category Iis more importance since these are aid at
general public. There are seven regional test centers and 22 manufacturers having ISI
certificates for their products. At the end of March, 1998, 5, 20,000m of collector area
equivalent has been installed. Under MNES scheme of interest subsidy nationalized
banks are involved in extending loan facilities to individual or institutions. For the
systems more than 2000 litres per day capacity, IRDEA extended soft loans @ 8.3 %

interest, with repayment period extended up to 7 years, with 100% depreciation benefit to
tax paying institutions and the like.

CHAPTER-7
WORKING PRINCIPLE

In our Project, the type of concentrating system that is possible to use in a heating
application is the parabolic dish. This has a bowl shaped reflector that focuses the sun
onto a relatively small receiver. The glazing is chosen so that a maximum amount of
sunlight will pass though it and reach the absorber.

For optimum performance they require dual axis tracking and the receiver moves
with the reflector. This complicates their practical application for water and space
heating. Most parabolic dish systems are very sophisticated systems used for electricity
generation or very simple systems for cooking food on a small-scale. Other types of
concentrating systems have an array of reflectors that individually track the sun and focus
sunlight onto a central receiver located on a tower. Development of these systems has
focused on electric power generation.

CONTROL OF HEAT LOSS

Losses may be divided into three categories

i)

Optical losses

ii)

Radiation losses.

iii)

Conduction and convection losses.

Conceptual methods of controlling these losses are listed and discussed the
following sections.

1. OPTICAL LOSSES
Optical losses are defined here as those, which reduce the amount of, heat being
absorbed by the collector. They are off the top as apposed to the heat loss after the
absorption by receiver

Optical losses are reduced by

LOW REFLECTIVITY COVERS

At normal incident glass reflects about 4.3% of the incident solar radiation at each
glass to air interface and 1.3% is absorbed in the glass. Reflection losses are doubled
when incident is 60 above from the normal. This can be controlled by light etching may
thus only 2 or 3 percent of incident radiation is reflected.

HIGH TRANSMISSIVITY COVERS

Green tinted glass may leave extinction co-efficient of 0.8 per inch, which means
10% energy will be absorbed in 8 inch of glass. However clean glass has 0.2 per inch
i.e., 25% absorbed.

This may double at incidence of 60% and thus increased absorbed energy of the
collector plate is not considered as a loss, but the increased temperature of the glass plate
prevents loss of heat from the collector.

HIGH ABSORPTIVITY COVERS

Absorptivity of the collecting surface is the weighted average of energy absorbed
at all wavelength of the incident solar radiation. Absorptivity a is related to reflectivity
r by

a=1-r

The absorbed energy is increased by the reflection of glass. Fraction of normally

incident radiation.

Fe = 1.008 Ta

Where T-effective transmittance of cover plate.

and should made closed unity and effort should not be taken to increase
beyond 0.95 where may be only 0.8. The Absorptivity of the plates may be high. But
consideration should be taken to reduce the emissivity.

2. RADIATION LOSSES

Methods used to control radiation loss may be classified as spectrally selective

surfaces, radiation trapping surfaces and radiation shielding.

SPECTRALLY SELECTIVE SURFACES

For any material under monochromatic radiation the sum of Absorptivity (or
emissivity )
The absorbing plate must be perfectly opaque (= 0) so only

(or) need to be

defined overall wavelength of interest. A selective surface is one for which Absorptivity

and emissivity differs with respect to the wavelengths of solar radiation (shorter than 2 or
3 microns) and the wavelength of intra red radiation (longer than 2 or 3 microns). Thus, a
surface may have an infra red emissivity much lower than solar Absorptivity, when
reduced will is also reduced so, to produce a selective surface.

THIN FILMS

High reflectivity material of one visible light wave length (0.5 microns). The
thickness is sufficient to absorb visible light efficiently and reflect long wavelength
thermal radiation.

GEOMETRIC TRAPPING

A metallic surface is polished on 5 microns wavelength but pitted on the scale of

0.5 micron. So, it absorbs visible light.
A carbon black surface have

= 0.95,

Nickel black has

=

0.94

0.97 is very good for application.

RADIATION TRAPPING SYSTEMS

= 0.95. But a selective surface example

The losses can be controlled by use of honeycombs and cellular structure

effectively increases Absorptivity and reduces effective emissivity. We corrugations
increase Absorptivity by requiring the sunrays to undergo two or more reflections.

RADIATION SHIELDING

The principle method of radiation shielding is the use of multiple cover plates
between a hot surface and cold surface there is an effective heat transfer resistance, which
depends on the emissivity and temperature of two surfaces. Some plastics may be more
important in controlling convection loss than is controlling radiation losses.

3. CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION LOSS

When radiation loss from the collector is reduced convection quickly becomes
dominant loss. Convection loss control unless plate to plate is reduced one half inch is
less, and then conduction losses are dominant. The following concepts of conduction
convection losses can be employed to control the heat loss.

MULTIPLE GLAZINGS

It can be closely placed in the order of one centimeter. However when air is
stagnant in the air gap convection across gap ceases and only conduction remains. A
small gap will stand a higher gradient before convection sets in, but conduction losses are
inversely proportional to the width of the gap.

HONEY COMBS OR CELLS

The honeycombs are useful in the control of convection losses as well as radiation
losses. In practice air gaps are of about 1.25 cm or less for temperature differences an
order of 50 C. Experiments have shown that a 1cm calls just suppresses convection.
Therefore the cells can be mode narrow C to prevent convection) and long (to reduce
conduction).
EVACUTION
At pressure in the range of 10 to 10 atmosphere convection is suppressed and
the heat transfer is determining by conduction. However the thermal conductivity of air
is not reduced until path of molecules becomes comparable to wall spacing. As a result
for vacuum 10 to 10 atm thermal conductivity is reduced about 10% for another decade
reduction in pressure (10 mm of Hg). The conductivity is about 1% of that of air at 1
atm.

ADVANTAGES

Economical aspect:
Least maintenance cost.
No transportation from long distance
No rent for electricity utilized
No fuel required for operation

Technical aspect:
No moving parts, thus long life
Noiseless operation
No person required to operate the system

Manufacturing aspect:
Simple in construction, so easy to fabricate
No heavy materials are used

Safety aspect:
Pollution free
Less chance of accidents

LIMITATIONS AND APPLICATIONS

LIMITATIONS:-

High initial installation cost

Care should be taken for Cooking
Need large size of solar panel area for high power output.

APPLICATIONS:-

Domestic Applications
Industrial thermal heating Applications

LIST OF MATERIALS

Sl. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10.

Name of the Parts

Cooker
Reflector
Bottom plate
Net
Top Pipe
Bush
Frame Stand
Cooker clamp
Bolt and nut
Filter

Quantity Materials
1
Aluminium
1
Glass
1
Mild Steel
5 Kg
G.I
1
Mild Steel
4
Mild Steel
1
C.R Pipe
1
Mild Steel
Mild steel
1
Silver

1. MATERIAL COST:Sl. No.

Name of the Parts

Quantity Materials

Amount (Rs)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Cooker
Reflector
Bottom plate
Net
Top Pipe
Bush
Frame Stand
Cooker clamp
Bolt and nut
Filter

1
1
1
5 Kg
1
4
1
1
1

Aluminium
Glass
Mild Steel
G.I
Mild Steel
Mild Steel
C.R Pipe
Mild Steel
Mild steel
Silver

TOTAL

CONCLUSION
This project work has provided us an excellent opportunity and experience, to use
our limited knowledge. We gained a lot of practical knowledge regarding, planning,
purchasing, computing and machining while doing this project work. We feel that the
project work is a good solution to bridge the gates between institution and industries.

We are proud that we have completed the work with the limited time successfully.
The Solar water purification by using thermal method is working with satisfactory
conditions. We are able to understand the difficulties in maintaining the tolerances and

also quality. We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of available
facilities.

In conclusion remarks of our project work, let us add a few more lines about our
impression project work.

The chief advantage of our system is that, simple portable type low cost solar
water purification by using thermal method when compared to other solar collectors
which are available in market. Operating principle of solar water purification by using
thermal method is also very easy. We can move the solar water purification by using
thermal method from one place to another place very easily.

BIBILOGRAPHY

1. BASIC HEAT TRANSFER

FRANK KREITH
WILLIAM Z.BLACK

2. SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING

RICHARD S.GREELEY

OF BUILDINGS

ROBERT P.OUELLETTE
PAUL N.CHEREMISIONOFF

3. SOLAR HEATING AND COOLING

R.PATTON

OF BUILDINGS
4. BASIC HEAT TRANSFER

J.P.HALMON.

5. HAND BOOK-SOLAR RADIATION

ANNA MANI &

OVER INDIA

S.RATHAKRISHNAN.