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Chapter 12

By Ms.Cohane

Structure Determines Properties


A cardinal principle of chemistry is that the

macroscopic observed properties of a material are


related to its microscopic structure, and vice-versa.
The microscopic structure entails:
the kinds of atoms
the manner in which they are attached
their relationship to other molecules
the shape of the molecule

CHAPTER 12 OUTLINE
12.1 - Bond Types
12.2 - Electronegativity
12.3 - Polarity
12.4 - Electron Configurations
12.5 - Ionic Structures
12.6 & 7 - Lewis Diagrams
12.8 - Bond Angles
12.9 - Molecular Geometry
12.10 - VSPER Theory
GOALS

Explain how + why different types of bonds form


Compare the types of bonds
Describe how electrons are placed in an atom, and orbitals
Create orbital diagrams, distinguish between different elements
Create Lewis Structures for elements, and understand electrons
further by applying Ch.11 skills

12.1 Types of
Chemical Bonds

Bond: a force that hold atoms together


and makes them function as a unit

Metal atoms lose electrons to become


positively charged ions cations
Nonmetals gain electrons and become
negatively charged ions anions

co = sharing
valent = valence electrons
covalent bonds form between nonmetals

The hydrogen atoms above are sharing


two electrons.
One from each original atom.

Think Pair Share

Ion
Bond
Covalent
Ionic
Valence Electrons
Orbitals
Electron Diagram
Orbital Diagram

Polar vs. Nonpolar Covalent

If e between atoms are shared equally, the bond is


classified as nonpolar covalent

When atoms share e unequally, the bond is


classified as polar covalent

11.11 Atomic Properties & Periodic Table

When a metal reacts with a non-metal, it transfers


electrons from the metal to the non-metal
The metal loses electrons and becomes a cation
The non-metal gains electrons, becoming an anion

11.11 Atomic Properties & Periodic Table


Atomic radius the size of an elements atoms, usually the
typical distance from the nucleus to the boundary of the
surrounding cloud of electrons.

Increases down each group


Each step down a group an energy level is added
Decrease from left to right across a period
Electrons are added to the same energy level, but an increase in
number of protons pulls electrons closer to nucleus

Atomic size of parent atom versus cation.


A cation is smaller by an energy level than its parent atom

Atomic size of parent atom versus anion.


An anion is slightly larger due to having more e than its parent atom

Electron Shielding electrons in the energy levels


between the nucleus and the valence electrons are
called "shielding" electrons because they "shield" the
valence electrons from the force of attraction exerted by
the positive charge in the nucleus.

Ionization Energy the energy required to remove an


electron from an atom
In main group elements it increases from left to right
Electrons are closer to nucleus
Non-metals gain electrons, metals lose electrons

12.2 Electronegativity

The power of an atom to attract electrons

Electronegativity values help us determine if a


bond is nonpolar covalent, polar covalent or ionic.

What type of bond? Look at the


difference in numbers between atoms!

polar means unequal distribution of charge


nonpolar means equal sharing

Water - Polar Covalent

Practice
Classify the following bonds.
FH
Polar Covalent
SH
Polar Covalent
HH Non-polar Covalent
NaCl Ionic
OH Polar Covalent

Rank the above bonds in order of increasing polarity

H-H, S-H, O-H, F-H, Na-Cl

12.3 Bond Polarity & Dipole Moments


Covalent bonding between unlike atoms results in

unequal sharing of the electrons. We use the delta


sign to show charge.

+ H

A molecule with an end of positive charge and an end

of negative charge is polar & has a dipole moment

Dipole Moment
The magnitude of charges and the distance of separation
between the charges.
In a water molecule, oxygen has a greater electronegativity
than the hydrogen atoms, the electrons are not shared
equally. So a charge distribution causes the molecule to
behave like it has two centers of charge, one + and one _

center of positive
charge

center of negative
charge

Dipole Moment
The dipole moment affects the

attractive forces between


molecules, and therefore the
physical properties too
Water molecules are strongly
attracted to one another
This is the reason for its
high specific heat and high
boiling point
Thank goodness water is
not nonpolar our
oceans would be empty!

12.4 Stable Electron Configurations


and Charges on Ions
Metals lose their valence electron(s) to form cations
The their new valence shell has the same
electron configuration as the previous noble gas.
Nonmetals gain electron(s) to form anions
So their new valence shells have the same
electron arrangement as the next noble gas.
There have to be enough electrons from the metallic
atoms to supply the needed electrons for the
nonmetal atoms.

Properties of Ionic Compounds


All solids at room temperature (MP greater than 300C)
Liquid / molten state conducts electricity
Brittle and hard
Often soluble in water (KISS Guidelines)
When dissolved in water the solution becomes an

electrical conductor. All strong electrolytes because the


ionic bonds dont break!

12.5 Structure of Ionic Compounds

Crystal lattice: geometric pattern determined by the


size and charge of the ions
Anions almost always larger than cation
Anions generally considered hard spheres packed as
efficiently as possible, with the cations occupying the holes
Each cation is surrounded by as many anions as will fit

12.6 Lewis Structures


Bonding involves just the valence electrons of atoms.

Lewis Structure: a representation of a molecule

that shows how the valence electrons are arranged


among the atoms in the molecule.
When bonding, the goal for each atom is to gain a
noble gas configuration.
The duet rule for helium configuration.
The octet rule for other noble gases.

Lewis Dot
Structures

Use the symbol of the element

to represent the nucleus and


the kernel electrons
Use dots around the symbol to
represent valence electrons

Put one electron on each


side first, then pair up

In your notes, add in the next row, starting with Rb!

Lewis Structures
Elements in the same group have the
same Lewis structure, because they have
the same number of valence electrons
Cations have Lewis symbols without
valence electrons.
Anions have Lewis symbols with 8
valence electrons.

Writing Lewis Structures of Molecules


Step 1 = count up all valence electrons in the molecule
Step 2 = place the atoms in a symmetric pattern
Step 3 = place single bonds (one pair of electrons)
between the central atom and all outer atoms
Step 4 = if any electrons are left over, satisfy the octet
rule for all atoms including the central atom
Step 5 = check your work
Are all valence electrons counted for?
Do all atoms have an octet?
Step 6 = if BOTH checks above dont hold true, you
need to create multiple bonds with the outer atoms

12.7 Lewis Structures of


Molecules with Multiple Bonds
Single covalent bond: atoms share 2 electrons
Double covalent bond: atoms share 4 electrons
Triple covalent bond: atoms share 6 electrons
Bond strength = triple > double > single
For bonds between same atoms, CN > C=N > CN
Double is not 2x the strength of single, and triple is
not 3x the strength of single
Bond length = single > double > triple
For bonds between same atoms, CN > C=N > CN

Problems with Lewis Structures


Some atoms do not tend to follow the octet rule.

B and Be are often found octet-deficient


Elements in the 3rd period or below often have
expanded octets

Some molecules have an odd number of electrons.

Draw Lewis Structures


carbon tetrachloride CCl4
hydrogen sulfide H2S
nitrogen trihydride NH3
hydrogen cyanide HCN
carbon dioxide CO2
ozone O3
sulfate SO42nitrite NO2-

Resonance
Resonance Structures: when there are
multiple Lewis structures for a molecule that
differ only in the position of the electrons
Lone pairs & multiple bonds are in different places
The actual molecule is a combination of all forms

12.8 Molecular Structure


Molecular Structure OR Geometric Structure:
refers to the three dimensional arrangement of the
atoms in a molecule.
Water is often called bent or v-shaped

To describe the structure more precisely, we often


specify the bond angle it is about 105 for water.

12.9 Valence Shell Electron Pair


Repulsion (VSEPR Theory)
A model for predicting the molecular structures
of molecules formed from nonmetals
The structure around an atom is determined by
minimizing repulsions between electron pairs.
Bonding pairs and lone pairs are positioned as
far apart as possible from each other

Electron Pair Arrangement


180

Linear
Trigonal planar

120

109.5

Tetrahedral

Molecular Structure
Each bond counts as one area of electrons.
Each lone pair counts as one area of electrons.

Even though lone pairs are not attached to other


atoms, they do occupy space and repel other
atoms more and affect angles. (They count in EPA)

When determining EPA, just count the number of


quadrants that are filled with an atom or es

r of these below, they are tetrahedral (4)


In each

Review Electron Pair Arrangement &


Resulting Molecular Structure (2,3,4 pairs)
Type
CO2
BF3
O3
CH4
NH3
H 2O

Electron Pair
Arrangement

Ball &
Stick Model

Molecular
Structure

Bond
angle

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