Higher Algebra by Barnard & Child

HIGHER ALGEBRA
BY
S.
BARNARD, M.A.
FORMERLY ASSISTANT MASTER AT RUGBY SCHOOL, LATE FELLOW AND LECTURER AT

EMMANUEL COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
AND
J.
M. CHILD,
B.A., B.Sc.
FORMERLY LECTURER IN MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF' MANCHESTER

LATE HEAD OF MATHEMATICAL DEPARTMENT, TECHNICAL COLLEGE, DERBY
FORMERLY SCHOLAR AT JESUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
LON-DON
MACMILLAN
fcf'CO
LTD
*v
NEW YORK
ST MARTIN *S PRESS
1959
This book
is copyright in all countries which

are signatories to the Berne Convention
First Edition 1936
Reprinted 1947, ^949> I952> *955, 1959
MACMILLAN AND COMPANY LIMITED

London Bombay Calcutta Madras Melbourne
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LIMITED

Toronto
ST MARTIN'S PRESS INC
New York
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY
LOWE AND BRYDONE (PRINTERS) LIMITED, LONDON, N.W.IO
CONTENTS
ix
IjHAPTER
EXEKCISE
XV
(128).
Minors, Expansion in Terms of Second Minors (132, 133). Product

of Two Iteterminants (134). Rectangular Arrays (135). Reciprocal
Two Methods of Expansion (136, 137). Use of Double
Deteyrrtlilnts,
Symmetric and Skew-symmetric Determinants, Pfaffian (138-
Suffix,
143),
ExERtad XVI
(143)
X. SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS.
Systems (149, 150). Linear Equations in
Line at Infinity (150-152). Linear Equations in
Three Unknowns, Equation to a Plane, Plane at Infinity (153-157).
Definitions, Equivalent
Two Unknowns,
EXEKCISE XVII
(158).
Systems of Equations of any Degree, Methods of Solution for

Special Types (160-164).
EXERCISE XVIII
XL
(164).
RECIPROCAL AND BINOMIAL EQUATIONS.

The Equation
Reduction of Reciprocal Equations (168-170).
xn - 1=0, Special Roots (170, 171). The Equation xn -A =0 (172).
The Equation a 17 - 1 ==0, Regular 17-sided Polygon (173-176).
EXERCISE
XIX
(177).
AND BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.

The Cubic Equation
(roots a, jS, y), Equation whose Roots are

Value of J, Character of Roots (179, 180). Cardan's
Solution, Trigonometrical Solution, the Functions a -f eo/? -f-\>V>
a-f a> 2 4- a>y (180, 181). Cubic as Sum of Two Cubes, the Hessftfh
(182, 183). Tschirnhausen's Transformation (186).
(
-y)
etc.,
EXERCISE XX (184).
The Biquadratic Equation
A=y + aS,
(roots a,
y, 8) (186).
The Functions
the Functions /, J, J, Reducing Cubic, Character

of Roots (187-189).
Ferrari's Solution and Deductions (189-191).
Descartes' Solution (191). Conditions for Four Real Roots (192-ty).
Transformation into Reciprocal Form (194). Tschirnhausen's Transetc.,
formation (195).
EXERCISE
XXI
(197).
OP IRRATIONALS.
Sections of the System of Rationals, Dedekind's Definition (200,
201). Equality and Inequality (202). Use of Sequences in defining
a Real Number, Endless Decimals (203, 204). The Fundamental

Operations of Arithmetic, Powers, Roots and Surds (204-209).
Irrational Indices, Logarithms (209, 210).
Definitions, Interval,
Steadily Increasing Functions (210). Sections of the System of^Real
Numbers, the Continuum (211, 212). Ratio and Proportion, Euclid's
Definition (212, 213).
EXERCISE XXII
(214).
CONTENTS
x
CHAPTER
XIV/INEQUALITIES.
Elementary Methods (210, 217)
Weierstrass' Inequalities (216).
For n Numbers a l9 a 2
a
n
(a* -!)/*
(a" -I)/*,,
xa x ~ l (a-b)$a x -b x
(l+x)
^l+nx,
\*JACJJ
>
(219).
^ xb x
~l
(a
- 6),
(219).
(220).
Arithmetic and Geometric Means (221, 222).

-
n
and Extension
(223, 224).
(224).
XV. SEQUENCES AND

Definitions,
Maxima and Minima
(223).
EXERCISE XXIII
LIMITS.
Monotone
Theorems,
Sequences
(228-232).
E*
ponential Inequalities and Limits,

/
l\m
i\n
and
1) >(!+-)
m/
n/
\
/
1 \
lim (1-fnj
n_ >00 V
EXERCISE
XXIV
l\-m
/
=e,
nj
(1)
if
m>n,
(232,233).
(233).
General Principle of Convergence (235-237).

Limits of Inde termination (237-240).
Theorems
~n
l\"w
=lim(l--)
\
1 \
<(l--)
nj
\
(1--)
mj
\
Bounds of a Sequent
Increasing Sequence (u n ), where
u n -u n ^ l <k(u n _^\^ n _ z
u n >0 and u n+l lu n -*l, then u nn -*L

u n l, then lim
If lim
(Ui+u 2 + ...
(2) If
(3)
n
(4) If
lim
+u n )jn
a n ~a, and lim
n-~>oo
lim (a n 6 1
n >ao
fe
= 6,
then
n~>oo
+ a w _ 1 6 1 + ...H-a 1 6 n )/n=o6,
(240-243).
Complex Sequences, General Principle of Convergence

EXERCISE
XXV
I.
n->oo
>oo
(244).
(243, 244).
CONTENTS
XVI. \CONVERGENCE OP SERIES
xi
(1).
Definitions, Elementary Theorems, Geometric Series (247, 248).

Introduction and Removal of Brackets,
Series of Positive Terms.
p D'Alembert's
of
Order
Terms,
Comparison Tests, 271 /w
Changing
,
and Cauchy's Tests
XXVI
EXERCISE
(248-254).
(254).
Terms alternately Positive and Negative (256).

Absolute Convergence,
with Terms Positive or Negative.
Series with
Series
General Condition for Convergence, Pringsheim's Theorem, Introduction and Removal of Brackets, Rearrangement of Terms, Approximate Sum, Rapidity of Convergence or Divergence (256-261).
Series of Complex Terms. Condition of Convergence, Absolute Conn
n
vergence, Geometric Series, Zr cos nd, Sr sin n6.
If u n /u n+l = l+a n /n, where a n ->a>0, then u n -*Q.
Convergence of Binomial Series (261-263).
XXVII
EXERCISE
(264).
XVII^CoNTiNuous VARIABLE.
<*>
Theorems
Meaning of Continuous Variation, Limit, Tending to
on Limits and Polynomials (266-268) Continuous and Discontinuous
Functions (269, 270). Continuity of Sums, Products, etc., Function
Fundaof a Function, lirn <f>{f(x)}, Rational Functions, xn (271).
,
mental Theorems
Derivatives, Tangent to a Curve, Notation

(272).
of the Calculus, Rules of Differentiation (273-277). Continuity of
of <f>{f(x)} and xn (278, 279). Meaning of Sign
<f>{f(x)}, Derivatives
of J'(x) (279).
Complex Functions, Higher Derivatives (2*9, 280).
Maxima and Minima, Points of Inflexion (280-282).
EXERCISE XXVIII
(282).
Inverse Functions, Bounds of a Function, Rolle's Theorem, MeanValue Theorem (284-288). Integration (289). Taylor's Theorem,
Lagrange's Form of Remainder (290, 291). Function of a Complex
Variable, Continuity (291, 292).
XXIX
EXEBCISE
(293).
XVIIL, THEORY OF EQUATIONS

TIONS
(2),
POLYNOMIALS
RATIONAL FRAC-
(2),
(1).
Multiple Roots, Rolle's Theorem, Position of Real Roots of/(&)=0

Newton's Theorem on Sums of Powers of the Roots of
f(x) =0 (297). Order and Weight of Symmetric Functions (298, 299).
(296, 296).
Partial Derivatives, Taylor's

x, y,
...
Euler's
(299-302).
Theorem
for Polynomials in
for Polynomials,
J
A Theorem on Partial Fractions (302).

lf
EXERCISE
Theorem
XXX
(304).
+ ...=0,
(303).
dx
+y
x and in
+ ...~nu
dy
The Equation
CONTENTS
xii
CHAPTER
XIX. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND
SERIES.
The Exponential
Continuity, Inequalities and Limits (306, 307).
x
Theorem, Series for a (307, 308). Meaning of an Irrational Index,
Derivatives of a x log x and x n (309). Inequalities and Limits, the
x
way in which e and log x tend to oo Euler's Constant y, Series for
2
The Exponential Function E(z), Complex Index
(310-312).
log
,
(312, 313).
Series for sinx, cos x arid Exponential Values (313).

in Summing Series (314).
Use of Exponential Theorem
EXERCISE
XXXI
(315).
Logarithmic Series and their Use in Summation of Series, Calculation of Logarithms (315-319). The Hyperbolic Functions (319-321).
EXERCISE
XXXII
XX. CONVERGENCE
(321).
(2).
Series of Positive Terms.
'
Cauchy's Condensation Test, Test Series
Rummer's, Raabc's and Gauss's Tests
(325).
Binomial and Hyper-geometric Series (328, 329).

%
(326-328).
De Morgan and
Bertrand's Tests (330).
Terms Positive or Negative. Theorem, Abel's Inequality,

and Abel's Tests (330, 331). Power Series, Interval and
Radius of Convergence, Criterion for Identity of Power Series (332Binomial Series l-f?iz4-... when z is complex (334). Multi334).
plication of Series, Merten's and Abel's Theorems (335-338).
Series with
Dirichlct's
EXERCISE XXXIII
(338).
XXI. JBlNOMIAL AND MULTINOMIAL THEOREMS.

Statement,
Vandermonde's Theorem
Binomial Theorem.
(340).
Euler's Proof, Second Proof, Particular Ins tancesj 34 1-345).
Num-
";
1 + x (345-348).
erically Greatest Term, Approximate Values of
EXERCISE XXXIV (349).
Use of Binomial Theorem in Summing Series, ^Multinomia^Theorem
(351-355).
EXERCISE
XXXV
(355).
XXII. RATIONAL FRACTIONS
(2),
PR,ECURRING)SERIES
AND DIFFERENCE
EQUATIONS.
Expansion of a Rational Fraction (357-359).
EXERCISE
XXXVI
(359).
Expansions of cos nd and sin nOjsin 9 in Powers of cos 6 (360).

Recurring Series, Scale of Relation, Convergence, Generating FuncLinear Difference Equations with Constant
tion, Sum (360-363).
Coefficients (363-365).
EXERCISE
XXXVII
(365).
Difference Equations, General
EXERCISE
XXXVIII
(370).
and Particular Solutions
(367-370).
CONTENTS
xiii
CHAPTER
XXIII. THE OPERATORS 4> E, D.

The Operators J, E,
Terms of u l9 Au^ A 2 u l9
INTERPOLATION.
A ru x u x+r
Series for
...
U1 + u2 + u3 +
...
in
and
Interpolation, Lagrange's
(373-379).
d \n
(uv)
( j- )
Vcte/
/
Bessel's
The Operator
Formulae (379-382).
f) 9
Value of
(382, 383).
EXERCISE
XXXIX
(384).
XXIV. CONTINUED FRACTIONS
(1).
Definitions, ForniationjoConvergents, Infinite Continued Fractions
(388-391).
EXERCISE
Simple and êeuTrirSg; Continued Fractions (391-394).
XL
(394).
Simple Continued Fractions, Properties of the Convergents, an

Irrational as a Simple Continued Fraction (396-401).
Approximations, Miscellaneous Theorems (402-406).
Symmetric Continued
Fractions, Application to Theory of Numbers (406-409).
Recurring Con tinned Fractions (409-411).
EXERCISE XLI
(411).
XXV. INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS
OF THE FIRST DEGREE.
axby
axbycz...=k
Solutions of
the Equation
EXERCISE XLII
Simple
c (414-417).
Two
Equations in
x, y, z
(417-419).
(419).
XXVI. THEORY OF NUMBERS
(2).
Congruence, Numbers less than and prime to n, Value of q)(n)

E<p(d r }n, where d r is any Divisor of n (421-424). ^ Fermat's
Theorem, Euler's Extension, Wilson's and Lagrange's theorems
;
'
(424-427).
EXERCISE XL1II
(427).
Roots of a Congruence, the Linear Congruence, Simultaneous

Congruences (428-431). Theorem on Fractions (431). The General
Congruence, Division (mod n) 9 Congruences to a Prime Modulus
(432-434).
EXERCISE
XLIV
(434).
XXVII. RESIDUES OF POWERS OF A NUMBER, RECURRING DECIMALS.

Residues of a, ag ag*
9
(436, 437).
...
n) the Congruence gr*s 1 (mod n) 9

Modulus, Primitive Roots (438, 439).
(mod
An Odd Prime
Decimal Equivalent of m/n Number of Figures in the Period,

Short Methods of Reckoning, Prime Factors of 10* - 1,
9
EXERCISE
XLV
= 1,2,...
10), (439-444).
(442).
The Congruence xn -sa (mod p) Methods of Solution (444

EXERCISE XLVI (445).
9
45).
CONTENTS
xiv
CHAPTER
EXERCISE XLVII
(447).
Separation of the Roots, Sturm's Theorem, Fourier's Theorem

(447-456).
EXERCISE XLVIII (456).

Newton's Method of Approximating to a Root, Fourier's Rule,
Nearly Equal Roots (456-460). Horner's Method (461-465).
EXERCISE XLIX (466).
FUNCTIONS, CURVE TRACING.

Implicit Functions, Rule for Approximations (467-469).
for Roots of a Cubic Equation (when all Real) (470).
EXERCISE
Series
(471).
Tangents, Asymptotes, Intersection of a; Straight Line and

Curve (473). Curve Tracing, Newton's Parallelogram (474-480).
EXERCISE LI
XXX.
(480).
INFINITE PRODUCTS.
Convergence, Absolute Convergence, Derangement of Factors,
Convergence discussed by Use of
Expansion as a Series (485-488).

Logarithms (490).
EXERCISE LII (491).
XXXI.yPERMUTATIONS, COMBINATIONS AND DISTRIBUTIONS.

Combinations with Repetitions, Things not all Different (493).
Arrangement in Groups, Distribution in Parcels
(494-497). Derangements, General Theorem (498, 499). Partition
of Numbers, Table of p Partitions of n, Euler's Use of Series (500Distributions,
504).
XXXII.
EXERCISE LI1I
(504).
EXERCISE TJV
(506).
^PROBABILITY.
First Principles, Exclusive Events, Independent and Interdependent Events (508-513). Probability estimated by Frequency,
Expectation, Successive Events (513-518). Probability of Causes,
Value of Testimony, Appli cation of Geometry (518-522).
EXERCISE
LV
(523).
XXXIII. CONTINUED FRACTIONS
(2).
Expression of a Quadratic Surd as a Simple Continued Fraction,

the Form
The form V~AjB, Cycle of
l )lr l
(527-530).
2
2
Quotients, the 6 and r Cycles, Solution in Integers of Bx -Ay
2=
z
x
The
Form
of
Solutions
9
^/N
~Ny
(530-534).
Integral
(534-538). The Cycle belonging to (^/N + 6)/r found by the G.C.M.
Process (538).
(VNb
=M
EXERCISE LVI
(540).
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES
(543),
(555).
HIGHER ALGEBRA
CHAPTER
THEORY OF NUMBERS
In
*
'
this section
number
we
discuss properties peculiar to whole numbers.
'
fs
(1)
taken to
mean
The word
whole number,' and, unless otherwise stated^
positive whole number*
Division.
1.
(1)
Let b be any positive whole number, and consider
the sequence
...-36,
-26, -6,
0, 6, 26, 36,...
continued indefinitely both ways. Any whole number a

(positive, negative
or zero) is either a term of this sequence, or it lies between two consecutive
Thus two numbers q and
terms.
can be determined uniquely so that
and
a-=bq + r
To
divide a
ditions
is
is
to find the
called the quotient
numbers
and
and
which satisfy these con-
the remainder.
= 0, we
say that a is divisible by 6 or is a multiple of 6, and that

a divisor or a factor of a. Among the divisors of a number we count
If r
6 is
by
0^r<6 ........................... (A)
number itself and 1.

Whatever 6 may be,
the
= 6.0 4-0; hence
(2) If r
= 6~/, we have
a = 6-fl-r'
if
and
then /<J6.
such that
>|6
Hence
and
it is
and
Ex.
0,
1.
For
if
1,
2,
must be regarded as
by every whole number.
divisible
also
zero
Every number
is
any number
5-2, 5-1.
is
always possible to find numbers
JR<6.
of one of the forms 5n, 5n
1,
5n
divided by 5, the remainder
2.
is
one of the numbers
DIVISION
2
Ex.
Every square number
2.
The square
these are divided by
and 5n -
l,
Ex.
For (2k +
by
l)
is of
one of the forms 5n,
odd number
form Sn + 1.
and either k or k + l must be even, so that k(k +
-4k(k + l) + l,
(1
// both a and b are divisible by
(2)If
of the
l) is
r is the
Division.
remainder when a
so also is
c,
divided by
is
ma
6,
nb.
then cr is the remainder
ca is divided by cb.
For
a = 6</ + r
if
then
ca
(3)
(cb)q
and
+ cr
and
// both a and b are divisible by
divided by b, then
is divided by b/c.
For
also
is
2.
Theorems on
when
2.
)
5wL
is
1.
Tlte square of every
3.
divisible
number
of one of the forms (5w) 2 (Sw^l) 2 , (5m 2) 2

If
5, the remainders are 0, 1, 4 ; and, since 4 = 5-1, the forms are
of every
if
is r,
(i)
r is divisible
c, and r is the remainder when a is

and (ii) r/c is the remainder when a/c
a~bq + r and 0^r<&, then

which
is
equal to a
a/c
3.
by
bq.
since a and
Thus we have
= (b/c)q + r/c where
6 are divisible
by
c,
so
O^r/c <6/c.
Theorems on the Greatest Common
Divisor.
is divided by b, the common divisors of

(1) If
a and b are the same as those of b and r.
For, since a = bq + r, every common divisor of b and r is a divisor of a
r is the
remainder when a
and, since r
= a-bq,
common
divisor of a
every
This proves the statement in question.
and
is
a divisor of
r.
(2) If a and b are any two numbers, there exists a number g, and one only,
such that the common divisors of a and b are the same as the divisors of g.
For numbers (q v rx ),
and uniquely, so that
(q 2 , r 2 ), etc.,
a = 6y 1 -f-r1
can always be found in succession,
6=r1 ? 2 + r2
6>r1 >r2 >r3
where
rx
...
= r2
+ r3
etc., ............... (A)
^0.
number of positive integers less than b

remainder must occur and, supposing that rn ^ =0, the
Since the
r -2
= r n-l?n + rn>
rn-l
is
limited, a zero
process terminates
GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR

divisors
numbers have the same common
(A), the following pairs of
Hence, by
(a, 6)
(6,
rj,
(r
r2 ) y
...
(rn ^ v r n )
e common divisors of r n _ 1 and r n are the divisors

and, since fn-i VZn+i*
Hence the number g exists, and its value is r n
of r n
.
Since g
common
is
divisible
numbers and
divisor of these
as the greatest
(3)
by any common
common measure
divisor of a
known
is
(G.C.M.) of a
and
the greatest
in elementary arithmetic
and
it is
ft,
ft.*
If a and b are each multiplied by any number m, or are divided by a

divisor m, then g, the greatest common divisor of a and ft, is multiplied
common
or divided by m.
For each
(4) If a,
of the r's in the proof of (2)

...
c,
ft,
and
divisor of a
ft,
is
multiplied or divided by m.
and g l
are several numbers,
g 2 that of g 1 and
c,
ft,
d,
c,
. . .
),
(gv
ft,
c,
d,
. . .
common
(# 2 ,
),
c, d,
Hence we arrive eventually at a number g, whose

divisors of a,
the greatest
4.
ft,
and
d,
divisors
. . .
),
common
so on, then
:
etc.
divisors are the
common
uniquely determined. This number g is

divisor , or the greatest common measure of a, 6, c, ...
c, ...
common
the greatest
g3 that of g 2 and
the following sets of numbers have the same

(a,
is
also g
is
Numbers Prime
Two numbers,
to each other.
a and
6,
are
said to be prime to each other when their greatest common divisor is 1,

so that they have no common divisor except 1.
This is often expressed
by saying that a is prime to

theorems are fundamental.
ft,
or that
ft
is
prime to
// the product ab is divisible by a number m, and

factor a, then m is a divisor of the other factor ft.
(1)
a.
The following
is
to
prime
one
For, if a is prime to m, the greatest common divisor of a and m is 1

hence the greatest common divisor of aft and mb is ft. But, by hypothesis,
m is a divisor of aft, and is therefore a common divisor of aft and mb
;
hence
m is equal to,
// a is prime
a divisor of N.
(2)
is
or
to 6,
is
a divisor
of,
ft.
and each of these numbers
is
a divisor of
2V,
then ab
Suppose that N = aq, then ft is a divisor of aq, and since ft is prime to

one factor a, it must be a divisor of the other factor q. Let q = wft, then
N = waft, and
*
The
aft is
a divisor of N.
process, here stated algebraically,
is
that used in Elementary Arithmetic.
PRIME NUMBERS
4
If a
(3)
is
prime
to b, positive integers x,
ax-by
For
it
y can be found such
that
1.
follows from equations (A) of Art. 3, (2), that

TI
= a - bq v
r2 -
aq z + b (1
+ qfa),
Continuing thus, every remainder can be expressed in the form

where x, y are positive integers.
If
prime to
is
6,
the last remainder
and the theorem
is 1,
Theorems on Prime Numbers.
5.
A number
(ax-~by),
follows.
which has no
divisors except itself and 1 is called a prime number, or simply a prime.

Numbers which are not prime are said to be composite.
(1)
prime number, p,
is
prime
to
every
number which
not a multiple
is
For, if a is any such number, q and r can be found such that a~pq + r
where 0<r<Cp. Now p and 1 are the only divisors of p, and as r<,p
the only common divisor of p and r is 1, that is to say, p is prime to r and
9
therefore to a.
(2)
least
If a prime p is a divisor of a product abed

one of the factors a, 6, ... k.
...
hk,
it is
a divisor of at
the prime p is not a divisor of a, by Theorem (1) it is prime to a,

hence it is a divisor of bed ... k. If, in addition, p is not a divisor of 6, it
must be a divisor of cd ... k. Continuing thus, it can be shown that if p is
For
if
not a divisor of any of the numbers
a, b, c,
...
h, it
must be a
6.
Theorems on Numbers, Prime or Composite.
(1)
Every composite number
divisor of k.
N has at least one prime divisor.

N
not a prime, it has a divisor, n, different from

and
from 1, which is not greater than any other divisor. Further, this divisor
must be a prime for, otherwise, it would have a divisor less than itself
and greater than 1 and this latter would be a divisor of N. This contraFor, since
is
dicts the hypothesis that

It follows that every
not greater than any ot,her divisor.

composite number, N, can be expressed as the
is
product of prime factors.

has at least one prime factor, p, we have N~pa,
For, since
where l<.p<N.
If a is not a prime, it has at least one prime
factor, q
Thus,
and a = qb, where l<w<.a.

and so on.
N =*papqb
COMPOSITE NUMBERS
But the numbers
the set
pressed in the form,
N are limited
than
must
...
a, b,
less
finally
N=pqr
...
and N>a>b>...
end in a prime. Hence,

where p, q, r, ... u are
u,
therefore
can be ex-
all
primes, not
all different.
necessarily
That is to say,
any composite number, N, can be expressed
N=p
where p,
q, r, ...
u are
.q .r
all different
as
s
,
primes.
(2) A composite number can be expressed as the product of prime factors in

one way only.
a b c
= P A Q B R C where p, g, r,
For suppose that
P, Q, R,
^=p q r
a b c
are primes
then, since the prime P is a divisor of the product p q r ...
. .
. . .
. . .
. . .
a divisor of one of the factors p, q,r, ... and is therefore equal to one
of them. In the same way each of the set P, Q, R, ... is equal to one of
it is
and no prime factor can occur in one of the expressions

q, r, ...
which does not occur in the other. Suppose then that
N^p a qr c ...^p A q Br c ...
the set p,
for
a --A one of them must be the greater. Let A>a> and suppose that
+ e, then q b r c .... t m ^p c qB r .... t M but this is impossible,
If
Aa
as the left-hand side of the equality

right-hand side is divisible by p.
Hence, a must be equal to

thus the two expressions for
a number prime to p, and the
is
and
similarly, 6
= B,
. . .
m~M
and
N are identical.
The' above theorem
is
one of the most important in the Theory of
Numbers, and the following propositions are immediately deducible.

(3)
//
product ab
(4)
// a
is
...
is
each of the numbers, a,
i,
...
k, it is
prime
to the
then a n is prime to b n , where
is
any
integer
and
*-*""*'
number
greater than 1
For, if 2V
to
to b,
prime
conversely.
(5)
prime
k.
and
is
a prime, if
less than, or
it
is
equal
to,
= a&, where bâ, then
not divisible by
any prime number
v^V.
Nâ
2
;
that
The sequence of primes is endless.

For, if p is any prime, the number p 4-
is,
a^.*jN.
(6)
1 is
divisible
or by any smaller prime.
by p
must have a prime
than
exists.
divisor greater than p,
If
greater than
then
and in
p+1
is
p and
is
not
not a prime,
either case a
it
prime greater
NUMBER
DIVISORS OF A
which are
...
N-
than
less
problem of discovering whether a large number

one of great difficulty.
Ex.
If n
1.
is
any number, prove
that
n(n + I)(n + 2)
Of the two consecutive numbers, n and n +
be obtained in order by
The process consists in writing

1
and erasing all multiples
a process called tlie(Sieve of Eratosthenes).

down in order all the numbers from 1 to
of the primes 2, 3, 5, 7,
N can
number
All the primes less than a given
1,
one
%/JV.
Nevertheless, the
prime or composite
is
is divisible
by
6.
by 2
divisible
is
is
and one of
the three consecutive numbers, n, n + 1, n + 2, is divisible by 3. Hence the product

and, since 2 is prime to 3, n(/i-f-l)(n + 2) is
n(tt + l)(tt-f-2) is divisible by 2 and by 3
;
divisible
Ex.
We
G.
by
Prove that 3 2n+1
2.
have
+1
2r2
=3
+ 2"+ 2
is
divisible
7.
by
= 3 (7 + 2) n = Ik + 3
9W
2 n,
by the Binomial theorem,
and
7.
The
where p,
q,
the divisors
Then,
Divisors of a Given Number N. Let N=p a

are primes ; and let n be the number, and s
r, ...
N,
including 1 and N.
of
n = (a +
_1
(1)
pa+l
l)(6
yft+l
p-l
For the divisors of
+ l)(c + l)
_ l r c+l _
...
For,
if
the
rc
...
sum, of
r-l
q-l
N are the terms in the expansion of
and
1, is
%(n +
the product of
l) or %n, according as
a perfect square, each of the numbers, a,
is
and the expressions for n and s follow immediately.

(2) The number of ways in which N can be expressed as
two factors, including
not, a perfect square.
6, c, ...
is,
is
or is
even,
and therefore n is odd but if N is not a perfect square, at least one of

these numbers is odd, and therefore n is even.
Further, if ^( = 1), d2 rf 3 ... d n _ 2 d n _ v d n (=N), are the divisors of A'
'
in ascending order, the different
two
and
factors are
did n
d^dn
ways
of expressing
as the product of
d 2d n _ v
c^ n _
d 2dn , l9
dsd n _ 2
is,
or
is
...
2>
Hence, the number of ways

according as
d xd x
d yd y+l
is
either
when
x or
not, a perfect square.
when
y,-i.e.
n=*2a?-l,
= 2y.
either |(w
+ l)
or \n,
PRODUCT OF CONSECUTIVE INTEGERS
The number of ways in which N can be expressed as the product of two

m ~ 1 where m is the number
mctors, which are prime to one another, is 2
of
N.
Different prime factors of
(3)
For, such factors are the terms in the expansion of
~~
and their number is 2 W Hence the number of pairs is 2 m 1
For example, if # = 2 2 3 3 5 = 540, n = (2 + l)(3 + l)(l + 1) = 24,
.
8.
The Symbol
l[x/y].
If
is
m==3
and
'
a fraction or an irrational number, the
symbol / (a) will be used to denote the integral part of

where 0<r<y, then I(x/y) q.
(1)
// n v n 2 n 3
,
...
are
any
>
integers,
and
Thus
a.
s is their
if
x = qy + r
sum and a
is
any
number, then
= aq^ + r l9 n 2 = aq% + r2 w 3 = ay3 -f r3
Let n
Hence,
etc.
then
/[/a]
and, since Ji^/fî/a],
The
(2)
highest
52
==
^[ n 2/a ]>
>
ê resu
power of a prime p which
is
lt
follows.
contained in
is
For, of the numbers from 1 to n inclusive, there are I[n/p] which are
2
2
and so on hence the
by p of these I[n/p ] are divisible by p
divisible
result follows.
9.
by
Theorems.
(1)
The product of any n consecutive
integers is divisible
\-n.
For (m + l)(w + 2)
last expression is
occurs in
[m
n^
...
(m-f n)/\ n =
m + nj\ m
w,
and to show that the
it is sufficient to show that any prime p which

Thus we
occurs to at least as high a power in
-f n.
an integer
have to show that

/[ (m
+ n)/p] -f /[ (m + n)/p*] + 1[ (m -f n)/p 3] +
Now
/[(m + n)/p]>/[w/p]-f /[n/p], and the same is true

by p p*, ... in succession hence the result in question.
2
ft
. . .
if
we
replace
NUMBERS IN ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION
8
(2)
is
Ifn
a prime,
is divisible
C?
by n.
n(n - l)(n 2)
For by the preceding

since n is a prime and r
r is
Hence,
...
-r+
(n
1) is divisible
supposed to be less than n, r

a divisor of (rc-l)(n-2) ... (n-r + 1)
is
is
by
[/% aijid
prime to
;n.
and
Thus
a prime,
t*
ft
t/
except the first
and
last,
text-books about
'
divisible
is
l)/[r
by
n.
in the expansion of (l+x)
all the coefficients
n
,
are divisible by n.
supposed to be acquainted with what is said in elementary

for
permutations and combinations and the binomial theorem
The reader
NOTE.
(n-r +
...
^(ft-l)
is
'
a positive integral index.' In what follows, F$ denotes the number of permutations,

and C the number of combinations, of n things taken r at a time.
Ex.
Find
1.
We have
the highest
power of 5 contained in
7[158/5]-31,
158.
|
/[158/5 ]=/[31/5J-:6,
therefore the required power has an index
/|158/f>J=y|<$/5J
= 31 +6 + 1 =38.
an odd prime, the integral part of (x/5 +2) n -2 W+1 is divisible by 20n.
Let (V5 + 2)
#+/ where 0</<1; and let (>/5 - 2)n =/'. Then, since
0< V5 -2< 1, we have also 0</'< 1.
n
w
-2V
+/ -/' = (</5 + 2) - (v/5 - 2) =an integer
Again, since n is odd,
and
thus
than
and
and
are
less
since
1, / /',
hence,
/
/'
positive
Ex.
If n
2.
is
n=
N =2(Cf
Moreover, since n
by 20w
which
is
is
Sty- 1 ) + C%
a prime,
C^
is
23
5*( n
divisible
~3
by
+ ... + C
n,
2n
~z
.
and therefore
+ 2n ).
N -2 n +
is
divisible
the required result.
10.
Numbers
(1)
Let a be prime
in
to
Arithmetical Progression.
n, then if the first n terms of the arithmetical
+ a, x + 2a, ... are divided by n,

...
n - 1, taken in a certain order.
sion x, x
0, 1, 2,
the
progres-
remainders are the numbers
we suppose
that two of the terms as x + ma, x
+ m'a leave equal

remainders, then their difference (m~m')a would be divisible by n. This
is impossible, for a is
prime to n and m-m' \<n.
Therefore the remainders are all different, and as each is less than ^,
they must be the numbers 0, 1, 2, ... n 1, taken in some order or other.
If
//
the progression is continued
beyond the n-th term the remainders recur in

>
same order.
For the terms x + ma, x + m'a leave the same remainder
the
If a and n are not prime to one another and g is

divisor, the remainders recur in a cycle of n/g numbers.
(2)
For
let
a~ga', n=gri, so that
a' is
prime to
n'.
if
m = m' + qn\.
their greatest
The terms
common
METHOD OF INDUCTION
if, and only if, a(w-w') is divisible by

a! (m
m') is divisible by ri. Since o! is prime to w', this can
when m - m' is divisible by n'. Thus the first ri terms leave
x f m'a leave the same remainder

that
is, if
o ly happen
different remainders and, after that, they recur in order.
Method of Induction.
11.
Many theorems
to whole
relating
numbers can be proved by a process known as mathematical induction.

In some cases this is the only method available. The method may be
described as follows.
'
Let/(w) be a function of an integral variable n. Suppose that a certain

statement S, relating to/(w), is true when na.
Further, suppose we can prove that,
true when n =
+ 1.
if
is
true
when n = m,
it is
also
Then
since
in succession, that
Ex.
is,
- 3w -
that 2 2n
Show
1.
2n
-3n-l,
Let/(tt) = 2
for n = l.
Also 2 2n
Hence
/(n)
if
=(3 + l)
divisible
is
-f(n)
1)
=2 2 w +1
(
= 3fc, where
9, so
by
fc
by
1)
so the theorem
9,
- 2 2W - 3 =
3(2^ -
an
is
is/(n +
divisible
is
a-f 3,
...
9.
by
=0 and
when n = a + l, a + 2,
true
it is
1 is divisible
then /(I)
f(n +
n-1
Again,
1
when n = a,
when
true
is
is
true
1).
integer,
and, since /(I) is so divisible, it follows

that is, the theorem holds for
;
in succession that /(2), /(3), /(4), etc., are so divisible

all values of n.
Or more
Ex.
2.
using the method of (9) Ex. 2,
easily,
If
is
~Zi
n+2
n+1
1,111
__
2n-l
23
111
7^
i*
^|*
1_
n
Again,
= (3 + l) n - 3n - 1,
etc.
positive integer, prove that
11
___T__
f(ri)
vn~^
if
tên
Vti ^ f
1
-_
2n
= i>l + l
"
...+
23
1
I
~T~
2n -
1
-J_
2n + 1
"*
'
~~
"""rki"**
2n-l
2n
2n + l
^n+i-^wHence
if
succession,
un -vn then
,
it is
true
t*
n+ i=t;n+l
forn=2,
3, 4,
Now
...
that
the statement holds for n = l

is,
for
any value of
n.
hence, in
ELEMENTARY THEORY OF NUMBERS
10
EXERCISE
q
is
the quotient and r the remainder when a is divided by

the quotient when a is divided by b + 1> provided that r^q.
1.
If q
2. If
is
a and b are prime to each other, show that

- 6 have no common factor other than 2
(i) a + b and a
2
a*
ab
a +6 have no common factor other than
b
and
+
(ii)
6,
show
th*|
id
3.
and b are prime to each
If a
(a
have no
4. If
5.
If
common
a
is
a+b
factor, unless
prime to b and
y,
and n is a prime, prove

+
)l(a
b) and a + 6
that
other,
n + bn
and
is
is
3.
a multiple of n.
prime to
x,
then ax + by
ab' -a'b = l,
X=ax + by and 7 a'z-H&'t/, where

X and y is the same as that of x and y.
prime to
is
ab.
common
the greatest
divisor of
If 2>
is
7.
a prime, and j9=a 2 -6 2 then a=%(p +

2 b 2 in two ways.
Express 55 in the form a
8.
If
takes the values
6.
a;
(i)
1, 2, 3, ...
z 2 + x+
17,
(ii)
l) 9 b
\(p-
1).
in the expressions
2z 2 + 29,
(iii)
x*
+ a; + 41,
the resulting values of the expressions are primes, provided that in
(i)
#<16,
in
x<29, and in (iii) #<40.

Verify for x = 15, 28, 39 respectively.
(ii)
9. Iff(x) is a polynomial, it cannot represent primes only.

[Let uf(x) and v~f(x + ku), where k is any integer. Prove that u
factor of v.]
is
10. For the values 2, 3, 4, ... 10 of x, the number 2 3 5 7 + x is composite.

Hence write down nine consecutive numbers none of which is a prime.
11. If n is any odd number, then n(n 2 - 1) is divisible by 24
and if n is an
odd prime greater than 3, then n 2 - 1 is divisible by 24.
.
'
12.
that 2 n
Show
13. If
is
of the form
+1
prime to
or 2 n -
5,
1 is divisible
then n
+1
or
n z
by
3,
according as
1 is divisible
5m -f 1.
by
5,
is
and
odd or even.
therefore
n4
is
14. If n is prime to 5, then n 6 - n is divisible by 30

hence the fifth power of
any number has the same right-hand digit as the number itself.
15. Show that 2
-f 1 or 2^ - 1 is divisible by 5, according as n is odd or even.
2n
2n
16. Show that 5
1 is divisible by 13, according as n is odd or
-f 1 or 5
;
even.
- 1 is divided
by 13, show that the remainder is either 0, 2, or 8,
as
n is of the form 3m, 3m -f 1, or 3m - 1 ; hence prove that 3 W - 1 or
according
3 2n -f 3 n + 1 is divisible by 13, according as n is, or is not, a multiple of 3.
18. If 2n -f 1 is a prime, then n must be a power of 2.
17v If 3 n
19.
Show
that 7 2n - 48n -
1 is divisible by 2304.
20. Show that 7*" + 16n
1 is divisible by 64.
21. Prove that 2 2W + 1 - 9?i 2 -f 3n - 2 is divisible by 54.
22. Find the number of divisors of 2000, and their sum.
1*
DIVISORS
Let
23.
is
s be the
called
perfect
Show that, if 2 n
*nd the three least
'
24. If
<
8 the products, of the divisors of

L and M are prime to one another,
numbers, and F, R,
a are the
r,
ft,
sum of the divisors of N, excluding

itself; if s=N, then
number.
n~1
n - 1 is a
and
1) is a perfect number
(2
prime, then 2
numbers given by this formula.
NLM, and
L,
respectively, where
rove that (i)n=r.0, (ii)P=R s
''J7,
$ 25. If
the number, and
is
11
.Sr
the product, of the divisors of
prove that
=lfn.
26. If the product of the divisors of

is
9 excluding
the product of two primes or the cube of a prime.
itself, is
equal to
then
27. If N has 16 divisors, it cannot have more than 4 prime factors, a, 6, c, d,

and it must be of one of the forms abed, a 36 3 a 36c, 7 6, a 15 Hence find the smallest
number having 16 divisors.
.
28.
Find the smallest number with 24
29.
Prove by induction that w(n + l)(w + 2)
30.
Find the highest power of the prime p

(i)p
31. If
less
is
divisors.
-l<N<pr +p;
...
in
(u)p
+r -
(n
JV,
1) is divisible
by
\r.
when
-p<N<pr
expressed as a polynomial in a prime p, with each of the coefficients

s is the sum of these coefficients, prove that the power of p con-
than p, and
tained in
|
32.
when
33.
is
(N - s)i(p -
1)
Show
is
that the index of the highest power of 2 contained in

f
- r when
a power of 2, and
is equal to 2 - 1.
Show
that
|2tt-l/(|n|w-l)is odd or even according
as
is
N-1
or
is
not,
is,
power of 2.
34.
Prove that
2n
is
divisible
35.
Prove that,
is divisible
by
by n
if g is
the greatest
1.
common divisor of m and n -f 1, then g
m 4- n
.
\
n -f 1.
.
\
Prove that the power of 2 in

2 in
n + 2.
n+1
[n
36.
n -f
3n
is
greater than or equal to the power Jf
37.
Prove that, ifn
38. If a, 6,
is
an integer
39.
c, ...
are
divisible
41
4f 2.
greater than 2, then
numbers whose sum
by
The
-f
is
by|n.|n + l.|n-t-2.
a prime, p then
9
that
wn
is
integer next greater than (3
integer next greater than (s/7
If 2"
3nis divisible
|
p.
If tt n = (3 + v^5) n + (3 - V5) n show
Hence prove that the

40.
is
=&2/ prove that x
+ \^3) an
and y
-*
an
integer,
+ */5) n
is
is
divisible
and that
divisible
2n
by 2
are divisible
n
by 2
by the same power

B.C.A.
CHAPTER
II
RATIONALS AND IRRATIONALS

1. Rational Numbers.
number system is enlarged by
the introduction of fractions,
(i)
possible
in.
order that division
may be
always
the introduction of negative numbers and zero, so that subtraction
(ii)
may
Starting with the natural numbers, the
be always possible.
We
thus obtain the system of rational numbers or rationale, consisting of

positive and negative integers and fractions, with the number zero.
This system can be arranged in a definite order so as to form the rational
scale.
With
c
reference to
equal to
'
and
any two
'
less
than
'
rationals x
and
y,
the terms
greater than/
are defined as referring to their relative
positions on the rational scale.

'
To say that x>y or y<x is to say that x follows y on the scale.

that x = y is to say that x and y stand for the same number.
To say
The Fundamental Laws of Order are as follows (l)Ifa=6

= 6 and 6 = c, then a = c. (3) If a^b and 6>c, or if
(2) If a
a>6 and 6^c, then a>c, (4) If a>b then -a< - 6.
2.
then 6 = a.
Hence we deduce the following rules for

where it is assumed that zero is not used as a
(5) If
+ x,
a-x = b-x
(6) If
a = b and x = y, then
(7) If
a>b
inequalities,
ax
bx
a/x
b/x.
then
and
ax^bx and a/x>b/x
(8) If
divisor
and
a=
a+x
Also
equalities
a>b and x>y,
according as x
then a + x>b
both positive, then ax>by.
a-x>b-x.
is
positive or negative.
+ y, and
if
a and y or b and x
ai!
REPRESENTATION OF NUMBERS BY POINTS

Fundamental Laws of Arithmetic.
3.
Any two
13
rationals can
of addition, subtraction, multiplication and

the
result
in
each
case
/jvision,
being a definite rational number, excepting
lat zero cannot be used as a divisor.
This is what is meant when it is
combined by the operations
j8
iid that the
system of rationals
The fundamental laws
(1)
(3)
4.
an
and multiplication are
+ 6 = 6 + a,
ab = ba,
+ 6) + c = a + (6 + c),
- ac + be,
(a + b)c
(a
(2)
(4)
(5)
The
closed for these operations.
a nd
fifth
is
of addition
= a(bc).
(ab)c
and third constitute the Commutative Law, the second and
first
the Associative Law, the fourth the Distributive Law.
Theorem
integer
of Eudoxus.*
If a and b are any two positive rationals,

nb>a. This simply amounts to saying that an
greater than a/6.
exists such that
integer exists which
is
Representation of Numbers by Points on a Line. Take a
5.
OX
take a point 1 so that the segment 01

X'OX as axis in
contains the unit of length. To find the point a which is to represent any
Divide the segment 01 into n equal parts
positive rational a, let a = m/n.
straight line
and
set off a length Oa, along
which represents - a
is
OX, equal
OX', at the
in
FIG.
The point
of these parts.
Ola
-a
X'
to
same distance from
as the point a.
1.
Points constructed thus represent the rational numbers in the following

and one only.
respects
(i) For every number there is one point
:
(ii)
The point
point a
is
generally taken to the right of
to the right of the point 6.
Absolute Values.
6.
- a,
is
The points occur in the order in which the corresponding

numbers stand on the rational scale.
according as a
|a-6|=|6-a|.
is
It
The
positive
is
i
is
or negative, and
x>a
is
denoted by
a>6, the
is
-fa or
Thus
a
|
obvious that
positive, to say that
x |>a, then
if
absolute or numerical value of
+ 6,
j
so that,
or
x<
x |<a
-a.
is
a+6
>
a - 6
the same as saying that
Sometimes ascribed to Archimedes,
-a<#<a.
NOMENCLATURE
14
Large and Small Numbers.
Whether a number is regarded

small depends on the purpose to which numbers are applied. A
7.
large or
error of 6 inches
would be large in measuring a
but small in
table,
settir
out a mile course.

If for purposes of comparison we choose some positive number c whuih
we regard as small, then any number x is said to be small if x <.
Any number x is said to be large if x >N where N is some previously
\
chosen positive number, which is regarded as large.

We say that x is large or small compared with y when x/y is large or
small. If x/y is neither large nor small, x and y are said to be large or small
numbers of
We
the
same
order.
'
use the abbreviation
order as
If
'
is
0(x)
to indicate that y
is
same
of the
x.
is
small,
numbers which are
same order
of the
as
e,
...
are
orders respectively.
called small numbers of the first, second, third,
2
2V 3 , ... are called
If JV is large, numbers of the same order as N,
,
. . .
large
If
orders respectively.
numbers of the first, second, third,
x - y is small, we say that x and y are nearly equal.
. . .
Meaning of
8.
'
that x varies in such a

less
To say that x
Tends.'
way
that
its
small.
is
If
from
If
expressed by writing x-> 0.

zero, where a is constant,
we say
or/rom the
x tends to a and
above,
is
left,
always
less
than
a,
we say that x tends
is
great that number may be.

In this case we also say that
from above, l/x tends to
oo
Any
we may
- x tends to - 00
Thus,
and - l/x tends to - oo
collection of
number
as x tends to zero
numbers
is
the numbers themselves are the elements of the

the
have what
is
called
an aggregate or
set.
of
called
to a
x becomes and
choose, however
elements exceeds any positive integer

however
choose,
great, we say that their number is infinite^ &
If
and
to say that
remains greater than any positive number that
set
to a,
and we write x-> a -0.
tends to infinity (x -> oo
Aggregate.
that x tends
is
below, or from the
9.
how
always greater than a, we say that x tends to a

This is expressed by writing x -> a -f 0.
right.
x tends to a and
from
To say that x
to say
choose, no matter
may
x - a tends to
we write x -> a.
If
is
numerical value becomes and remains
than any positive number that we

This
tends to zero
an
infinite set.
^^
APPROXIMATE VALUES
10.
System Everywhere Dense.
system of rationals
many
infinitely
For
if
is
An
important property of the

that between any two rationals a and b there are
is
rationals.
a<b and
This fact
15
is
any
positive rational,
it is
sometimes expressed by saying that
easily seen that
the system of rationals is
everywhere dense.
1 1
Sequence.
according. to
some
succession of
definite rule,
Such a
denoted by (u n ).
numbers u ly u 2 u 3
,
called a sequence,
is
rule defines
...
un
...
which
is
u n as a function of
formed
generally
the positive
integral variable n.
The rule may be quite arbitrary, and it is unnecessary that we should

be able to express u n in terms of n by an algebraical formula. For instance,
u n may denote the nth prime number, or the integral part of Jn.
sequence in which each term
is
followed by another term
is
called
an
infinite sequence.
12. Approximate Values. Suppose that the object of an experiment is to determine a certain number represented by A. No matter
what care may be taken to ensure accuracy, it is unlikely that the exact
value of A can be found. All that can be done in most cases is to find two
numbers a and a' between which A must lie.
If we find that a<A<a', we call a a Lower Limit and a' an Upper Limit
to the value of A
a and a' are also called approximate values of A.
;
is an approximate value of A, A -a is called the

and
Error,
(A a)/A the Relative Error, in taking a to
Definition.
(Absolute)
If
represent A.
If
a<A<a', we
in defect
and
say that a and
a!
are approximate values of A, the first
the second in excess with errors numerically less than a'
Observe that the error
A - a cannot exceed a' - a
therefore a
upper limit to the error in taking a to represent A.

Again, if a is positive, we have l/A<l/a and A -a<a'
-a
- a.
-a
is
an
hence
(A-a)/A<( a'- a )/a;

and
(a'
a)/a
is
an upper limit to the
We
relative error.
estimate the comparative accuracy of different experiments by comthe smaller the relative error, the greater is the
paring the relative errors
:
(degree
of accuracy.
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
16
In writing down decimal approximations of a number, we adopt the

followinjg
scheme
(i)
If
we
write
7r
= 3-1416
(approx.),
we
mean
shall
that
between 3-14155 and 3-14165, and we say that 3-1416

significant figures, or to
than 0-00005, or 2i
(ii)
If
we
write
10
TT
by 3-1416
is
numerically
3-14159
-n
lyinig
correct to 15
TT
4 places of decimals.
Since 3-14155<7r< 3-14165, the error in representing

less
some number
is
TT
the value of
is.
...
we
shall
mean
that the figures
3, 1, 4,
...
9 are those
which actually occur in the decimal representation of TT, and that TT is some number
lying between 3-14159 and 3-14160. The error in representing TT by 3*14159 is positive
and is less than 1/105
.
Fundamental Theorems.
In theoretical and practical work,

the following theorems are of fundamental importance.
If a, a', b b' are given numbers and A, B are any numbers such that
13.
a<A<a'
then
and
(i)
b<B<b
and
a + b<A + B<a' + b'
if all the letters denote positive numbers,
ab<AB< a'V
(iii)
The truth
Proof of
of
(a
Similarly
Proof of
(i)
and
Since
(ii).
Subtracting
B+V
(iii)
(iv) a/6'
follows from Art, 2,
a<A
and 5<6',
a+
.*.
from each member
it
can be shown that

Since
(iv).
a<A
b'.
a~b'<A-B.
/.
);
and B<b', and
Ab'
oJB
Similarly
B<A +
a,
A, B,
are positive,
aB<Ab'
Bo
1.
(8).
A - B<a' - b.
(A)
Dividing each side of (A) by Bb', which
Ex.
< A/B < a'/b.
of the last inequality,
+ B)-(B + b')<(A+b')-(B + b
therefore
lir
a - V<A - B<a' - b
(ii)
it
Show
Wehave
12
35
f<
.
'
Bb''
is
positive,
a
b
f< B
can be shown that A/B<a'/b.

that the error in representing
1234567
13
< 3456789 < 34'
.,
Also
12
is less
than 0-05.
12
by oO
-.
^=0-34...
^|-^< 0-39
therefore the error
1234567
,0400709
- is less
and
13
00
^=0-38
-0-34 =0-05;
than 0-05.
....
Hence,
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
Ex.
7/0< x<
2.
division
By
we
find that
an approximate value of
is
- 2x + -
//" .4
---
an
is
by hypothesis, x cannot be an integer.

Then (p/q) n
For,
so
Need for New Numbers.
15.
with an error in
<
- 2x + 5z 2
integer which is not a perfect
= A.
is
p/q,
whore
a fraction in lowest terms,
cannot be equal to the integer A.
it
rational
I/ (I -fa:)
If possible, let
a fraction in lowest terms.
is
~-
exists such that x n
no rational x
n-th power, then
and
-2x
Non-perfect 'Powers.
14.
p/q
then I
1,
5a? 2 .
than
defect less
17
2
numbers are inadequate
There are
for
purposes for which

there is no rational
many
(i)
example
whose square equals 7
(ii) if the diameter of a circle is 1 inch and we
denote the length of the circumference by x inches, it can be shown that
x is not a rational number.
;
We
extend our number-system by inventing a new
class of
numbers
called Irrationals.
An
defined by some rule which gives

the rational numbers. Such a rule is the following.
irrational
Meaning of
is
We
"/A.
number
consider a positive
ordinal rank with
it
which
is
not a
perfect nth power, so that no rational exists whose nth power is A.

The symbol *IA (the nth root of A) is used to denote the irrational
whose place among the numbers on the rational scale is determined by

the following rule
\IA is to follow every positive rational whose n-th power
is less than A, and to precede every rational whose n-th power is greater than
:
Thus
A.
if a, a'
are positive ratio rials such that
a n <A<a' n
then
and
a, a'
are approximate values of ^JA with errors, respectively in defect
excess, less
than
a'
- a.
16. Representation of a Number by an Endless Decimal.

Take the following instance. No rational exists whose square is 7. Hence
7 lies between two consecutive terms of the sequence I 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 ....
,
Now
22
<7<32
(2-1)
2
,
(2-2)
...
therefore 7
2
(3-0)
We
between consecutive terms

2
between two consecutive terms of
(2-0)
find that (2-6) 2 <7<(2-7) 2 , therefore 7 lies
of (2-60) 2
2
,
(2-61)
...
(2-70)
and we
find that
<7<(2-65)
However far this
(2-64)
otherwise
lies
it
process
is
carried on,
would be possible to
it
can be continued further
find a rational
whose square
is 7.
for
IRRATIONALS IN PRACTICAL RECKONING
18
The process
such that 7
22
and
an endless decimal 2-6457

between the two classes of numbers
therefore gives rise to
lies
(2-6)
,J1 lies
and
...
^.(2-646)2, (2 .65)
is
which
2
,
(2-7)
32
is
numbers
classes of
and
...2-646, 2-65, 2-7, 3.
meant when we write /7 = 2-6457
is
Observe that ^/7

2/3
2-6, 2-64, 2-645...
what
is
(2-645)
between the two

2,
This
(2-64)
...
related to the decimal 2-6457
....
...
in the
same way that
related to 0-6666 ....
is
For if we say that 2/3 is equal to the endless decimal 0-6666 ... this is
only an abbreviation for saying that 2/3 lies between the two classes of
numbers
,
0-6, 0-66, 0-666,
and
...
...
0-667, 0-67, 0-7.
It should further be noticed that the decimal equivalent of

recur, for
if it
did, ^/7
^7 cannot
would be a rational number.
a process similar to that just described we can find the decimal

but, of course, in practice
representation of any root of a given number
By
other methods would be used.
Real Numbers.
17.
The
form the system of Real Numbers.

and inequalities and the definitions
tion
to
and
extended so as to apply
numbers.
Theoretically
it is essential
to
make
for purposes of practical reckoning,
Ex.
of addition, subtraction, multiplica-
division, already given for rationals, are
all real
may
and irrational numbers together

In Ch. XIII the rules for equalities
rational
this extension,
but
where we replace any
occur by a sufficiently close rational approximation.

1.
where dn
Given that
is the
$2 = 1-259921
decimal continued
Letd' n =dw + l/10

therefore
n
,
then
2 -rf
to
prove that
places.
d%<2<d'l;
-<** = (d' n -dn )(d* +
rf'J
<
Now
w rf'
rf
dn <d'n <l-3;
'
It follows that
...
*l +
Wn + *l<
2
Hence we are justified in writing
- d* --*
(
%/2 )
as
=2
(1'3)
n->
oc
.3<C;
it is
unnecessary
irrational
which
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
Ex.
We
^5 =2-236 ... , ^8 = 1-817

an upper limit to the error.
Given that
2.
Find
s/5 / x/6.
also
have
2-236 / 1-818<
Now 2-236/1-818 = 1-229
...
and
...
^5 f /6<
find
19
a decimal approximation
to
2-237/ 1-817.
2-237/1-817 = 1-231
...
l-229< N/5/^/8< 1-232.

an approximate value of <s/5/*2/6 with an error in defect
/.
/.
1-229
is
3.
If a is positive and less than 1, show that 1 -a/2
2
-a) with an error in excess less than a /2.
Applying the square root process to 1 a, we have
Ex.
less
than 0-003.
is
-a
-a-fâ
fa
fa
\a* =
N-
\a
|a
Now |a -|a -ia =â (3-2a-a )=4a (3+a)(l-a); and

/. a*(3 +
)(!- a) >0
3
2 2
)
since
0<a<l,
and
The Function
18.
a*.
(1)
Ifa>l and n
is
a positive
integer, then
a n >l-f-n(a-l).
For,
if
a=
n
by the Binomial theorem, a = (1
I -h 6,
-f
n
6)
>l 4- nb.
n
n
7/a>0, ên a ^l and a ^l according as a^l.
For if a>l, then a n >l. If a<l, let a = l/i; then 6>1
(2)
Again,
Similarly,
(3)
if
if
a>l, then a n >l
x=p/q,
(4) //a>0 and
For a /a y = a ~
(5)
ax
if
a?
for otherwise
we should have a = (an ) w <l.
a<l, then a n <l.
//a>0 and
For
and
aj
Ifa>l and
>l
<Aen ax
>a y according as agl.
according as
a>l.
N is any positive number,
can be found such that
For we can choose
according as
>y,
I/
>l
x
positive rational, then a
p
1, according as a^.1.
%Ja
ts
an
>N
for
however great, a positive integer
n^m.
m so that m(a - 1)>N - 1,
and then by
(1),
APPROXIMATE VALUES
20
// a
(6)
is
If
a<l,
and not equal
positive
awarding as a>\.
First let a>l.
Then
in (5),
if
an is
any
a>l,
If
positive
as in
(5),
ax >am >N, and so ax -+<x>.
z>w,
|<
oo
6*
~>
oo
and a = 1/6* -> 0.

35
n^m,
for
number, however small.

can be chosen so that
and
a<l, assuming that 0<e<l,
If
as
or
m can be found such that
where
a^-xx)
then
1,
a = 1/6. Then 6>1, and as x ->
let
//"a>0, a positive integer
(7)
to
(1 -f e)
m >a. Hence
a"-l<.
f-
>
that
m
(l-c) <a.
is,
Hence,
if
n>m,
(1
-e) <(l -e)
if
JL
m <, and
\m
1
'1
>-,
d
therefore
l-a n <.
If a = 1,
then a7 -
If a
is positive
(8)
First, let #-->
part of
If
(7)
=0
and x > 0, ZAen ax >
then
if
x<l/m,
m as
x
1 -a <l -a m <.
in
values, let
If a>l, choose
I<a
l<e.
through positive values.
a<l, choose
and
Thus
for all values of n.
ax
in the second part of (7)
both cases, ax 1->0 and a*->l. If

a = 1/6 and x = - y. Then ax = 1 /6 V ->1
then
if
m as in the first
x
nt
#<l/w, a >a
x->0 through
negative
EXERCISE
II
APPROXIMATE VALUES
a<A <a',
a, a are known numbers, and any number c lying

chosen as an approximate value of A, the numerical value
of the error in representing A by c cannot exceed the greater of the numbers
1.
If
between a and
where
of is
(c-â), (a'-c).
Hence show that, if J(a-f-a') is chosen as an approximate value of A, the

greatest numerical value of the error is less than it would be for any other
approximation.
2. If
f(x)
= 2 + 3x - 4x 2 - 5x 3 + 8x* and x
is
small, find
an upper
numerical value of the error in representing f(x) by 2 -f- 3x.

-4x*-5x* + 8x* < 4* 2 -f 5x 3
[If e is the error, \e\ =
\
when
<
41
limit to the
8* 4
<
17* 2 ,
1.]
The length of a man's step is approximately 30 in., this value being correct
to the nearest inch. If the number of steps which he takes per mile is calculated
on the assumption that he steps exactly 30 in., show that the error in the result
3.
may
be as
much
as 35, but cannot exceed 36.
APPROXIMATE VALUES
4. If
21
0-2<cc<0-3 and -0-6<y<0-7, show that
(i)0-3<2/-z<0-5;
2<
(ii)
are all positive
y-x
<4
(iii)
and x<y<z, show that

x* x 2 + y* + z z z z
z
x+y+z x'
5.
If
6.
cannot
If the numerical value of the error in taking a to represent
a, and the numerical value of the error in taking a' to represent a cannot
a', then a -fa' is an upper limit of the error in taking a! for A.
[i.e. given
y, z
exceed
exceed
that
a-a<A<a +
(x.
and a'-a'<a<a'4-a',
it is
required to show that
+ (a + a').]
:a'
and J5, subject to errors

7. If a, b are observed values of two numbers
(positive or negative), whose numerical values cannot exceed a and j3 respectively,
show that an upper limit to the numerical value of the error in taking
(i)
(ii)
a-f /?
a -f ft
(iii)
(iv)
ajb
to
represent
is
small,
less
0<x<l
If
is afc-f
i/(
!/(!
+ a) 3
is
0<a<0-01, then the
less
than
error in taking ---h -
x> 100,
is
if
By
the error in taking - as the value of

-f
3 in descending powers of
show that
(i)
~r~
is
OX
o j,
-
-h
x.]
nearly equal to
+ (a - b)x - b (a - b) x 2
is less
than 0-01.
R = (b + c -
By means of Ex.
1+ (a~b-c)x.
13.
Show
is less
than 0-0007.
is less
4#
the division transformation, show that
I+ax
to
is
o -f" Q.X
small,
(1
where
Also show
x as the value of -
a = 5, b = 2 and #<0*1, the error in this approximation
12.
positive
A
(ii)
any
[Divide 3# + 2 by 4#
11. If
is
o
10. If
6'
nearly equal to l-3a.

error < 0-0007.
numerically
where
~l~)"0K
ft.
show that the
(a-f a)
is
yl/7?
than b
show that
if
that,
9.
is
A - B is
a& to represent ^4J5
number
8. If
A +B
a + b to represent
a - b to represent
also that if
12,
show that
a = 2, 6^3,
if
is
small,
=4 and x < 0-01,
r~r/l
+ ox)(l+cx)
"\
(l
^ nearly equal
the error in this approximation
than 0003.
The focal length (/) of a lens is given by the formula l//=l/t> - l/u. The
values of u and v may be in error by as much as 2 per cent, of the corresponding
true values. If the true values of u and v are 20 and 13, show that the value of/
'
14.
as calculated from the observed values

of its true value.
may
be in error as
much
as 9-9 per cent,
APPROXIMATE VALUES
22
The weight (w grammes) of water displaced by a solid is given by the

w=w l -w 2 where w l9 w 2 are the weights (in grammes) of the solid (i) in
15.
formula
In determining the values of w i9 w 2 the error in each case

per cent, of the true value. If the true values of w lf w 2 are
13 and 10, show that the value of w calculated from the observed values of w ti> a
may be in error by as much as 7 per cent, of its true value.
[The greatest and least possible values of w 1 are 13-13 and 12-87, those of w z
are 10-1 and 9-9, hence those of w l -to* are 3-23 and 2-77.]
vacuo,
may
in water.
(ii)
be as
much
as
l<t
16. Given that the endless decimal corresponding to

/123 is 2-618060
6
prove that 123 -(2-618060) < 0-0003.
[Proceed as in Ex. 1 of Art. 17, using the identity
a' 6 - a 5 = (a' - a) (a' 4 + a' 3a -f a' 2 a 2 -f a'a 3 + a 4 ).]
17. If x and y are positive and x>y, then x-y*j(2x)
of s/(# 2 - i/ 2 ) with an error in excess less than t/ 4 /(2a; 3 ).
2
[In Ex. 3 of Art. 17, put a = y /x*.]
a and b are nearly equal, show that - (a + 6)
18. If
_
value of Va6 with an error in excess
less
than
an approximate value
is
-j~
_M4
r
is
...
4(d -}- uj
an approximate
[Use Ex.
17.]
19. Given that ^14 = 3-741..., 4/3-1-442..., for each of the following
obtain a decimal approximation with an error in defect, finding also an upper
limit to the error
:
(i)
20. If
^14
0<a -A <e,
3
x 4/3
s/14/4/3
(ii)
then a -
(iii)
V A <---.
14 4- 4/3.
o(^JA)
[Put
y-ZJA
21. If
is
in the identity
a 8 - y 3 = (a - y) (a 2 + ay + 1/ 2 ).]
small, prove that
N/T
(i)
+x
nearly equal to 1-f rr/3
is
positive, the error in taking 1 +a:/3 to represent Z/l
cally less
+ xis negative, and
(ii)
is
if
a;
is
numeri-
than # 2 /8.
10# 2
(x\*
o/
1 H-
1 4-
and use the

x)<---2tl
,
last example.]
Approximate values of A, B are a = 3083, 6 = 8377, each correct to the

Using Ex. 7, show that an upper limit to the error in taking
4
i
a/6 for A IB is Ii 10
1
22.
nearest digit.
[The error
<
(0-5
+ 04 xO5)<
.]
23. In the last example, suppose a/b expressed as a decimal to n places, to the
nearest digit. Show that the numerical value of the error in taking this as the
value of A /B is less than
111
W*2 "iO"'
Hence show that
it is
useless to carry
on the division to more than four places
of decimals.
B = 1 -414213
by using Ex. 7 find how many
B to find an approximate value of AB with an error
24. If
figures
^=3-141592,..,
must be kept in A,
...
numerically less than I/ 10

[Choose a, b so that a6-|-/3(a
.
take
a,
We may
such that
2<x-f
therefore take
+ a)<l/108
4<1/103
This
Now 6<2
is
a = 3- 1416, 6 = 1-4142.]
and a + a<4,
satisfied if
a<^6
1(
/.
we may
<-
^.
1U
^
CHAPTER
III
POLYNOMIALS
1
An
Definitions.
a xn
where a
a 1?
expression of the form
+ a^"- 1 4- a 2z n ~ 2 +
a n are independent of
...
(1)
. . .
+ aw
x, is called
a polynomial in x of the
n-th degree.
A
ax m
polynomial in x and y
n
,
where a
any number
sometimes called a rational
y,
and m, n are
of terms of "the
form
positive integers.
and
is
degree
is
of variables is similarly defined,
integral function of the variables
its
its
the
sum
instance,
atfP
is
number
of a
highest term.
of the indices of the variables in each term of a polynomial
a constant number, the polynomial is said to be homogeneous. For
If
is
sum
the
independent of x
is
polynomial in
that of
is
+ a^-^y + a2 x n ~ 2y 2 +
. . .
+ a nyn
a homogeneous polynomial in x, y of degree n.

constant may be regarded as a polynomial of degree zero.
Polynomials of the first, second, third, fourth,
degrees are
. . .
linear, quadratic, cubic, quartic,
...
homogeneous polynomial
as
functions respectively.
In some parts of Algebra, a homogeneous polynomial
known
in x, y of degree
is
is
called a quantic.
often written in the
form
n
atfc
where binomial
+ na^-iy 4-
*!
a 2x n
~2
2
y +
. . .
+ a nyn
coefficients are introduced for convenience.
denoted by
(00,^,02,
..,
a n \x,y) n
d$x,
I)
d e\x,
I)
(a, 6, c,
(a, 6, c,
may
=aa?3
= ax4 + 4&z3 4- 6cx2 4- idx 4- e.
-h
This
is
shortly
Using this notation, cubic and quartic functions of x
be denoted by
36x2 4- 3cx + d,
If A, 5, C are polynomials and A=BC, then JB and C are called factors

ol divisors of 4, and .4 is said to be (exactly) divisible by J? of by C.
SYNTHETIC DIVISION
24
Let
Division.
2.
and
be polynomials in
x,
being of higher
degree than J5, or of the same degree.

To divide A by B is to find an identity of the form
'
'
are polynomials (or in special cases constants) and R is of

the result is
Such division is always possible
lower degree than B.
and is called the division transformation, Q being the quotient and
where
Q and R
unique
R the remainder.
In dividing ax3
Synthetic Division.
3.
reckoning
be arranged as on the
may
+p + q + r
fcz
ex-}-
z
d(ax +px + q
+ cx
px *-phx
>
>
= qh
+d
2
the quotient = ax 2
the
ax* - akx 2
where rp = ah + b, cr=ph
r + c,
2
and then
+ ex -f d by x-A,
ah + yA + g
bx 2
x-h)ax* +
+d
a +b + c
7
left
-f
-f
qx-qn
px + q,
the remainder = r.
and
This process is known as synthetic division.

parison with the reckoning on the right.
It is justified
by a com-
evident that the method can be used to divide any polynomia 1 in

x by x-h. If any powers of x are missing, these must be supplied with
zero coefficients.
It
is
Ex.
We
Divide 3* 4 - x* f 2x 2 - 2x x- divide
as follows
1.
by
2)
l-(-2)
.'.
Quotient
by x +
2.
-1
+2
- 2
-0
-7
+14
+16
-32
-34
+68
+67
= 3z 3 - 7z 2 + Ux - 34
remainder
= 67.
To divide a polynomial A by ax- 6, we may use the following rule

Find the quotient Q and the remainder R in the division of A by x- b/a,
*
then Q/a
by
and
ax- b.
are respectively the quotient
and remainder in
the division of
APPLICATIONS
25
Dividex* + 2x ~3x~4:by2x-l.
as on the
it is
Dividing by x Ex.
2.
right,
J,
seen that
+2
-3
- 4
+t
+4
the quotient = a; 2
+ # -J
and the remainder =
/.
the required quotient = J (a; 2
7/ the divisor
to divide 4#4
+ fa; - J)
y-
^.
;
remainder = - ^.
of the second or higher degree, the process is as follows

3# + x-l by 2 -2z + 3, write the divisor in the form
is
x 2 - (2x - 3) and proceed thus,

4
+3 +0 +1 -1
-12-33-30
8
+ 22 + 20
(b)
10-12-31
The quotient
term in
line
in (a);
is
(c)
llo;
where
the remainder
-12z-31.
The
will
be understood
+ 3#3 + x - I
if it is
in the
e are independent of x.
a, 6,
Divide f(x) by x*-2x + 3 as above.
2
quotient 4# + 1 Ix + 10.
compared with ordinary
division.
form
. . .
The remainder
is
-12rc-31 and the

4
Divide 4z 2
is 19a;
+ 1 Ix + 10 by x 2 - 2x + 3.
- 2 and the
quotient
4.
The remainder
+ 11 + 10
-12
Hence
~ 2
- 12* -31.
4. Applications of Synthetic Division.

formations are often required.
Let/(x) be a polynomial in
(I)
first
Express f(x)= 4x*
3.
+ 10 and
(c)
4; 4 (2 -3) = 8 -12; put 8 in line (6) and -12

ll(2-3) = 22-33
put 22 in (6) and -33 in (a);
+ 3 = 11;
and so on.
The reckoning
Ex.
4z 2 +
is
(a)
To
f(x)=a (x-h) +a l (x-h)

is
an _ 2
is
x-h.
n -l
Suppose that
+ ...+a n _l (x-h) + an
the remainder when/(#) is divided by x - h. ItQ is the

quotient,
the remainder when Q is divided by x - h. If Q' is the
quotient,
the remainder when Q' is divided by x-h.
Continuing thus, we
Then ar
an-1
trans-
x.
express f(x) as a polynomial in

n
The following
can find
is
all
the coefficients.
The reckoning
is
arranged as in Ex.
1, overleaf.
REMAINDER THEOREM
26
Ex.
1.
Express 2x + x
5x - 3 as a polynomial in x-2.
+13
(2) To expand f(x + h) in powers of x, we express f(x) as a polynomial

x - h, and then change x into x + h.
Ex.
in
2.
Proceed as in Ex.
and substitute x + 2
for
in the result, thus
2
f(x + 2) = 2x* + 13* + 23* + 7.
(3)
Iff(n)
is
a polynomial in n of degree
aQ + a^n + a 2n(n +
1)
r, to
+ a%n(n + 1) (n + 2) +
This can be done by dividing by w, w-hl, n

2fo. 3.
4
Express n
Divide n4
and
+ 3n 2 + 2
+3n 2 + 2 by
+ 2,
...
in succession.
in the form
by n + 1, the quotient thus obtained by n + 2,

by n + 3. The reckoning is shown below, and the required
numbers in thick type.
1+1
1+0+3+0
1+2
1+3
-1+1-4
_i +4-4
-2+6
1
/.
. . .
w, the quotient
finally the last quotient
coefficients are the
express f(n) in the form
-3
-3
+10
-6
n4 + 3n 2 + 2 = 2 - 4n + 10( + 1) - n(n + !)( + 2)
The Remainder Theorem. Iff(x) is a polynomial, then f(h)

remainder when f(x) is divided by x - h.
This follows on substituting J^ fof xirTtfre* identity
5.
is the
where
of f(x)
Q and J? are respectively the quotient and

by x-h; for R is independent of #.
remainder in the division
IMPORTANT THEOREMS
Corollary. Iff(h) = 0, then
For, in the preceding,
x~h
is
27
a factor off(x).
Ex.
Show
1.
Since
is
that, if
odd,
l)
is odd,
= - 1,
an
hence
2.
///(a;)
is
f(0-2)
a factor of xn + 1.
- 1,
x
1 is
if
+ x = ( _ ! jn f ! _ _ X + X _
.*.
##.
x+
x 4-
1 is
a factor of x n
= 3** + 2** - 6x - 4, ./md
*fce
-+
w/we off (0-2).
the remainder in the division of f(x) by
a;
- 0-2.
Performing the division
1-0-2
Theorem.
6.
values
a 1? a 3
...
// f(x) is a polynomial which vanishes when x has

a n no two of which are equal, then the product
(x-oc 1 )(x-(x 2 )(x-oc 3 )
is
the
...
(z-a w
a factor off(x).
For since /(a^Ô,
by the Remainder theorem f(x) = (x~oc l ) .fl (x)

where /x (x) is a polynomial. Therefore /(a 2 ) = (a 2 - aj)^ (a 2 ).
Now /(a 2 ) = and aa-ajÔ, therefore /i(a 2 )=0, and consequently
x-oe. 2 is a factor oif^x).
Hence
where /2 (x)
is
and
(x^-(x-^)(x
a polynomial.
Proceeding in this way, we can show that (x-oc 1 )(x-oc 2 )...(x-oc n )
is
factor oif(x).
7.
Theorem.
polynomial f(x) of the n-th degree cannot vanish for
more than n values of x unless all its coefficients are zero.

For otherwise (by Art. 6) the product of more than n expressions of the
form x-cx. would be a factor of the polynomial. That is to say, a polynomial of the nih degree would have a factor of degree higher than n,
which
is
Thus
it is
impossible.
the coefficients of f(x) are zero, f(x)
If all
is
said to vanish identically.
-a)(b-c) + (x- b) (c - a) -f (x c) (a - b) vanishes identically

the first degree in x, and it vanishes for the values a, 6, c of
(x
of
Corollary.
An
equation of the n-th degree cannot have more than
for
x.
roots.
it will be shown that every equation of the nth degree has

n
not
exactly roots,
necessarily all different, which may be real or imaginary.
NOTE. Later
c
B.C.A.
UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS
28
Theorem.
8.
ax n
then a
= a',
If for more than n values of x,

~
"
bx n 1 -t+ hx + k = a'x n + b'x n l -f
-f
= 6',
...
. .
h = h', & = &'
-f
. . .
h'x
that is to say the
+ k',
polynomials are
identically equal.
For by the given conditions the polynomial

n
- 6> n ~ 1 + ... -f (h - h')x +
(a
a')x -h (6
vanishes for more than n values of x
k')
by the preceding
hence,
(k
article, it
follows that
6
aâ',
9.
Polynomials
(1)
///(x, y)
is
= 6',
Two
in
...
=h
k^=k'.
More Variables.
or
a polynomial in x and y which vanishes for
all
values
ofx
and y then all the coefficients off(x, y) are zero.

The following method applies in all cases. Let the polynomial be
y
u = ax 2 + bxy
which
is
supposed to vanish for
all
-f
+ dx + ey -h/,
cy
values of x and y
u = ax 2 + y(by + d) +
and
for
any given value
vanishes for
all
a = 0,
/.
(2)
If for
all
ey +f)
by
6 = 0,
values of x
is
then
a polynomial in x, which
+ d = Q,
Also the relations (A) hold for
a = 0,
-f
of y, the last expression
values of x
hence
(cy
all
rf
and y
cy
+ e?/+/=0
values of y
= 0,
c = 0,
(A)
e-0,
/=0.
the 'polynomials f(x, y)
and F(x,
y)
have
equal values, then the coefficients of like terms in the polynomials are equal.
This follows immediately from (1).
The fact that two polynomials,

-writing u^v.
NOTE.
by
10.
The Method of Undetermined
necessary to enquire
specified
4
u, v, are identically equal is often expressed
farm.
Undetermined
In
Coefficients.
It is
often
a given function can be expressed in a certain

cases of this kind we may use the method of
if
Coefficients/
which
may
be described as follows.
Assume that the function is expressed in the given form, where some of
the coefficients are unknown. In order that the identity involved in this
assumption may be true, the. unknown coefficients must satisfy certain
equations. If these equations have a solution, the function can be expressed
in the specified form.
QUADRATIC FUNCTION
Ex.
Show
1.
that values of a,
c exist
6,
23
such that
and find these values.

The right-hand side ^ a (a; 2 -x -2) + b(x 2 ~ 3z + 2) +c(z 2 This
equal to the left-hand side for
is
such that
~ b-~<- ~'2,
-3A"5.
values of x,
all
-a -
- c
2/y
if
1)
values for
a, 6, c
These equations have one solution, namely, a~2, 6 = 1, c= -1.

In a question of this kind, i/ t has been shown that an identity of the
exists, the values of the constants
may
be
can be found
1.
found by giving special valuer
specified
Thus, assuming that an identity of the specified form exists, wo can find
by putting a:!, -1,2

2.
a
ti^(2x + y+p)(x ~3?/-f q) =2x~ - 5xy 3y + a?(^
Equating
coefficients,
we have
From
the
iirst
two,
er,
b, c,
in succession.
Search for factors of #=3 2x~ - 5r// - 3?/ 2 -x + 10// Since 2x 2 - 5xy - 3?/ 2 (2x + y) (x - 3y) we assume that
Ex.
form
to the variables.
2q
-\-
y>-^
tluj three
--
-3,
(/
1,
conditions
3/> 4
= !, and
.---
3.
+y(q -3^) +y^.
-i-2q)
pq
10,
:--
3.
these values hajtpcii to satisfy the third
condition.
11.
Quadratic Functions of x and
function of x,
y, z of
the second degree
ax 2
When z^l
-f 6//
is
of the
Every homogeneous
y.
form
+ cz* 4- 2///2 -f 2(jzx + 2hxy ...................... (A)
this reduces to
az*
+ 2hxy + by z + 2gx + 2fy + c,
........................ (B)
the general form of a quadratic function of x and y.

2 of Art. 10 it appears that the cases in which an expression
of the form (B) can be resolved into factors are exceptional. The condition
which
is
From Ex.
that this
12.
may
he possible
Theorem.
is
investigated in the next article.
The necessary and
sufficient condition that the quadratic
s ^ aj? + 2hxy + by* + 2gx + 2fy + c
faction
can be expressed as
the product of two linear factors
-=
abc
+ 2fgh
af
Itf
- ch* - 0.
Assume that S = (px + qy + r) (p'x -f q'y -f r')

S=^0 this can be written
and consider the equation
ax 2 + 2x (hy +g) +
giving
(hy+g)
(bif
+ 2fy -f c) - 0,
(hy+gf-a(by* + 2fy + c)
............ (C)
DISCRIMINANT
30
These values of x must be the same as

are therefore rational functions of
root sign in (C)
is
this
may
+ r) and
be a perfect square
The following cases must now be considered

// a
(i)
not zero,
is
//a =
(iii)
// both
fails
r ')
they
is
= 0.
but, except
solving for
by
-f
2
2fgh-af-bg*-ch =0 ......................... (D)
the reasoning
to the condition (D)
(q'y
follows that
it
abc +
(ii)
Hence the expression under the
y.
a (abc + 2fyh - a/2 - bg 2 - ch?)
or
Now
a perfect square.
and the condition that
(qy
a and b are
zero,
when
6 = 0,
y and proceeding as
we
shall be led
before.
and AÔ, then
S = 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c
A = 2fgh-ch 2
and only if, A =0.
for in this case
factors
//a = 6 = A = 0, S
Hence S can be resolved
not a quadratic function.

can be resolved into linear factors, then J=0.
(iv)
if
if,
is
into linear
Hence, in
all cases,
Conversely, if A 0, then S can be resolved into linear factors.

This is evident in all cases, from the preceding.
NOTE.
The expression abc + 2fgh-afz
called the discriminant of S.
Ex.
1.
//,
Observe that p,
in the above, p, q,
r,
The square
and
real
if,
root of (hy
and only
ca-g\
+ g) 2 - a (by 2 + 2fy + c),
denoted by J, and is
are not necessarily all real.
prove that
ab-h\
or
-ab)+2y(hg-af)+g*-ac,
if
h - ab
2
Similarly,
is generally
q, r, p', q' 9 r' t
vice versa.
y2(h
is
p', q' t r' are all real,
6c-/
are all negative
bg*-ch
by solving
S =0
and
-ac
as a quadratic in y t
are positive.
we find that/ 2 - be must
be positive.
DIVISION
AND FACTORS
EXERCISE
DIVISION
31
III
AND FACTORS
In Exx. 1-6 find by synthetic division the quotient and remainder

expression is divided by the second.
when the
first
3.
+ 6x + 2; x + 4.
x*-4x* + 6x z -4x + I
5.
3x*-5x*-llx* + x-I; x*-2x~2.
6.
3z 5 + 6z 4 ~2o; 3 -:e 2
5x*
1.
3x-2.
4.
a;
- 5x* -f Ix* -
-2;*; + 4; x* + 2x-I.
3
2 If 4z
6x + 1 is divisible by 2x - 1,
(a
l)x -f ax
3
Express x + 2x* + x + 80 as a polynomial in (i) x + 5
8.
If
9.
giving
*/
given by the equation

3#~- 1
i/- a; -2
(ii) y
is
when
(i)
x-2.
-!; 2x + l.
7.
10.
2. x*
find the value of a.

(ii)
# - a 2 - 8# + 3 = 0,
= 3x + 4.
(iii) y
3
x -f
find
(iii)
the
x 4- J.
equation
4
Express n in the form
a + bn + cn(n +
11. Iff(x)---Gx*
l)
+ dn(n + l)(n + 2) + en(n + l)(n + 2)(n + 3).
+ 4x* + 3x + 2,
find the values of /(
-!),/(-f), /(J).
Factorise the expressions in Exx. 12, 13.

12.
x*-2x*-lx* + 8x+l2.
13.
2z 4 - 3x 3 2/ - 6z 2 */ 2 -
8xi/
- 3y 4
14. Find a polynomial in x of the third degree which shall vanish when x = 1
and when x -2, and shall have the values 4 and 28 when x~ -1 and # = 2
[The polynomial is of the form (x - 1) (x 2) (ax + b).]
respectively.
-f-
15. Find a quadratic function of x which shall vanish

the values 24 and 62 when x = 3 and x ~ 4 respectively.
[The function is of the form (7x + 3)(ax + b).]
when x
-f and have
16. Find a homogeneous function of x and y of the second degree which shall
vanish when x~y and also when # 4 and y~3, and have the value 2 when
x 2 and y = 1
[The function is of the form (x y)(ax + by).]
.
17. If
18.
[It
19.
is
m
odd, show that x
+1
is
a factor of xmn
-f-
1.
15
Express # + 1 as the product of four factors.
follows from Ex. 17 that cc 3 + 1 and x 5 + 1 are factors.]
Prove that the condition that ax 2 + bx + c and a'x 2 + b'x + c'
common
linear factor
may have
is
(ca'
- c'a) 2 = (be' - b'c) (aV - a'b).

x
be a common factor if a 2 -f6a + c=0 and a a 2 -i-6'a-hc'=0.

Eliminating a between these equations, we obtain the required condition.]
[x-<x.
20.
will
Find the condition that ax3 + bx -f c and a'x3 + b'x -f c'
may have
linear factor.
21. If
ft
is
z
any number, show that n can be expressed
rt(rc-l
and
find the values of a, 6,
c.
in the
form
common
DIVISION
32
AND FACTORS
22. If p, q, r, s are four consecutive numbers, show that p 2 q 2 ,

nected by a linear equation, and find this equation.
[This follows from Ex. 21.]
,
r 2, s 2
are con-
23. If x y, z, w are four consecutive terms of an arithmetical progression,

2
2
2
2
prove that x t/ z w are connected by a linear equation with constant coefficients.
Find this equation.
+ q, ivp + 3q, and find 6, c, d such that
[Write x p-3q, y~p-q,
t
zp
Show
24.
and
that constants a,
find the values of a, 6,
6, c
c.
In Exx. 25, 26 show that values of a, b can be found for which the
sion
is
25.
divisible
by the second, and
x 5 + 2x 3 + ax 2 + b
a?
expres-
l.
[Find the remainder in the division of the
make
first
find these values.
first
expression by the second, and
this identically zero.]
+ bx*-l2x 2 + 21x-5; 2x 2 + 3x-l.

[Arrange in ascending powers of x before dividing.]
26. ax*
Resolve the expressions in Exx. 27, 28 into factors.

27.
29.
2
28. 3x 2 + 2xy - Sy 2 - 1x
IGy 6.
3x~i-xy~4y + 8x + 13?/-3.
Show that x 6 ~ 6z 5 -f 24z 4 - 56z 3 -f 96x 2 - 96x + 64 is a perfect cube, and
f-
find
the cube root.

30. If x3
show that
-f
3x 2 - 9x -h c
c is either
is the product of three factors, two of which are identical,

5 or - 27 and resolve the given expression into factors in
;
each case.
31.
(i)
Find the remainder in the division of

x 3 + 3px-fg
(ii)
(iii)
32. If
by
x 2 -2ax + a 2
+ 3px + q has a factor of the form (x-a) 2 show that # a + 4/> 3 = 0.

If the equation x 3 +3px + q
has two equal roots, what is the relation
connecting p and q ?
If
atP
x*+px* + qx + r can be expressed in the form

3 -:
2
8^p
-21q* and p = 12r.
(x
3
-a) (x -b), show that
In Exx. 33-34 find the value, or the values, of A for which the given expression
can be resolved into factors, and for each value of A resolve the expression into
factors.
33.
x z -xy + 3y-2 + \(x 2 -y 2 ).
34.
x z + y 2 -6y + 4 + \(x 2 -3
ax 2 -f 2Lxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c
is a perfect square, show that /=

*Jbc,
h=
that
not
the
does
an
odd
Va6,
Vca,
g
provided
negative sign
precede
number of the radicals.
35. If
36. If 5x 2
4xy -f y* - 24x - Wy -f 24 = 0, where x and y are real numbers, show
that x must lie between 2 - ^5 and 2+^5 inclusive, and y between - 4 and
-h 6 inclusive.
[Solve for x and y in succession.]
-f-
EXPANSION OF PRODUCTS
2
-f
2
xy-y + 2x~y+ 1
real,
show that x
lie
38. If
lie
33
2# -f 4xy + y - I2x -8?/-f 15 = 0, where x and y are

between I
Jl and y cannot lie between 1 and 3.
37. If
cannot
a;
and -
between
|, biit
0, where x and y are real, show "that y cannot

x can have any real value whatever.
39. If f(x) is a rational integral function of a; and

the remainder in the division of /(#) by (x - a)(x -- b)
6 are unequal,
show that
is
[(x-a)f(b)-(x-b)f(a)]/(b-a).
[The remainder
is
a linear function of
x,
and may therefore be assumed
to be
A(x-a)+B(x-b).]
40.
(i)
(ii)
If ax 5
+ bx + c has a
factor of the form x 2
In this case, prove that ax 3

quadratic factor.
[For (ii), in the identity ax*

3
multiply each side by # .]
41.
(i)
If ax*
+ bx 2 -\-c has
(a
13.
+ bx + c -(x*+ px +
2
)
In this case, prove that

quadratic factor.
(a
<7#
-f
show that a 2 - c*=ab.
l)(ax
and
+ a have a common
+ c) put
+px + 1,
I/a;
for
x and
prove that
8
.
ca;
4-
6x 3
+ a have
common
To expand the product
Expansion of Products.
(a
+ 6c)=a
2
4 6x
1,
ex* i-bx 2
+ c and
a factor of the form x 2

2
(ii)
bx
+ px -f
+ b)(p + q + r)(x + y + z + w),
........................
(A)
we then
by each term of (p + q + r)
the products so formed by each term of (x + y + z + w),
we multiply each term
of (a
-f
b)
multiply each of
and add the results.
Hence the expression (A) is equal to the sum of all the products which
can be formed by choosing any terra out of each of the factors and multiplying them together.
In general, the product of any number of polynomials is equal to the sum of
all the
products which can be formed by choosing any term out of each poly-
nomial and multiplying them
14.
i>
Theorem.
#2 a s>
For
(x
+ ax
//
an> token
(x
together.
p l9 p z p 39
,
one, two, three,
+ a 2 ) (x + a 3 )
...
(x
4-
denote the
...
at
...
an )
sums of
the products of
a time, respectively, then
equal to the
products which can be formed by choosing a term out

factors and multiplying these terms together,
sum
of
of all
the
each of the
BINOMIAL THEOREM
34
n
Choosing x out of each factor, we obtain the term x of the expansion.
Choosing x out of any (n 1) of the factors and the a out of the remain-
we obtain
ing factor,
xn
~l
+ a 2 + d3 +
(a l
...
f an )
or
p^x*-
1
.
Choosing x out of any (n 2) of the factors and an a from each of the

two remaining factors, we obtain
xn
<L
(aî -h a^ 3
-f
4-
. . .
a 2a 3
-f
. .
p 2x
or
n ~2
.
Choosing x out of any (n r) of the factors and an a from each

~
the r remaining factors, we obtain,,jo r x n r
of
Finally, choosing
+ aj (x 4- a 2
(x
.'.
In particular,
(x
which
a)
-f-
if
(x
4-
a3 )
. . .
a 2 = a3
(x
+ a n =x n + p^" 1 + p 2x n ~ 2 -f
)
Use
1.
.C"xn
-f
x)
2n
= (l +2x+x 2
~r
ar
4-
4-
. . .
an
n to
prove that
---3)
|2?
UH
TUT
have
coefficient of
x n in
(1
+ x) zn
is
w
<7^
n
the coefficient of x n in (x z +2x) n
is 2 ,
~1
n
n
2
the coefficient of x in C^(a: + 2a;)
is
CJ
n
n
2
-*
the coefficient of z in
is
+
C"(x
A
The
so on.
The use
result follows
by equating
Here
Hence,
C J" 1
(7J
(7^~
2
.
2n
the coefficient of
+ Sa^
= (1 +a? + x* + x*)
= 2m,
if
if
r=
x r in
then
(l
coefficients in the identity.
2.
x + x 2 4- x3 ) 11
n
n
+x) (l +x*)
(1 -f
n=
~2
~
2W 4
of the Multinomial theorem, explained in Art. 16
Find
2.
22
2x)
page, can sometimes be avoided, as in Ex.
and,
pn
an
can be obtained by expanding a function of x in two
the identity (1
The
Ex.
-f
. . .
...
ways by the Binomial theorem and equating coefficients.

-
and
aââ^
= a n = a, we have
. . .
- z n -f C%x n - la + C%x n - 2a* 4-
identities
Many
We
we obtain
of each of the factors,
the Binomial Theorem for a positive integral index.
is
different
Ex.
an a out
on the opposite
MULTINOMIAL THEOREM
Expansion of f (x + h)
15.
in
Powers of x. Here /(x)
to be a polynomial in x.
When the coefficients in f(x) are
division, as in Art. 3.
The following general theorem

in Art. 1 of this chapter.
is
f(x)
f(x + h)
then
=a
supposed
synthetic
the notation is explained
r\
xn
= a^c n + nA^ ' 1 + ----'- A^n ^ + ...+A n

1
A = aQh + a
where
is
known numbers, we use
required later
Ai
//
35
A 2 ^ a h 2 + 2%/fc -f a 2 A 3 = a h 3 + Sa^h 2 + 3a 2 h + a 3
a \h, l) r
^ r -(a ,a ,a 2
ly
...
For by the Binomial theorem,
ft
'YW
\JvfvJU
~L*
r*n\
~T~ A/-J i*/
j/>
/y7t
"T~ /i'o*/
I
i
~ n/y nffl~~T
_1
jf
. I
"^
<^
{/
tt
^"
*" 1
r
A;r = a C J?A -f
+ agC^^Y^^ 2 +
a!^ iC^-Ti A
where
to r +
terms.
Now
C*!>C*rI%
|r-j)|n-r
Thus
kr ^C^(aQ
which proves the theorem.
Multinomial Theorem for a Positive Integral Index.

n
The product
-f k)
Expansion of (a + 6 -f c +
16.
(1)
. . .
(a
is
the
sum
+ 6 + c + ... +k)(a + b + c + ...
-f
k)
...
to
factors
which can be formed by choosing a term out

and multiplying these terms together.
therefore the sum of a number of terms of the form
of all the products
of each of the
factors
The expansion is
... k, where each index may have any
aab^cy
of the values 0,
1, 2, ...
w,
subject to the condition

...-fic
= tt
(A)
MULTINOMIAL THEOREM
36
Choose any positive integral or zero values for
To obtain the
satisfy this condition.
a,
coefficient of the
...
y,
jS,
term a
K which
b^cv
...
k" y
K factors, respecdivide the n factors into groups containing a, )S, y,

of
of
factor
the
first
a
out
each
b
out
of each factor of
Take
group,
tively.
. . .
the second group, and so on.
The number
of
ways
in
which
this
can be done
is
In
and
which
of times
a a b^cy
this is the coefficient of
term
this particular
(B)
a
...
k" in the expansion
.aWcv
where a,
from
y,
jS,
...
K are
numbers
the
to
have
...
0, 1, 2,
all possible sets
n,
subject to the
Jt,
(C)
of values which can be chosen

condition
Theorem
called the Multinomial
is
...
+K = n.
a + j8-f y-f...
This result
number
the
(i.e.
Hence
occurs).
for a positive integral
index.
Thus
(2)
in the expansion of (a
If there are
m numbers a,
+ b 4- c -f
sion of (a
. . .
-f
- b - c -f d) 6 the
b, c, ... k,
coefficient of a*b 2 c is
the greatest coefficient in the
expan-
n
k) is
and r the remainder when n is divided by m.

n
I
a ^ y
The coefficient
\K has its greatest value when a j8
has its least value. Denote this value by v, then v is the least value
* if a and j3 alone vary and y,
K are constant.
a j8
where q
is the quotient
. . .
. . .
l/c
Thus
j8
must have
value subject to the condition a
its least
where
is
4-
j8= C,
a constant.
Let wa =|a|/J = |a|C-a, then

ing as
of
. . .
. . .
a^C~a + l,
when a=j8=4<7
if
^~
and w a
agKC-fl). Hence ua
even, and when a = i(C + l),
i.e.
is
^~
as
has
t/
a _1
accord-
its least
= i(C-l)
j8
value
if
is
odd.
Thus a and /? must be equal or

pair of the numbers a, 6, ... k.
differ
by
1,
and the same
is
true for
any
EXAMPLES
37
We
conclude that some (possibly all) of the set a,

certain number q, each of the rest being equal to q +
Let r of the numbers be equal to q +
0<r<w
and
Hence
is
r(q
and
+ (m-r)q = n, that
l)
are equal to a
6, ...
1.
m - r of them equal to j, then
qm + r = n.
is
when n
the quotient and r the remainder
divided by m,
is

// there are
(3)
numbers
k, the coefficient
...
a, 6, c,
+ bx + ex 2 +
. . .
+ kx m
is
sion of (a
ro~f^
r
of x in the expan-
&*&&
r~~
. .
k",
where
a,
j8,
.../<:
y,
Aave any o/Âe values
This follows from
by putting
(1)
w subject
...
0, 1, 2,
2
6x, ex ,
...
to the
&x m for
conditions
6, c, ...
A in equation
(C).
jô:.
Find
1.
the coefficient of x* in the
The
where
a,
jS,
coefficient
y have any of the values
expansion of
=2
0, 1, 2,
=5
la
20 3v,
-^
j_a
j8
...
5 such that
y
a
and
The solutions of the second equation are (4, 0), (2, 1), (0,
and the possible values of a, /?, y are shown in the margin
2),
'
the coefficient
/.
|
'
24
5
|
|4|J)
+ ^- L rr-r 2 2 3 + <--:
|3
|2 2 1
'
'
= 80 + 360 + 90 = 530.
Ex.
2.
Find
the greatest coefficient in the
expansion of
7
(a + 6+c)
Here
m=3
and 7^-2
3
.'.
1,
so that
q^2, r~l
greatest coefficient
2
|
7/(| 2)
3.
.
|
EXERCISE IV
BINOMIAL COEFFICIENTS
If (1 +ic)
~c + c
1 o;
+ c 2x 2 +...
x" prove the statements in Exx. 1-12.

9
COEFFICIENTS IN EXPANSIONS
38
+ 2c 1 x + 3c 2x z + ...+(n + l)c n xn = {I + (n +
3. c
+ 3c 2 -...+(-l
4. c (>-2c l
5. c a
+ 2c 3 + 3c4 + ...+(ri-l)cn =
1271
.-.^
6. C
7. c c r -f C!C
r+1 -f c 2 c r+2
. . .
|2n
+ c w _ rc n =
n-r
...
"
c n-i
9.
is
that
c!5
c?
1 ) <5
of the products of
+ c^ -
. . .
-f
~
,
or
according
zero,
Show
sum
that the
2n
equal to 2
11.
c l9 c 2 ,
...
cn
taken two together
\2n
~1 -
[The required sum^JffCo + ^-HCjj-f
Using the result of Ex.
...
H-cn ) -(c^-f c^-f Cg-f-...
-f
c^)
show that
1,
2n ~ l
n ~ l in the
equal to the coefficient of x
expansion of n(l +x)
that the sum of this series is 2n n- 2
is
l/(
12.
is
as
even or odd.
10.
is
Show
Using the result of Ex.
3,
I)
Hence show
show that
n
equal to the coefficient of x in the expansion of
(n
Hence show that the sum of this
+ 2) 2n-l
series is
13.
Prove that
n- I
n
I
n> 1,
if
'
n-l|l
14. If the
terms of the
are expanded
of xr
L-
is
,
\L\^l.
series
and the whole
In
r
(3
w ~r
[n
is
arranged in powers of
x,
show that the
coefficient
15.
Show thatZ ;
[Using Ex. 11, the

2
2n ~ 2
sion of
n (l^-x)
sum of the series
.]
is
n
equal to the coefficient of x in the expan-
THEOREM
IDENTITIES BY BINOMIAL
In Ex. 16-18 find the
coefficients of the
products stated
expansion of (a + b + c+d + e)
16. abcde in the
39
5
.
17. a 6 c in the expansion of (bc + ca + ab)*.

x
z
5
[Write a*b'c = (bc) (ca)v(ab) and find x, y, z.]
3
4 5
18. a*b 2 cd in the expansion of (ab

19. If (l+x + x ) n =c
(i)
(iii)
/.
= C 2n
CQ
-f
(iv)c
C2
-f
c4 4-
Cr
C 2n-i>
. . .
4-
c 2w
n(n-l)
v
|0
c2
-~
tt(n-l)(rc-2)-7
r^
l-.
term of
last
(i)
20. If
put
(i)
nc
is
or
is
is
to
equal
not a multiple of
- -
'
C tC z
I/a;
when n
this series
+ C 2C4
...
3.
write
down
the
is
even and when n
is
odd.
+ C 2n _2c 2n ~ cn+l
x and multiply by x m
for
2
3 n
(l+# + a; + ;r ) :=c
(ii)
-l)
P~l2*
(vi) C C 2
[In
... -f (
= l + n(n~l) + n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3) +..., and

,
(v)c n
,.
c 3 -f
!-
In
""-- or zero,
according as n
that
ci
-nc 1 +
+ ac + a d + bc + bd + cd)*.
+ c l x + c< x + ...+CrXr +...+c 2nx 2n prove
In
(ii)
put
-x
for
a:,
and observe that
c^ -f c 2a: 2 4- + C 3nx 3n
Find the value of c -f Cj 4- c 2 +
-f c 3n
Prove that C + c 2 + c4 -f c e + ...= Ci + Ca + Cs +
Prove that C = c 3n Ci^Cg^.j, C 2 =c 8n _ 2 etc.
-f
. . .
. . .
(iii)
21.
In the expansion of
(i)
(ii)
What
is
the term containing the highest power of x
Find the sum of the
coefficients.
that the sum of the coefficients of the even terms

that of the odd terms.
(iii)
Show
(iv)
Show
is
equal to
that the coefficients of the terms equidistant from the beginning and end are equal.
22. In the expansion of
(l+z) (l+ y) (l+ z)
n
,
show that the sum of the
371
==
coefficients of the
terms of degree r
is
-.
|r
23.
By
3n-r
expanding the two sides of the identity
and equating the
coefficients of
xn show that
,
Also write down the last term of the series on the

is odd.
when n
left (i)
when n
is
even,
(ii)
HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR
40
24.
By expanding
{(1 4-z)
fi2m
~^9
- 2x} m in two different

ways, prove that,
/->m/nr2w-2
L
L/
"^92
/-TfW/t2
-~
4
__/nfW
----
if
m>n,
25. If
prove that
(i)
a r = 2 r n {C* n
+ CjCj n
C"r
the last term in the bracket being

or odd.
"2
or (^
+ C^Cf
at
(iii)
=4n
= \V-
[We have
17.
(1
l
l
ii(l+3C- + 5C%- + ...
--2
n(n -]){!. 3
4-2x4- 2x
Highest
4-3
5C?"
accorc^ n g as r
4-5
7f7>
is
cven
n terms).
to
~2
4- ...
to (n - 1) terms}.
)^
Common
in a single variable x.
+ ...},
+ l)^7(H-i)
In particular, show that

2
2-n
(ii)a 2
~4
Factor (H.C.F.).
These will be denoted by
We consider polynomials
capital letters.
where A, B, Q, R are polynomials, the common factors

B are the same as those of B and R.
For since A BQ 4- R, every common factor of B and R is a factor of
A and, since R~A BQ, every common factor of A and B is a factor
(1)
of A
of
// A = BQ + R,
and
7?.
(2)
(Q 2
If
R2
),
is
not of higher degree than A, polynomials or constants (Q }9 Rj),

... can be
found such that
($ 3 J? 3 )
,
where the degree of any one of the
set
B,
R R2
l
is less
...
than that of the
preceding.
from the
It follows
(a) if
factor, this is a
(h) if
theorem that
last
R2
one of the pairs (A, B), (B, RJ, (R v
common
one pair have no
factor of every pair
common
),
(R2
R3
have a
common
factor, the same
true for every pair.
is
Moreover, the process must terminate and that in one of two ways
the last remainder, say R n must vanish identically, or be independent of x.
:
Rn
If
Q,
then
R n _ 2 = Rnnl Q n
so that
Rn ^
is
a .common factor of
(7?n _ 2 ^n-i)> an d therefore also of (A, B).

Moreover, every common
factor of (A, B) is a factor of J? n _j, which is therefore the H.C.F. of A, B.
If
Rn is independent of x, then
the same
(3)
is
(J? n _ 2 ,
Rn -i)
have no
common
factor,
and
true of (A, B).
The H.C.F. Process.
by successive
Equations
(1)
of the last section are
divisions, as represented below.
found
H.C.F.
In practice, the reckoning
B) A
is
PROCESS
41
generally arranged as on the right.
(Q,
BQi
(Q 2
Qi
BQ,
etc.
etc.
The process may often be shortened by noticing that
multiply or divide any of the set A, J5, R l9 R 2 ... by any

constant or by any polynomial which is not a factor of the preceding
member of the set.
(i)
We may
(ii)
If
we
arrive at a remainder
Rn
which can be completely factorised,
the process need not be continued. For

factors is a factor of R n __ v we can write
(iii)
we find which, if any, of these

down all the common factors of
if
We may use the following theorem

X^lA + mB and Y Î'A + m'B, where
:
m, I', m' are constants

Z,
the H.C.F. of X and Y
and
such
that
then
Im'-l'm^Q,
different from
is the same as that of A and B.
For every common factor of A and B is a common factor of X and Y.
//
zero
Moreover,
A(lm'-Vm) = m'X-mY
therefore every
Ex.
is
1.
Find
common factor
the H.C.F. of
Paying attention to the

as follows
of
and
(i)
X and Y is a common factor of A and B.
A = 3#3 +# + 4
remark
B(lm -l'm) = lY ~-VX,
and
B = 2x*
and using detached
coefficients, the
reckoning
3+0+ 1+
(a)
Hence the H.C.F. =x + l. But it is unnecessary to go beyond the step marked (a),
which shows that E t = 3x 2 + 2x - 1 = (3z - 1 (x + 1 ).
Now x + 1 is, and 3x - 1 is not, a factor of B. Therefore x + 1 is the H.C.F. of B, R 19
and consequently that of A and B.
)
PRIME AND COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
42
Ex.
Find
2.
A and B where,
^8*5 + 5* + 12.
A = 12x5 + 5x* + S and
2 A - 3B = 10*3 - 15z 2 - 20 - 5 (2* 3 - 3* 2 - 4),
3 A -2B = 20x 5 + 15*3 - Wx* = 5x*(4:X* -f 3x - 2).
the H.C.F. of
We have
is
3
2
3
Putting C = 2x -So; -4 and Z> = 4#
the same as that of C and D.
2, it
A and B
follows that the H.C.F. of
C - 2D - 6z 2 + 3z + 6 = 3 (2z 2 + # + 2),
2(7 - D = 6x* + 3* 2 + 6z = 3a? (2x 2 + x -f 2).
Further,
of
+ 3x
Hence the H.C.F. of C -2D and 2C

C and D and also that of A and 5.
-D
is
2x 2 + x + 2
this is therefore the H.C.F.
Prime and Composite Functions.
18.
factors except itself (and constants)
it is
a polynomial has no
said to be prime
otherwise it is
If
said to be composite.
Thus x 2 + 3x -f 2 is a composite function whose prime factors are x 4- 1

and x + 2.
Polynomials which have no common factor (except constants) are said
to be prime to each other. Such expressions have no H.C.F.
Thus 2(x + 1) and 4(cc 2 -f 1) are prime to each other.
We
can prove theorems for polynomials analogous to those of Ch.

and 5, relating to whole numbers.
I,
Arts. 3, 4
Remembering the
between arithmetical and algebraical
distinction
primeness, the reader should have no difficulty in making the necessary

verbal alterations. Thus, the theorem corresponding to that of 4 (i) is as
follows
are polynomials and

If A, JB,
is a factor of B.
For
if
H.C.F. of
common
is
prime
is
a factor of AB and prime
prime to A, these two have no
common
to
A, then
Hence the
factor.
MB and AB B. But M a factor of AB, and therefore a

MB and AB. Hence M equal to, or a factor of, B.
is
is
is
factor of
is
is
and
are polynomials in x, then polynomials
If
each other, can be found such that
Theorem.
to
AX + BY = l
according as
is or is not
prime
to
or
AX + BY = G,
B G
9
X, Y,
being the H.CJF. of
and
in the
latter case.
For
if
Q 19 Q2
...
are the quotients
process of searching for the H.C.F. of
and B l9 J?2
A and B,
...
the remainders in the
etc.
IMPORTANT USE OF
we obtain
Therefore
where
in succession the following equations
we can
Continuing thus,
the last remainder
Hence we can
express any remainder in the form
find
X,
AX + BY,
is
either G, the H.C.F.
In either case
X+
-f,
common
Y = 1 and G
factor of
or
it is
a constant
c.
or
prime to Y, for the
is
such that
AX+BY^G
.
X and Y are polynomials.
Now
-^
43
H.C.F.
is
a factor of
X and Y would
and
first
of
equation
J3.;
may
be written
thus in either case any
be a factor of a constant.
In the second case, the polynomials in question are X/c and Y/c.
NOTE.
This theorem
is
fundamental
in the
Theory of Partial Fractions, which
are dealt with in Ch. VII.
EXERCISE V
H.C.F.
Find the
AND
H.C.F. of the functions in
ITS
Exx.
USE
1-6.
2.
3.
2z 4 - 13z 2 + x +
5
15,
3z 4 - 2z 3 - 11 x 2 + I2x + 9.
4.
z -f5* -2, 2# -5o; 3 -fl.
6.
12z 3 + 2* 2
In Exx.
5.
2x*-5x 2 + 3, 3z 5 - 5x3 -f 2.
-2LK-4, 6*3 -t-7* 2 -14a;-8, 2Lr 4 -28a; 3 -f 9* 2 -
7-9, find
16.
polynomials X and Y for which the statements are identically
true.
7.
(*-l)
Z-(* + l) 2 F=:l.
8.
9.
10.
Use the
and hence
find
H.C.F. process to obtain
A, B, C, D, such that
Ax + B
Cx + D
[Multiply the first identity by A, the second by /*, and add

that (7A + 10 Li)/(llA + 28^)=2/(-3); and thus obtain
find A
and
p,
such
B.C.A.
CHAPTER
IV
SYMMETRIC AND ALTERNATING FUNCTIONS, SUBSTITUTIONS
Symmetric Functions.
1.
any two
interchange of
symmetric with regard
function which
of the variables
which
it
is
unaltered by the
is said to be
contains
to these variables.
2
2
2
2
2
y + y z 4- z x) (x z -f y x + z y) are symmetric with
regard to x, y, z. (In the second expression, the interchange of any two
letters transforms one factor into the other.)
Thus yz + zx + xy and
(x
The interchange of any two letters, x, y, is called the transposition (xy).

Terms of an expression which are such that one can be changed into
the other by one or more transpositions are said to be of the same type.
Thus all the terms of x 2y -f x 2 z -f y 2z + y2 x + z2 x -h z2 y are of the same
type, and the expression is symmetric with regard to x, y, z.
symmetric function which is the sum of a number of terms of the
same type
is
often written in an abbreviated form thus
of the terms and place the
-f
Again, (x
It
y+z
is
letter
Z (sigma)
Hx and
represented by
For instance,
it.
before
yz
Choose any one
+ zx + xy by Zxy.
+ y -f z) 2 = x 2 + f + z 2 + 2yz + 2zx + Zxy = Zx2 + 2Zyz.
obvious that
is
If a term of some particular type occurs in a symmetric function, then
(i)
terms of this type occur.
all the
The sum,
(ii)
difference, product
and
quotient of two symmetric functions
are also symmetric functions.
Considerations of
symmetry greatly facilitate many algebraical
processes,
as in the following examples.

Ex.
Expand
(y
-f
- x)
(z
+x
y) (x
-f
- z).
symmetric, homogeneous, and of the third degree in

- x) + x - (x + ~ = a Zx3 + b
therefore assume that
(y + z
y)
y z)
(z
This expression
may
is
where
a, 6, c, are independent of
In this assumed identity,
x,
>
z.
We
2x zy + cxyz,
x, y, z.
then -1 a;
0, z
(i) put x~ 1, y
= 2a + 26, .'.
(ii)puts = l y = l,z = 0; then
a? = l,
z
1
then
l=3a
+ 66+c,
;
2/-1,
(iii) put
;
Hence the required product
is
- a:3 - y3 -
-f
y-z
6^1;
/.
-f
-2.
yz-
-f
z~x
-f
zx 1
-f
x 2y
4-
xy
2xyz.
ALTERNATING FUNCTIONS
Ex.
Expand
2.
(a
+ b+c+d)(ab + ac+ad + bc + bd + cd).
45
Test the result by putting
a~b=c~d = \.
The product is the sum of all the products which can be obtained by multiplying
any term of the first expression by any term of the second. Hence the terms in the
product are of one of the types a?b abc.
The coefficient of a z b in the product is
t
and ab, and in no other way.

The coefficient of abc is 3 for this term
for this
term
is
obtained as the product
of a
is
obtained in each of the three ways a(bc),
b(ac) 9 c(ab).
a 2 b + 32abc.
Hence, the required product is
The number of terms of the type a-b is
Test.
type abc
is
hence,
if
Ea Sab ^ 4
.
so that the test
Ex. 3
= 24
12,
and the number of terms of the
and
Za-b
\-
%abc = 12 + 3
4 - 24,
is satisfied.
Factor ise
~d = 1
(x
-f
-f
- x5 - 5 - 2 5
y
z)
Denote the given expression by E. Since E-0 when x - - y, it follows that x + y

The remaining factor is a
is a factor of E; similarly, y + z and z + x are factors.
homogeneous symmetric function of #, y, z, of the second degree. We therefore assume
that
where a and
b arc
independent of
put x~l,
?/--!,
put x^\, y
2.
and proceed thus

then 2a + b = 15.
z-0
x,
//,
z,
= l, z^l
Alternating Functions.
/.
a ^-5
6=5
a + b^-lQ.i
then
If a function
of x, y,
z, ... is
trans-
formed into - E by the interchange of any two of the set x, y, z, ... then
E is called an alternating function of x, y, z, ...
n
for the interchange of
z n (x Such a function is x n
,
(y-z)+ y (z-x)+
any two
letters,
say x and
y,
transforms
n
y)
it
y (x~z)+x (z-y)+z (y-x)
Observe that
the product
and
into
= -E.
the quotient of two alternating functions are
symmetric functions.
2
Thus
{x
3
~
(y-z) + y (z-x)+ z* (x y)}/ (y -z)(z- x} (x y)
with regard to
is
symmetric
x, y, z.
Ex.
1.
Factorisex*(y-z)+y*(z-x)+ z*(x-y).
Denote the expression by E. Since E ~0 when x = y,
Similarly y -z and z -x are factors, thus
it
follows that x
-y
is
factor.
E = (y-z)(z-x)(x-y).F,
where
where k
is
symmetric, homogeneous and of the
is
independent of
- 1, thus
find that k
x, y, z.
E=
first
Equating the
degree in x,
y, z.
coefficients of x*y
-(y-z)(z-x)(x-y)(x+y + z).
Hence
on each
side,
we
IMPORTANT IDENTITIES
46
3.
An
expression is said to be cyclic with

k, arranged in this order, when it is un-
Cyclic Expressions.
regard to the letters a, 6, c, of, ... h,

altered by changing a into b, b into
c into d,
c,
. . .
h into
k,
and k into
a.
This interchange of the letters is called the cyclic substitution (abc ... k).
Thus a 2 b + 62 c -h c2d -f d2 a is cyclic with regard to a, b, c, c? (in this order),
for the cyclic substitution (abed) changes the first term into the second,
the second into the third,
It is obvious that
. . .
and the
last into the first.
If a term of some particular type occurs in a cyclic expression, then the

term which can be derived from this by the cyclic interchange, must also occur ;
(i)
and
the coefficients of these terms
(ii)
The sum,
must be
difference, product,
and
equal.
quotient, of two cyclic expressions are
also cyclic.
In writing a cyclic expression,

Thus X2 (y-z) + y2 (z-x)+z 2 (x-y)
unnecessary to write the whole.

2
is often denoted by Zx (y-z), where
the meaning of 27 must not be confused with that in Art. 1.
2
2
2
Again, we sometimes denote x (y -z) + y (z-x)+z (x-y) by
is
it
x2 (y-z)
..
...,
being understood that the second term is to be obtained from the

and the third from the second by cyclic interchange.
it
The student should be
familiar with the following important identities.
2.
a(&-
3.
a 2 (b-c)+b 2 (c-a) + c2 (a-b)= -(b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
4.
bc(b-c)-\- ca(c-a)
5.
6.
a(b
-c ) + b(c
a (i-c)
first
+ ab(a-b) = -(b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
-a + c(a 2 -b 2 = (b-c)(c-a)(a-b).
2
+ 6 3 (c-a) + c 3 (a-6)= -(b-c)(c~a)(a-b)(a + b + c).
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
a+&+
It will be
(i)
(ii)
Any
c& + c-ac + a-ba + b-c)=
proved later
that
symmetric function of a,
Any symmetric
27a, Za/J,
(pp. 95, 96)
Za/?y and
aj
-a* -b* -
function of a,
j8,
j8,
y can be expressed
y, 8
in terms of
can be expressed in terms of
SUBSTITUTIONS
mode
This
functions,
of expression is
and
47
extremely useful in factorising symmetric
in proving identities.
-6 2 )(1 -c 2 )+ 6(1 -c 2 )(l -a 2 )+ c(l -a 2 )(l -6 2 )-4a6c.

Denoting the given expression by E we have
Ex.
1.
Factorise
a(l
= Sa - Zab* + abcZab - 4abc.

Za6 2 = Za Zab - 3abc
E Za - Za Zab - abc + abcZab
Now
4. Substitutions.
ment
.*.
= (1
-be -ca-a&)(a + b+c-abc).
(1)
We
of a set of elements
may
consider processes
by which one arrange-
be transformed into another.
Taking the permutations cdba, bdac of a, 6, c, d, the first is changed into

the second by replacing a by c, 6 by a, c by 6 and leaving d unaltered.
This process
is
represented by the operator
/abc\
fabcd\
,
\cabdJ
f
or
(abc\Icaoa = bdac.
,
\cabj
and we write
\cab/
Such a process and
As previously
also the operator
which
stated, the interchange of
effects it is called a substitution.
two elements
a, 6 is called the
transposition (ab).
Also a substitution such as
fabcd\
_
in
),
which each
the one immediately following it and the last by the

substitution or cycle, and is denoted by (abed).
If
is
letter is replaced
first, is
called a cyclic
two operators are connected by the sign = the meaning

,
equivalent to the other, thus (abcd)
is
Let
that one
= (bcda).
Two
or more substitutions may be applied successively.

as
indicated
follows, the order of operations being from right to left.
(2)
by
This
is
S = (a&), T = (6c), then

^ Sacbd = bcad, and
om = fabcd\
ST
mi
Thus
(bcad)>
This process
substitution
is
is
TS = (abcd
,
called multiplication of substitutions,
and the
resulting
called the product.
Multiplication of this kind

substitutions have
no common
is
not necessarily commutative, but if the
letter, it is
commutative.
The operation indicated by (aft) (aft), in which (ab) is performed twice,

produces no change in the order of the letters, and is called an identical
substitution.
SUBSTITUTIONS
48
substitution is cyclic, or is the product of two or
Any
(3)
cyclic sub-
which have no common element.
stitutions
As an
more
instance, consider the substitution
fabcdefghk\
\chfbgaedk/
Here a
c, c to /, / to a, thus completing the cycle (ac/).

to
h
to d, d to 6, making the cycle (bhd). Next, e is
h,
changed
to
and
to
The element k is unchanged,
e> giving the cycle (eg).
g
changed
g
and we write
Also b
is
changed to
is
S = (acf)(bhd)(eg).
or
S~(acf)(bhd)(eg)(k)
This expression for S is unique, and the order of the factors is indifMoreover, the method applies universally, for in effecting any
substitution we must arrive at a stage where some letter is replaced by the
ferent.
thus completing a cycle. The same argument applies to the set of

not contained in this cycle.
first,
letters
(4)
cyclic substitution of
product
ofn-1
transpositions.
(abo)
have equalities such as
also
(ae) (ad) (ac) (ab)

(5)
is the
= (ab) (be),
= (abc) (cd) = (ab) (be) (cd),
(abed)
= (abed) (de) = (ab) (be) (cd) (de), and so on.
(abcde)
For
We
n elements
= (abcde)
(ab) (ac) (ad) (ae)
substitution which deranges
cycles is equivalent to
n-r
letters
= (edcba)
and which
is the
product of r
transpositions.
This follows at once from
(3)
and
(4)
Thus
if
S=(
ef^ h
\chfbgaed/
S = (ac/) (bhd) (eg) = (ac) (c/) (bh) (hd) (eg)
then
we
introduce the product (a6)(a&),

transpositions is increased by 2.
If
Thus,
a given substitution
if
number j
is
not unique.
j=n
This
(6)
and
unaltered and the
number
of
equivalent to j transpositions, the

prove that
is
shall
- r + 2s where
is
s is
a positive integer or
a very important theorem, and to prove
is
notion of
We
zero.
it
we introduce the
inversions.'
Taking the elements a, 6, c, d,

the normal arrangement.
e,
choose some arrangement, as abcde,
call it
Consider the arrangement bdeac. Here 6 precedes a, but follows it in

the normal arrangement. On this account we say that the pair ba con-
INVERSIONS
stitutes
an
inversion.
Thus bdeac contains

ba,
da,
dc,
49
five inversions,
ea,
namely,
ec.
Theorem 1. If i is the number of inversions which are introduced or

removed by a substitution which is equivalent to j transpositions, then i and j
are both even or both odd.
For consider the
a single transposition (fg).

If f, g are consecutive elements, the transposition (fg) does not alter the
position of/ or of g relative to the other elements. It therefore introduces
effect of
or removes a single inversion due to the interchange of /, g.

Iff, g are separated by n elements p, q, r, ... #,- then/ can be
the place occupied by g by n + 1 interchanges

of consecutive elements, and then g can be
moved to the place originally occupied by / by
n such
interchanges.
moved
to
fpq - x <?
...pq
(The steps are shown in
...xgf...
...
...gpq...xf
the margin.)
Thus the transposition (fg) can be effected by 2n + 1 interchanges of
consecutive elements. Therefore any transposition introduces or removes
an odd number
of inversions,
and the theorem
ever value j may have, it

odd. Hence the following.
Theorem
2.
into another
follows.
a fixed number, and therefore whatmust be even or odd, according as i is even or
Again, for a given substitution,
i is
of a given set of elements is changed

then
j is always even or always odd.
by j transpositions,
If one arrangement
In other words
The number of transpositions which are equivalent

is not
to
a given substitution
unique, but is always even or always odd.
Keferring to (5), the minimum value of j

theorem stated at the end of that section.
is
Thus substitutions may be divided into two

that a substitution
is
even or odd according as
n-r, and
so
we have the
distinct classes.
it is
equivalent
to
We
say
an even or
an odd number of transpositions.

Rule.
To determine the class of a substitution S we may express it as
the product of cycles, and count the number of cycles with an even number
then S is even or odd according as this number is even or
of elements
:
odd.
Or we can
settle the question
by counting the number
of inversions, but
this generally takes longer.
Thus we
inversions.
see at once that the substitution in (5)
is
odd.
Also
it
has 17
EXPANSIONS AND IDENTITIES
50
EXERCISE VI
SYMMETRIC AND CYCLIC FUNCTIONS

1.
Show
that (be -ad)(ca - bd)(ab-cd)
2.
Show
that the following expressions are cyclic with regard to a,
taken in this order
symmetric with regard to
(ii)
the expressions in Exx.
3, 4.
+ z-2x)(z + x-2y)(x + y-2z).
4. (x
+ y + z)* + (y + z~x)* + (z + x-y)* + (x+y-z) 3
5.
(ft
6.
(a
6, c, d,
(a-b)(c-d) + (b-c)(d-a).
3. (y
Prove the
a, 6, c, d.
-d)
Expand
is
Exx. 5-14.
identities in
+ y 2" 2 +
+ ft + y) =
2
) (
7.
8.
9.
10.
2
( j3
2
2
2
2
y -f 0y + y a + ya -f <x
-f
a0
2
)
(a
4-
+ y) =27a3 + 227a 2
+ 2ajSyZ'a.
a3
11.
12. (a 2
13. (6
-f
6 2 -f c 2 ) (x*
+ y 2 + z 2 ) = (ax + by + cz) 2 + (bz - cy) 2 + (ex - az) 2 + (ay -
- ca) (c - ab) + (c 2 - aft) (a 2 - 6c) -f (a 2 - 6c) (6 2 - ca)

2
=
14. (a
6 8c 3
-f
6, c is
the geometric
c 8a 8 -f a 36 8
16. If the numbers x 9 y, z, taken in

progression, use Ex. 3 to show that
(i)
-6c~ca
- 6c) (6 2 - ca) (c 2 - ab) = a6c (a 8 + 6 3 + c 3 ) - (6 3c 3 + c 3a s + a 3 6 3 ).
15. If one of the numbers a,

use Ex. 14 to show that
17.
2
2
a
-(6c-f ca-f a6)(a -h6 4-c
=a6c(a
4-
mean between
the other two,
6 3 -f c 8 ).
some order or
other,
form an arithmetical
Express 2(a-6)(a~c)-f2(6-c)(6-a)4-2(c-a)(c-6) as the
sum
of
three squares.
(ii)
- c) (c - a) + (c - a) (a - b) 4- (a - b) (b - c)
except when a 6 = c.
Hence show that
all real
[Put
values of a,
6, c,
b-cx, c-a
18. If
a?
(6
a-b
+ y+z=0, show
2
(i)2yz=o; ~i/
(in)
negative for
and notice that
that
-2 2
2
2
2 - 2
z ) + Sx*y*z* = ;
y ) (x -ft/
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy can be expressed in the form
2
2
2
px + qy +rz ; and find p, q, r in terms of o, 6, c,/, g, h.
(ii)
z,
is
(y
-f
z2
- x 2 ) (z 2 -f x 2 -
FACTORS OP CYCLIC EXPRESSIONS
51
Prove the identities in Exx. 19-23, where 27a, 27aj9, etc., denote symmetric
functions of a, 0, y, 8 : also verify each by putting a =/3 = y = 8 = l.
19.
+ y + 8) 0y8 -f y 8a -f 8a + ay) =27a 20y + 4aj3y8.

2 2 2
2
()9y8 + y8a + 8aj3 -f ajSy) =:Za j8 y + 2ajSy827aj8.
20. (a 421.
22. (aj8 + ay
+ a8 + jSy -f j88 + y8) 2 =27a 2 jS 2 -f 227a20y -f 6aj8y8.
23.
Simplify the expressions in Exx. 24-28.

24. (6- 1
+ c- 1
(6
+ c - a) + (c^ 1 + a" 1
(c
+ a - b) -f (cr 1 4- ft- 1
(a
+ b - c).
(x-a)(x-b)
(a-6)(a-c)
(6-c)(6-a)
(a-b)(a-c)
(b-c)(b-a)
c-a
ft-c
14-ca
(c-a)(c~b)
-6
l+a6
a(6~c) ""
*
1+ca
l+bc
Factorise the expressions in Exx, 29-35.
(6-c) (64-c-2a) + (c~a) (c+a-26)-f(a-6) (a + 6-2c).

[Put 6-c=a;, c-a=y, a-bz, noting that b + c-2a=y-z.]
2
29.
30.
(6~
31. (6[Put 6-f
c-a=, c + a -&=i/, a + 6-c=z.]
32.
[Put
33.
34.
[Put 64-
cx
c+a=y, a + bz.}
35.
(l-
36.
Express the following substitutions as the product of transpositions
^
<
l>
/123456X
....
;
(654321 J
(U)
/123456X
.....
;
(246135J
(m)
/123456X
'
( 641235J
CHAPTER V
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.
Preliminary. In order that the operation of taking the square

number may be always possible, we extend the number system
to include numbers of a new class known as imaginary numbers.
root of a
so as
Consider the equation
x*-2x 4-5 = 0.
Proceeding in the usual way,
we obtain the formal
a?=l%/^T,
x=
or
solution,
l2j~^l,
which at present has no meaning.

Suppose
(i)
the
symbol
possess the following properties
to
It combines with itself
and with
real
numbers according
to the
laws of
algebra.
(ii)
We may substitute
-I) for
2
,
wherever this occurs.
The reader can
verify for himself that (at any rate so far as addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division are concerned) reckoning. under
these rules will not lead to results which are mutually inconsistent.
Ex.
We
1.
Show
that if
x = l+2i, then x* x a = l + 4t + 4i a = l + 4i-4 = -3+4i;
have
.*.
x 2 -2z + 5=
Immediate consequences
-3 + 4t-2(l+2t)+5=0.
of the supposition are
(i)
(x
+ ly) + (x + iy') = (x + x
(ii)
(x
+ itf
(x
+ iy') = (x-x') + i(y-y ).

+ iy') = xx' -yy' + i (xy + x'y).
f
iy)-(x'
(x
(iii)
4-
iy) (x
iy') (x
'
f
iy
x'*
+ y'*
x'*
+ y'*
This reckoning is at present meaningless, and can only be justified by

of the number system.
an extension
THE FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
A Complex Number
2.
53
represented by an expression of the form
is
The sign + does not indicate addition

iy, where x, y are real numbers.
as hitherto understood, nor does the symbol i (at present) denote a number.
These things are parts of the scheme used to express numbers of a new
x+
class,
and they
signify that the pair of real
single complex
The complex number x +

number x, and we write
and
numbers
(x, y)
are united to form
number.
be regarded as identical with the real
lO is to
iQ = x
x+
in particular
(A.)
tQ
-f
(B)
Thus the system of complex numbers includes all the

together with new numbers which are said to be imaginary.
For shortness we write
_
Q
real
numbers,
and
in particular
tl
/QX
= *,
(D)
an abbreviation for + il, the symbol i denotes a complex number.

Thus two real numbers are required to express a single complex number.
This may be compared with the fact that two whole numbers are required
so that as
to express a fraction.
In order that expressions of the form x
numbers, we have
to say
what
+ ly may be regarded as denoting

meant by equality and to define the
*
is
'
fundamental operations.
We
3. Definition of Equality.
x+
ly
= x' + iy'
if
say that
and only
if
x = x' and y = y'.
In applying this definition, we are said to equate real and imaginary parts.
It should be noticed that the terms greater than and
less than -have
no significance in connection with imaginary numbers.
'
4.
by
The Fundamental Operations.
as defining
'
'
In defining these we are guided
and the equations (i)-(iv) are taken

addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
the formal reckoning of Art.
5.
'
The sum
Addition.
1,
of the
complex numbers x-f
iy
and
x'
+ iy'
is
defined as
(x
')
i(y
+ y')
and we write
(x
iy)
+ (v' + iy') = (x+x') + i(y+y')
(E)
It follows that
x+ iy = (x + 40) -f (0+ iy),

so that x
+ iy
is
the
sum
of the
numbers denoted by x and
(P)
iy.
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
54
Subtraction
6.
is
defined by the equation
Hence subtraction is the inverse of addition, for x-x' + i(y-y')

number to which, if x' + iy is added, the result is x + ly.
The meaning of - (x + ty) is defined by the equation
is
the
Hence
= (0 - a + i (0-y) aB (- a? + 4(-y) ................ (H)

= 0, we have
In particular, putting
.)
-y=*(-y)
7. Multiplication
is
by the equation
defined
x'y) .................. (J)
It follows that multiplication
Putting
#'
= &,
2/'
is
commutative.
in the last equation,
number,
we
see that
if
is
a real
+ iy)k = xk + iyk = k(x + iy) ......................... (K)
(x
we put x=x = and y = y' = l, we have

2
or i 2 =-l .......................... (L)
(0 + il) =-l
f
if
Again,
8.
Division
is
the inverse of multiplication, that
is
to say, the
equations
x +
mean
and
ly
From
the same thing.
Equating
real
and imaginary
the last equation
parts,
Xx'-Yy' = x
mi
and
we have
and
Xy'+Yx' = y.
v x
*-
Therefore
unless x'
we have
y'
are both zero.
Thus
the equation defining division is
x + iy _xx' + yy'
x'
+ iy'
excepting the case in which x'
Putting x'=k, y' =0, we
x'*
yx'-xy'
+ y'*
x'*
+ y'*
'
...................... (
'
+ iy' =0.
see that
if A; is
,)=
a real number different from zero,
+i
................................. (N)
ZERO PRODUCTS
55
It is easy to see that addition, subtraction, multiplication

(as defined
and
division
above) are subject to the same laws as the corresponding opera-
tions for real numbers.
We have therefore justified, and attached a definite meaning

of reckoning described in Art.
to,
the process
1.
Zero Products.
9.
is zero, then
where
For complex, as for real numbers, if a product

one of the factors of the product is zero. For let?
Then
numbers.
x, y, x' , y' are real
xx -yy'
+ i (xy + x'y) = 0.
f
Hence, by the rule of equality,
.\
2
xx'-yy'~Q and
2
2
and
z(*' + 2/' ) =
a;'
If x' 2
10.
Ex.
1.
y(x'*
+ x'y
Q;
+ y'*)=Q.
x = 0,
y = 0, and therefore x + ty = 0.
real
they must both vanish, and
+ y' is not zero, it follows that

+ ?/' 2 = 0, then, since x', y' are
therefore z' + 4j/' = 0.
If
zy'
Examples.
Express
(1
+ 24) 2 /(2 +
(2+4)
in the farm
=
=
~4+4i-l""
X + iY.
3+4i~~ (3+40(3~4t)
24
7
-9 + 16 + 244
Ex.
If
2.
Solve the equation
x3 = 1
The equation can be written (#-l)(a; 2 + a; + l)=0, giving # = 1 or

2
a; + a; + 1 =0, we have in the usual way
x=
Hence
Ex.
3.
the
numbers
Fen/y
that
1,
J(
J(
11.
V3)
- 1 + K/3)
are ca//ed JAe ^reg cw6e roofe of unity.
M a roo
CD,
3
o/ x
= 1.
we have
= |{ - 1 +34^3 -3(tN/3) 2 + (^3) 3} = |( - 1+34^3 + 9-34^3) =
Geometrical
+ a: + 1=0.
Denoting the given number by

to 8
a;
Representation
of
1.
Complex Numbers.
In naming line-segments and angles the order of the letters will

denote the direction of measurement. Thus AB denotes the distance
travelled by a point in moving from A to B, and we write
(1)
AB + BA-0,
and
EA--AB.
ARGAND DIAGRAMS
56
Again, we use L BAG
must turn in order that it
'
'
to denote the least angle through which
may lie along AC.

Thus L CAB = - L BACy and we shall suppose
AB
that
-7T<
= x + iy, we
say that the number z is represented by the point

whose coordinates referred to rectangular axes are x, y.
(2) If z
When
there
is
no
risk of confusion, this will be called the point
z.
diagram showing points which represent

complex numbers is called an Argand
diagram.
Let
point
be the polar coordinates of the
6)
(r,
then
z,
= x + iy = r(cos + 1 sin 5),

z = rcos#,
y = rsin0,
tan = y/x.
r = J (x 2 + y 2)
where
and hence
Here
r,
FIG. 2.
which
denoted by
is
or
z
\
is
essentially positive,
called the
by mod z. Thus
modz = z\ = r = J(x 2 + y 2
|
It follows that if
The angle 6
is
then z
= 0,
z,
and
is
and
is
= 0.
denoted by
values differing by multiples of
many
).
y = 0, and consequently
called the amplitude of
angle has infinitely

of 6 such that
is
z
\
modulus of
2rr.
am z.
This
The value
called the principal value of the amplitude.
With the convention

is L XOz.
of
(1), it will
be seen that the principal value of
am z
Unless otherwise stated,
amplitude of
amz
will
mean
the principal value of the
z.
and Subtraction.
=
z
x + ty, z' = x' + iy'
Draw
12. Addition
(1)
Let
'.
parallelogram Ozsz', then
For
then
if
s represents z
(X, Y) are the coordinates of
the
+ z'.
5,
X ==sum of projections of Oz, zs on OX

= sum of
= + X'.
05
projections of Oz, Oz' on
OX
FIG. 3.
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
Y = y + y',
Similarly
that
therefore s represents z
+ z' = the
length Os,
Now Os<0z + 0z', the sign

Therefore
i.e. if am z = am z'.
To prove
this algebraically,
where each root

(x
is
and
+ z'.
am (z +
')
57
It is to be observed
= L XOs.
of equality occurring
we have
to
if
LXOz =
L.XOz'
show that
to have its positive value.
This will be the case
+ z') 2 + (y + y')*<x* + y 2 + x' 2 + y' 2 + 2>/(x2 + y2
2
)
(x'
if
+ j/ /2 ),
i.e. if
or
if
(x
or
if
(xy'
(2)
Draw
the
- x'j/) 2 >0, which

parallelogram
ên
is
the case.
Oz'zd
d represents z-z'
(Fig.
4),
by the last construction, the number

=
represented by d + z' z.
For,
Observe that
= the length
am (z - z') = z. Jf Od.
- 2'
and
(3)
it is
=
// s n Zt
+ z2 -f ...
4-z w ,
FIG. 4.
wAere zl5
required to find the point s n
~O
z'z,
2J
2>
z n are given complex numbers,
FIG. 5.
Draw in succession z^,

sense as 022 Oz3
,
2j
+ 22 + 23,
This
is
Oz4
...
s 2s3 , 5 35 4>
then
s 2 , s3 ,
equal to, parallel to, and in the same

... are the
points representing 2 1 + 2a ,
etc.
a continued application of the
first
construction of this article.
PRODUCTS AND QUOTIENTS
58
The modulus of the sum of any number of complex numbers
(4)
or equal to the
sum
For in the
Ozl9 21$2> S2S29
an(^
the moduli of z v z 2
ât
Osn
Therefore
|
f sn
< Oz
*n
1s
Os n
|<K|
z2
+|
eng^s
Also
+ 2^2 + s2s3 +
ê
are
2s
>
. . .
4-...
|
+ sn _ r
*n
+|
|.
The sign of equality is to be taken if, and only if, che points O,
the same straight line and occur in this order, that is, if z l9 z t ...
XOTE.
are in
than
of the moduli of the numbers.
last figure,
>
is less
z l9 * 2
zn
tS
have the
same amplitude.
To prove
this algebraically,
|
and
sn
sn
+
|
we have by
\z n
<
(1) of this article,
s n _2
z n _i
-h
1
-h
I
\z n
,
I
so on.
13.
(1)
Products and Quotients.

Let
z = x + iy =r(cos^H-tsin0),
z'
By
= x' + iy' =r'(cos 0' + 1 sin 0').
the definition of multiplication,
==
rr'{cos
cos
0'
- sin
sin
& + t(cos
sin 0'
+ cos 0' sin 0)}
^^rr'tcos^ + ^-ftsin^ + fl')} ........................................ (A)
/.
Since division
is
the inverse of multiplication,
4 = ^{cos(0-0') + 'sin(0-0')} ........................ (B)

For
this last is the
number which when
multiplied
by
z'
produces
z.
Hence
also
)
z l *=x l
If
with similar notation for z2

(A)
+ iy^ = fj (cos
23 ,
...
zn ,
l -h i
.............. (C)
sin 0j),
by continued application
of equation
we have
---n = ^2---M COS (^l^^+---+^n)
In (D) put
Z1
+ ^sin(01 4-02 +...+0n )}.

=
=
=z2 ==...~2 w z r(cos0 + tsin0), then
zn
where n
rn (cos
n0 +
sin n0),
...(D)
........................... (E)
is
any positive integer.

Similarly, from (C) it follows that
) ........................... (P)
DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
Show
Ex.
1.
We
have
few 1 -
that
is
nearly equal to
59
+ i)=*/26(cos0 + i sin 0), where tan = 1/5,

4 =
+
i)
676(cos 40 + 1 sin 40), by (E).
(5
2 =
4 =
476 + 480* hence we have
(5 + 1)
(24 + 10t)
cos 40 = 476/676, sin 40 = 480/676, and tan 40 = 1,
(5
and therefore
But
(2)
Modulus and Amplitude. From (D) we

complex numbers zl9 z2 ... zw
of the
see that
|Z|=V2 ...rw = KN*2 |...|*n|,

axnZ
but note that the
---
last
if
the product
is
and
nearly.
40=rr/4 approximately.
.*.
..................... (0)
+ amz n
(H)
equation does not give the principal value of
unless
am Z
-7T<01 +02 +. ..+0n < 77.
Again, from (B)
we have
M
am =
and
am
0'
21
.(I)
am z'
(J)
although the last equation does not give the principal value of amz/s'
unless
-7r<0-0'<7T.
important to notice that the amplitude of z/z'

through which Oz' must be turned in order that it may
and that, with the convention of Art. 11, (1),
It
is
is
the angle
lie
along Oz;
ft
the principal value of
Again,
if z,
a, a' are
am - = L z'Oz.
any numbers,
z-a
am
and
(3)
the length az
the length a'z
z-a =
L aza.
z-a
,
De Moivre's Theorem.
FIQ. 6.
From
(E)
and
(F) it follows that if
is
positive or negative integer

(cos
This, with
+ i sin
n
0)
an extension to be given
= cos n9 + 1 sin n0.

later (Art. 16), is
known
as
De
Moivre's
Theorem.
B.C.A.
COMPLEX ROOTS OF EQUATIONS
60
14.
Conjugate Numbers.
z=x + iy and
//
(1)
= x-iy
z'
then
are called conjugate numbers.
z, z'
Their product is a? 2 + y2 and

polar coordinates of the point
,
point
z'
are r
- 0.
6 are the
if
r,
z,
those of the
Hence
am(x + ty) = = -am(x-iy).

(2)
a polynomial in
is
// /(z)
with
real
= X + 1 F, where
f(z) =f(x + iy)
then f(x - iy) = X - 4 Y.
and
coefficients,
Y are real,
We have /(# 4- iy) = a + a
X,
(x
+ iy) + a 2 (x + iy) 2 -f
FIG.
. . .
where a
7.
ax
are
. . .
real.
We
can therefore obtain expansions of the form

f(x +
iy)
= 2axm (iy) n
f(x
ty)
= Zaxm - iy) n
(
is real and m, n are

positive integers or zero.
Every term of f(x + iy) in which n is even or zero is real, and occurs with
the same sign in/(x - iy).
Every term of f(x + iy) in which n is odd is imaginary, and occurs with
where every a
the opposite sign inf(x-ty).

Hence the result follows.
(3) // an equation with real coefficients has complex roots, then these occur
in conjugate pairs.
Let a +
tjS
be a root of f(x)
the polynomial /(x), are
Let /(a +
ij8)
A = 0, B = 0.
= A + iB,
= 0, where
a,
j8,
as well as the coefficients of
real.
where
A B
9
are real.
Since /(a +
1/?)
==
0,
we have
Hence
Therefore a -
ijS
is
also a root of f(x)
= 0.
EXERCISE VII
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1.
Find the modulus and amplitude of
2.
The condition that
3.
Find
4.
Express in the form JC
2 so that 2(3
(i)
(a + t6)/(a'
+ 1 7,
iJ
+ 1, V3 - 1, - <s/3 -f *, - \/3 ~
may
-f i4) =2 -f 3*.
2~+3i
4- ib')
s/3
(iii)
be real
is
ofe'-a'6=0.
COMPLEX NUMBEEb
x 4- iy> express
If 2
5.
form
in the
X + iY
9
Find the moduli of
7.
What
(i)
If
(ii)
If
8.
2
|
(i)
if
(ii)
if
(2
+ 3i) 2 (3-40 3
=
=
z'
|
= 1 and am z =
- am 2', then
am 2, am z'
and
z'
|
x + ty where
differ
by
z'
z describes
11.
Prove that
12.
22 cos a 4-2*
|
22 cos a
4-
|<1
22
<2
z
|
cos a
4-
Given that
+ 24
is
14.
the formula cos nO +

deduce that
cos w0 = cosn
sin
< 2r 4- r < 1
2
2
|
if
___
one root of the equation, x 4 - 3a;3 -h 8x 2 -7a? + 5=0,

.^
From
integer,
that
..
13.
2
|
z
1
then ,,,
|2|<O41.
if
Ifz=x + iy and Z = Jf + 1 7, show
find the other three roots.
'
circle.
Prove that |24-2'| 2 4-|2-2'| 2 =2|2| 2 4-2|2
[Let
-C\ cos
n0=(7?
cos*- 1
1
sin
n^ = (cos 9 + 1 sin
n ~ 2 ^ sin 2
sin
-C?" cos
cos n
+ <7
n~3
tf
0)
~4
n where
,
^ sin 4
+ ...
sin 3 ^
a positive
ri is
...
tannf.
15.
By
putting
2=r (cos
-f i
sin 0) in the identity
prove that
1 -f t
coM+r
cos 26 +
2
r sin 04- r sin 26
10.
Thus, in either case, the point
=r, then
50)
|,
sin
then z'= -z.
TT,
2|z-l| = |z-2|, then 3 (z -f y ) = 4z

22- 1 = 2-2 then # 2 4- y 2 = 1
|
=-
4-
+ 4t) 3
Prove that
y are variables.
x,
(2-f 3t) /(3
(ii)
the principal value of the amplitude of (cos 50
is
Let
9.
(i)
2~ 1
Z
6.
61
...
+rn ~ l cos (n - 1)0

I-rco&O - rn cos n6 -f rn+1
+ ... -t-r - 1 sin

11
(rc
~ 1)0
cos
'
rsin0-rn 8inn0-f rn
" "
t
sin
(n~
(TI
ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
62
= cos
16. If z
and n
sin
4- 1
zn
is
+ z -n = 2
a positive integer, prove that
- z~n = 2i
zn
cos nd,
sin n0..
Hence show that

~
2n 1 cosn 6 = cos n0 + C%coa(n -2)6 + 0% cos(?i-4)04-
and
if
is
...
even
n
and
if
2"- 1 sinn
1)2
odd
n-l
n-l
(-1) 2 2
= cos ?i0 -Of cos (n -2)0 + 0% cos (n -4)0 -
is
Binn
0==8mn0-C%8w(n
similarly for
...;
17.
By
(*-ar
l
)
-l
the method of Ex. 16, prove that
16 cos 8
18. If cos a
+ cos
0= - cos
sin*
50 - cos 30 4- 2 cos
0.
+ cos y=0 and sin a 4- sin + sin y=0, prove

cos 3 + cos 3jS 4- cos 3y = 3 cos (a 4- ]8 4- y)
/?
that
8in34-sin3)54-8in3y = 3sin(aH-)S4-y).
and
[Put a = cosa4-t sin
and a 8 4- 6 8 + c3 = 3a6c,
(19)
From
a,
= cos j3 4-
sin
j5,
= cos y4-t sin y,
then
etc.]
the identity
(x-b)(x-c)
(x-c)(x-a)
"
(a-6)(a~c)"
(ft-cXft-a)"*"
(x-a)(x-b)
(c-a)(c-6)
deduce the identities
sin (0
sin (a
B) sin (0
j5)
sin (a
y)
y)
[Put x = cos 20 4- i sin 20, a = cos 2a 4- 1 sin 2a,
Roots of Complex Numbers.

number
whose nth power is equal to
any
15.
z = r (cos
Let
where
r>0 and
root of
r.
is
(1) If n is a positive integer,

z is called afc n-th root of z.
sin 0),
Let ^r denote the positive arithmetical nth
-7r<0<7r.
Consider the values of
>
where &
4- 1
etc.]
any integer or zero.

un = r {cos (0
from which
it
follows that
By
-I-
is
+ L sin
Art. 13
2for)
+ 1 sin
we have
(0 4- Zkn)}
an nth root of
z.
PRINCIPAL VALUES
63
and only if, the corresponding

That this may be the case, the
must
differ
a
and
of
2ir
the corresponding values of k
angles
by multiple
must differ by a multiple of n. Therefore u has n distinct values, namely
Again, two values of u will be equal
angles have the same sine and cosine.
if,
those given
Thus
by
& = 0, 1,2,
the n-th roots
cos-
ofz = r(cos 6 +
-
lvalue of
(2)
n
.
/n +
cos-
_
1, 2, ...,
,
where
&=A
0,
,
n-1.
0\
i
sin
~i
is
called
the
principal
^z,
To find
the points representing the
find the length represented
Find
1.
representing
where
%Jz,
we must be
able to
V#
into
Q lt Q2
the points
values of
the
n values of
by $r
and to divide the angle

n equal parts.
Ex.
n-1.
sin 6) are the values of

\
+ 1 sin
v^. v
,,^ v ^,,,
...,
Q^
/z,
Oz=r=\/5 + 3~=
Ôz =tan 8 ^=
Here
and
tan
Also fyr= */2* an(* so Ci ^2 ^3 are

and
points on the circle with centre
radius */2, such that
FIG. 8.
General Form of De Moivre's Theorem. If x

w one o/ the values of (cos 6 + isin 6) x
cos x0 + M*n
16.
then
The
is rational,
case in which
is
a positive or negative integer has been considered
in Art. 13.
Let x~p/q where p, q are integers and q

(cos 0/q
is
positive, then since
+ 1 sin 0/q) q = cosO + t sin 0,
therefore
cos 0/q
also, since
j? is
an
+ 1 sin 0fq
is
a value of
(cos
sin 0)*
integer,
(cos 0/q +
sin 0/q) p
= cos pO/q + 1 sin j?0/#
therefore
,,
cos p0/q 4-
sin jo0/j
is
a value of (cos
+ 1 sin 0)
ROOTS AND FACTORS
64
The n-th Roots
17.
+1
then since cos
of Unity.
= 1,
sin
2k-rr
r-1 and 0=0,
let
the n-th roots of unity are the values of
2kn
-hsm~
n
n
cos
In Art. 15,
where #7 = 0,
1, 2, ...
1.
The principal n-th root, given by A = 0, is 1.

w is even, the root
1 is given by k
\n.
-1
n
=
1 (x
1
Since x
+ x n ~ 2 + + 1 ), it follows that
(x
If
71
. . .
other than
of x"~-
1,
71
The
+1)77
(2*
VL-
sm
-ft
(2A
.n
If
n-th root of
odd, the root
is
+ 1)7T
T
where k = n
Q,
n
,
1) is
1) is
cos
root,
given by
1, 2,
...
1
n~l.
6 = 77.
l,
to k = 0.
n corresponding
& = -|(n - 1).
-+
n
Factors of x n -1 and x n +
19.
any
These are the values of
1 ).
This follows from Art. 15 by putting r =
The principal
is
+an ~ 2 +...+<* + 1=0.
n-th Roots of
cos
1=0, then
a -1
18.
if
sin
1.
(1)
The n factors ofx -l are

x - {cos 2r7r/n + 1 sin 2rrr/n} where
= 0,
1, 2, ...
n-1.
This follows from Art. 15.
= 0,
(i) If n is even, the factors x-1 J.nd x + 1 are given by r
The remaining (n - 2) factors can be grouped in pairs as follows
= n/2.
Since
2r7r/n
+ 2(n-r)7r/n = 27r,
the
factors
corresponding to r and
n - r are
x-
f
{
cos
2rn
--
And
f-
sm 2f7rl
.
the product of these
'/
x-
f
{
cos
2rn
-n
--
2f7T
- cos 2f7T\
= x^ - 2x cos 2f7T
+ sm^2
n
n /
n
.
a;
and
sm 2r<jr}/
n
is
2
/
\
h 1
therefore
where 77 denotes the product of the factors as indicated.

- 1 is
=
(ii) // n is oddy the factor x
given by r 0. The remaining
factors can be grouped in pairs, and
(A)
n-1
(B)
CUBE ROOTS OF UNITY
x-{cos
// n
(i)
15
(2r
//"
l)77/n
+ ism
+1
(2r
are
+ l)7r/n},
where
'r
= 0,
1, 2,
...(n-1).
even
x +
(ii)
factors of xn
the
(2) Similarly,
65
is
n^
n - 2)
C
(x*-2x
\
os&-^
+ l) .............
n
(0)
ocW,
(D)
20. The Imaginary Cube Roots of Unity.

of x 2 4- x -f 1 = 0. Their actual values are
.277
277
cos
cube roots of
1,
co,
the other
+w+
^3).
for (a> 2 ) 3
o> 2 ,
is
= (6t> 3 2 = l.
)
.................................. (A)
and
o>
2r
are the imaginary
so
l-f-o/4-
The following
co
/Q
-1,
r is a multiple of 3, co r
when
and
Denoting either of these by

Moreover,
Again, except
-,
or
sin
These are the roots
o> 2r
.................................. (B)
identities are important.
x*-y* = (x-y)(x-o)y)(x-aj
y) ....................... (C)
+ y* = (x + y)(x + ajy)(x + a> 2y) ....................... (D)

x2 + y2 + z 2 - yz - zx - xy = (x + coy 4- o> 2 z) (x + o> 2 y 4- ojz) ......... (E)
z?
x 3 + y3 + z3 - Sxyz =
Ex.
Prove *Aa*
1.
(x*
(x
-f-
y + z) (a; +
coy
+y* + z* -3xyz)* = X*+Y* + Z*
X=x
+2yz,
co z)
(x
co
-3XYZ,
y -h
coz) ....... (F)
where
Y=
This follows from (F) on observing that
and
Ex.
2.
If (l+x)
n =c
+ c 1x + ctf(;* + ...+cnxn and
o/ the series being continued as far as possible, show that the values of
are
|(2
\
+ 2 cos ~
Putting
1, o>, o>
) ,
where r = n,
n - 2, n + 2,
Slt #2
respectively.
for #, in succession,
(l-fl)
n -c
+ Cl -f...-fc r 4-...-fcn ..................................... (A)

n
...-hc n a>
4-...+c n cu
........................... (B)
2n ..........................
(C)
COMPLEX ROOTS
66
r
3, 1-f co
not a multiple of
If r is
we have
Now
-i
hence, adding (A), (B), (C) together,

n
2 n
+o>) + (l+o> )
+c3 +c 6 4-..0=2n + (l
3(c
XT
+ o>2r =0;
+co = l
i
2rr.27r
7r/7r.
TT\
+ cos -^- + 1 sin -5- =2 cos- cos^+tsmO /),
O
O
O
O
rt
and, since
AI
Also
cos ~
=i, we have
01l 4-cos 27T -i sin
+aj 2 =
Again, multiply (B) by
2-7T
co
a
,
by
(C)
1 -f o>
= cos - + 1 sin -
,,
and
Ttrr
+o> 2 ) n
,.,
(1
cos
-tsui
and add to (A)
co,
Al
a>
277
mn /
(l+eo) =( cos -^--4
2 /i
sm
27T\/
(n-2)ir
-
If
tJ
then
n
2 n
n
2
8(^+04+07 + ...)=2 +co (l4-a>) +o)(l+a> )
Also
nrr
TlTT
cos-
W7T\
+tsm-~
(n-2)ir
-^~
and
3
Finally, multiply (B)
by
o>,
(C)
by
o>
2
,
and add
EXERCISE
to (A)
it will
be found that
VIII
COMPLEX ROOTS
1.
Prove that the values of
^-1
are
~^(1
v^
2.
Find the values of ^(1 + 1) and *J(l-i).
3.
Use
Art. 19 to
t).
show that
1),
)
4.
Prove that
=a; 2 (a;
where
a,
j3
are the roots of z* + z- 1=0.]
'
(#-
2x
cos^-H
l).
COMPLEX ROOTS
67
Give a geometrical construction to find the points
5.
the values of
z l9 z 2 corresponding to
*Jz.
Oz l bisects the angle XOz, and is a mean proportional

z-f) produced, so that Oz a =2 1 O.]
[If 01 is the unit of length,
to
01 and Oz ; and
2 2 is
on
If a, b are complex numbers, show that
6.
a
[Let 2 1 =a + */a
2
I
*i
-6 2
2
I
*$J
a-*Ja*-b 2 then by Exercise VII, Ex. 10,

=i *!+** 2 + i *i -*2 2 =2 a )t + 2 a*-6>
z2
.
|
a -6
-f
|
a -6
2
|
= {|a + 6| + |a-6|}M
Solve the equation
7.
+ 2(l+2i)z -(11 + 20=0.
- (11 + 20.
Verify that the sum of the roots is -2(1 + 20 and the product
[Put z~x + iy, equate real and imaginary parts to zero and solve for x, y.]
Prove that, with regard to the quadratic
8.
z2
(i) if
(ii) if
+ (p + ip')z
the equation has one real root, then
the equation has two equal roots, then
and
p*-p'*=:4q
If a
[(i)
Eliminate
In
(ii)
is
real root,
by
a.
this case (p
+ ip')*=4:(q + i,q'),
If z ~x + ly =r (cos 6 +
9.
etc.]
sin 0), prove that
Jz=z--={'Jr + x + i*/r-x}
according as y
Also
if
is
y>Q
-f l
sin
then 0<^<?r, and
cos 6 = -
and
if
the roots of zn = (z +
them
{Vr -f x
or
- i\lr - x}
*/r ( cos
[\/z
pp'ty'*
the rule of equality a 2
y<0 we
l)
n
,
have -7r<8<0
etc.]
and show that the points which represent
are collinear.
[The roots are -J(

points
lie
on the
line
+i
cot
x + i=0.]
J,
where r=0,
1, 2, ...
n-1. The corresponding
COMPLEX FACTORS
68
Show
r
= 0,
that the roots of (1-f 2) n = (l -z) n are the values of

n - \ but omitting n/2 if n is even.
1, 2, ...
12.
tan-^, where
Prove that
* 2W -2xn cos
(i)
194- 1
*n + ar* - 2 cos
(ii)
cos
(iii)
[(i)
1
2
/Trio" (* - 2x cos
"*
- cos nS = 2n - 1
77ô
rz<
~*
x m - 2#n cos 6 + 1 ~~ {xn - (cos 4 t sin

(iii) Put x =cos <f> + 1 sin ^, and for
is
odd and not a multiple of
+ l) n -xn -l.
- 1, co, where
[Put x=Q,
cos
(a?
cos
put
3,
- cos
<
n-
0)} {z
Art. 15.
13. If
+ ar * - 2
/TÎ JJ
+
-1
(cos
sin 0)}.
Now
use
n0.]
prove that x(x + l)(x* + x +
1) is
factor of (x
14. If
+ x + x2
n=a
-f
a; is
an imaginary cube root of unity.]
a^ -f a 2 +
a:
. . .
-f
n^
2n
>
prove that
aQ + a 3 + a 6 +
15. If
v=x+y
+ z + a(z
w=x + y + z + a(x + y-2z),

2
prove thUt 21 a (x
(a
where
4-
-f
Sa^z)
= w 3 -f v 3
- Suvw.
a>
and w are the imaginary cube roots of unity, prove that
[IT] If 2^
4-
2 2 2 4- z 3 2
[For
18. If
o>=J(
then
2;
2 2;3
x 4- a>2:2
1 4-t\/3),
4-
x)~
-f (c 4-
z)-
4-
(d
4 x)- 1 = 2ar 1 .]
- Zfa - 2^2 = 0,
prove that
*-
^^s = 0,
/.
ZB
- zt =
being an imaginary cube root of unity, and
+ oA+ <o c)=

2
V(a 4- co 6 + we) =
a, 6, c
are
</(
where
1^
+ w')- 1 -f (6 -f co')- 1 + (c + co')" 1 + (d + w')- 1 - 2ft/- 1
1
[Consider the equation (a -f a)"" -f (6
real,
-f-
J{>
D = s/(
provided that 6>c. If 6<c, the sign of A must be changed.

[Use Ex. 9. For a positive number x 9 >Jx denotes the positive square root.]
PRODUCTS AND QUOTIENTS

21. Points representing the Product
Let z = r(cos0 + *sin0),
Given Numbers.
Construction for
(1)
the
point
69
and Quotient of
z' = r'
(cos 0'
Two
+ 1 sin 0').
representing
the product zz'.
be the point on OX which represents

Draw the triangle Oz'P
unity, so that 01 =1.
similar
to
the
directly
triangle Olz.
1
L^t
Then
represents the product zz'
For by similar triangles
FIG. 9.
OP
Oz
-,
OP
that
Lz'OP^ LlOz = 0,
also
But
zz'
Therefore
= rr
{cos (0
represents
Construction for
(2)
..OP = rr
r-,
IB,
-f i
LlOP =
:.
+ 0')
sin (0
+ 0')}.
zz'.
the
point
representing
the quotient z/z'.
Draw
the triangle
the triangle Oz'l
directly similar to
OzQ
Then
represents the quotient
by the
For,
FIG. 10.
z/z'.
last construction,
(number represented by Q)
// k
(3)
is constant,
z-a
z-a
and
.z'
z.
z varies so that
"k,
then the point z describes a circle of which

a, a! are inverse points; unless k~I, in
which case z describes the perpendicular

bisector of
For
at d,
let
f
.
aa
f
.
FIG. 11.
the bisectors of L aza' meet aa
Then, by Art. 13,
Therefore
ri,
(2),
az
d' divide aa' internally
a'z
=k
1.
and externally
and are fixed points.

Therefore z describes the circle on dd' as diameter.
>
in the ratio
1,
DISPLACEMENTS AND VECTORS
70
Also
a,
we have
ca.ca'
= cd2
hence
are inverse points with regard to
a'
the
the mid-point of dd
c is
if
circle.
If
&=
1,
then az = a'z\ and
on
z lies
the perpendicular bisector of aa'.

if
Conversely,
which
circle of
the point z describes a

a, a' are inverse points,
Z ~Q>
then
z-a
For, since ca
ca'
the same ratio, k to
Hence,
a'z
=cd 2 then
,
where
<f>
on
is
dd'
is
divided internally and externally in
say.
1,
=k
1 .*
If z varies so that
(4)
circle
az
FIG. 11.
K.
am
z-a
a constant angle, then the point
aa',
containing an angle
z describes
an arc of a segment of a
<f>.
\a
FIG. 12.
FIG. 13.
For by Art. 13, La'za =

on which the segment lies.
<f>.
The
Thus
sign of
<f>
is
<f>
determines the side of aa'
positive in Fig. 12
and negative
in Fig. 13.
22. Displacements
and Vectors.
(1) In connection with the geometrical representation of complex

numbers, we introduce the notions of displacement and directed length or
vector.
Displacements in a given Plane. Let P, Q be two points in the

plane OXY. The change of position which a point undergoes in moving
from P to Q is called the displacement PQ.
(2)
* See Elements
of Geometry,
Barnard and Child,
p.
316
'
:
Circle of Apollonius.'
ADDITION OP VECTORS
If
any
sense as
71
drawn equal to, parallel

PQ, the displacements PQ, P'Q' are
straight line P'Q'
is
and
to,
in the
same
said to be equal.
To
specify completely a
we must know
its
(i)
magnitude,
direction
(ii) its
its
(iii)
i.e.
denoted by the
sense,
we draw OL equal and
If
PQ
the length
the letters, and

arrow.
that L
PQ
displacement
if
order of
necessary by an
FIG. 14.
PQ and in the same

makes with OX.
parallel to
XOL is the angle which PQ
sense,
we say
This angle determines the direction and sense of
An
(3) Vectors.
with reference to
line
PQ) used to denote a line-segment

and sense, the actual position of the
expression (such as
length, direction
its
being indifferent,
is
called a vector.
Quantities which can be represented by lines used in this way are called
Velocities and accelerations are vector quantities.
vector quantities.
force can be represented

action of the force.
by a vector
'
'
localised
to
lie
in the line of
Quantities (such as mass) which do not involve the idea of direction are
called scalar.
(4)
Connection with Complex Number.
If
z=x + t,y and P
the point
is
(x, y), a one-to-one correspondence exists between the number z

of the following
(ii) the displacement OP
(i) the point P
:
and any
(iii)
the
vector (or directed length) OP.
Any
to be
one of these three things
represented by
may
therefore be said to
represent
%*
z.
23. Addition of Displacements
and of Vectors.
If
(1) Let P, Q 9 R be any three points.
a point moves from P to Q and then from
Q to R, the resulting change of position is the
same as
to
R.
if
We
it
had moved
therefore
displacements as follows
*
Some
from
addition
of
directly
define
the
Flo
writers use
an underline instead
of
an
overline.
15
z,
or
ZERO AND NEGATIVE VECTORS
72
The
result of
adding
QR
expressed by writing
This equation
PQ, QR,
If
to
PQ
is
defined to be
PR\ and
this is
PQ+QR=PR .................................. (A)
also taken as defining the addition of vectors.
is
RS
are
any three displacements or vectors
(Fig. 17),
Q
FIG.
FIG. 16.
17.
The Commutative and Associative Laws hold for

placements and vectors.
(2)
In Fig. 16, complete the parallelogram
(i)
and
PQRS\
the addition of dis-
then by Arts. 23,
(1),
22,
Hence the commutative law

(ii)
holds,
and
PR is called the sum of PQ and
QR.
In Fig. 17,
therefore
and the
NOTE.
associative law holds.
In Fig. 16,
placements and
PQ + PS = PR
vectors are
a fact which is expressed by saying that

t
added by the parallelogram law.
dis-
24. Zero and Negative Displacements and Vectors. If after

two or more displacements the moving point returns to its initial
position, we say that the resulting displacement is zero. Thus we write
This equation
the meaning
of
is
also written in the
form
-PQ = QP,
which
defines
- PQ.
These equations are also taken as defining the meaning of zero and
negative vectors.
DISTRIBUTIVE
LAW
73
For displacements and vectors the meaning of
25. Subtraction.
PQ-QR is defined by
PQ-QR - PQ + (-QR) = PQ + RQThus
OP-OQ -OP + QO = QO + OP = QP.
multiply a displacement or a vector PQ by a positive
Number. To
number k is to multiply
The
resulting displacement
26. Definition of Multiplication by a Real

its
length
or vector
by
is
A,
its
direction unaltered.
denoted by JcPQ or by
we
Further,
leaving
define
PQ
k.
- k)PQ by the
equation
In particular,
(
So that
to
multiply a vector by
27. The Distributive

number then
1) is to
Law.
turn
We
it
through two right angles.
shall prove
that if
is
a real
Let k be positive. Along PQ set off PQ' = kPQ.

in R'. By similar triangles,
QR to meet
(i)
to
Draw
Q'R' parallel
PR
and
and
Q'R'
= kQR\
kPQ + kQR^PQ'
Hence the theorem holds
for
positive
-k),
we have
numbers.
(ii)
For a negative number
and
IG *
hence the theorem holds for negative numbers.
Thus
the distributive
vectors by real
NOTE.
law holds for the multiplication of displacements and
numbers.
The diagram of
Fig. 18
is
drawn
for a value of k greater
than unity
student should see that the same result follows from a diagram in which k
unity.
is less
the
than
VECTORS AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
74
Complex Numbers represented by Vectors.
28.
It will
now
be seen that, so far as addition, subtraction and multiplication by real

numbers are concerned, complex numbers are subject to the same laws as
the vectors which represent them. This fact is fundamental in theory and
very useful in practice.

It should be noticed that
if
Theorem
1.
If
divides
z is represented by a vector AB,

the angle which the directed line AB
number
AB
and am z
then z is the length
makes with the directed line Ox.
is
AB in
the ratio
m and
is
any point, then
(m + n)OC - mOA + nOB.

For
mOC^mOA+mAC,
Also
mAC = nCB = - nBC
whence the
Theorem
in the ratio
result follows
2.
If
n:m,
by
O
FIG. 19.
addition.
z z
point which divides the straight line joining v 2
then the corresponding numbers are connected by the
z is the
relation
This follows from Theorem
1, in
accordance with the principle stated in
this article.
In particular, if z
mid-point of
z^ then
= %(z l + z 2 ).
that
// a, b are complex numbers, prove geometrically
Ex.
1.
Let
A B
Bisect
is the
be the points which represent

C, then
a, 6.
AB at
OA+OB=20C
and
Therefore
OA-OB^'BA^Z'CA.
a +6
200"and2CJ;
Now, since C
and a -b are represented by
hence
is
mid-point of base
A B,
SYMBOLS OF OPERATION
Ex.
2.
//
OA, OB, OC
are connected by the relation
= 0,
Men A, B, C
[This
a -f b
where
-f
= 0,
are collinear.
the converse of
is
75
(a
Theorem
We
of this article.
+ c)(W==a.OA+c.OC'; hence
The Symbol
have
AB^c
BC.]
as an Operator.*
Along two straight lines at

consecutively, equal lengths OP, OQ, OP', OQ' in the
29.
right angles set off,

positive direction of rotation.
Let the symbol
applied
through a
it
of turning
operation
a vector denote the
to
angle
right
in
the positive direction of rotation.
To bring our language into conformity with

that of algebra, we say that to multiply a vector
by i is to turn it through a right angle in the
FIG. 21.
positive sense.
Thus
in Fig. 21
OQ=i OP
OP' =
Therefore
where i*OP
Thus
an abbreviation
is
1(1
OP) -
OP,
Hence
for i(iOP).
and -1 denote the same operation, and

OQ' =
OQ' = iOP' = i(-l)OP and
Again,
Either of these results

to
OP' = i OQ.
and
multiply a vector by (-
is
i)
turn
it
OP -
- 1)OP.
in this sense
-OQ =
written in the form
is to
1)
we
write
-l)iOP.
OPÔQ',
so that
through a right angle in the negative
sense.
Again,
Ex.
z, z'
if i
//a,
3
.
OP
is
taken to mean
(i
OP),
it is
obvious that
b are complex numbers, find numbers

z, z' and a, 6 may be opposite
so that the points
corners of a square.
Let
be the mid-point of a6, then
Oc + icb
Similarly,
*
2'=!- (a
+ &)+* (a- 6).
For the moment, the reader should forget
FIG. 22.
his conception of
as denoting a number.
B.C.A.
PRODUCT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
76
30. The Operator cos0-MSin0.

Draw two equal straight lines
OP, OP' inclined at an angle 0. Draw P'N perpendicular to OP. Along
NP set off NQ equal to NP'. Then
OF = ON + NP' = ON + iNQ.
ON = ^ n OP - cos
Also
OF - cos
/.
OP +
OP,
sin
OP,
which we write in the form
OF-(cos0+ism0)OP,
and we say that
to
multiply a vector by cos
sin
is to
turn
it
through
the angle 0.
31. Multiplication
Number.
say that
to
and Division of a Vector by a Complex
In accordance with Arts. 26, 29 and 30 of this chapter,

multiply a vector OP by the complex number r (cos -h i sin 0)
we
is
length by r and turn the resulting vector through the angle 0.

the stretching factor and cos -ft sin
the turning factor.
These are independent of each other, and the order in which they are
to
multiply
Here
applied
If
z,
OQ
we
its
r is
indifferent.
is
is
the vector obtained by multiplying
OP
by the complex number
write
OQ^zOP
arid
OQ/OP^zi
also say that the ratio of OQ to OP is the number z.

Division is the inverse of multiplication, so that if OQ = zOP then
the result of dividing OQ by z.
we
is
Therefore
to divide
a vector
OQ
resulting vector through the angle
The
result
is
by
z is to divide its length
by r and tnr^ the
0).
the same as that obtained
32. Product of
OP
by multiplying
OQ by
I/z.
Complex Numbers.
OQ^z'OP and OR^zOQ,
Let
then we write
where
zz'
applied to
OP
denotes that the operators
in succession, in this order.
z',
z are to
be applied
AEGAND DIAGRAMS
77
Since the stretching and turning factors may be applied in any order,
OP may be transformed into OR by multiplying its length by rr' and turning the resulting vector through the angle (6 + 6').
Hence the operations denoted by

and rr' {cos
z'z
zz',
(0
+ 0') +
sin (0 + 0')}
are equivalent.
Again,
if
we take
(cos 0-h
sin 0) n to
+1
(cos
is
to be applied
n times, the
result
is
mean that
the operation
sin 0)
the same as that given by the operator
cos n0
-f i
sin 0) n
= cos n0 +
sin n0.
In this sense then

(cos
sin w#.
It will be seen that complex numbers used as operators on vectors conform

to the
laws of algebra.
EXERCISE IX
ARGAND DIAGRAMS VECTORS

:
1. If z = 3 + 2i, z'
1 -f i, mark the points z, z' in an Argand diagram, and
by geometrical construction, the points representing
+ Z',
Z-Z',
ZZ\
find
Z/z'.
be complex numbers of which a, b are constant and z varies.

If Z is given in terms of z by one of the following equations, it is required to find
the point Z corresponding to a given point z. Explain the constructions indicated
in the diagrams, 01 being the unit of length.
2.
Let
z,
a, b
FIG. 24.
(ii)
(iii)
Z=
(iv)
Z=tz where
Z~az+b.
t is
real,
CENTROIDS
78
find tho point Z corresponding to a given point z t

the point Z is on the y-axis.
Z=(l + z)/(l-z),
3. If
and show that
= 1,
numbers and
are given complex
4. If a,
if
J^
6^,
find the point z corresponding to
value
of
-oo to + 00,
passes through a, b,
to the values from
[Along the
from
which
line
the segment ah corresponding

to 1 of t.
ab set off the length az = t.ab,
line
Oz=0a+az~0a + t
then
varies
the entire
describes
real
any given
and prove that as
t,
ab;
:.
z=a + (b-a)t,
etc.]
5. If z=a(l + it) where t is a real number, prove that as

tho line through the point a perpendicular to Oa.
6. If
c,
a are given numbers, a being
real,
and,
find the point z corresponding to a given value of cf>
show that as t varies from with centre c and radius a.
is real,
once the
circle
7. If
A, B, C,
that this theorem
8. If
is
is
is
any point, then (m l +
m m w
at A
A A&
=
m
m
OA
+
+ ...)OG
+ msOA + maOA
29
. . .
all
9. If z is the centroid of particles of
mass
of the
Any
three coplanar
Moreover,
2,
m w m
s , ...
and non-parallel
pOA +qOB + rOC = Q,
OA,
vectors
where
we may suppose
acting at A l9 A% ...
.
at z l9 z 29 z a ,
. . .
OB OC
9
...
then
are connected by a
q 9 r are real numbers.
p:q:r=& OBC A OCA A OAB

:
...
3 4- ...
sign,
m^ + m 2z 2 + w 3z3 +
...)s
relation of the form
same
m m
2,
29
l9
l9
19
are not
3 , ...
z,
19
to be the centre of parallel forces, proportional to
10.
the point z describes
= tan J<^.]
the centroid of particles of mass
l9
+ oo
[Put
an immediate consequence of the identity
m
To include cases where m m
O
GO to
D are any four points in a plane, then

AD BC^BD AC + CD AB.
.
and
z=c + a(l + it) I (I - it),
(ii) if
Show
varies z describes
z = c+a(cos< + isin<),
(i) if
where
where the signs of the area# are determined by the usual rule.
Also the points A, B C are collinear if p + q +
and conversely.
rQ
[For
and
q,
let
p:q:r= &OBC AOCA

:
&OAB,
be the centre of parallel forces, acting at A, B,

r then G coincides with O, and
pOA
let
9
(7,
and proportional to
VECTORS AND COMPLEX NUMBERS

11. (i) //a,
of the form
j8
are non-parallel vectors
involves the two equations
If a,
(ii)
p=p'
andp,
q,
79
p' 9 q' are real numbers, adequation
q=q'.
y are non-parallel coplanar vectors connected by the equations

= Q and p'a + q'fi r'y = 0,
p<x + qfi + ry
r'
are
these are one and the same equation, that
then
real,
p' q',
-fc-
where p
q, r,
is
[These theorems follow at once from Ex. 10.]

12.
three complex
Any
numbers
z l9 z 2 , z 3
are connected
by a
relation of the
form
where p,
q, r
are real numbers.
p:q:r~ A0z 2z 3
Moreover,
the signs of the areas being determined as usual.

Also the points z l9 z 2 z a are collinear if p + q + r
Prove this algebraically, and deduce Ex. 11.
Q,
[If z l
=x + iy
l
whence the
l9
z2
=z 2 + iyl9
zs
=z 3 +
B C are collinear, and is any point,

OA EC + OB CA + OC ABÔ.
Theorem 1, m n m + n=CB AC AB.]
A,
(i)
Zj, z 2 , z a
then
[In Art. 28,
Let
we have
results follow immediately.]
13. If the points
14.
it/ 3 ,
and conversely,
be complex numbers, no two of which are equal, then
If the points z l9 z 2 z 3 are collinear,

,
2|2~2l
Z 2~*3\
*8hl-2l|
=-
Also, if the point z l lies between z 2 and z 3 , the ambiguous signs are both minus.
(ii) If the above equation holds, then either z l9 z 2 , z 3 are collinear, or else O is
the centre of a circle which touches the sides of the triangle Z 1 z 8z 3 .
15. If A i^4 2^4 a is an equilateral triangle, the vertices occurring in the positive
direction of rotation, prove that
s
where
4- 1
sin
an imaginary cube root of unity.

numbers corresponding to A l9
3 X -f wz 2 + cj*z 3 = 0, and consequently
2
2
z^ 4- z a + z 3 - z^ - Z& - Z& = 0.
o> is
Also, if z l9 z 2 , z 3 are the
16. If
numbers
A X YA'X'Y'
a, a' 9
is a regular hexagon and

then the numbers represented by
where 6 has the values
~,
~
3
A t9 A
B9
prove that
A' represent given complex

X' Y Y' are given by
9
TRANSFORMATIONS
80
The
17.
triads of points
A B C and X,
9
triangles if the corresponding

by the relation
x(b
Y,
Z are the vertices of directly
complex numbers
- c) +
y(c
[The triangles are directly similar
and
a, b, c
x, y, z are
similar
connected
- a) + z(a - b) =0.
if
=
AC XZ
i.e*.
if
c-a
=.]
z-x
18. If ABC is a triangle and triangles BCX, CA Y, ABZ are drawn on BC,
CA, AB, directly similar to one another, the centroids of XYZ &ndABC coincide.
[By
1
J Ex.
17. i
b-c
= y--- = z br. Hence show that# + yv + z=a + & + c.lJ

c-a a-b
drawn on the sides of a given triangle ABC, all

inwards. Prove that their centroids form an equilateral triangle.
be the centroids of the triangles drawn outwards on BC, CA, AB.
19. Equilateral triangles are
outwards or
all
[Let P, Q,
Prove that
_ _
QA = CA
(cos
30 + L sin 30),
__ __
A R =AB
i
.
\/O
30 -
(cos
QR \CB + ^ (CA -AB), and that RP has

show that EQ = EP (cos 60 + sin 60), and use Ex. 15.]
Hence show that
Hence
sin 30).
*Jd
a similar value.
'
TRANSFORMATIONS
'
20. If Z, z are connected by any of the relations in Ex. 2 and

given curve s, then Z will describe a curve S.
Explain the following, where a, b are given complex numbers.
= z -f a, S can be obtained from 8 by a translation.
(i) If Z
if z
describes a
Z=tz where t is real, the curves s, S are similar and similarly situated,
the
centre of similitude. In this case we say that S is a magnification
being
(ii)
of
If
s.
(iii)
If
Z = (cos a-f
tsin a) z,
can be obtained from s by a rotation about
through L a.
(iv) If
Zaz
-f 6,
can be obtained from s by a
Z = l/z, S
is
the reflection in
a magnification and a
rotation,
translation.
(v) If
OX
of the inverse of
s,
being the centre
of inversion.
21.
Show
22.
that each of the substitutions in Ex. 20 converts a circle c into a
except that in
circle C,
Show
(v), if c
passes through O, then
[Z
L
or
circle into
= ~> H--a
is
a straight
line.
that the substitution
a'z
converts
more of those
circle or, in
-;
az
+ br?
in Ex. 20.]
an
+ b'
exceptional case, into a straight line.
therefore the transformation
is
to one
equivalent
^
CHAPTER
VI
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
1
Roots of Equations.
type f(x) =0
of the
an equation
Under this heading we consider equations

a polynomial, and equation will mean
'
where /(x)
is
of this kind.
The general equation

forms
(1)
nth degree
of the
be written in one of the
will
xn ~ l + pfln - 2 +
~
a xn + c^z"- 1 + a2xn 2 +
M (yt
1 \
~
aQxn + na^- 1 +
a zx n 2 +
xn
+p
-~
or,
where binomial
briefly in the
= 0,
=
+ an
... -f
j0 n
. . .
+ a n = 0,
coefficients are introduced.
. . .
The
last
equation
is
written
form
(a0>
a 1? a 2
...
a n $x,
l)
= 0.
For the present, we assume that every equation has one root. This is the
fundamental theorem of the Theory of Equations, and will be proved
in another volume.
(1) It follows that every equation of Ike n-th degree has exactly n roots.
~
For let f(x) = xn +p l x n l + ...+p n and let a be a root of/(x)=0. By
the Remainder theorem, f(x) is divisible by x a; we may therefore
assume that
Let
may
/J
be a root of
=0
<f>(x)
as before,
<j>(x)
is
divisible
by x /J, and we
assume that
Proceeding in this way,
we can show
where there are n linear factors on the

A, and no others.
a, /?, y, ...
,
that
right.
Hence f(x) =
has n roots
ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS
82
Imaginary Boots. Let the coefficients of f(x) be real then,

is a - t/J (Ch. V, 14).
Therefore/(cr) is divisible by
(2)
is
if
a -Mj8
a root, so
that
is,
2
by (x-a) +
2
.
Thus a polynomial in x with
can be resolved into factors
real coefficients
which are linear or quadratic functions of x with real coefficients.

Multiple Roots.
(3)
by
re
-a, a
When
is
If
f(x)^(x-a)
where
(f>(x)
</>(x)
not divisible
is
an r-nndtiple
called
we say that a
2,
root otf(x)=^Q.
a double root.
is
Relations connecting the Roots and Coefficients of an

Equation.
.
Theorem.
then the
//a 1? a 2
...
a n are
the roots of the equation
sums of the products o/a t a 2 a 3

,
...
taken one, two, three,
<x.
...
at a time, are respectively equal to
Pv
-Pi>
For
xn
+piX
n -l
+pzX -*+
-P*>
...
(~ 1 )>rr
>
+ p M ^(ff-a,)(x-a 2 )...(#--a,
- x - Zaj
xn
11
~l
+ 27a,a 2 x n ~ 2 +
.
...
...
........... (A)
and, equating coefficients,
we have
.a n = (-l) wy n ............. (B)
Conversely, if ot^ a 2
...
xn
an
satisfy the equations (B), ffoiy are the roots of
-\-p l x
n ~l
4-y 2 x
n ~a
+ ...
+7> n =^0.
For under these circumstances the identity (A) holds.

It follows that the result of eliminating a 2 a 3 ... a n from equations (B)
,
is
-f
jâ;. 1.
a~ x -f
// a,
j3,
...
+t) w
arc
Mo roote
a + /?
Write the equation
3.
in the
o/ 2a;
-f-
y,
form x3
+ x* - 2x - 1 =0, write dQwn

^y + ya + a/J, ajSy.
-f
2
-|# 4-
l).r 4-
Transformation of Equations.
= 0, and suppose that we require
of /(z)
),
...
= 0.
where
<f>(x)
is
-|)
=0
Let a,
the valuer of
j8,
y,
...
be the roots
the equation whose roots are

a given function of x.
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS
Let y =
and suppose that from
<f>(x)
83
we can
this equation
single-valued function of y, which we denote by <f>~ (y).

Transforming the equation /(a?) =0 by the Substitution
find
a;
as a
obtain /{^"^(yJJ
A
-a
O,
case in which x
Ex.
which
1.
//
a,
j-
Let
~p
y~ l---x
)9,
x^-x-lQ,
are the roots of
Hence
ivrite
down
then x
and,
(y) 9
we
#3 - x -
if
is
given in Ex.
2.
find the equation wJiose roots are
the value of 27(1
the equation required.
is
not a single-valued function of y
is
x=$~
0,
y H- 1
-f
a)/(l -a).
then y
is
given by
y-l
/y-l\
UTIJ
which
This
is
is
equivalent to
Hence
the required equation.
'
also
i+v + i+P.^+Y^-l
1-a 1-J8 1-y
Ex.
2.
roots are
If a,
a3
3
,
jS
j9,
fere
Me
Let ,v=rc 3 then a;-?/3 where ;/3 denotes a?^y cube root of
therefore obtained by rationalising
,
is
)-y+ p
for the result will be the
equation,
let
y+p*
l,
pM* ~m,
Hence the required equation
is
the
same
s
+ p^
4 p,
The required equation
y.
same whichever cube root y* stands
which
equation whose
off(x)x? 4-piX +p zx+p3~Q, find the,
roofs
n,
pdj*
3
f w*
for.
To
rationalise the
then Z-f-m + n = 0, and therefore
+ n8
is
as
+ (Pi3 - 3piP2 + 3p3 y2 + (p 23 - 3p!p2 p3 4- 3p 3 a y + p a 3 - 0.

)
4. Special Cases,
The following transformations are often required.
Let a, jS, y,
be the roots of f(x) = 0, then
. . .
(1)
the equation whose roots are -a, ~j8, -y,
(2)
the equation whose roots are I/a,
(3)
This transformation
(4)
We
is
called
The equation whose

find f(x
+ h)
as in
diminishing the roots
1//J,
1/y,
is/( -x)==0
...
...
is
kot, A*j8,.Ary, ... is
/(1/rr)
multiplying the roots off(x)
a - A,
ft
- h,
-A
is
/(x
-f
Q by
A)
6y
A.'
k.'
= 0.
Ch. Ill, 4, and the transtormation
off(x) =0
f(x/k)=0.
roots are
=0
is
called
SPECIAL CASES OF TRANSFORMATION
84
(5)
The second term of f(x)â&n +ai$n "~l + aiXn -* +
removed by diminishing the roots by
For
f(x
-f
...
+a n =
can be
ajna^.
= a^(x + h) n + a t (x + A) - 1 -f
h)
11
~
so that the coefficient of xn l
iuf(x + h)
is
na
. .
A+a1? and
this is zero
when
To transform /(#)=0 into an equation in which the coefficient of the

term
is 1 and the other coefficients are the least possible integers proceed
first
as follows
(6)
Ex.
Consider the equation of
1.
Write this
Putting x
ar>
fz
and multiplying by &
yjk
& which
least value of
will
-!*
make every
3
2
y - 9y f 90y - 168
Transform x* 6
2.
^ =0.
=0.
coefficient
an integer
+ 5z + 12 =
=
into
i_2)
lacking the second term.

diminish the roots by 6/3 = 2.
The reckoning on the

the resulting equation
o:
which
is
jr.
3.
-7a;
right
"J
shows that
// a,
)8,
2/S + 3,
is
+ 6^0,
are
4-5
-8
-6
ITJ
173
_^_
^_2
-4
T2
+2
ITy
+12
g
Me
roots of 2x*
+ 3x* - a: - 1 -0,
find the equation whose roots
2y-i-3.
The equation whose

3.3
-6
+2
-
the one required.
are2a + 3,
so that the
y = 12a;.
where
an equation
Wo
is 12,
is
required equation
j&a:.
7=0.
the equation becomes
f-\W +^y
The
fa:
roots are 2a,
2.~'+3--j-g-l=0,
or
2j3,
2y
is
- (
3) )
^ + 3^-2^-4=0.
3 - 2 - 4
- 3 +
+ 6
-h
1+0-2
-3
Increasing the roots of this by 3 (as in the margin, where

divide successively by x + 3), the required equation is
"j
we
_ 3
+
+
+ 2
9
7
are connected 6y iê relation ft~

we can
J?*. 4.
// two roots, a and j5 of f(x) ^S(a)
generally find them as follows: The equations /(se)=0 and /{$()} =0 have a
common root, namely a. Therefore x - a is a common factor of f(x) and
and may bo found by the
H.C.F. process.
If however f(x) and/{0(a:)} are identical, then the method
fails.
CUBIC AND BIQUADRATIC

Ex. o.sfiolve 2x* + a;8 - Ix - 6 =0, given
Let the roots
be
a + 3,
a,
that the difference between
+
+
+
Find the
j8.
equation whose roots are a -3, a, j8~3. The

reckoning on the right shows that this equation
is
common
~ 6
+ 21
+ 42
+53
is
wsa^ + 36z
# + 1, therefore
and the third remaining root
We
The Cubic Equation.
""^"19
this proves to be
Again, the product of the three roots
If
+ 13
Find the H.C.F. of these expressions;

and hence - 1 and 2 are roots.
5.
is 3.
factor of
and 2a^ + & 2 - 7* - 6.
2^ + 19z 2 + 53z + 36
two of ike roots
Hence, x - a
86
is
= -1
-
3/2.
take as the standard form
+ 3cz + d!:==0 ........................... (A)
x = y + h, this becomes
B=
where
If
h=
-b/a, then
JB
= 0, and
^+
H = ac-b
where
Or,
if
we
write
]8,
= ay = ax + b,
y are the roots
+
03
.................................
the equation
+ 3ffz + <? =
+ 6, ay +
a]8
is
a + 6/a,
We
The function u
is
called a quartic.
If
6#
+ 6/a, y + 6/a, and
take as the standard form
w = ax + 46x + 6ca; + 4da; + e =

3
/J
6.
The Biquadratic Equation.

4
(B)
.................................. (C)
of (A), those of (B) are
the roots of (C) are aa + 6,

6.
= 0,
is
G - a*d - 3abc + 2R
z3
If a,
the equation
x^y-bja
....................... (A)
40
(B)
where
ac - i2
= a2d - 3a6c + 26s

3
If z
= ay = ax + 6,
the equation
s4
If
(as for the cubic),
K = a e - 4a 6d + 6a6 c - 36
and
<x, j3,
4
.
is
+ 6#z2 + 43 + #=0 ............................. (C)
y, 8 are the roots of (A), those of (6) are
of (C) are aa+*6, etc,
a + 6/a,
etc.,
and those
EQUATIONS WITH CONNECTED ROOTS
86
EXERCISE X
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS
1. If a, jS, y are the roots of 2ar* 4- 3# 2 - x- 1=0, find the equations whose
roots are (i) l/2a, 1/2)3, l/2y ; (ii) a- 1, 0- 1, y- 1 ; (iii) !/(!-), l/(l-0),
2
l/(l-y); (iv)a + 2,0 + 2, y + 2; (v) a ,
[(iii) should be deduced from (ii).]
2.
If a,
roots are
[For
3.
y\
2
y are the roots of 80^ 4# -f 6# -1=0, find the equations whose
+ i, y + i; (ii) 2a-f 1, 20 + 1, 2y + l.
)8,
(i)
(ii)
a + i,
use the result of
(i).]
x*-2x*-3x 2 + 4x-~l=:Q, given
Solve
unity.
1
[If a, a"" are these roots,
(a;
- a)(x - or 1 )
x4 - 2x* - 3x* + 4x -
and
that the product of two roots
is
x*
common
factor of
- 4x 3 + 3z 2 + 2x -
1.]
Solve 4s4 - 4x 3 - 13# 2 + 9# + 9 =0, given that the sum of two roots
- a are these roots, (x ~-oc)(x + a) is a common factor of
[If a,
4.
4x*-4x*-13x* + 9x + 9
5.
is
zero.
4* 4 + 4a?- 13z 2 - 9s + 9.]
and
Solve 4# 3 -24o; 2 -f 23^+18=0, given that the roots are in arithmetical
progression.
[Let the roots be a
6.
is
a+
S, a,
8,
.'.
3a =^.]
Solve 6x - Ilx 2 -3x4-2=0, given that the roots are

3
gressions
[Solve 2#
- 3t/ 2 -
lit/
+ 6 = 0, whose
roots are in A.P.]
- 8# 3 -f 14# 2 ^ 80; - 15 =0, whose roots are

7. Solve
[Let the roots be -38, a 8, a-f 8, a-f-38.]
a;
in harmonical pro-
in A. P.
Solve 2# 4 - 15# 8 + 35o: 2 - 3Qx + 8=0, whose roots are in G.P.

3
3
1
[Let the roots be a/>~ a/)" , ap, a/? .]
8.
9. Solve
a?
-7x 2 + 36=:0,
given that the difference between two of the roots
is 5.
10. Solve 4x 4 -4a? 3 -25aj 2

the roots is unity.
+ a:-h6=0, given that the
difference
11.
Transform into equations lacking the second term
12.
Transform into equations with integral
(u)
13, If
Un
is
coefficients
between two of
^-
odd, prove that
n0 = (-l)Kn-i)tan0tan(V-Wn^
\n/
\n/
V
[Regard the equation of Exercise VII,
14, as giving
n/
tan 6 in terms of tan n$.]
GENERAL THEOREM
87
Character and Position of the Roots of an Equation.

We say that the character of the roots is known when we know how many
are real and how many are imaginary.
7.
The position (jf a real root is its position on the scale of real numbers,
and is determined roughly for a non-integral root by finding two conFor a complete discussion,
secutive integers between which the root lies.
we require Sturm's Theorem (Ch. XXVIII), but a good deal of information
can be derived from the elementary theorems which follow.
Some
8.
general Theorems.
= n
f(x) X +p
where
p l9 p 2
+ im is a
,
...
Xn
1
~l
Here we suppose that
+ p2Xn
~~ 2
+ ...
-f
pn
are real numbers.
root of f(x) = 0, then l-im is also a root (Ch. V, 14) and

2
- = - 2
has
the
f(x)
quadratic factor, {x (1 4- im)} {x (I iw)} (x 1) + m
If
The last expression is positive for all real values of x.

are the real roots of f(x) = 0, these being not necessarily
f(x)
Thus
if
a,
/?,
. . .
all different,
= (x-*)(x-p)...(x-K).<l>(x),
where <f>(x) is positive for all real values of x.

factors is unique.
Also this expression in
Hence, if x varies, the sign of f(x) can change only when x passes through
a real root of /(x) = 0, and we draw the following conclusions.
(1)
case
If x
when
is greater
than any of the roots, f(x)
all the roots
Whence
is positive.
This
is also the
are imaginary.
pllows^tbat for sufficiently large values of x, any polynomial
it f
s its highest term.

(2)
Let a and b be any
real
numbers
then
///(a) andf(b) have like signs, an even number of roots o//(z)

between a and b, or else there is no root between a and b.
(i)
(ii)
lie
///(a) and f(b) have unlike signs, an odd number of roots off(x)
between a
and
lie
=Q
b.
an equation of odd degree, it has at least one real root.

(ii) Iff(x)~Q is of even degree and p n is negative, the equation has at least
one positive root and at least one negative root.
For, by (1), a positive number a can be found so large that /(a) is
of ( - l) n
positive and/( -a) has the
(3) (i)
///(#)
is
sign
Hence
lies
odd, /(a) and/( -a) have unlike signs and at least one root
between a and - a.
If n is even- and p n negative, /(a) and /( - a)
if
is
are positive and /(O) is negative, so that at

and a and at least one between and -a.
least
one root
lies
between
NUMBER OF REAL ROOTS
88
Descartes' Rule of Signs. In what follows, every equation is

supposed to have a term independent of x, so that zero roots do not occur.
In considering the signs of the terms of a polynomial taken in order from
9.
we say
that a continuation, or a change, of sign occurs at any

particular term according as that term has the same sign as the preceding,
or the opposite sign.
left
to right,
Thus x1 - 2x? - 3xt - 4X3 + 5x2 - 6x + 7 has 2 continuations, and 4 changes

of sign, the continuations occurring at the terms -Sz4 -4Z3 and the
,
-2Z6 +5z2 -6z, 4-7.

The equation a xn + a l xn " 1 ^-a^c n ~ 2 +...-{ a n =0 is said to be complete
when no coefficient is zero. If ar = we say that the corresponding term
changes at
is
missing.
In a complete equation : (i) Ifx is changed into -x,a change of sign becomes
a continuation and vice versa.
If
(ii)
number of changes, and p!
is the
of sign, then
p -f p,' = n,
Descartes' Rule
is
where n
the
number of continuations,
is the degree of the equation.
as follows
The equation f(x) = cannot have more

more negative roots than f( x)
positive roots thanf(x) has changed of sign, or
has changes of sign.
To prove the first part, we shall show that if u is any polynomial and
v~u(x-a), where a is positive, then v, when expanded, has at least one
more change of sign than u.
First suppose that no term is missing in
instance
Signs of terms of u,
---
Signs of terms of v,
where
indicates that the sign
is
+ + - +
+ + 4---- + -+ -
+-+-
term
u and consider the following
may
be
-f
or
- or that the corresponding

,
zero.
In the diagram of corresponding signs, observe that

(i) If the rth sign of u is a continuation, the rth sign of v
(ii)
is
ambiguous.
Unlike signs precede and follow a single ambiguity or a group of
ambiguities.
(iii)
On
change of sign
account of
(i)
is
and
introduced at the end of
(ii),
v has at least as
even in the most unfavourable case in which

tinuations
sign than u.
and on account
of
(iii)
v.
changes of sign as u,
the ambiguities are con-
many
all
v has certainly one more change of
NUMBER OF IMAGINARY ROOTS
89
That no changes of sign are lost on account of any terms which may be
missing from u appears on considering such instances as
+00-
-+00+-00
-+-0-
--00+
-
Thus v has at least one more change

Next let f(x) = <f>(x) (x - a) (x - j8)
.
of
of sign
. .
than
where
a,
/(z)=0.
u.
are the positive roots
j8, ...
If </>(x) is multiplied in succession
by
a?
-a, x-fl,
multiplication introduces at least one change of sign.

Hence /(x) has at least as many changes of sign as/(x)
...
each
has positive
roots.
Again, the negative roots of/(x) = are the positive roots of/(-x)=0,
with their signs changed. Hence the second part of the theorem follows
from the
first.
Corollaries.
10.
Let n be the degree of/(x), and
number of changes of sign in/(x),

the number of changes of sign in/( -x),
m the number of positive roots of /(#)=0,
m' the number of negative roots of f(x) =0
[JL
the
fji
then
(i)
roots
ifp,
+//<w,
the equation /(#)
=0
has at
least
n - (^+/A') imaginary
;
(ii)
if all the roots
For by Descartes'
o//(x)=0 are
rule,
m^p, and
real, then ra=ju,
m'^p,'
'.
and m'
=///'.
Hence
m + m'^fi +fjL'^n,
(A)
and the number of imaginary roots = n - (m + m')^n - (p. +/u/).

Again, if all the roots are real m + m' = n, therefore by (A) m + m
Now
and, if w</u,, it follows that m'^>^ , which

m^fji
Therefore w=/u, and m'=///.
Ex.
1.
//
q, r, s,
is
=/z +fi'.
impossible.
are positive, show that the equation

f(x)
-x* 4- qx 2 +rx - s =0
has one positive, one negative and two imaginary roots.

By Art. 8, (3), /(a;)=0 has a positive and a negative root.
Also
/*
and // = !,
therefore these are the only real roots.
Ex*
2.
Here
Show
= 2,
/u
real roots,
that x?
=
^' 1
-2#2 +7 =0 has
therefore
at least
3.
/Lt-|'ft-'~
two imaginary
roots.
Hence there cannot be more than three
namely, two positive and one negative.
Therefore the equation has at least two imaginary roots.
EFFECT OF MISSING TERMS
90
DeGua'sRule.
11.
If a group of r consecutive terms
if r is even, the equation has at least r
(i)
if r is odd, there are at least r
(ii)
+1
imaginary
roots
or at least r
is
missing from
imaginary
roots,
according as the terms which immediately precede and follow the group have
J
like or unlike signs.
"
~ ~
terms between hxm and kx m r l are missing from/(x).
m ~r - l +
= m
and fl (x) = t/j(x) + (f)(x),
<l>(x),
f(x) hx + kx
Suppose that the

Let
1
m ~ 2 4m
^ (x) = hx + c^x- + c2x
where
none
of the set, c l3 c 2 ,
...
cr ,
The number of changes

in 0(-z) is r + 1.
= number
= number
/*'
Let
/x
...
c rx
m ~ r + kx m ~ r - 1
being zero.
of sign in
ifj
(x)
of changes of sign in
+ the number
~ r ~l
hxm + kxm
of changes of sign in h(
~x)
m+
k( -x)
(-x)
m and
"~ r
~l
.
and /( - x)
Thus the total number

the number in/^x) and/x ( -x) by r + 1 -(/u,-f/x').
Hence f(x) = has at least r + 1 - (/x + /z') imaginary
of changes of sign in f(x)
First suppose that r is even, then
of changes of sign
is less
than
roots.
m ~ r ~ have
opposite
l
(-~x)
and
signs,
(i) if
h,
(ii) if h,
k have the same signs,

k have unlike signs,
/x
and
is odd,
(i) if
h,
(ii) if
h,
(-x)
=1
= 1 and p =0, and

/x
~1
m and
have
( -#)-'
t
If r
//
in both cases
the same, sign, and
= r + 1.
k have the same sign, p = 0, /// = and r + 1 - (p,
= 1 and r + 1 - (/x +/z') =r - 1.
k have unlike signs, ft = 1,
-\-JJL')
/it'
This completes the proof.

.
1.
If
H = ac - 6 > 0,
2
<Ae equation
(a,6,c,
/wo imaginary
For by the substitution
by De Gua's
12.
w
...%,l) -0
roots.
x~y~ 6/a,
-^
the equation becomes #n
rule this equation has at least
is
said about the roots of
Also, the equation
is
an equation
.-
a2
two imaginary roots
Limits to the Roots of an Equation.
whatever
if
(1)
xn ~ 2 -f
...
=0, and
H > 0.
In this
article,
refers to the real roots only.
supposed to be written with
its first
term
positive.
UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS
91
In searching for the roots of an equation, it is advisable to begin by finding

two numbers between which the real roots lie. If k, I are two such numbers
and A>Z, then h is called an upper limit and I a lower limit to the roots.
Upper Limits. Any number h is an upper limit to the roots of f(x) = 0,

provided that/(z)>0 when-x^h.
Method of grouping terms. The process consists in arranging the terms
(2)
of the equation /(x)
we can
in groups, so that
find
by inspection a
number h such that the sum of the terms in each group is ^0 for x^h.
To distribute the terms conveniently, it is often advisable to multiply j(x)
by some positive integer. With a little ingenuity, this method can be made
to yield quite close limits, as in the examples at the end of this article.
Other methods are given in the next exercise, and in Ch. XXVIII.
Lower Limits.
(3)
If
(i)
an upper
is
li
limit to the roots of f(
0, then
x)
li
a lower
is
limit to the roots <>//(#)= 0.
For
(
if
the least root of /(x)=0, then -a

-a, and therefore -h'<oc.
is
Hence, h
-a;)=0.
the greatest root of
is
>
(ii) If h" is an upper limit to the positive roots 0//(l/x)-=0, then I/A"
a lower limit to the positive roots off(x) 0.
For
if
a' is
the least positive root of
Ex.
Here
Qf(x)
f(x)
>0
= 6#3 - 60s; 2 - 6frr - 600 ^
for
x^l& and
Again, putting x =
Now
The
greater root of 16?/
Hence <f>(y)>0
Ex.
We
The
l/y,
15
10-6
is
for y"^
is
4x~(x
+ Hty -
~~
>
i-e-
(20*/
1
15)
the greatest
+ x(x* - 66) + (x3 ~ 600).
an upper limit to the
<(*/) =5*/
Thus
I/a' is
so l/A"<a'.
Find an upper and a lower limit to the positive roots of

3
2
/(z)=z - 10* - llx - 100=0.
1.
Thus
then
/()= 0,
Hence A">l/a' and
positive root of /(!/#) =0.
is
-0
<f>
(y)
roots.
= lOOy3 -f lly 2
-f-
IQy
-10.
- 1).
1) + (16r + 10y
1-4
^^
is
lo
for x = -
a lower limit to the positive
^v-p
and
if
ie. for
y has this value,
20t/
> 0.
10-6.
roots.
Find an upper and a lower limit to the roots of

8
f(x) =3x*~ 61s -f 127#* + 220a; 520 = 0.
2
2 have f(x) =z (3a;
Qlx + 127) (220* 520).
2.
-I-
greater root of 3
-61o;4-127=0
is
17-9 ....
Thus 18
is
an upper limit to
the roots.
- z) = (3s4 - 520) 4- x(6lx* -f 127a: - 220), and each group

4 is a lower limit to the roots of /(a;)=0.
Hence
Again, /(
if
.0^4.
of terms
is
positive
B.C.A.
RATIONAL ROOTS
92
To
13.
roots which
px~q
is
and
+ bx n ~ l +
p, q are integers
. . .
prime
. .
to
one another, then
is
a factor of
a,
q is a factor of k.
For, denoting the polynomial

0, and therefore
aq
Hence aq n =p x an
to
such
Any
can be found by using the following theorem

If
4- hx -f k, where a, 6,
h, k are integers
exist
may
a factor of axn
and
or zero
Roots of an Equation.
find the Rational
<?,
therefore
divisible
Hence
by
by
+ bqn lp +
px-q
if
f(x),
...+ hqp n
~l
is
a factor of f(x), then
+ kp n = 0.
n
integer, so that aq is divisible by p.
n
Hence a is divisible by p.
prime to q
Now p
is
is
prime
Similarly k
is
q.
the rational roots of
axn + bxn
~l
. . .
+k=
must
be included
among
q/p, where p is prime to q, p is a factor of a and q a factor of k.

We can test the values of q/p by synthetic division, or we may use
the method of divisors given below.
the values of
Ex.
We
Search for rational roots of f(x) = 2x 3 - 5x 2 + 5# - 3 = 0.

have f(x) ~2x 2 (x --f) +5(.r - |), therefore % is an upper limit of the roots.
1
Also
has no positive roots, therefore f(x) has no negative roots.

If qjp is a root, p
\ or 2, q
1 or 3, and the
only values of q/p which lie between
and | are 1, i, -2. Testing these by synthetic division, we find that | is a root and
/(
x)
it is
the only rational root.
Newton's Method of Divisors.
14.
Let the given equation be
transformed into
n
n ~l
+ p 2x n
f(x)=x + p l x
where p^ p 2
~2
...
+p n = Q,
..................
... are the least

(See Art. 4,
possible integers.
the last theorem, if a is a rational root of (A), then a
By
and p n
is
divisible
by
(6).)
is
an integer
a.
Let h be any factor of p n

by x h, the usual reckoning
.
1+ft
I-/*)
(A)
-h
a factor off(x), and
If
is
as follows
is
we
divide f(x)
+y 2 +...+?V_ 2
+p n -l
+Pn
h
9l
Where
q^pt
+ h,
Newton's method consists in performing these operations in the reverse

order, thus
Pn+Pn-l
-gn-l
+Pn-2 +...+ft
-92
-gn-2
+Pl
" gl
+1
"1
NEWTON'S METHOD OF DIVISORS
93
this is added to
divided by A, the quotient is -~q n -i
giving ~q n _ 2 h. Dividing this by h, we get ~g n _ 2 which is added to
Here p n
is
p n -.i,
;p n
>
and
If any q in the process is not an integer, f(x)

the reckoning need not be continued.
Herein lies the advantage of Newton's method.
number
Further, the last
To
lessen the
Ex.
Find
1.
is
0.
4/(
1.
lie
a rational root, it is
possible values of h are therefore
2,
1,
A number of these
so that
4,
3,
-7,
6,
=2 3 .3.7.
-8
(A)
can be excluded at once, for
5
/(I)- -160- ~2
if
is
2
off(x)^x* -39z + 46z 168==0.
between - 9 and 7.
h is a factor of 168
an integer and
is
The
x-h
if
2
- 30) + 2 (23* - 84),
f(x) = x
(x*
3
=
-x) 2x*(x* 78) + (x* -672) + x (x - 184),
follows that all the real roots
Also
must be
and
h
line
not divisible by x - h and
trials, choose any number a, then

divisible by a -h. We generally take a
the rational roots
Since
If
bottom
in the
is
number of
factor of/(x),/(a)
it
_2
so on.
/(
- 1)-
-252- -2 2
32
7,
are not roots.

is
a root,
-h
is
Again, -I -h must be a
a factor of 160, thus we can exclude - 2,

factor of 252, and so we can exclude 4.
4,
6,
8.
The remaining
numbers are
-7.
+3,
-3,
+6,
that 6 and - 7 are the only
find
Newton's
we
method,
by
2,
Testing these as below

rational roots.
1-3) -168
+46
-56
~^To*
1-6) -168
4-46
^28
Tl8
-39
4-3
-36
4-0
_-6
-JL
-1J
~~6
EXERCISE XI
REAL ROOTS
1.
Use Descartes'
(i)
If q
(ii)
x*
is
positive,
- 3#4 + 2a?3
*
rule of signs to
sc?
+ qx + r = Q
-1=0
show that
has only one real root,
has at least four imaginary roots.
The reckoning stops at these stages because 10 and 73 are not
divisible
by
4-1
3.
REAL ROOTS
94:
Show
2.
and by
that the roots of (a - x) (b
- x) - h* =
are real
and are separated by a
6.
[Denoting the left-hand side by/(#), we have
By grouping terms,
Exx.
in
find
an upper and a lower
limit to the roots of the equations
3-9.
3. x*
x 5 - 10** - 5a?3 + 6* 2 - 11* - 350 =0.

- IQx - 5) + (6z 2 - llx thus
- 3z3 - 2* 2 + Ix + 3 -0.
4.
[For an upper limit in Ex. 4, group

x*(x*
For a lower limit, write x = -y and group thus
:
350).
- llx*
-9z- 50=0.
5.
x* + 4x3
7.
2x*~llx*-I()x-l=Q.
6.
x*-
[Group thus: x(2x*~ llx-ll) + (x-l).]

z54-z 4
-6*3 -8o,' 2 --15a;-10:-0.

- 2 - 15) + (z 4 - Sx 2 [Group thus x(x* 6z
8.
9.
a;
- 3z 4 - 24z 3 + 95z 2 - 46x - 101
= 0.
For the equation f(x) =xn +p 1 xn
10,
-l
greatest negative coefficient is equal to

roots.
[Let
sol, then/(z)>0
This holds if xn
>p
if
xn
----,
i.e.
xn >p(xn
if x -
10).]
+p
~l
xn
~2
+ ... +p n =0, if the

p + 1 is an upper
then
+ xn -* +
...
+ I),
i.e.
if
numerically
limit to the
xn
x n >p
1
.
> p.]
For the equation f(x) ~xn +p l x n l +piX n 2 + ... +p n = Q, if the numerically

greatest negative coefficient is equal to -p and the first negative coefficient is
p r then Zjp 4- 1 is an upper limit to the~ roots.- n
n r X H T I + ...
+
+ l), i.e. if
l, then/(z)>0if x >p(x
-
11.
This holds
if
x n >^
-r
i.e.
if
(x-l)x
r~ l
>p, which
holds
if
(*-
I)
>p,
i.e.
12. If the rule in Ex. 1 1 is applied to the equations in Exx. 3-7, show that
- 51
- 1 ; (5) 7, - 6.
the limits are (1) 4, - 4; (2) 351, - 5
(4) 6,
(3) 9,
;
13.
By
1 100# 2 - 237=0.
using Ex. 11, find an upper limit to the roots of x
Find the rational roots of the equations in Exx. 14-19.

14. * 3 -9z* + 22o;-24:=0.
15. a? 3 -5* 2 - 18*4-72=0.
16.
3* 3 - 2* 2 - 6*
4-
4=0.
17.
4# 4
i
18.
6s
-25^4-26^ + 4s-8=0.
19.
6a;H53^-95a; -25ar+42=0.
ELEMENTARY SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS
95
Symmetric Functions of the Roots of an Equation.
15.
Let a,
y, 8, c,
/J,
then by Art.
2,
be the roots of
^
xn +p 1 xn 1 +p2x n - 2 +
...
27a=
-p
27aj9=]9 29
l9
... -f
pw = 0,
27a/?y
= - j>3
...................... (A)
etc .............. (B)
be shown that these equations can be used to express any

symmetric function of the roots in terms of the coefficients.
It will
Functions of the type ZoPfPy*
...
where
a, 6, c
...
are positive integers,
These can be calculated in order by a

of
and
process
any symmetric function of the roots can be
multiplication,
expressed in terms of them.
will be called elementary functions.
Ex.
(i)
For equation (A) find
1.
The product
Sat,
27aj9yS consists of terms of the types
of these occurs once, in
product of any one of

Hoc
a,
a88 =27a 2
Za 3
yS and S**ffy.
a 2/?y8, a/?yf The first
the product. The second occurs five times, namely as the
c and a term from 27a/?y8. Therefore
j5, y, 8,
the values of
8 +527<xSc,
and
2 2
(ii) Consider the product 27aj8
y,
ZajSy. This consists of terms of the types a
The first of these occurs once.
The term a 2/?y8 occurs three times,
a s)8y8, a/tySe.
The term ajSySc
namely, as each of the products (a/?)(ay8), (ay)(a/?8), (a8)(ay).
occurs ten times, for we can select two out of the five, a, j, y, 8, c, in 10 way?.
.
Therefore
âft
Using the
NOTE.
becomes
^y -
27a 2 j8y
and equations
last result
These results can
+ 3Za a]8y8 + lOZ^ySe ........................ (C)
(B),
we
find that
Z^Fr^PiPi-ptPa-Sps .................................. (D)

be tested by putting a=]8 = y ...=1. In this way (C)
CJ C? = 3(7? + 12(72 + 10(7?.

.
For reference, we give the following
results,
indicating briefly the
-" 1
"" 2
process of reckoning.
// a,
j3,
. . .
are ZAe roots of
- (27
2
.
aj8)
j8,
y,
...
+ p2;rn
. . .
+ y n == 0,
Here the elementary functions

in a,
xn + fto;71
and fourth degrees

and obviously the process can be
of the second, third
are calculated in order,
continued so as to find any function of this kind. It is important to notice

that the degree n of the equation does not occur in the reckoning.
DIFFERENCES OF ROOT3
96
Symmetric Functions involving only the Differences
16.
of the Roots of f(x)=0.

These are unaltered
the roots are diminished
if
by any number
they may be calculated by using the equation

chosen so as to remove the second term.
A useful check is provided by the theorem in Ex.

in
Exx.
Ex.
2,
h.
Hence
f(y + h) = 0, where
1
below.
is
The functions
3 are important.
Let v be any symmetric function of the differences of the roots of
1.
(o c ,a 1 ,fl a ,...an $a:,l)
then if v is expressed in terms of a
a l9 a 2
...
n =0
the
sum
of the numerical coefficients is
zero.
The sum of the numerical coefficients is obtained by putting a^ a^ a 2

But in this case the given equation becomes (x + l) n every root of which
since t; involves only the differences of the roots, in this case, v=0.
,
Ex.
2.
// a,
jS,
+ 3bx* + 3cx + d =0, find
are the roots of ax3
1
is
-1, and
the values of
have a (x - a) (x - jS) (x - y ) = ax 3 + 3bx- + 3cx + d.

- 1 for x in this identity, we find that
Substituting 4- 1 and
(i)
We
a 2 (a 2 +
therefore
(ii)27(
Ex.
3.
2
)
(j8
+ 1 - (a - 3c) 2 + (36 - d) 2
2
)
(y
8-y)(y-a)-^y-Za2 -3
// a,
/3,
y, o are the roots of

................................ (A)
0,
find the values of

f
<!).(
(ii)r(a-j8)VS
+ a-/3-8)(a+/3-y-8).
-/3)
a)
(ii)
and
(iii)
its
The equation whose

d,
roots are -
-i
8Za|8
,
^ y
thus
-,
-^
is
fi
8
(6
ac).
obtained by interchanging o and
Denote the function by v. Since v is a function of the

may be found by using the equation
differences of a,
j3,
e,
y, 8,
value
obtained by the substitution
xy-b/a.
4#
y+i-O,
................................... (B)
SYMMETRIC FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS

Let
a',
',
97
Then since Za'=0,

+
a-8=jB' /-a'-8' = -2(8' -fa ),
-0/8 = (8'ta')(S'+jB')(8' + y')
be the roots of (B).
y', 8'
and
- 8'3 + S' 2 (a' + j8' -f y') + 8' (j8
.'.
#*.
7/a + jS + y + 8 = 0, prove
4.
827a'j8'y'
y + yV +
a,
j3,
!=<), 5 2
-2^p 2 , 5 3
Hence by
tions.
tftaf
Also a 5
+p
= 0, and
4
2
2 <x?+p3<x.
let s r ~ZoL r then by Art. 15,

+pi<xQ, with three similar equa>
addition,
The following are
y.
j8,
= -3p 3
& +p %* +P& +jp
Equations whose Roots are Symmetric Functions of
17.
a,
y, 8 be the roots of
+ a'j8'y'
= 320/a*.
a 5 + )3 5 + y 5 + 8 5 - - SjScejB
Let
'')
If a,
^J&f'l.
2
(j8-y)
(y-a)
/?,
typical examples.
+ qx + r=Q,
are JAe roote of x?
find the equation whose roots are
(a-jS)
Let 2~(j8 -y) 2 then since 2?a =

,
and a/?y = -r,

= (jg + y) 2 - 4j9y =a 2 f 4r/ a
Hence the required equation can be found by eliminating a from

a3 +ga + r=0,
By
subtraction,
a 3 -za-f4r=0.
(z -f q)oc
Substituting for
a in the
first
= 3r.
equation and simplifying, we have
which on expansion becomes

-f
The
-
Ex.
artifice
2.
(i)
employed
Find
in the next
the condition that the
4g
+ 27r 2 =0.
example
sum
is
often useful.
of two roots a,
xt+p^+p^+paX+p^Q
may
ft
of
................................. (A)
be zero.
Use
(ii)
a, j8 are
the result to find the equation
any two
whose roots are the six values of |~(a-f /?), where
roots of
a^ + 46a? + 6cz2 + 4da; + e=0 ................................. (B)

(i)
Since a and
-a
are roots of (A),
a4 + P&* + p 2a2 + P3a + Pi - 0,

a4
4
.*.
Now a 9^0
which
is
unless
p4 =0,
-2>i<x
-fj 2 a
+^4=0
therefore
the required condition.
+ #2
2
2>1
~^3 +^4 =0
and aâ 2 ^ p a )=0.
;
P4~2>1#2JP3+2?3 2=: 0>
............................. (C)
ROOTS OF THE CUBIC EQUATION
98
Let
(ii)
If then
-\ (a + j8),
we have
then
we diminish the
- z) =0.
- z) +
(j8
(a
roots of (B)
by
z,
B=az + b,
D-(a,
For equation
b,
x~y + z,
0,2*
I)
sum
of
two roots of
.............................. (D)
+ 2bz + c,
E = (a, b,
c,<%,
the
is
+ 4By* + GCy* + 4Dy + E=Q,
ay*
where
writing
This equation
the resulting equation in y will be zero.
c,
d,e$z, I)
4.
(D), the condition (C) gives
an equation of the sixth degree
in
2,
whose roots are the values of J(a
EXERCISE XII

If a,
j3,
2
y are the roots of ax* + 36# 4- 3cx + d=0 and
H = ac-b 2 G = a*d - 3a6c + 2b\
,
prove that
aâ3 ^
1.
2.*
a^V
2
-3(a' d-9a&c-f9&
3
= 3 (^
3
).
a - 9^6 -h 9c 3 ).
8
2
2
2
3
2
^y + ya*)(ay + j8a -h yj8 ) = a*(3a ]8V
= 9 (aW - 6a6aZ + 3ac 3 -f 36 8rf).
3.
a*(a^
4.
a 2 {(j8-y) 2 -f(y-a) 2 4-(a-j8) 2 }-18(6 2 -a^).
5.*
-f
a f {a a (j3-y) 8 + j8 8 (y-) 8 + y 2 (a-j8)} = 18(c 8 -c).
*Explain
how
to derive (2) from (1)
and
(5)
from
a {a(j3~
7.
a 4 {(j8-y
8.
a3 (^4-y
9.
a 3 (2a-~y)(2j3-y-a)(2y-a--/3)^ -27(9.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
[(i)
The condition that a, 0, y are in A.P. is ^=^0.

The condition that they are in O.P. is oc 3 =6 3d.
The condition that they are in H.P. is rf 2a - 3dcb + 2c3 =0.
If
2a = /M-y,
ax + d=0.
11.
(iii)
then
a=
-b/a.
(ii)
Eliminate x between
Put x~l/y and use condition
The condition that
aC 3 =5 3D, where
12.
(4).
6.
10.
is
a,
/?,
may
be connected by the equation
B=
The equation whose
roots are
jgy-a
yq-j8
2
)8
2j8'
is
Show that
(i).]
a(aa:
-h 26a;
this reduces to
a-f j8-2y
+ c) 3 = (aa^ + 36x 2 4- 3ca; + d) (ox -f
a cubic equation.
[Use Ex.
11.]
u=
and

y are the roots of
13. If a, 0,
rootsare -
ft
[Let 2 =
14. If a,
4-
+-
prove that the equation whose
is
Prove that a 8 -f 2ga - rz = 0.
Eliminate a between this equation
any two roots of x* + qx + r=Q, the equation whose roots are the
are
]8
- + -,
a y
+ -,
&+qx + r =0,
99
six values of a/0 is
[Let z = -
a = /fe, hence the required equation
/.
^
15. If
[Let a,
+g0-fr=0
6, c
last
example to show that

5 x5 - a 5 5ax(# -f a) (# 2 -f a.r -f a 2 ),
(x -f a)
7 x* - a 1 = lax(x-{-a)(x z -f aa; + a 2 ) 2
(# -fa)
17. Solve(x-fa-f-6)
18. If a,
-x -a -6
-f
-x) +
6
y, 8 are the roots of
j8,
-) +
-f
26 3 , prove that
from
a*Z(*
a 32;(a -
-6)~0, and use Ex.
(ii)^
4, p. 97.J
prove that
~lp*(p**-pt).
+ 4bx*-\- 6cx 2 + 4dx + e=Q and //~ac~6 2
20.* a 2
= I2(ad~2bc).
*Note that
a 2 a 2 =4(4& 2 -3ac).
21. a*i;a z p
x*+p&*+pjc+pt=0,
8 are the roots of ax*
y,
Ga*d- 3abc
23.
j8
-:0.
(1)^ = 2(^-2^),
24.
got by eliminating
[Observe that x -f a -f 6
19.
is
+ qzp + r = 0.]
+ b b + c 6 =5abc(bc + ca + ab) (ii) a 1 + b 7 + c 7 ~labc(bc + ca + ab)*.

be the roots of a: 3 -f qx + r =0.]
a*
Use the
If a,
z3
and
a + & + c=0 show that

(i)
16.
22.* a 2
from
(20) follows
(19)
and
(22)
from
(21).
= 144(c 2 - bd).
8) (y + y8 + S
- 32(7.
y)(a 8) =
]8)(a
2
25. If a, 0, y,
...
are the roots of xn +p l xn
-1
+p xn
-2
+ ...+p n = 0,
prove that
Ev* j3 2 = - ptf
Show
that the squares of the roots of

n1
2 4a<F
are the roots of
26.
a^-
- M*"" 1 +
a^-
n~2
. . .
-i-
... 4(
l)
na
n =0
1)
n6
w = 0,
where
= 2 - 2a 2
= oS
* b r =ar
2a r _ a r+ ! -f 2a r ^
&o
ft
27. If the equation
is
ar+2
r+8
. . .
. . .
whose roots are the squares of the roots of the cubic
identical with this cubic, prove that either
the roots of 3 a
a a
%<*>ia* + 2a a4
- 2ar ^30
+
^2 ==
a =6=0 or a =6 =3, or
a, b are
CHAPTER
VII
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
1
and Q are polynomials
in x,
An
Rational Fractions.
expression of the form P/Q, where

called a rational fraction. If P is of lower
is
degree than Q, P/Q is called a proper fraction.

than Q P/Q is called an improper fraction.
If
is
not of lower degree
By means
of the division
transformation, an improper fraction can be expressed as the
**
If
X'
A' + -^-,
A+^
where the
X'
A A
Also
therefore
Hence
^7
and X' are respectively
YX'-XY'
A - A' =0;
is
2.
and X/YsX'/Y'.
*
-y.
of lower degrees
of lower degree
than
and
Y',
and
than YY'.
for otherwise, the polynomial

is
A - A'
impossible.
would be identiThus Az=A' and

y
X/Y^X'/Y'.
To resolve a given fraction into partial
the sum of two or more simpler fractions.
is
to express
it
as
Fundamental Theorem.
A,
denote polynomials in
Partial Fractions.
fractions
AÂ'
X YX'-XY'
yy
cally equal to a proper fraction, which
consequently
letters
and X/Y, X'/Y are proper fractions, then

r or
of an
ix
Theorem.
sum
Thus
integral function and a proper fraction.
are prime
to
//
such that
For since
C/AB
CX
A
is
is
a proper fraction and the factors

X/A and Y/B can be found
each other, proper fractions
prime to
polynomials X',
BX'+AT = 1
j^
*
and therefore
C = CX> CT
+ -~j-
can be found so that

(Ch. Ill, 18.)
FORMS OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS
and CY'/B are not proper

polynomials Q, Q', X, Y such that
If CX.' I
fractions,
by
101
division,
we can
find
CX'
where
X/A and Y/B

C
Now X and 7 are
BX + AY
is
fraction
so also
X Y
Y
+>
and then
are proper fractions,
_,
A and B, therefore
Thus (BX + A Y)/A B is a proper
respectively of lower degrees than
than AB.
of lower degree
is
CT = n
and
C/AB,
therefore
C + tf-O and
To
resolve a Proper Fraction P/Q into

set of Partial Fractions. We shall prove that
3.
(i)
To a
non-repeated factor
x-a
of
its
there corresponds
simplest
a fraction of
the
A
form
x-a
(ii)
To a factor
- b) n
(x
To a non-repeated
.
there corresponds
J
x-b
(lii)
a group of the form
---o?_T\O'/-- --'***',
-i
of
/
(x-b)
1\*>
-L.
(x-b)
(x-b)*
2
quadratic factor x
+px + q
of
there corresponds
fraction of the form
(iv)
To a factor
(x
+px + q)
+-
of
there corresponds
'"
(x
Here A,
Proof
B is
B B2
I}
(i).
Let
prime to
Cv (72 ... are independent

=
$ (#-a) S, then since x-a
,
...
x - a, and
a group of the form
+px + q)
'
of
x.
is
a non-repeated factor,
so
P/Q = */(*- a) +7/B,

where the fractions on the right are proper
fractions.
Hence
is
constant.
(ii)
that
Let
JS is
B. It is assumed that x - b
n and
(x
6)
consequently
Q = (x - b) n
prime to
is
where the fractions on the right are proper
fractions.
not a factor of
JB,
so
TYPICAL EXAMPLES
102
X is of degree n - 1
Hence
Bi(x-b)
where
51
+ B2 (x-b) ~*+...+ Bn
(Ch. Ill, 4.)
are constants, which proves the statement in question.
at most, and it can be put in the form

~
n l
n
The proof is similar to that of (i), but X is of the form Cx + D.

(iv) The proof is similar to that of (ii), but each of the set J91 B2 ...
the form Cx + D.
(iii)
is
of
Various ways of finding the constants are explained in the following

examples.
X*
Ex.
1.
Express
as the
~ j^-*
'
sum
of
an
integral function of
x and
three
proper fractions.
We have
Hence
is
- a) (x - 6) (x - c) = x* - a:2
(x
it is
2a + xZab - abc.
4
easy to see that the quotient in the division of x by (x a)(x ~b)(x~ c)
We may therefore assume that
x + a -f b + c.
re
5
C
4
x-a x-b x-c*
(x~a)(x-b)(x-c)
To
find A, multiply each side of (A)
by
(A)
-a, and put x=a.
a;
'
(a-b)(a-cY
The
values of
and
can be found in the same way
a4
(a-b)(a-c)'
(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)
Ex.
Resolve into the simplest possible partial fractions
2.
Multiply each side by x 2, and then put x
a?
a;
-5
- -
m
Therefore
,
x-a
-5 =
r^rr
s
(#-l) (a;-2)
21- -43-
-x-l
-f
,-
=-^
2
+T
(*~1)
rr*
8
(a;-!)
x -2^
Second method. Find d as before. Next, multiply each side of (A) by (x then put
a?
=l
Next, multiply each side of (A) by
a?,
r~
l'-5
^~
and
;
Finally,
put
a:
=0 in
(A), /.
--=
2i
~a-f 6
let
/.
4.
#->oo
a=
~c~JL
-2.
.'.
= 1.
1)
and
METHODS OF QUADRATIC DENOMINATORS
103
In this way two

equations connecting the coefficients can always be written down. The
steps are equivalent to the following
Multiply each side of (A) by
3
3
and
the
sc
coefficients
of
(x~-l) (x-2)
equate
(the highest power of x)
and the absolute terms on each side.
Particular attention
is
called to the last
two
steps.
W
...
33? - 2x 2 - 1
Multiplying by (x
ax + b
+ x -fl) (x* - x + 1), we
cx
+d
...
find that
3x*~2x2 -l=(a
and, equating coefficients,
= -2, a-6 + c + d=0,

a=2, 6 = 1, c = l, d- ~2.
J
Whence
+ d=-l ............ (B)
Note that the first and last equations in (B) can be found by (i) multiplying (A)
by x and letting #->oo and (ii) putting x=0. Two other equations may be quickly
obtained by putting x~l and x- - 1.
,
The following method
is
sometimes
3s - 2x 2 x 2 -x -fl
3
whence by
The
a +c =3
= 2,
= 1, c = l,
and
9
also the fractions are identically equal,
find e
and /.
2c
-2c=
+ 2d= -2,
and so
-2,
rf= -2.
"
__
first
+ d)
x 2 - x 4-
+ 2c + d = l,
(m)
We
ca^-f (c
_
~~ aX
(A),
division,
integral functions
giving a
From
useful.
^ + ^l>
Multiply both sides of (A) by x
c?
-f
(^^ + ^
ea;+/
x + 1, and then
*" (
let
This gives
We have &2 =
- a? ~
= * B+/
'
when
and #3 = 1, whence we
find that
and
It follows that
l=3(
/.
3(/-2c)*-3(e+/) = l.
This linear relation holds for two values of x (namely, the roots of x 2
It
is
therefore
an
identity,
/-2e=0 and
4-
x + 1=0).
and so
l=-3(e+/),
giving
e=-l/9 and /=
-2/9.
104
Next, multiply (A)
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
by x + 1, and then let x = 1
;
"
Multiply (A) by (x -I)
Multiply (A)
In
(A), let
by
x,
xQ,
and
and then
#=1
let
-> oo;
let
3
~(-2) .l~
;
= a -f 6 -f e,
/.
-l=a~& + e-d+/,
.'.
8*
-i
giving c
= ^ + ^ = ^-|.
giving
;
1
'
(x-l)(x>- !)(**-!)
1
17
!**
*-l
s + 1'72
/
2r 6
1 \9
/__
(*-l)
'
(x~l)
a;
EXERCISE
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
Resolve into partial fractions
3( *~ 6)
I.
3.
a:
"
'
'
--g
'
10
11
'
as the
-fl)
sum
(l-ax)(l~bx)
Hence show that if 1 -o&x 2
is divided
quotient of (n 4- 1) terms, this quotient is
and
a;
12
'
(a:
Express
r
H-a: -f 1
- I9x - 15
'
)(a? -f2)-
15.
'
'
(a;
of a constant
by
-f-2)"
and two proper

r r
fractions.
-(a + b)x + dbx\ so as to obtain a
find the corresponding remainder.
16.
Express
fractions
-- -- -
~ =~
<a-)(*-&)(*-c)
.
sum
of a constant
as the
sum
of a constant and three proper

p
x3
17.
Express
fractions
18.
r--
(-a)(*-6)(a-c)
as the
and three ^
proper
Hence show that
_
""
IDENTITIES
19.
Express
r
FROM PARTIAL FRACTIONS
3.4
rr-,
sum
as the
(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)
function of x and
of an integral
6
three proper fractions.

Hence show that
(a-b)(a-c)(a-d)
(b-c)(b-d)(b-a)
__
(c-d)(c-a)(c~b)
(d-a)(d-b)(d-c)
is
equal toa-ffc-fc-fd.
20. If ( 1
+ x) n
+ c x + c 2x 2 + ...+ cn xn show
,
x+ 1
x
[Assume that
21.
...
=^ +
Hence show that
v; 2 _
22.
"
that
ct
_c
Use Ex. 21 and

(\\
v;
34 _
___
714-2
similar identities to prove that
_^___fL_4__^__ "
1.2 2.3 3.4
_
3.4
vlvy
-4_f_l\n
V
;
(
_.
4.5
;
1.2.3
2.3.4
2.3.4
370 T '"'
(n
+ l)( + 2)(n + 3)
23. Prove that
24.
Use Ex. 23 to prove that
[In Ex. 23, write
n -f 1
!
for n,
and put
an =w,
...
= !, a,=2,
105
and
a?=0.]
2(n-f3)
CHAPTER
VIII
SUMMATION OF SERIES
1
Meaning of Summation.
integral variable,
and
Let u n be a function
of the positive
let
possesses this peculiarity it is the sum of n terms,

these terms cannot be added up, unless the value of n is specified.
The function
Sometimes
sn
it is
possible to express s n as the
number which does not depend on
and the number

is
of
n.
sum
of
terms, where
and
is
For example,
terms on the right (namely two)
independent of n.
To sum a series to n terms or to find the sum of the first n terms of a series
but this is not always possible.
to express s n in the form just described
is
Among the series capable of summation are arithmetic and geometric

a harmonic series cannot be summed.
series
;
The sum
of the first
n terms
of the series
ui +
is
often denoted
2.
by
îU r and sometimes by 2u n or simply by

,
Method of Differences.
v n - vn _
form
to n terms.
For,
1,
where v n
by hypothesis,
whence by addition
is
// we are able
some function of
n, then
to
express
we can sum
sn
u n in
the
the series
METHOD OF DIFFERENCES
Ex.
1.
Sum
the series
'
and since v
Q,
u n ~n(n +
Here
3 +2
-f
to
...
-f-
107
n terms.
l)(n-t-2)
u n= vn~ vn-
where
vw
=-i(
we have by the preceding,

J )
(n
4-
+ 3).
2) (n
3. Series in which u n is the Product of

terms of an A. P., beginning with the n-th.
The
last
example
an instance
is
of this type,
be applied to the general case, which

It is required to
sum
to
n terms
is
successive
and the same method can
as follows
which
the series in
"
wn =
where
We
(a
+ w&)(a + n + I
6)...(a
+ w + r-
n-
un
/>),
a, b y r are constants.
__
_
have
__u n {(a
u n (a -f n + r
Therefore w n = v n - v n _^
where
and consequently
Here v is independent
the following rule
of the A. P.
+ n + r .b)-
On
b)
vn
5W
-f
(a
b)
n
-/
= vn - %
sum
of n, hence the
the right of
n terms may be found by
to
u n introduce as a factor the next term
number of factors
and add a constant.
found by putting w = l,
divide by the
so increased
and by
the
common
difference of the A. p.
The constant
substituting
is
for
in v n
as in the next
1.
Sum to n term* 1 3 5 + 3 5 7 -f 5 7 9 f
Here u n ~ (2n- l)(2w-f l)(2w + 3), and applying the
Ex.
To
find the constant C,
put
?i
=1
The expression
which follows
. . .
or
by
in the bracket (} is formed

(n-l-2) in the A.P. 1, 2, 3, ... .
3)(2
rule,
in (A), noting that s l
-f
example
=I
+ 5) + 15}.
by subtracting the term which precedes n from that

B.C. A.
SUM OF INTEGRAL FUNCTIONS
108
which u n
4. Series in
In Ch. Ill,
of
a Rational Integral Function of n.

has been shown that a rational .integral function
4, (3), it
is
can be expressed in the form
of degree r
o + bn + cn(n + l)-f dn(n + l)(n + 2)-f
where
a, 6,
division.
e, ...
We
are constants whose values
I.
Sum
to
may
can therefore use the rule of the
this type, as in the
Ex.
...
(r
+ 1)
terms,
be found by synthetic
last article to
sum
series of
next example.
the series
2.34-3.6 + 4.
Here
ll-K..-f(tt
+ l)(n 2 -f2).
= (n + l)(n' + 2)
tt
+ 1 )*
+2
+2
+0
-2
Dividing by n, n + 1, n + 2 in succession, as on the

right, the reckoning shows that
tt
+1
-2
n = n(
therefore
3n 8 + Wn* + 2ln + 38),

the
'
constant
'
clearly being zero.
which u w is the Reciprocal of the Product of r

successive terms of an A. P., beginning with the n-th. A
5. Series in
simple instance
the following
is
Ex.l.
111
Here
(2/i-l)(2w
+ l)
where
t>
The general
in which u n is
case
is
as follows
It is required to
sum
to
n terms
the series
the reciprocal of
(a-f n6)(a
where
--
+w+ 1
6)...(a-hn-t-r~l
6),
a, 6, r are constants.
The numerator
is
the difference between the
first
and
last factors of the
denominator.
SUM OF RECIPROCALS
109
Proceeding as in the last example, we have

1
(a
u n ^v n _ l -v n
Therefore
+ n + r-1 6)-(a-f nb)

.
and
sn
= vQ -vn
1
.
Now
where
b)(a + n + 2
b)
...
(a
+ n + r-
.6)
n, hence the sum to n terms may be found by

Remove the left-hand factor from the denominator of u n ;
divide by the number of factors so diminished and by the common difference
of the A.P. and subtract the result from a constant.
independent of
is
the following rule
The constant
in v n
is
found either by putting n = 1, or by substituting
,,
Ex.
for
Thus, in the last example, by the rule
2.
Sum
the series
4-
l.Tc
n(n + 3)
J*
n(?i
+ ^-^ +
O.U
l)(n
. . .
.,
7i "f
C== _L,
+ 2)(n
To
find the constant C,
"
put w = l in
_L^
1.4
(A), observing that
We
have
n
.
11
5
1
u
1
^
""18
which
is
11
" c^ 18*
3.2.3.4*
Alternative method, by Partial Fractions.
s^
the same result as before, in a different form.
TWO IMPORTANT TYPES
10
The
last
an instance of a
is
example
whose n-th term
scries
P is a polynomial in n of degree m.
m<r - 1, this can he summed by expressing P in
is
where
If
a
If
w=r-
1,
H-
% (a + n&) + a
2 (a 4-
the series cannot be
n+
4-
w6) (a
1/>) 4-
do
for to
summed,
the form
. . .
this
we should have
sum
a harmonical progression.
If w>r~l, the nth term consists of an integral and a fractional part
which can be dealt with separately.
to
Another important Type.
6.
+
6
a(a +
b(b
a (a +
\)
1) (a
If u n
+ 2)
a(a+
"
term of
is the n-th
1)
...
(a-f
n-
1)
sn
rn
= u n (a + n)/ (a - b + I
AT
Also
w,
=w
Therefore
sn
= vn
then
+ *) -
For
where
(a-fl)-fc
v
/
- ~=
r T
a-b+1
The
Series U 4-u 1 x-f-u 2 x 2

nomial in n of Degree m.
7.
If x
= l,
this series
then
s (1
where
î
can be
a-6-hl
v 2 û z
a
f
1 ).
_-
a~fe+l
1
=
a-6 + 1
as in Art. 4.
- x) = w + v& -f t'^2 +
= %-ô>
>
{w
n
^
* (a
+ n) - a}.
'
+ u n x n where u n
4-...
summed
(n
-u lt
. . .
If
x ^1,
+ vw a:n - u nx n+l
a Poly-
let
= w n -w n . r
... t? n
Now v n is a polynomial in n of degree m - 1
is
thus by repeatedly multiply- x (m

the problem of finding
in
we
can
reduce
all),
ing by
multiplications
that
of
a
8 to
summing geometric series.
;
It follows that s = P/(l ~x) mfl where

Ex.
1.
Sum
Denoting the
sum by
s(I
Let
+ 2 2z + 3 2za +
we have
the series I 2
s,
. . .
- x) = 1 + So: H- 5x* +
5'
+ n*xn ~ l
. . ,
a polynomial in
is
+ (2 H -
xn - 1 -
x.
SUM OF POWERS
then
a' (I
- x) = 1 + 2x + 2x* -f
. . .
111
+ 2a;w - 1 -
n
(2n l)x
.__
The
8.
Series
+ 2 r + 3 r -f
and
cr
...-f
nr
= n(n-f-l),
We
shall write
a'
Theorem. // r is a positive integer, S r can be expressed as a polynomial in n of which the highest term is n r + l/(r + 1 ).
For we can find a l9 a z ... a r independent of n, such that
(1)
â l n + a 2 n(n-l) + ... +a r n(n-l)(n~2) ... (n-r + 1), ....... (A)

=
obviously a r l. Writing n- 1, n-2, ... 1 in succession for n and
n
where
adding, by Art.
3,
we have
+
The right-hand
highest term
is
Show
#*.
1.
We
have
side,
-a r (w + l)w(tt-l)
when expanded,
n r+1 a r/(r +
that
1),
that
a polynomial in n of which the
is
n r+l /(r
is,
-f-
1).
S^ln(n + l)(2n + l) S3 ^4n 2 (n + l) 2

9
7i
-n-f W(TI~
(n-r + 1) ............. (B)
...
1)
Also
(2) If /S r
fe
= 61 n + 62n 2 -ffe3 n 3 + ...-f6r4 1 n r

.
"
=/(n), the values of & r41 , 6r ,
may be found as follows.

= l r + 2 r + ...+nr and /(n-l)-l r -f 2 r -f ... + (n-l) r
/(tt)
r _j, ...
w =/(n) -/(n - 1 )
therefore
so that
n r = 6r41 {w r+1 -
(n
Expanding and equating

J
7,
6r+1
""'
1
'
r+1
l)
+ b r {n r - (n - l) r} +
coefficients, it will
h - =
ftr 1
and so on. If r is large, b lf 62

and we use other methods.
...
r
'
h
6r -
2= n
'
. . .
+ 6r
be found that
h ftr 8=
r(r-l)(r-2)
cannot be found conveniently in this way,
ODD AND EVEN POWERS
112
The values
(3)
of
ing the function
8^ S3 S5> ... may be found in

v n = n r (n + l) r -(n-l) rn r
,
succession
by
consider-
We have
v1 + v 2 + ...+vn =n (n +
l)
and, expanding by the Binomial theorem,
Putting n
n - 2,
1,
1 in
...
n and adding,
succession for
_5 +
a- n(n + 1). The
where
last
term
is
rSr+l or Sr
...
..................
according as r
is
(A)
even or
odd.
When r = l,
2, 3,
this
...
formula gives
=4
$3
-87
Thus if r is odd and >1 and Sr =f(n), then n2 (n + 1) 2 is a factor of/(n),

and the remaining factor is a rational integral function of n(n + l). Of
z
2
course, it does not follow that S r is arithmetically divisible by n (n + 1)
.
(4)
S2 /S4 S6 ... may be found as follows.

=
wn nr (n + l) r (2n + 1) - (n - l) r r (2n - 1)
The values
Let
of
W1 + w2 + ... +wn =ri
(n
+ l)
and
cr'
then
a=n(n + l)
where
On
(2n + l)=a a,
expansion, we have
*2r-4
Putting n
1,
- 2,
in succession for
...
Sr
or
(r + 2)S r+1
...
this
n and adding,
(B)
the last term being
When r 1, 2, 3,
r=l
Jour' =3S2
=
r 2
according as r
is
even or odd.
formula gives
r-3
r=5
'
|
(3o*
- lOa8 + ITo2 - 15a + 5).
BERNOULLI'S NUMBERS
113
Thus if r is even and $ r =/(n), then n(n + l)(2n + 1)

and the remaining factor is a rational integral function
It will presently
from (A)
this
$ 3 $5 5 7
,
. . .
number
//r>l,
all
...
of
/(ft),
1).
immediately deducible
Sr
as the coefficient of n in
contain the factor n (n-f I)
2
.
for
S 1 =ln(n + l) and
The numbers
B -B4 BQ9
2>
Bv B2 B3
,
is
the following.
+ l)Bar + iC5(2r-l)B^ 2 + iC5(2r-3)fi2r ^ + ...=0, ...... (C)

on the left being B r or (r + 2) Br+1 according as r is even or odd.
,
the zero
B2m
on
the right of (C) is to be replaced by |.
the coefficient of
is
in
the left-hand side of (C)
(4),
%n (n +
as Bernoulli's numbers.
...
formulae can be given for calculating these numbers
then
(2r
For
Br
many
the last term
Art. 8,
n(n +
are the famous numbers of Bernoulli, in terms of which a large

of functions can be expanded. For convenience we shall refer to
great
= 1,
define
one of the best
If r
We
expressed as a polynomial in n.
= 2, and 7?3 , B^ ly ... are all zero;
the whole set
of
is
Thus
is
a factor of
of the last section.
Bernoulli's Numbers.
(5)
when
- #8
appear that the formula (B)
is
l)
(2n
Putting r=l,
is
52w
Hence by the formula
(B) of
the coefficient of n in the expansion
l).
2, 3,
...
in (C),
5B4
.B 2
30"
Continuing thus, we find that
""
A
691
M "6*
p ~
16
43867
3617
510'
798
'
20
_
~
174611
*
330~
few more of the extraordinary properties possessed by the sequence
Bv B2 B39
... are
given below.
the Binomial theorem,
,
By
Putting
n-1, n-2,
Equating the
...
coefficients of
in succession for
n on each
side,
n and adding,
we have
(D)
SYMBOLIC NOTATION
114
from the equation
Similarly,
it
follows that
n r+l
=ci
and consequently
1
From
and
(D)
(E)
...
+ (-ir~ 1 Cj
{1
+ (--ir==0 ......... (E)
by addition and subtraction,
............ (G)
),
where each
series continues
or Q
till
1, appears.
19
are
to
(F), (G)
equivalent
equations 10', 11' in Chrystal's
Formulae
They may be used for calculating 5 2 B^

twice the amount of labour required by (C).
Algebra, Vol. II, p. 231.
but their use requires

Symbolic notation.
cally thus
Equations
etc.,
can be written symboli-
(D), (E), (F), (G)
(D)
(E)
(F)
(G)
where, after expansion, each index is to be changed into a suffix

be written for
Bm
Theorem.
(6)
i.e.
Bm
is to
//
8f =
2r
+ ...+n r where
is
a positive
integer,
then
Sr - rS r _i + Br
(i)
where
is
<d
independent of n and
defined in Art. 8,
is,
(")
S r = r [s r ^dn + nBr
in fact, the
Bernoullian number as
(5).
For S r can be expressed as a polynomial in n

this polynomial by /(?*), we have
of degree r
-f 1.
Denoting
* r -/(*)-/(*-!)
This relation involves only positive integral powers of n up to n r y and
holds for all positive integral values of n. Hence it is an identity, and we
may
differentiate
both sides with regard to

r -l
rn
Writing n-1,
ft
-2,
...
/'(n)f{n
where
r is
r-1
1 in
Therefore
=f(n)~f'(n-l).
and adding,
succession for n,
+ (n-l) r
independent of n.
n.
-l
+ ...H-2^ 1 + r
BERNOULLI'S THEOREM
Br is the
Moreover,
lian
number
No
first.
Ex.
1.
Putting
coefficient of
defined in Art. 8,
(5).
constant of integration
Deduce formula (B) of Art.

r + 1 for r in (A), we have
115
n in/(n), and is therefore the BernoulThe second statement follows from the
is
added, for
8, (4),
Sr
is divisible
from (A) of Art.
n.
by
8, (3).
Differentiating with regard to n,
i(r
No
+ l)aV = C[ fl (2r4a)S2r +
constant
Dividing by
(7) I'sin^
/S'
...
2 , N.j
C^
added, for every term is divisible by

+ 1, we obtain the formula (B).
is
the relation
^V-M^'r-i^ +
.)
we can
//#,.,
S = n,
Thus
find the values of/S'j.
(At any stage, the constant
by successive integrations.
found by putting n =
n.
B r can
be
=-
xS A
2.;
==
Continuing the process,
we
arrive at the equation

7i
which
r-1
'
r-2
|3
'"
be written
may
+ I)S r = n r + l + B 1 C[' n n r + B2 C 2r +l n r - l + ...+B r ^
(r
and expressed symbolically, as above,
(H)
form
in the
is known as Bernoulli's Theorem.

= l, we have equation (D) of Art.
n
Putting
This result
Ex.
1.
8, (5).
Verify the following, either by substitution in (H),
n3
n4
by successive
or, starting
with
nz
integration.
n*
~
n1
~2
n3 n
3^~30
n8
"
10
2n 7
7?i
"15
2w 3
"
2
9
_n ^ w + 3
"TO
4"
"9
__7
"T(J
11
30
w*
n2
"20
'
Tl
8
n
In*
_w
s
+ +
"8
"2
T2
In 4
w2
""24"*" 12
66
SUMS OF INTEGRAL FUNCTIONS
116
EXERCISE XIV
SUMMATION OF SERIES
A
Sum
n terms the
to
(Arts. 3, 4.)
Exx.
series in
1-9.
1.
1.2.3.4 + 2.3.4.5 + 3.4.5.6 + ....
2,
2.5.8 + 5.8.11 + 8.11.14 +
4.
1.5 + 2.6 + 3.7 +

a
....
6.
1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 +
8.
1.2.3 + 4.5.6 + 7.8.9 +
Find the value

10.
12.
...,
to
P+3 +5
2
2+2
+
3
...
+ 3* .4+
5.
7.
1.2.4 + 2.3.5 + 3.4.6 +
9.*
....
...
2.1+5.3 + 8.5 + ....
of
lP + J2 2 + 13 2 + ...+2P.
lP + 12 3 + 13 3 + ...+2P.
Sum
3.
....
n terms
11.
1P-12 2 + 13 2 -... ~20 2 + 2
13.
20 3 -19 3
+ 18 3 -...+2 3 ~P.
the series in Exx. 14-16.
14. !
16. l
17.
Show
(i)
(ii)
18.
Show
that whether n
P-2
is
odd or even,
to (n-1) terms- 1( to (n - 1) terms = |( -
+ 3 2 -4 2 + ...
1* - 2< + 3 4 - 4 4 + ..
2
that the
natural numbers
is
sum
n
l)
l)
n(n- 1).
n(n -l)(n*-n~
1).
of the products, taken two together, of the
2
-^n(n -
first
l)(3?i
19. Find (i) the sum of the squares, (ii) the

together of the numbers 1, 4, 7, ... (3n -2).
sum
of the products taken two
20. Find the number of shot which can be arranged in a pyramidal pile
triangular base, each side of the base containing 10 shot.
21. Find the number of shot in a pile of 8 courses
side of the base containing 12 shot.
22. Show that the number of shot in a pile of

side of the base containing 2n shot, is
on a
on a triangular base, each
courses on a square base, each
23. 'Find the number of shot in a pile of a rectangular base, the sides of the
base containing 16 and 10 shot respectively, and the top course consisting of a
single row of shot.
24.
pile of shot of n courses stands on a rectangular base, and the top course
consists of a single row of x shot. Show that the number of shot in the pile is
Here the nth term
3, 3, 5,
...
is
the product of the nth terms of the arithmetic series, 2,
Here w f =r(w
l)=nr
(r
l)f.
5, 8,
...
and
SUMS OF OTHER TYPES

25. Show that
or zero, then
l*
26.
Show
if
of the form
is
+ 2 4 + 3 4 + ...+ n*is
that
if
is
B
to
n terms the
,111
__ __
1
2.3
2
2
2
by P-f 2 -h3 4-...+7i
divisible
by
3
.
3.4.5
3.6
6.
1.3
o
O
F + 2 + 3 + ...4- n
1-24.
2.3.4
(Arts. 5, 6, 7.)
3.4
1.2.3
m is a natural number
5m -f 3, where
then
____
1.2
3.
3m -f 1,
Exx.
series in
or
divisible
of the form
is
.+w
Sum
5m -f 1
11?
7*""
2.5.8
6.8.
11
8. 11
14
5.
5
6.
8.
__ 2.3.6
__ __
1.2.4
07II + -+ ~-f ~ +
,1 +
2.4
5\"9
JLL
2. 4.
_LL*L*. + "
6^2. 4^6.8
12.
...
32
14. 1
3.4.6
' * *
77
F75
52
13.
72
+- + 2i + ~
1
~
(!+*)(! +2*)
16.
3.
l.| 1-f 2.|2-f
|3
1*
+ ...
1-
n.]
(2rn-l)-l
(n-fl)
3. 9.
*
*
11. 137. 13. 15
115.
""
on
"
n ~ l = a;* " 1
- a:n .]
(a: + n)
[Observe that nx
1
21.
[The value of s n (l -x) can be found by Ex.
11.]
-n 2
BERNOULLI'S NUMBERS
118
22
"'
17273
-.1
24
-[3
25.
+
+
il
n~
27374
11
23
M
475
3~.
-+w
l
'
273
+22
+
+ 2*
'37I
'
+ re-l
[5
Prove that
l+n + n(n
v
Sum
26.
n- 2
+
to
+ l)
ft
'
r^
-f
+ ... xtor
terms =
n terms
--
+-
....
3* 2
/r*
aa
(1
C
1.
If
[Put -Ti +
2.
If
3.
-n + 2,
1,
...
/(-n) = (-ir+y(n-l).
-1 for n in the identity f(n)-f(n- l)~nr .]
Sr ^ b^n + b 2 n 2 + b a n 3 +...+ b r+l nr + show that

64-61 4- 6 8 -6 4 + -...=0.
26 2 - 36 3 + 46 4 - 56 5 + ... =-0,
3.26 3 -4.36 4 -h5.46 5 -...^0.
1
[Use Art.
8, (2).]
Given that
value of
(Art. 8.)
F-f2 r + 3 r -f ...+n r =,/(n), show that
Ss by
= -â 2 (2a 3 - 5a 2 + 6or -
3)
where a
n (n +
),
deduce the
differentiation.
4.
Continue the reckoning in Art.
5.
Show
8, (5), to find
that formula (C) of Art. 8,
form
(5),
Bm is to
be written for
B 12
1),
B.
6.
Find the value of B^ by using formulae (F) and (G) of Art.
7.
Show
8, (5).
that
C\+WBr + C$+W-*Br_
[Expand (2n +
l)
r+l
-(2n -
!)'+>.]
z 4-
and
J514 .
be written symbolically in the
- \Y (2B -
'
where after expansion
may
the values of
C rb +*2r -'BT _ 4 +
. . .
=r+ 1
CHAPTEK IX
DETERMINANTS
Notation.
complicated expressions can be easily handled if

they are expressed as determinants/ The theory which we are about to
explain arises in connection with linear equations.
1
Many
'
=
equations a^x -f 6j 0, a^c -f b 2
=
of x, then
0.
The expression
If the
a^ a^
of the second order,
and
is
are satisfied
a^
aj) v
is
by the same value
called a determinant
denoted by
or
by
(a^).
Next consider the system

a i x + ^\y + <a = 0,
a 2x
-f
b2y
+ c 2 = 0,
= 0.
equations are satisfied by the same values of x and

to show that
If these
The expression on the

is
y, it is
easy
a determinant of the third order, and
left is called
denoted by
or
This determinant in
its
a 1 6 2C3
expanded form
C&ifyjCg 4-
In considering the form of
by
is
^ 2 63 C 1
this- expression,
observe that
Disregarding the signs, the terms can be obtained by writing the

letters a, 6, c in their natural order and arranging the suffixes in all possible
(i)
'
The number
ways.
(ii)
As
is
arrangements
is
six terms.
[3, giving
any particular term depends on the order of the suffixes.

Ch. IV, 4, (1), the interchange of two suffixes, 2, 3, for example,
The sign
in
of
of
called the transposition (2 3).
The term o 1 62^3> i n which the

the sign
-f
suffixes occur in their natural order, has
DEFINITION OF DETERMINANT
120
The
sign of any other

the suffixes in that term
or by an odd
third terms,
Also
in this
2.
a, 6,
number
1
2 3
is
term
is
according as the arrangement of

derived from the arrangement 1 2 3 by an even
is
or
Thus, considering the second and
of transpositions.
changed to 1 3 2
by the
single transposition (2 3).
changed to 2 3 1 by the two transpositions

These ideas will now be generalised.
order.
23
is
of
Definition
c, ... I, and n
Determinant.
suffixes 1, 2, 3,
an
The determinant
of the
...
bn
bn
c n ...l n
of
performed
letters
2
represent n numbers thus,
nth order, denoted by

,
By means
we can
n,
(1 2), (1 3)
cn
or
by
(î^2 c3
ln)>
... l n
sum of all the products, each with the sign determined

the
rule
below, which can be formed by writing the letters a, 6, c, ... I
by
in their natural order and arranging the suffixes in all possible orders.
is
defined as the
Rule of Signs. The sign of the term a 1 6 2c 3 ... l n where the suffixes
The sign of any other term is -f or
occur in their natural order, is +
,
according as the arrangement of suffixes in that

arrangement 1 2 3 ... n by an even or by an odd
(that
by an even or an odd substitution).
This rule is justified by Theorem 2 of Ch. IV,
term
derived from the
is
number
of transpositions
is,
Each
of the
n numbers a l9
6X
...
a 2 62
,
4.
^s
called
an element
of the
determinant.
The diagonal through the left-hand top

elements a l9 6 2 c3
,
a i&2c3
i fi
... l n ,
is
corner, which contains the
called the leading or principal diagonal,
and
called the leading term.
The expanded form of the determinant has n terms half of these have
the sign + and half the sign For suppose that there are p terms of the first sort and q of the second.
Since the interchange of the two suffixes transforms a positive into a
negative term, p^q* Similarly q*^p, and therefore p = q.
Every term contains one element and one only from each row, and one
element and one only from each column. We can find the sign of any
particular term by the rule at the end of Art. 4, Ch. IV.
:
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
Ex.
Jn the expanded form of (a 1 6 2c 3^4 e 6)> find Me signs of (i) ajb^cê^
1.
= (I 2 4 X 3 5 )
, ? t Q)
f 
and tho
si
Sn
is
(ii)
ajb^c^d^.
~
(
The
last steP is
JL
unnecessary
if
we use the
we may make
Or,
rule referred to.)
single transpositions, as follows,
24513,
showing that
three,
() (\ II I ^}=( l
Or
as
if,
14523,
of these are required,
5 >( 24 )' and the
some text-books
advise,
12345,
is
number
of
so the sign
si s n is
wo count
the
inversions
'
(Ch. IV, 4)
and (ii), these are 5 and 10 respectively the

odd and the second even, giving the same results. But this takes much longer.
in the arrangements of the suffixes in

first
12543,
and
3.
Theorem. A
columns and
its
(i)
determinant
is
unaltered by changing
its
rows into
columns into rows.
Let
The leading term of each determinant is a^c^.

The remaining terms of A are derived from a 1 6 2 ca by keeping the letters
in their natural order and arranging the suffixes in all possible ways, an
interchange of two suffixes producing a change of sign.
The remaining terms of A are derived from a^b^ by keeping the suffixes
in their natural order and arranging the letters in all possible ways, an
interchange of two letters producing a change of sign.
The results in the two cases are identical. The same argument applies
f
to a determinant of
4.
any
Theorem. The
order.
interchange of two rows, or of two columns, changes
the sign of a determinant without altering its numerical value.
For the interchange of two rows is equivalent to the interchange of the

suffixes, and the interchange of two columns is equivalent to the interchange of two letters. Hence in either case the sign of every term of the
determinant
5.
is
changed.
Theorem.
determinant in which two rows or two columns are
identical is equal to zero.

If
of
two rows or two columns

is
But
of a
determinant
are identical, the value
unaltered by the interchange of these rows or columns.

this interchange transforms
into
- J,
J=~J, and J = 0.
therefore
EXPANSION BY ROW OR COLUMN
122
6.
Expansion of a Determinant
Row
of any
in
Terms
of the Elements
or Column.
Let
Every term in the expansion of A contains one element and one only
from each row, and one element and one only from each column.
Hence,
A can
be expressed in any of the six forms
a 1 A l + b l B l -f CjCp
4-
a 1 u4 1
b%B 2 4- CgCg,
+ a2 A 2
b}
Bl -f b2 B2
cx
Cl
+ c3 C 3
contains no element from the row or column containing a j? a

similar remark applying to every A, B and C.
where
To determine
A^
every term of
A which
contains a 1 can be obtained
from a^^s by keeping the letters in the natural order, retaining 1 as the
suffix of a and arranging the other suffixes in all possible orders, the interchange of two suffixes producing a change of sign.
Hence A l is equal to the determinant (6 2 c 3 ), obtained by erasing the
row and column in A which contain a v

To determine any other coefficient, say C 3
consecutive rows, bring the row containing
of
interchange
to the extreme
consecutive
bring
c3
the
to
the
interchange
the top.
of
the
By
column containing
c3
left.
Thus we have
in succession
*3
and now
columns,
By
c3 occupies the
&3
c.
top left-hand corner, and the relative positions
of the elements not belonging to the
row and column containing
c3 is
unaltered.
Every interchange of rows or of columns introduces a change of sign.

<__
The number of interchanges is equal to the number
t
of vertical and horizontal moves (indicated by arrows)
left-hand
which
in
c
to
the
to
top corner,
required
bring 3
'
this case is 4.
Hence,
<73 is
c8
equal to the determinant obtained by erasing the row and
column containing
c3 , multiplied
by
1)
Similar reasoning applies to a determinant of any order.
MINORS AND COFACTORS

Ex.
1.
A~(a 1 b zc B
with reference to the element*
in the
results are
-
2.
aa
J--
(ii)
Ex.
(i)
in the second column.
first roiv, (ii)
The
the determinant
Expand
123
62
-63
Prove that
g \âbc
c\
Expanding with reference
+ 2fgh-af 2 -bg 2 -ch z
to the
first
row,
f-h
A=a
= a(bc -/ 2 - h(hc -fg)+g(hf-bg)

= abc 4- 2fgh - or/ 2 - bg 2 - ch*.
)
Minors and Cofactors.
7.
For the determinant
the minor of any element is the determinant obtained by omitting from

the row and column containing the element.
The
(H r )
cofactor
of
an element (h r ) is the coefficient of that element in

J, and is therefore equal to the corresponding minor
the expanded form of

with the proper sign prefixed.
The sign
is
of consecutive
determined as follows
rows and columns
Count the number of interchanges

of vertical and horizontal moves ')
'
(i.e.
required to bring the element to the left-hand top corner. The sign is +
or
according as this number is even or odd. The rule may be stated
thus. For the element h r which is in the r-th row arid the s-th column,
,
the cofactor
For the number

is
of
= (- l) r + s
(the
minor of h r ).
'
moves required to bring h r to the left-hand top corner
(r-l)-f (.9-1).
1.
Find the cofactors of d 2 and c 4 in the determinant A "(a^b^d^).
Omitting the row and column which contain d 2 it will be seen that
Ex.
the minor of ^ 2 = (a 1 6 3 c 4 ).
Denote the cofactors
Similarly
O4 =
The student who
1)
in question
4 ^" 3
is
(a 1 6 2 c? 3 )
by
Z) 2 , (74
by the
rule given
above
(a^b
acquainted with
partial differentiation
'
should observe that
B.C.A.
MULTIPLICATION OF DETERMINANT
124
8.
For the determinant
Identities.
Important
A = (aj)&)
we have a number
(i)
of identities of the following types
a 2 A + b2 B l + c2 C l = 0,
l
(ii)
61
4 1 -f b 2 A 2 + b z A^ = 0.
where
A B ly
...
where
A B
C^ are independent of a l9 b l9 c v
19
19
19
are the cof actors of a l9 b l9
...
Hence the expression
the result of substituting a 2 6 2 c 2 for a 19 b l9 c 1 in A, and

equal to a determinant with two rows identical, therefore
is
a 2 A^
The second
identity
is
+ b2 B l ~f c 2 C l = 0.
obtained by putting b l9 62 b 3 for a l9 a 2 a3 in the

,
A = a^! + a 2 ^ 2 -f a3 ^ 3
e q ualit 7
therefore
is
Similar identities hold for determinants of any order.

9.
Theorem
minant
is
// every element in any row, or in any column, of a determultiplied by a number k, (hen the determinant is multiplied by k.
.
For every term in the expansion of a determinant A contains one

element and one only out of each row, and one element and one only out
of each column.
Thus
ka
Conversely,
common
'2
^2
'3
^3
if all
a2
the elements in any row, or in any column, have a

is a factor of the determinant, and can be taken
factor k, then k
outside.
10.
Theorem. A
determinant can be expressed as the
sum
minants by expressing every element in any row or column as

numbers.
For example, we
shall
of two detersum of two
the
prove that
a.
a2
o2
oc
63
c.
Denote the determinants on the right by A A' and the one on the
by A".
9
left
ADDITION OF BOWS OR COLUMNS
We
have
+ a2A 2
aÂ^
-f-
aÂ,3
A^ A 2 A 3 are independent of a-,, a 2 a 3

Now A is obtained from J by substituting oq,
where
And A"
a 19 a 2 a3
,
is
obtained from
J by
and
Similar reasoning applies in
(or
Theorem.
+ a 2 a 3+ a 3
,
+ a 2 ^ 2 + a3 ^ 3
J +
a +a
a^
all cases.
unaltered by adding to the elements of

(or column) k times the corresponding elements of any other raw
column), where k
For example, we
is
determinant
is
any given number.
shall
prove that
e,
+ kb3
63
c3
Denoting the determinant on the right by
we have
/r
Note that by a second application

X
-I-
A and
6X
cx
62
c2
left
by
A',
-0.
of the above,
/c x
+ I U3
ha
that on the
=*
Now
NOTE.
substituting a^+v.^ & 2
=oc l A l
J" = a+a-4-f
any row
a 2 a 3 for a l9 &2
Hence
1 1
125
C3
In simplifying determinants the following points should be carefully
observed.
one which
(i) When, as in the last part of Art. 11, a column (or row) is replaced by
contains the elements of that column (or row) all multiplied by a number h, then
the determinant is multiplied by h. For instance, if the second column is subtracted
from the
minant
(ii)
is
first,
and the remainders are put
in the second
column, the sign of the deter-
changed.
When more than
this kind, at least oni
one column
column
(or
(or
row)
row) must be
is
changed by a succession of changes of

unaltered, as in Art. 13, Ex. 1.
left
APPLICATION OF REMAINDER THEOREM
126
Theorem.
If the elements of a determinant A are rational integral

functions of x and two rows (or columns) become identical when x~a,
then x-a is a factor of A
12.
can be expressed as a polynomial in x, and

so that the result follows by the Remainder theorem.
For
(is
Again, ifr rows become identical when a

a factor of
For
K)/
J=0
when x = a;
is substituted for x, then
(x
- a) r ~ l
A.)
rows can be replaced by rows in which the elements

hence
are the differences of corresponding elements in the original rows
x - a is a factor of all the elements in each of these (r - \ ) substituted
r
of these
rows
and the
13.
result follows.
Examples.
The determinant
in question
Expanding with reference to the bottom row,

J =19( - 19 13 + 23 31) -f 5(19
.
[In the
first
step, the 3rd
is
column
taken
denoted by A.
+2 31)^10209.
from the 2nd to form a new 2nd column,
.
11
taken from the 3rd to form a new 3rd column, and twice the 1st
taken from the 4th to form a new 4th column. In the second step, six times
the 1st column
column
is
is
the 3rd column
is
is
taken from the
1st,
the 3rd
is
subtracted from the 2nd, and the
4th added to the 3rd.
Ex.
2.
Prove that
1
If
a/?, two columns
Similarly
ft
y, etc.,
in
-)(-)(
-8) (0-8)(y -8).
are identical, and consequently a-/?
are factors.
is
a factor of J.
Hence
Since J is of the sixth degree in a, /?, ... , k is independent of th^se quantities. Now
the term j5y 2 S 3 occurs in J, and on the right-hand side the coefficient of this term is
- k, therefore k ~ - 1.
METHODS OF EVALUATION
Ex.
3.
//
a cube
oj is
root of unity, prove that
a -f&eo +c<o
127
is
a factor of
cab
Hence show
To the
that the determinant is equal to
first
column add
CD
times the second and
4 bat + co>
wz
times the third, therefore
6-f cco-foco 2
o2
4 6o> 2
ct
a
|
C 4- #cu
jab
a4&o>4co> 2
.*.
The
Ex.
2.
This method applies
to
is derived
are factors.
a determinant of any order in which the second row

the third from the second, and so on, by a cyclic
the first,
from
and a
a factor of J, similarly
is
rest follows as in
substitution.
Ex.
Prove that
4.
(6-fc)
(c+a)*
(&4c)
a 2 -(&4c) 2
c2
a2
(a
Subtracting the
sum
of the
second and third rows from the
-6
be
2(a-f6+c)
b*
and taking 2 outside,
first
6c
bc
+ ba
a+b -
In the
last step the first
column
is
ac
added to b times the second_ajid to
third, which is equivalent to multiplying by be
Alternatively.
If
we
substitute
+ bc
c times the
for a,
=0;
hence a
is
Again,
a factor
if
and
(6 4- c) is
similarly b
and
(-a)
62
c2
and
in this there are three identical
factor of J.
are factors.
substituted for a,
2
a2
(-6)
c2
a2
a
62
(
- c) 2
columns; hence, by Art.
12,
(a
4-
b -he) 2
is
RULE OF SARRUS
128
Hence, since
is
of the sixth degree,
the remaining factor necessarily being of the first degree and symmetrical, since the
cyclic substitution (a, 6, c) gives a determinant equal to A.
Putting o =
whence
l, b
= 1, c~l, we have
4
= 27iV,
2.
EXERCISE XV
A.
1.
The
SIMPLE EVALUATIONS
positive terms in the expansion of (aj}.^) are
fliVa*
Hence the
rule of Sarrus,
which
is
btCMz,
as follows
Negative
terms
Cjtta&a.
:
'2->
V*/
^r
a2 b,c 3j.--'
a3.'3 ' C a3
"3.
3^
The determinant (!^ 2 C 3)
D=P-N
is
the
sum
of the products of the three elements lying
on each of the six lines in the above diagram on the left, the sign of the product
- according as the line which determines it is drawn downwards or
being -f or
upwards, proceeding from left to right.
A more convenient way of using the rule in numerical cases is shown on the
right.
2.
3.
Apply the
Show
rule of Ex. 1 to
show that
= abc -f 2fgh - a/2 - bg* - ch 2
that, in the expansion of (î
following terms occur
-f c
and that the other
positive terms are obtained
from these by the substitution
SIMPLE EVALUATIONS
129
any term in the expansion of (a^Ca ...) and another term T' is
T by a cyclic substitution involving r letters, the order of the
suffixes being unchanged, then T and T' have the same sign, or opposite
signs, according as r is odd or even. [Exx. 1 and 3 are instances.]
4. If
is
derived from
5.
In the determinant (a 1 6 a c 8
Z ), the
î>
sign of the term a w 6 n _ 1c w _ 2
M
second diagonal has the sign -f if and only if n is of the form 4k
. . .
forming the
or 4& + 1.
6.
'
'
show that the terms
In the expansion of (a
-f
aj
occur.
7.
show that the terms
In the expansion of
4-
a 26 4c 6^ 1 e 8/
occur.
8,
10.
Expand
the following
Prove that
is
-^-M^-f m +nz )-t(L l
equal to
where
11.
L lf
Jlf2 ,
are the cofactors of
1 19
m^,
n3
in
Prove that
I
a;
n
a;
y
values
whatever.
w
have
Z, m,
any
[From the first, second and third columns
where
fourth column.]
respectively take a,
/?,
y times the
ADDITION OF ROWS OR COLUMNS
130
12.
abe
Prove that
-6
-c
-d
-d
-c
[Multiply the rows by a, -6, -e,

13.
-d
new top
to form a
row.]
Prove that
1i
^
i
"*"
'
and that a
similar result holds for a determinant of the nth order
and of
this
form.
[Subtract the top row from each of the others and expand with reference to
the top row.]
and u ll =
14. If
o
2
[From the fourth column subtract x times the
and
the
second,
third.]
15. If
u=ax*
y*
.'y
ax + by
-xy
b'
c'
a'x
prove that
bx + cy
+ b'y
b'x
column, 2x times the
first
+ c'y
ax + by
a'x \-b'y
'
[Add x times the second column

column to y times the second.]
to
y times the third
then add x times the
first
16.
Prove that
a
ax 4- by
bx + cy
ax + by
bx + cy
[Multiply the
17.
first
column by
the second
-x
b
equal to
(x
by
z
)
2
(ax 4 2bxy
+ cy 2
-x
a~-x
c-x
-a -6 -c -d)(a? -a 4-6 - c +d){x* -
).
and subtract from the
y,
bed
Prove that the determinant

a
is
x,
= - (ac - b
(a
c)
(6
third.]
APPLICATION OF REMAINDER THEOREM
METHOD OF FACTORS
bed
B.
18.
x+a
Prove that
19. If 25 ~ a
x+b
x+c
x+d
+ b 4- c, prove
(s-c)
2
[Show that s'

and find
factor,
(.s-a)
6
(*~6)
--
6,
by putting a
A'
-a)
(s
are factors
2,
deduce that
Ns is
the remaining
&~0, c0.]
20. Express the following in factors

(i)
2
2
- a,
that
(a
-x*(x + a + b+c + d).
a
- a
6)
131
(ii)
(iii)
y
1
A-h/x
21.
Prove that
[Divide the
'6'
/x,
22. If
c/c'
bc'
ca
caf 4- c'a
c'af
ab
ab' + a'b
a'6'
row by
first
b'c',
= y, and use the
A-~y4-aS,
I
fA
b'c'
the second by
example.]
c'a',
the third by
a'6'.
last
prove that
fJL
A2
+ b'c
be
va
Hence show that the following determinant has the same value
23. Prove that
x3
a
By
a2
a;
equating the coefficients of x on each side, show that

1
au
a2
Put
a/a'
A,
COMPLEMENTARY MINORS
132
24. If
is
a root of #
= 1, show
that a
4- baj
abed
b
+ cw z + dw 3
Hence show that the determinant is equal to

- (a + b + c 4- d) (a - b + c - { (a - c) 2
d)
14.
Minors of a Determinant.
-f-
(b
is
a factor of
- d) 2 }.
The determinant obtained by
omitting any number of rows and the same number of columns from a
given determinant A is called a minor of A.
If
we omit two rows and two columns, the resulting determinant is

and so on.
from A we omit the rows and columns which contain every element
called a second minor,

If
of a given minor,
to the
first.
we
Thus
get another minor which is said to be complementary

(a 1 6 2 ) an d (c3 eZ4 e5 ) are complementary minors of
the interchange of rows and columns, any minor of A can be put

into the left-hand top corner, and then the complementary minor can be
By
seen at a glance.
15.
Expansion of a Determinant by means of
n o rs
its
Second
Consider the determinant
In the expansion of A, the
sum
of the terms
which contain a v hz
is
and the sum of those which contain a 2 b l is - a^b^c^d^) Hence every

term in the product (^^(c^d^) occurs in the expansion.
Again, every term in A contains one element out of the first row and
one out of the second, and these elements have different suffixes.
.
Hence A
is
sign, of the
where the
rows
equal to the
sum
of all the products, each with its proper
form
first
is any minor formed from elements of the first two

two columns), and the second is the complementary
factor
(or of the first
minor.
The sign
of a
product
is
determined as follows. Take, for example,
EXPANSION BY MEANS OF MINORS

In the expansion of this product, the term
suffixes in the
same
133
occurs.
Keeping the
order, observe that
abcde
Therefore, in the expansion of J, this term occurs with a negative sign,
sign of the product is
and the
More
generally,
if
any two rows
of a
ar
br
cr
df
br
cr '
...
determinant
hr
... rif'
kr
...
kr
'
...
. .
'.
are
where hr hr belong to the sth column and kr kr to the s'th column, then
A -ZX - I) r + r '+*+*'(h r kr >) (the complementary minor of (h r kr >)).
>
The summation is to include all the minors which can be formed from
The sign of the product may be determined as above, or as
in Art. 7 by counting the number of moves required to bring h r to the
place occupied by a x and k r to the place occupied by 6 2
the two rows.
'
>
Thus, in the instance given above, the sign of
In a similar
way we can expand
(b 1 d 2 )(a 3 c4 e^) is
given by
a determinant in terms of the rth
minors which can be formed from any r rows (or columns).
NOTE.
In the
double-suffix
following convenient form:

is
sign
Ex.
It
is
1.
'
In
notation of Art. 20, the rule takes the

a rs ...) (complementary minor), the
(a>j> q
1 VP+^'t" *"+*+
Expand A = (a 1 6 ac3rf4
in terms of the minors of the rows containing al and a,.
easy to verify that
+(A)(to)
Ex.
2.
Prove that if
aiui
<>i
c8
c*
Pi
Pz
P*
nt
m^
rc 2
m2
Pa
Considering the minors of J, which can be formed from the elements of the first
three rows, the only oê not equal to zero is (a 1 6 ac a ), and the complementary minor is
Moreover, the term a^c^^m^n^ occurs in the expansion of J, therefore
Again, A
second and
is
transformed into A' by the interchange of the first and fourth, the
and the third and sixth columns. Whence the second result follows.
fifth
MULTIPLICATION OF DETERMINANTS
134
16.
Product
As a typical case
of Two Determinants of the

we shall prove that
bl
4-
Denote the determinants on the

a,
left
61
by A and
a^
4-
bl
same Order.
then we have
al
6,
a2
Cinvn
-1
-1
-1
-1
where the second determinant
the third column add
fourth column
times the
add L times the
Hence, as in the
last
JJ'H-1)
obtained from the
is
first
first
and
and
as follows
first
times the second
To
to the
times the second.
example,
2
.
I
+v
aj, 2
4-
-1
bfl
-1
whence the
result.
The product of two determinants of (he n-th order (n>2) can be expressed
in a similar form, and by the same method.
Second method.
It
is
aJi
4-
b^wii
a3Z1
4-
b3
The determinant A
required to show that
+ c^n-^
l 4-
is
c^
the
Â, where
al 2 4- b^w
4-
61
m3
a3
4-
63
sum
2 4-
bî
of 27 determinants,
two
4-
cx
of
which are
and
wliich are the
same
as
î
ai
c\
b2
a2
c2
and
b3
The second
of these is zero,
and the
first is
b3
equal to
With regard to the sign, observe that Iim 2n 3 is transformed into

by the same number of interchanges of letters as those required to change
a 1 62c3 into b^c^. This number is odd, and therefore the sign is
.
Of the 27 determinants, all are equal to zero except the six of the first
type, in which a's are in one column, 6 s in another and c's in the third.
J
RECTANGULAR ARRAYS
135
Moreover, for reasons similar to the above, (a^c^) is a factor of each of the
six, and the other factor is a term (with the proper sign) of (Iitn 2 n$), there-
J = (a
fore
6 c
(I
).
similar result holds for determinants of the nth order (n
= 4,
...).
17. Rectangular Arrays. A number of symbols arranged in rows

and columns is called a rectangular array.
If the number of rows is not equal to the number of columns, the array
is
generally enclosed by double lines, and is sometimes called a matrix.
Let the number of columns exceed the number of rows.
(1)
Consider the arrays
!;
Proceeding as in the
al
a2
li
"2
C2
last article,
fro
n^
Wl
I lit)
W
tin
we form the determinant
J = al + bm + cn
!
By
reasoning similar to that in Art. 16
This process
is
it will
be seen that
called multiplying the arrays.
determinant formed thus from two such arrays is equal to

the sum of the products obtained by multiplying every determinant which can
be formed from one array by the corresponding determinant formed from the
In general,
the
other array.
(2) Let the
If
number of rows exceed
number of columns.
the
from the arrays

a2
b2
a3
we form
||
the determinant
^2^3 -f
it will
63
be seen that
J =0.
J
b 2 m^
+ bm
22
This follows, as in Art. 16, or from the fact that

&x
62
b,
m
m2
w3
l
In general, the determinant formed by multiplying two such arrays
is zero.
RECIPROCAL DETERMINANTS
136
Ex.
// *r = a
1.
+ yr + 3r
prove that
^2
S3
The
first
54
two
55
^3
&A
S6
results are obtained
by squaring the arrays
1111
1111,
aj8y&
The
last is
Ex.
2.
y
2
y
j3
a2
S2
got by squaring the determinant in Ex. 2 of Art. 13.
Prove
that
2(a t - a z ) (o a - a 3 ) (a 3 - ^5(6! - 6 2 ) (6 2 - 6 3 )
This result
is
obtained by forming the product

a,
Reciprocal Determinants.
18.
where
îj,
l9
...
-2b 1
-26 2
Let
are the cofactors of a l9 b v
...
6j
622
^ = (^63
in A.
...
k n ) and
For reasons connected
are sometimes called inverse

with linear transformations, A v
19 ...
elements, and A' is called the reciprocal determinant.
(1)
//
is
a determinant of
minant, then
The .following
identities of the
A'
method
type
=A
applies in all cases.
al A l
is the reciprocal deter-
n ~~ l
Let A==(a i b2 c3 ), then using
+ fej JBj + c l C l == A
aA% -f 6^82 +
it will
and A'
the n-th order
c i@2
" 0>
be seen that
J
A
whence
it
follows that
J'= J
2
.
SPECIAL METHODS OF EXPANSION
Any minor
(2)
of A' of order r
is
137
equal to the complement of the corre-
r ~l
provided that AÔ.

sponding minor of A multiplied by A
As a typical instance, let J = (a 3 62 c3d4 ). We shall prove that,
,
then
.
We
and
(A,B<>C) =<LJ
if
2
.
have
A
A
c2
C^
7?
64
000
C4
ca
d1
c2
d2
c3
d3
c,
d.
therefore
and
The second identity
is
obtained by multiplying
11
jLjL-\
JLJ-\
juL
-^2
Oi
/y.
D
B
0001
AS
Two Methods
19.
C3
of Expansion.
reference to the elements of a
With
(1)
A by
and
Let
row and column.
^=
m
n
m
Let ^j,
jBj, ...
be the cofactors of a v bv
...
in A.
In the expansion of K, the sum of the terms containing r is Ar

every
other term contains one of the three I, m, n and one of the three V m', n'.
:
>
and
Again,
are complementary minors of
r
hence, coefficient of IV in
K=
coefficient of a^r in
= - coefficient
and
of a x
in
K
J = - Al
similarly,
coefficient of
mri
m K=
- coefficient
= - coefficient
Thus
it will
of c2r in
of c2
J = - C2
in
be seen that
Ar - {AJl' + B2 mm' + Cz nn
-f
4-
C2mn'
B3m'n + A 3nl' + C^ril + BJm' + A zl'm}.
DOUBLE-SUFFIX NOTATION
138
(2)
With reference
Let
a diagonal.
to
c.
/? 2
C3
x2
-f
is
+ #3^64 -f x^
# B2 -f
03 +
Note that the expression
x)
in brackets is the
sum
of
x^xâ^ x
terms derived from these by the cyclic transpositions
The
20.
in the
verification
d2
c2
be the cofactors of the elements in the leading diagonal
Crêfy? 4
7^4
a2
of J, then the value of A'
-f
K=
&3
Let
and
dl
Cx
&!_
a2
is left
xj) 3 c 2
and
to the reader.
Definitions.
(a&c), (123).
determinant of the nth order
is
often written
form
lw
Denoting any element by a rs the determinant is said to be symmetric

a sr = a rs
a sr = -a rs
the determinant is skew-symmetric: it is
If
,
if
implied that
the elements in the leading diagonal are zero.
all
For example,
if
a
h
first
f m
-y
is
symmetric and L
determinant is bordered by
the determinant
that the
is
I,
Ox
-x
skew-symmetric.
m, n.
We
also say
Symmetric Determinants.
21.
// A rs A 8r are the cofactors of the elements a rs> a sr of a symmetric

determinant J, then A r8 = A sr
(1)
For
A r8
Thus
is
transformed into
A sr
by changing rows into columns.
^ = (011
if
au
a 12
a31
a32
a*>.
OM),
Z
a21
32*
SYMMETRIC DETERMINANTS
(2)
For the determinants
J=
K=
139
f m
we have
the following important relations

(i)
EC - J 2 - Aa, GH-AF = Af,
where A, B, ... are the cofactors of

These follow from Arts. 18, 19.
etc.
a, 6,
...
in J.
Consider the following symmetric determinants
Let A, B,
if J=0,
K = - (Al* 4- Bm* + Cn*+ 2Fmn 4- 2Gnl + 2TZm),
(ii)
(3)
be the cofactors of
...
then
AK==Z -(Al +
Because A = 0,
...
a, b,
:'
We
in J.
shall
prove that,
Hm + Gn)*.
the coefficient of r in the expansion of
is
zero, therefore
- AK = A (Al* + J3m2 + Cn2 4- 2*W -h 2flW 4- 2ff Iro).
^J5-ff2 = Jc,
C^-(? 2 -J6, GH-AF=Af, etc.

Hence AB = H2 AC^ G 2 AF = G^F, etc. and therefore
- AK = ^ 2 Z 2 + #2m 2 + 2 n 2 + 2GHmn + 2^GwZ -f 2AHlm = (Al + Hm + Grip.
Moreover,
way we can prove that

- BK = (TZ 4- Bm 4- JFn) 2 and
In the same
More generally, using
the notation of Art. 20,
A n = (a n a22
...
...
and
let
A U) A 12
inA n r Then, ifA n _ l

A nA n
(A u a ln + A 12^2n +
.,
let
^ n -i==(a n a 22
a nn ),
the determinants being symmetric,
a 12
- CX - (67 H- J?m 4- Cn) 2

a n-i>
,
...
n-i)>
be the cofactors of a n
with similar values for
A 22A n AÂ n
,
A!, n _ 1 a w _ 1 n )
,
....
asr = ar8 A 8r ~A r8 and

(1), since
expanding
J w -i == 0, we have A n - - (^ n a ln 2 + ^ 22a 2n 2 + + 2^ 12 m2n +
Now, since A n _l = 0, every minor of the reciprocal determinant
as
For,
in
Art.
19,
(-^11^22
is
zero.
Hence, by
Using such
^n-l> n-l)
and AÂ^ÂÂ^.
(2), A n A 99 Â^
follows that A n A n has the value stated.
Art. 18,
identities, it
B.C.A.
SKEW-SYMMETRIC DETERMINANTS
140
The following
(4)
result is of great importance.
Consider the symmetric determinants
a-x
a-x
b-x
b-x
f
a-x
~x
J 2 J 3 J4
Denote these by
J 2 ^3
Jj,
Then
above type.
d-x
a-x, and suppose
Let A^
the sequence
be continued indefinitely by constructing determinants of the
>
b-x
f
f c-x
the roots of the equations
4=0, J 2 =o, J 8 =o,...,

are all real, and the roots of any one of them are separated by those of the
preceding equation.
A 1? A 2 (A 1 <A2 )
If
cise
XI,
x has the values -
oo
/x2 ,
/u, 3 ,
if
we have
/x t
x has the values
J4
are
so
Exer-
</z 2
=
3
^1
</n3
then AÂ^
+,-,+>->
fa,
are real
negative.
-f
/^2 ,
-f
Hence
.
in ascending
oo
is
are
is
negative; hence,
and are separated by those
of
Zl 3
= 0;
Skew-symmetric Determinants.
For
cofactors
For
(see
on without end.
22.
(1)
J4 =
if
zJ 3
and denoting them
<A
/^3 ,
oo
therefore the roots of
and
A x <a<A2
then AÂ^
the signs of
are real,
<A
Again, as in the last section,
the signs of
J 2 = 0,
A 1? A2 oo
JÔ
Therefore the roots of

order by fa,
if
then
2).
Also, as in the last section,

if
J 2 = 0,
are the roots of
skew-symmetric determinant (û

- n ~l A
rs
ofa rs asr then A sr = ( l)
the
A r8
22 , ...
a nn ), if
A rs A 8r
,
are the
A sr
by changing the sign of every element

and then changing rows into columns and since A rs is a determinant of
(n-1) rows, the result follows.
Thus in the determinant
is
transformed into
-c
-6
the cofactors of c and
c are
-c
-b
and one
of these
is
-a
1)
and
times the other.
-a
THE PFAFFIAN
141
Every skew-symmetric determinant of odd order is equal to zero.

For if A is a skew-symmetric determinant of odd order n, and A'
(2)
is
the
determinant obtained by changing the sign of every element in A,

A'
But A' can
= (-\} nA=-A.
from
also be obtained
thatJ'=J: whence
A by
changing rows into columns, so

For example,
the result follows.
-c
-6
(3)
-a
Every skew-symmetric determinant of even order
(i)
A n = (a u a 22
Let
. . .
J n ^ = (a n a 22
a nn ),
a perfect square.
is
a^,
n _ x ),
where
is
For n = 2,
even and the determinants are skew-symmetric.
12
*12
Let
^4
^4 12 ,
...
A n _l =
by the preceding
that a sr =
-a rs
... in J n
_!.
n
=
and A sr (-l) ~ 2A rs = A rs
be the cofactors of a n a 12
exactly as in Art. 21,
A ll A n = (A ll a ln + A
(3),
Since n
is
even,
Remembering
we can show that
^ 2n + ...+A lin _
a n _ ltn )* ................. (A)
A n is a perfect square, so also is A n moreover, A u is a skewdeterminant

of order n - 2
and it has been shown that such a
symmetric
determinant of order two is a perfect square, therefore the same is true for
Hence
if
those of orders four, six, etc.

(ii)
If
is
even and
J n = S n2
the value of 8 n *
is
given by the following
rule.
Write down all the arrangements in pairs of the numbers

Denote any such arrangement by (M), (Im), ... (uv), then
%n = Z(
a hlfllm
where the positive or negative sign

... uv is derived
from 1234
hklm
The term a l2a u
transpositions.
(a)
where
The
rule is suggested
A n A 12 A 13
,
is to be
...
...
a n _ lt n
which agrees with the

*
is to
or by
have the sign
J3
find that
rule.
Named
the Pfafflan,
an odd number of
when n = 4. By
Whence we
n.
taken according as the arrangement
are the cofactors of a n a 12 a 13 in
A 12 = -
...
a uv)>
n by an even
by the case
2, 3,
1,
by Cayley,
after J. F. Pfaff.
equation (A),
so that
VALUE OF THE PFAFFIAN
142
(j3)
n-2> we shall
holds when n = 4,
that the rule holds for determinants of order
Assuming
prove that it holds for those of order n. Then, since

it will hold for w = 6, 8, etc.
By equation (A),
Now J n _ 1 = 0,
therefore
it
Art. 18, (2),
by
Hence
etc.
by the rule. We shall show

that the signs on the right are alternately positive and negative.
The values of JA n and
Consider the product P ^m^^n a vn\JA J>v
are
rule
from
the
sets
the
obtained by
JAgp
where the values
of *JA n ,
.JA^,
etc.,
are given
2, 3, 4,
n-1
...
and
1,2,3, ...y-l,p
+ I,
...
n-1.
Moreover, every term in the expansion of P, with the proper sign, must
occur in J n
.
For clearness, the element a rs

If p
the product
is even,
will
be denoted by
contains a term
M,
(rs),
so that (sr)
which
is
= - (rs).
the product of
and
By changing the order of the numbers in each of the J(n - p) 4- 1 pairs

which are underlined, it will be seen that ( - !)*(*-*)+* jf j g the product
of elements (rs) in which corresponding values of r s are as below.
y
1,
2,
2,
3,
3,
...p-2, p-1, p, p +
4,
...y~l, p + l,
The numbers
those in the
n,
p + 2, 2> + 3,...w-2, n-1,

p + 3, p + 2,...n-l, n-2,
l,
p,
in the second line can be written in the
first
by %(n+p)
transpositions,
and
n,
1.
same order as
since
%(n-p) + l+i(n + j?) = n + l, an odd number,

it
follows that
value of 8 n
//
is
1)
numbers
is n,
It
of
<
is
a term in
Jn
so that
-#,> nNMj>j> occurs in the
odd, the corresponding process requires changes of order in

- 1) transpositions. Since the sum of these
pairs, and i(n + p
i(n -p +
rule.
which
is
even,
+a pn *JA p9
occurs in 8 n
thus
remains to be shown that the value of S n can be written down by the

It is obviously
necessary only to consider the first term in the value
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS
This
143
(pn)(l2)(34:)...(p-l,p +
is
or
according as
is
Now
even or odd.
the arrangement
+ l,
p, n, 1,2,3, ..._p-l,p
...
n-l
n by ^ + n-l transpositions. The rule

asserts that the sign of the term is + or - according as p + n - 1 is even
or odd, that is according as p is odd or even, which agrees with what has
can be derived from
...
1, 2, 3,
been proved.
EXERCISE XVI
A.
1.
If a
+6
-I-
=0, solve the equation
a-x
c
0.
c-x
b
2.
-x
Prove that
(&iC 2 ) (#^2) "f ( c i a z) ftA) -f
(0iW (^1^/2) =0.
[Use the identities

tti(6 lc 2 )
3. If (a l b 2 c 3
+ 6i(c
o2 )
)=0 and
+c
a 2 (6 1 c.2 ) 4-62(0^2)
(o 1 6 2 )=0,
(^62^3)
-f
=0, prove that
(& 2c 3 )
4.
Prove that
c a -fa 2
5.
aa
Prove that
- a2
l/(a +
6. If
ca
!/(&
+ *)
l/(c
+ a)
''Q'
where
is
the product of the denominators, prove that
03(^62) =0.]
144
7.
Show
that
c
8.
is
Prove that the
'
-(a + 64-c)(6-hc-a)(c+a-6)(a + 6-
c
c
skew
determinant
b
I
-a
n
x
am
equal to
9.
Prove that
10.
is
6-c
c -a
a -6
a + 6-f-c
=2(a + 6 + c){a6c
(6
c) (c
- a) (a -
6)}.
Prove that
equal to (a + l)(6-
1
lj
[This follows from Ex. XV, 13,

by the same method.]
by putting
+a ~
l
I/a, 1
+a
or, directly,
11.
Prove the following

(i)
(ii)
(Hi)
(iv)
- ax
by
cz.
- (ax + by + 02) (ax' + 6t/' + cz').
-6)(a + 6-c).
where 2*=
1/6, etc.
PRODUCTS OF DETERMINANTS
12.
145
Denoting the squares of the differences ft - y, y - a, a - j8 by

- 8, - 8 by I', m' n'
8, /?
y
respectively, prove that
and those of a -
/,
m, n
prove that
determinant A, when x= a
~
the same, then (x -a) p l is a factor of J
rows
become
(i) p
- a) p + ~~ a
(ii) p rows become the same and q columns become the same, then (x
a factor, provided that the common elements are zero or are divisible by (x - o) 2
14. If in a
ff
is
B.
15.
PRODUCTS
Write down as a determinant the product

b
is
y
x
y
X
Hence show that the product of two expressions of the form a 3 + 6 3 -f c 3 - 3abc
of the same form.
16.
Prove that
[Consider the product
17.
By
forming the product on the
a*
where J 1 =a 1 c 1 -6 1
1
,
c,
-26,
a,
c.j
- 2&2
Oj
I^^
left,
prove the identity on the right,
-^b^
etc.
24,
7 12
2J
/31
/,
2J 3
PRODUCTS OF ARRAYS
146
18.
forming the product
By
a+
ib
c+ld
-c +
id
a - ib
b'+la'
-d'+lc'
d'
ic'
V - la'
prove that
2
(a
H-
62
+ cz + d2
where l=(6c'),
19.
(a
/2
-f 6'
+ c'* + d'*)
m = (ca'), n = (ab')
V = (ad'), m' = (M'), n' = (ci').
2
2 2
2
Express (P + 2 4-3 + 5 ) as the sum of four squares by taking
c, rf and 2, 5, 1,3 for a', &', c', d'.
1, 2, 3,
for a, 6,
20.
By
multiplying the arrays on the
left,
prove that the determinant A
V
m'
2ir
m'
lm' -f I'm
n'
n'
nl'
Hence prove that
if
+ l'm
2mm'
mn' + m'n
Im'
+ n'l
ax*2hxy+ by* +-2gX'*r2fy + c
nl'
21.
+ n'l
2nn'
the product of two linear
=0.
Prove that
=0.
[Multiply the two arrays of four rows

||
al
a^
etc.
Prove that
(i)
...
1*1...
1
...
the determinant being of the nth order.

(ii)
etc.
MISCELLANEOUS THEOREMS AND EXAMPLES
C.
22.
-26 t
ab
a + nb
a + b.
a + nb
a + (n-
a+b
1)6
a + 2b
+ 2b
a + nb
a. (n-
zero.
mn' + m'n
factors, then
is
APPLICATION TO GEOMETRY
147
23. If
prove that u n â nu n
[Expand with reference to the bottom row.
Such determinants are
called
continuants,,]
(ii)
sin
Hence show
(j3
y) sin (y
f sin (y
(iii)
that, If a,
Use the
- a)
-a)
sin
(a
sin (y
last result to
y, 8 are
any
+ sin
/?)
8) sin (a
(/?
show that
angles,
y) sin
8) -fsin (a
if a, 6, c,
(j3
/?)
d and
8) sin
sin (a
7
,
b', c', d',
where
[(ii)
In
(i)
put
m = (ca'),
~ cos
z
(iii)
Let
a, 6, c,
circuits a, b,
c,
n=(a6
x = cos 2a 4- 1
2y + 1 sin
a', &', c', d'
sin(a-8)__
),
sin 2a,
d make angles
d and
8) sin (ft
6, c,
8)
= 0.
are the lengths
d are parallel to
LMN + Lmn + Mnl + NlmQ,
respectively, then
= (6c'),
8)
a', b', c', d'
of the sides of two quadrilaterals such that the sides a,
(y
2y,
a,
on
/?,
L = (ad')>
y = cos
2
y, $
M=
2)9 -f
= cos 28 +
(bd') 9
sin
sin 28.
with a fixed
N = (cd').
2/J,
line.
By projecting
lines perpendicular to d, a, 6,
_sin(ft-
c,
the
prove that
148
Prove that the equations (i), (ii) are respectively the equation to the
joining (x^y^, (x t y t ) and the equation to the plane through
26.
(ii)
2/2
Show
-0.
also that the last equation

'>__'*
A/
X/j
^2
"~
'i
Vi
*i
^2
2/2
^2
'3
2/3
23
be written in the form
may
41
line
<!/
Mj
#1
2/1
2/2
fi, C, Z> are four points in a plane and the lengths BC, CA, AB, AD,
are denoted by a, b, c, x, y 9 z, prove that these are connected by the
27. If ^4,
BD,
CD
equation
c2
62
z2
a
b2
a2
x*
z*
z2
-0.
11110
[Let (x l9
y^
(x 2 ,
y*
be the coordinates of the points.
y 2 ),
X2
l/ 2
-2z
Multiply the arrays
000
28. In a tetrahedron
by
a, 6, c, d, e,
sphere
is
...
the volume
is
F, the radius of the circumscribing
E.
Assuming equation
A B
A BCD, the lengths BC, CA,AB,AD, BD, CD are denoted
/ respectively
(i),
prove equation
where (x v y lt
Zj),
(x 2 ,
y2
z 2 ),
...
are the coordinates of
(ii).
and use the equations

z.i
Note the value of
this
determinant given in Ex.
)^c>,
11, (iv).
etc.]
CHAPTER X
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
1.
Systems of Equations.
variables x,
is
t/, ...
which
If
is satisfied
w=
is
an equation connecting the

...
then (xj, j/j, ...)
when x = x ly y = y ly
u = 0.
called a solution of
= 0,
If the
be a system of equations connecting x, y,
solution
are
said
to
be
have
a
common
con(x l9 y l9 ...), they
equations
sistent, and (x l9 y v ...) is called a solution of the system u^Q, v~0 ...
Let u =
0, v
. . .
. . .
Equations which have no common solution are said to be inconsistent.

Equations which are homogeneous in x,y, ... have the common solution
(0, 0, ...), in
which each
of the variables is zero
some other common solution
be consistent unless
but they are not said to
exists.
one equation of a system is satisfied by all the values of x, y, ... which

satisfy the others, the equations are said to be not independent.
To eliminate a variable x from two equations is to obtain from these
If
two an equation
free
from
Any
x.
result so obtained
must hold
if
the
equations are consistent.
To
exist).
solve a
This
system of equations is to obtain

done by a process of elimination.
all
the solutions
(if
any
is
Illustrations.
The equations x + y = 1, x + y = 2, which represent
planes), are inconsistent.

The equations u 0, v
So also are the equations
= 0,
lu
+ tnv-0
u~ 0, v = 0,
parallel lines (or
2% + 3v = 4.
are not independent.
Equivalent Systems. (1) Two systems of equations are said to

be equivalent when every solution of either system is a solution of the
other. In such cases we may say that one system is the same as the other.
2.
(2)
// a v a 2
are constants
...
MI
is equivalent to the
= O,
and a l ^0
w 2 =0,
...
the system of equations
w n = 0,
system
For any solution
a solution of the second and, since

a l is a constant (not zero), any solution of the second system is a solution
of the first.
of the first
system
is
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS
150
m, V m' are constants such that Zw'-Z'raÔ, then

=
is equivalent to the pair
equations w 0, v
If
(3)
I,
lu
+ mv
Vu + m'v = 0.
0,
For any values of the variables
the pair of
z, y,
which
...
satisfy
w = 0, v =
also
satisfy the second pair.
Moreover, any values of
x, y,
satisfy
m'(lu
which
...
+ mv) - m (Vu + m'v) = 0,
+ mv)+
l(l'u
- I'm) u - 0,
(Im
l'(lu
satisfy the second pair also
+ m'v)~0,
which are the same as

f
(lm
and
since
It
Irri
is left
-Z'wÔ,
these are the
same as w = 0,
Any
(5)
the two pairs
M2 = V 2
1/^2-^2,
But
solution of the system
^1=^1,
W2 = v2
the second pair of equations is equivalent to the two pairs
w1 = t;1
u%
= v2 and w2 = 0,
t;
= 0.
Systems of Linear Equations.
3.
the chief difficulty

(1)
is
formal proof
(2)
to include
The equation ax + by + c
6=0, eÔ, in which

is
all
In considering this subject,

the special cases which may arise.
has infinitely
many
solutions, unless
case there is no solution.
hardly required.
Consider the equations
excluding the case in which either

(i)
= 0.
to the reader to supply proofs of the following
a solution of
t>
The pair of equations uv = 0, w==0 is equivalent to

and v = 0, w = 0.
w=0, w =
(4)
is
- I'm) v = 0,
is
of the
form Ox + Oy + c = 0.
If (a 1 62 )^0, there is an unique solution.

2, (3), the equations are equivalent to
For by Art.
Wj62
-w
2 &!
=0,
- w xa2 + u<p t = 0,
<&
= 0,
INCONSISTENT EQUATIONS
(ii)
//
(a 1 62 )
= 0,
if
(ai& 2 )
= 0, we
For
151
the equations are inconsistent unless also
have w x 62 - u2 b
(b^) =0 and
Hence the equations cannot have a common solution unless (b^) and
c a
( i %) are
both
zero.
If (a 1 62 ), (ft^), (c^) are
(iii)
same, and there are infinitely

For in this case
all zero, the
many
two equations are one and the
solutions.
and
uâûâv
Hence any solution of one equation is a solution of the other, or else an a
is zero and a 6 is zero.
The latter alternative cannot occur.
For example, suppose that aÔ; then by hypothesis fcÔ and
a 2 61 = a 1 62 = 0, therefore a2 = and b2 ^0.
Hence the equations are one and the same.
uj) 2 =zuj)i
The case in which
(iv)
the equations are inconsistent
may
be regarded from
another point of view.
Suppose the
(6^2)
bja
We
&2/a
finite
y to vary in such a way that (a^-Ô while

then #-><x> y->oo and the fractions x/y,
,
equality.
=
say that in the limiting case when (a^) 0, the equations are
- fe a l or - 62 a2
x
by infinite values of x, y which are in the ratio
shall
satisfied
(3)
coefficients of x,
and (c^) remain

l9
2 tend to
Ifa^x + b l y =
and a 2x + b<$ = 0, then
either
x = 0,y = Qor
else
(a^) = 0.
Conversely, if (afi^^Q these equations have solutions other than (0,0),

they are consistent.
i.e.
This
is
a particular case of the preceding.
The following
Ex.
1.
=0
=0 or
and (a x c2 ) ^=0, then (6 x c 2 )

(o^)
satisfy the equations a x 6 2
aj} { =0,
//
For a lf a 2
results are required later.

else
a x =0, a a =0.
a^ - afa ~0.
are not all zero and

Ex. 2. // (a 1 6 8 )=0, (6 1 cs )=0 and (c l a 2 )=0, where a lf b lt
#2 ^2> c a are not all zero, then of the pairs (a l9 a 2 ), (b l9 6 2 ), (c lf c2 ) there is at least one in
which neither quantity is zerb.

For suppose that flÔ, then
6 t =0,
if a a =0 we should have o^ =0, a^ =0

which
the
contradicts
=0,
Cg
hypothesis. Hence, if aÔ, then
Ex. 3. Let A =(0^3) and l& A\> B

oe the cofactors of a lt 6j .....
A =0 and CB = Q, then either Cl =0, C2 =0 or else A B =0, B3 =0.
For we have
a l C l 4 a2 C 2 = 0, &!<?! + 6 2 C2 = 0, cl Cl + c2 O2 = 0,
and therefore
Prove that if
^=0, C2 =0, or else (6 1 c 2 )=0, (c 1 a 8 )=0, i.e. ^4 3 =0, B^-0.

Or thus: Using identities of the type (^^3)= Ja t it will be seen that
(OjBa), (C 2 A 9 ), (C 2 B3 ) are all zero. Whence the result follows.
therefore either
(Ci-4 t ),
LINE AT INFINITY
152
4.
Three Linear Equations.

0,
Let ^^(a^Cg), and
let
.4^
...
l9
be the cofactors of a x b l9
,
(1) //"<A6 equations are consistent, then
For on account of the
J = 0.
identities
+ a 2 C 2 -f o3 C3 = 0,
a l Cl
C^ +
we have
...
Hence, if the equations are

must have
(7 2
w2
satisfied
by the same values
of x, y,
we
AQ.
=
If A
Ae equations are consistent and have an unique solution except

when every C is zero ; in which case each of the equations (assumed to be
distinct) is inconsistent with either of the others.
(2)
For by the preceding, u l C l + u 2 C 2 + w3 <73 = 0.

(i)
// no
is zero,
the equations are not independent.
= and w 2 = 0, w3 = are
(ii) // CjL-0, C 2 7^0, C 3 =Q, then u 2 C 2 4- u 3 C 3
the same equation.
In both of these cases, since C3 ^0, the equations w 1 = 0, w 2 = have an
unique solution, which is the solution of the system.
= 0, C2 = 0, C3 9^0, then w 3 ==0. This case is excluded.

(iv) // every C is zero and the equations are distinct, each is inconsistent
with either of the others. In this case we may say that the equations are
(iii)
7/C'1
satisfied
5.
by infinite values of
The Line
say that the
x,
y which are in
the ratio
For the sake
at Infinity.
of
- 6X a r
:
complete generality we
'
equation/
Ox + 0y-hc =
represents the line at infinity.
w = meets the line at infinity
The
is
where
cÔ,
ideal point in
which a straight line

on that line.
called the point at infinity
Parallel straight lines are to be regarded as meeting on the line at infinity.
For the
lines
w = 0, u + k = Q
intersect
on the
line
Ox-f Oy
+ k = 0.
These
conventions enable us to include various special cases under one heading.

Illustration.
// u 1 =0, w 2
and
A =0.
then the necessary

at infinity) is
0,
u3 =0
(as above) are the equations to three straight lines,
sufficient condition that they
may
meet at a point (which
may
be
SYMMETRICAL FORM
6.
Two
Equations
in
Three Unknowns.
Ô,
........................... (A)
= 0,
........................... (B )
excluding the case in which a l9 b l9

(1)
Of the
three
153
(0^), (^2)5
or a 2 , 6 2 , Cg are all zero,
Cj
c i a a)>
that at least one,
oppose
say (a l b 2 )
>
is
not zero, then the equations are equivalent to
- %a 2 + u2a l = 0,
Wj&jj
~ wî ^
-(aA)y + (Cia2 )z=(a ld2 ),

-(b l c 2 )z +
........................... (C)
(a l b2 )x^(b l d 2 ) ............................ (D)
z, there are definite values of x and y,

and (c^) are not both zero.
If (6 1 c 2 =
and (c 1 a 2 ) = 0, then x and y have definite values and z may
have any value. (In fact, we have ^ = 0, c2 = 0.)
Thus in every case, by Art. 3, Ex. 1, there are infinitely many solutions.
Corresponding to any value of
provided that
c
(fc 1 2 )
(2)
(a v
Suppose
2 ),
(b ly
quantity
is
that
(a^), (b^), (c^) are
all
(See Art. 3, Ex. 2.)
zero.
Also
Then
zero.
6 2 )j (Cj, c 2 ) there is at least one, say (a l9
of the pairs
a2 ), in which neither
we have
tâj-wg^ss -((*&) ............................... (E)

Thus the equations are of the form 1^ = 0,
+ ^ = 0, where k~(a l d2)/a 2
and they are inconsistent unless k = 0.
(3)
In particular
it
follows that the equations
a i x + b^j
are always consistent
are equivalent to
(i.e.
-f
cz = 0,
a 2x
+ 6gt/ 4- c^ = 0,
they have solutions other than
(0, 0, 0)).
They
^/(b^) =y/(cl a 2 )=z/(a 1 b 2 ),
provided that no denominator
is
zero.
=0, they are equivalent to x = 0, y/(Cia 2 )=z/(a l b2 ).

= 0, then x = 0, y 0, and z may have any value.
(6^2) =0 and (0^2)
If (6^2)
If
(4) If (a,
j3,
y)
is
any solution
of (A), (B), these
may
be written
which are equivalent to
(x-a)/(V2 ) = 2/-^)/(c1 a2 ) = (z-y)/(aA)

(
provided that no denominator
is
=0, they are equivalent to
If
=0 and
(0^2)
= 0,
................. (F)
zero.
If (6^2)
(6^)
then x=oc,
y==)8,
and
may have any
value.
INTERSECTION OF TWO PLANES
154
NOTE.
Much
Equations
labour can be saved by the following considerations.

unchanged by the simultaneous cyclic substitutions (Oi6 1 c 1 ),
If then we make these changes in any equation derived from (A) and
(A), (B) are
(a*6 2 c2 ), (xyz).
(B),
the resulting equation will also hold.
from
For example, equation (D) can be derived
(C) in this way.
The Equation
7.
to a Plane.
The equation
(1)
represents a plane unless a, 6, c are all zero.

For the sake of complete generality we say that the
Ox + 0y + 0z + d =
represents an
(2)
to
Two
'
equation
dÔ
where
ideal plane called the plane at infinity.
= 0, w2 = be the equations
Eeferring to Art. 6, let
In general these intersect in a line, and we say that the
Planes.
two
planes.
equations to the line are 1^=0, u2 Q. The equations may be written in one
of the forms described in Art. 6, (4), where (a, /S, y) is any point on the line.
The equation to any plane through the line u 1 ==0, w2 = is of the form
u l + ku 2
where k
Parallel Planes.
is
a constant.
(a^), (b^), (c^) are
If
zero, the planes
all
^ = 0,
u2 =
do not intersect, that is to say they are parallel.

Hence the equation to any plane parallel to the plane ^==0
form ul + k^0, where A; is a constant. All this follows from Art.
We
is
of the
6, (2).
therefore say that parallel planes intersect in a line on the plane at
infinity.
Ex.
1.
The condition
whose equations are
that the line
(x-a)ll = (y-fllm = (z-y)ln
may
be parallel to the plane
is la
+ mb + nc == 0.
If the line
// also au + bp+cy + d=Q, then the line is in the plane.

meets the plane at (x, y, z) and each fraction in (A) is denoted by
where
2.
The condition
~~
may
and
If
meet in a point
if
(x,
lll
-a ) = 0,
/
m
/
then
~~
z)
= m/m
and
which
satisfies
value.
the last equation unless
Hence the
results follow.
whose equations are
'
m'
I'
- a') (mn' - m'ri)
the lines are parallel if
the lines meet at
r exists
may have any
thai the lines
r,
+ mb + nc)-faa
r(la
If /a-fra6 + wc=0, no value of

o + bp -f cy + d = 0, in which case r
Ex.
............................... (A)
+(f$- fi') (nl'
~
n'
'
- n'l) +
(y y') (lm' I'm) =0,
n/n'.
f
(x -a)/J=r, (x-<xf)ll'~r
mr~wV
4-(j8~^ )=0,
we have
nr-nV-f (y -/)=0.
CRITERION FOR UNIQUE SOLUTION

These equations are
by the same
satisfied
a -a'
P~p'
y-y'
(finite)
I'
m'
ri
values of
155
r, r' if
=0,
provided that (mri), (nl') (lm') are not all zero : but if these three are all zero, the
values of r, r' are infinite. In the latter case equations (A) are satisfied by infinite
values of x, y, z and the lines are parallel.
9
Three
8.
Unknowns.
Three
in
Equations
equations
i2/
~*~
ciz
Consider the
+ d-i =
.(A)
Let A==(a 1 b 2c3 ) and

Also
A l ^(d 1 b2c,)
let
On
let
19
ly
...
be the cofactors of a l9 b l9
A 2 ^(a 1 d2c3
...
in A.
J 8 -(
account of the identities
we have
and
and
Suppose
(1)
it is
u l B l -i-u 2 B2 + u^B3 ^ Ay + A 2y
similarly,
that
given by
We
........................ (C)
AÔ. The last identities show that if a solution exists

3= -4/J, y= -'A^/A, z=-AJA .................... (D)
can show by actual substitution that these values of #, y, z satisfy

Or we may use the following method, in which every step
the equations.
is reversible, so that verification is unnecessary.
Because
Suppose that
zero.
Because
that
2
(A^C^) =A ^0,
is
A^^Q,
to
A^gC^Ô,
so that no one of
U2 = o,
w3 = 0,
u^ = 0,
* It
2>
not
Ax - - A r
^ = 0, Jy=~J
essential to show that suffixes p, q r exist,

This step has been omitted in the text-books.
is
19
is
zero.*
B2 ^0 and C3 ^ 0, the equations are equivalent
Hence the equations have the unique

zero.
(A^B^C^
A B C3 is
the equations are equivalent to
In the same way, because

to each of the sets,
therefore at least one term of
%==0, w2 = 0,
solution,
Az= - J 3
- A-JA, -
such that none of A$ t J5a

See Chrystal, Algebra, Vol. I, p. 360.
all different,
Cr
B.CJU
is
THREE PLANES
156
(2)
= and A v A 2 A 3
If A
are not all zero, the equations are inconsistent.
For example, suppose that J 1 ^0, then
since
UiAi + UiAz + UsAÂv

it
(E)
follows that the equations have no common solution.

If we suppose the coefficients to vary so that J->0,
A v J2 J3
and at
least
one of
tends to infinity.
d
in
with
the
d.
d
large terms, we see that in
Neglecting l9 2
3
comparison
general the following ratios tend to equality
,
remains
then at least one of
finite,
x, y, z
A :B :C
x:y:z,
A2
lJ
J5 2
C2
A^
B3 C3
:
In the limiting case when A=0, we say that (he equations have a solution
(x, y, z) such that at least one of x, y, z is infinite and
x:y: z = A l B l
CÂ
C a = 4 3 #3 C8
:
A l9 J 2 A 3
are all zero, the equations are not all independent and
there are infinitely many solutions ; or else each of the equations (assumed to
(3)
If A,
be distinct) is inconsistent with either of the others.
uÂ^ + u 2 A 2 + uÂ 3 =
For we have
If no
(i)
A =
//
(ii)
(F)
the equations are not independent,
is zero,
AÔ, ^
7^0, then u 2 A 2 + u B A 3
= Q; and w 2 = 0, w3 =
same equation.
are the
the equations M 1 = 0, w 2 =
solutions which are solutions of the system.
In both cases, since
many
A.^Q,
have
infinitely
A = 0, A 2 =-Q, A^Q, we have w 3 sO, which case is excluded.

If, in the above, every A is replaced by the corresponding B or
If
(iii)
(iv)
C,
Therefore the only remaining case is that in which

minor
is
A
zero, and then every two of the equations are inconevery
of
or they are one and the same.
sistent
similar results follow.
Ex.
We
1.
// a,
6,
are unequal, solve the equations
have
1
a2
62
c2
<P
b*
and the values
9.
of y, z are obtained
Three Planes.
by the
(i)
(ii)
which
If
AÔ
(d-b)(d-c)
(a-6)(a-c)'
cyclic substitutions (a6c), (xyz).
Referring to 8, let
equations to three planes, then
x+y+z~I,
^=0,
w 2 = 0, Wg=0 be the
they meet in the point given by the equations in Art.
// A =0 and A l9 A 2 J 3
,
8, (1).
are not all zero, two of the planes meet in a line
is parallel to the third plane.
FOUR PLANES
(iii)
// A,
J x J 2 ^s
>
157
are a M zero the planes have a

>
common
line of inter-
section or they are all parallel.
Proof of
Suppose that
(ii).
Jx ^
We
0.
have
J 1 ........................... (A)
A l ............................. (B)
,
On account of (A), at least one A is not zero. Let A l

=
w2 0, w 3 = are not parallel and, on account of (B),
section does not meet the plane % = 0.
Observe that
which
all the
planes are parallel
is parallel to the line,
The truth
of
(iii)
follows
Hence we conclude
0,
then the planes
their line of inter-
to the line
w 2 = 0, w3 = 0.
from Art.
that, if
or else they hare a
infinity,
8, (3).
J=0,
common
a point at
which may be
the planes either meet in

line of intersection,
at infinity.
Four
10.
Equations
in
Three
Unknowns.
Consider the
equations
uâ^x + b^j + c x z -f d x =0,

= 0,
= 0.
Let
A = (îâ^) an ^
^ î>
BI>
^ e ^he cof actors
If the equations are consistent, then

For, as in Art. 4, (1), we have
(1)
of a l9 b
...
A =0.
u l D 1 + w 2 D2 + w 3 J53 -f ^4^4 = d
(2)
//
A =0,
Âe equations are consistent
when every D is
and have an unique
solution except
zero.
This follows from the identity

== 0.
is zero, the equations are inconsistent, but they are

// every
as
having a common infinite solution, unless every minor of
regarded
(3)
to
be
is
which case there are infinitely many solutions.

explained with reference to four planes in Exercise XVII, 17.
The methods already described apply to systems of linear equations con-
zero, in
This
is
necting more than three variables,
and lead to
similar results.
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
158
EXERCISE XVII
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

1.
Solve by means of determinants
x-y + z~Q,
2x 4- 3y - 5z = 7,
3x - 4y - 2z = - 1.
(i)
(ii)
y+z ~
1,
3y- 22 4-3^
2.
With regard
to the equations
4x 4- 7y - 142 = 10,
show that the
first
l(2x
and
find
3.
n.
2# + 32/-4z= -4,

4-
3y - 4z) + m (x + y + z)
= n,
Hence show that the equations are
inconsistent.
With regard to the equations

4x + ly- I4z = -24, 2x + 3y-4z~ -4,
first can be put in the form
x + y + z6,
show that the

and
find
m.
4. If x, y, z
Hence show that the equations are not independent.

are not
ax
all
-f-
zero
where
-f-
63
+ c 3 H- 3a&c ==
Having given the equations

x cy + bz, y
x, y, z are
not
az + cx,
-a 2 )î/ 2 /(l -b 2 )^z 2 /(l -c 2
x*j(l
Having given the equations

a = b cos C c cos J5, 6 c cos
-f-
deduce the following
A -f-cos
26c cos A
6
and
8.
Having given that

=1
a? 4- y 4-
prove that
.4
+a
cos
).
=a
cos
b cos
jE? -f-
cos 2
7.
bx + ay
prove that
all zero,
and
6.
bx -f cy -f- az ~cx -}~ ay + bz = 0,
a3
prove that
5.
and
by + cz
jftH-cos
-he 2
- a2
(74-2 cos
,
^4
a/sin J.
cos
B cos (7
=6/sin
J5
1,
=c/sin 6
ax + by + cz=d, a zx 4- 6 2t/ 4- C 2z = cZ 2
a 3 x 4- 6 3 ?/ 4- c*zd 3 -(d-a)(d- b) (d - c)
a*x + b*y + c*z= d* ~(d -a)(d -b)(d -c)(
,
If the equations
cy
4-
bz
6~c
__
az
c
-f
ex _ bx + ay _ ax
4-
6y 4-
a -b
are consistent, prove that either
a + b + c~Q .or (b -c)(c -a)(a -b)=abc.

[Put each fraction equal to k and eliminate x, y, z, &.]
^4,
9. If the three
that
equations of Art. 8 are distinct and
J 2 =0 and J 3
[Since
therefore
unless b 1
:
are consistent
if
Cj
=6 2
c2
=63
A =0 and Ji=0, show
if
ca .
d=Q, A l A^: A 3 =B l Bz B3 and since d l A l +d<

J 2 = d l Bl + dpB2 + d3 Bz =Q unless
^4 2 ^ 3 are all zero.]
:
10. If the equations
Also
.159
xby + cz + du,
y~cz + ax + du,
uax + by + cz
z=ax-\-bydu,
and no one of a, 6, c, d is equal to - 1, then
a= -
1,
then one of 6,
c,
is
equal to
1.
[Ex.
XVI,
10.]
Using the notation of Art. 8, show that if t* l =0, u 2 =0, w 8 =0 are the equations to three straight lines, the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle formed by
11.
them
are
triangle
12.
(4, |),
if
13.
(# 4 ,
2/4,
and that the area of the
|), (^, |),
i JVÂ^-
is
Prove that
if
cÔ,
valent to
and
^=0,
the equations
w 2 = 0, u^=0 of Art. 8 are equi-
A^
deduce the solution in the form already given.
Show
that the condition that the points (x l9 y l9 2 X ), (x 2 , y29 z z )

be in the same plane is
24 )
,(x^ 9
t/ s ,
may
y\
~
"i
2/3
23
2/4
Z4
n
^*
14. Using the notation of Art. 10, consider the lines whose equations are
U!=Q, 1*2=0 and w a =0, w 4 =0. It is required to find the equation to a plane
which passes through either of these and is parallel to the other.
therefore the required planes are
[We have u 1 D 1 +u 2 D 2 -\-u 3 D 3 -^-u t
~\=0 and
DÂ
15. Consider the lines
whose equations are
X-aS
S-ql/-j8Sm
n
Show
that the equation to the plane which contains the
to the second
first line
and
is
parallel
is
Deduce the condition that the

[The required equation
and aV + bm' + en' =0.]
is
may meet in a point or be parallel.

+ b (y - ft) + c (z - y ) = where al + bm + en =
lines
a (x - a)
16. Using the notation of Art. 10, show that if ^=0, % 8 =0, t* 8 =0, w4 =0 are
the equations to four planes, the vertices of the tetrahedron bounded by them
/'A
are the points
f^r> y^
the tetrahedron
jr)
>
is
**-A
/A
(jr*
ff
ID
>
77
>
e ^c
>
an(^ * na ^ tn
volume of
DDD
shown in works on Coordinate Qeom&try that the volume of the tetrahedron

whose vertices are (x l9 y l9 Zj), etc., is one-sixth of the determinant in Ex. 13.]
[It is
EQUATIONS OTHER THAN LINEAR
160
17.
be the equaUsing the notation of Art. ]0, let t^ 0, w 2 0, w 3 0, w 4

and suppose that J = 0, then
If at least one Z>, say D 19 is not zero, the planes meet at the point
tions to four planes,

(i)
(ii)
Suppose that every
D is zero,
then
(a) If all the fninors of A are not zero, the four planes are parallel to a certain
line, that is to say, they have a common point at infinity.
(/?) If every minor of A is zero, the planes have a common line of intersection
or they are all parallel.
For example, if
and we consider the planes u l9 u 2 i/ 3 Since D 4 =0,
two of these, say u l9 u 29 meet in a line which is parallel to the third.
Also, considering the planes, u l9 u. u^, since /) 3 =0 the plane w 4 contains or is
parallel to the line u l ~0, M 2 =0. Hence all the planes are parallel to the line
AÔ
x\ (6^2)
Given the equations

a 2 c 3 + a 3 c 2 - 26 2 6 3 = 0,
18.
a 3c l
= yj (Cjda) - zf (a^).
-f
iC 3
26^3
= 0,
a tc 2
+ a^ - 2bJ) 2 = 0,
prove that
gl
[Prove that
L lf
20. If
Jf ,,
a;,
~ 2&1
^ 2 (i
Cl
c i-î 2 )
-.
X= N
prove that
P
where
etc.,
are the cofactors of
y are connected with J,
1'
N X-N Y=L -M
given by
l lt
lt
etc., in
the determinant
by the equations of Ex.

#,
considered in detail in another volume.
The question of
Here we illustrate
various methods of dealing with systems of special types.

(1)
Systems which are symmetrical with regard
Ex.
1.
Find
to
y, ....
the rational solutions of
x *+ y * +558=50,
(y+ 2 )(z +*)(*+#) = 14,
3
ir'+^+z - 32^2 = 146.
If
x=p, Syz~q x\jzr

t
2
Z>
the given equations are equivalent to
-2g = 50,
are
^2 .
Systems of Equations of any Degree.

is
y are given by
= m v -f
elimination
and X,
t,
prove that the corresponding values of
11.
19,
pq-r = U,
p -3^-146;
SPECIAL TYPES OP EQUATIONS

whence we
If
- 23,
find that
p =2, then
Thus
x, y, z
I50p -f 292 =0,

- 60 and x,
giving
or
161
1
^147.
the roots of
y, z are
0*- 20 2 -230 + 60=0.

may have the values 3, 4, - 5 taken in any
order,
and there
is
no other
rational solution.
(2)
solution
sometimes be discovered by considering the properties of
may
a particular determinant.
Ex.
Solve
2.
x 2 - yz = a,
zx = b,
z2
- xy
c.
Consider the determinant
y
x
The
cofactors of x 9 y,
if (x, y, z) is
be
are yz - x", zx ~ y 2 , xy - z 2
in the top line,
z,
/.
Hence
3 - 3 - 3
z
3xyz - x
y
y
x
(zx~y )(xy-z )-(yz-x
z 2
)
Âx.
a solution,
-a 2
Ax, and similarly, ca
-b 2 =Ay
a, b, c, and adding,
3abc - a 3 - 6 s - c8 = A (ax
+ by+cz)
ab
-c 2 ~Az.
Multiplying these by
- A2
Therefore the only possible solutions are given by

~~
a 2 -be ~~b 2 -ca "c 2 -ab

It is easily verified
in
which there
(3)
Ex. 3.
is
no solution unless
+ 6s -f c3 - 3a6c)
are solutions unless a 3
by substitution that these
a, b, c are all zero.
change of the variables.

Solve
x(x-a)=yz,
Let x
*J (a
l/X, y
1/7, z
= l/Z,
X -YZ
2
z(z-e)=xy.
y(y-b)=zx,
then the equations are equivalent to
Y*-2
o
Therefore, as in Ex. 2,
where
the
first
a 2 -be,
B=b 2 -ca, 0=c 2 -ab,
and k
is
to be determined.
Substituting in
equation
\
k_(k__ a
&_
A\A
k =0, giving the solution
therefore, either
or
k (BC
~A
8
)= a ABC, giving k (a
y, z.
(0, 0, 0),
+ 63 -f c 8 - 3a6c) = - A EC
SOLUTION BY SUBSTITUTION
162
In
(4)
In equations involving
useful.
Ex.
the case of two variables x,
4.
x, y, z,
we may
solution
t'x.
is
+ bt + c2) -. x {i + mj),
x^Q,
if
the solutions are given
x 2 (a'+b't + c'P) -x(l' + m't).
by
+ mt)/(a + bt + d 2 ),
(l
2
(a + bt + ct
where
(V
tx,
2
m't) = (' + 6'e + c'J (Z + mi).
=
become cy* my, c'y 2 m'y,
-f
If x~Q and yÔ, the equations

- y
m/c. In this one value of < is infinite.
solution
7/a
(5)
sometimes
+ bxy -f cy2 = lx + my, a'x2 + b xy + c'ya = I'x -f m'y.

= tx the equations become
(0, 0), and if y
x *( a
Hence
write
is
Solve
ax*
One
y = tx
=
y tz, z
the substitution
x = x 1 ,y = y l
/.
cm'-c /m =
and
can be guessed, then a suitable substitution
...
is
"V
x ~~~ Ju\
*&r. 5.
One
-A-
"V
y ~~ y\
/S'o/ve
solution
is (6 -t-c, c -fa,
ar
+ 6), and
if
we
write
= 6+c + JT, y=c+o-l-7,
the equations become
Hence
if
none of the
three,
1
X, F, Z,
+ |__1
Z""
I
9
i# zero,
+ !___!
X~
Special cases.
If
This
JT=0,
gi ês
7=0
L_Î
X+Y~~
2_1_1
X~a b
'
with similar equations.
we have
c'
the only solution, beside the obvious one.
and
ZÔ,
then a=0,
6=0 and Z may
have any
value.
If
JC=0, 7^,0,
Z^Q,
then 6=0,
c=Q and
7,
^ may
have any values such that
7Z + a(7+Z)=0.
Ex.
6.
The
eight solutions of
x*
+ 2yz=a,
y*
+ 2zx=b,
z*+2xy=c,
.......................... (A)
are given by
where
-X"
and
By
=2a-6~c2v/(a2 + 6 2 -fc2 -bc-ca-ab)
k=>J(a + b+c).
addition,
From
where
(+i/ + z) 2 =a + 6+c,
/.
x + y + z-k.
the second and third of the given equations, by subtraction,
X~k~Zx.
SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATICS
Adding the second and third
163
and subtracting the
of equations (A)
first,
we
easily
find that
^V
A/
-
and solving
for
z
,
we obtain the values
Another solution.
=6+c-a;
stated in the question.
Equations (A) are equivalent to
-A
(say),
2
2
2
(x + w y + ojz) ~ a + o>6 + co c = B,
(x+uy +o> 2z) 2 =a + oj 26 +o>c = (7,

where
o> is
an imaginary cube root
of
1.
Therefore the eight solutions are given by
x+w zy+a)Z=*/B,
root of A and so for *JB,
x + y + z=JA,
where *JA
From
is
either square
x+a)y+a) z=,JC
............... (B)
*JC.
equations (B), by addition,

3a?= N /^+Z,
where X=*JB+>JC, and therefore
Also,
from the second and third of equations
(B),
%c
and
These
Ex.
7.
^^
results agree
Show
with the preceding
that, if the
if
we change the sign of X, which is permissible.
equations
(A)
are consistent, then
abc
From
+ 2fgh-af*-bg*-ch*=Q ................................ (B)
equations (A), by multiplication,
ax *(b*y* + c 2 z*) + ...+...+2abcxzy*z*=Sfghx*y*z* ..................... (C)
6V + c z = (4/
2 4
Also
- 26c) y*z2
with two similar equations. Substituting in (C) and dividing by x*y*z* (assumed not
to be zero), the result (B) follows.
Special cases.
(i)
If
Considering the original equations
z=0, yÔ, 3^0,
then
C2 a =0,
it will
be seen that
and c=0;
hence the equations become, by* = 2fyz, &y*=0, and
we have 6=0, and/=0.
=0, y=0 and 2^0, the equations reduce to the single equation c 8 =0;
(ii)
and thus do not constitute a system of equations.
Thus, if the equations (A) form a system of equations with a solution other than
(0, 0, 0), then the condition (B) holds.
If
COMMON ROOT OF TWO QUADRATICS
164
Ex.
Prove
8.
that, if
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 - 2yz - 2zx - 2xy =. 0,
and
no two of
x
then, if
(b-c)
a, b, c are equal,
z
xyz
"
(c- a)
(a~b
+ b 2y 2 -f c 2z 2 - 2bcyz - 2cazx - 2abxy
a^x 2
'
The given equations can be written
-ax + by + cz)
x(
+y-
Multiplying these by (x
find that
-by + cz)
-\-y(ax
+ by - cz)
(ax
z),
-f
+ by -cz)=Q,
z(ax
respectively
and subtracting, wo
xy{y(a-b)+z(c-a)}=xy{z(b-c)+x(a-b)};
similar equations can be obtained.
is zero, we may write
and two
z, y, z,
y(a-b)+z(c
Hence,
if
-a)k,
no two of a,
+x(a-b)=k,
z(b -c)
x~
are equal,
b, c
Hence, assuming
-~-
a) (a
~
2
-a(b~c) +b(c-a) +c(a-b)*

:.
none of
the three,
x(
k(b -c)
(c
whence also
that
j~
0)
ax -by - cz
(b+c)(c-a)(a~b)'
2
2
2
Zax(ax-by-cz)^X (b-c)(c-a)(a-b) 2a(b -c
.
-A 2 (6-c)2(c-a) 2 (a-6
and the result in question follows.
The consideration of special cases
is left
to the reader.
EXERCISE XVIII
1.
If (a,
ft), (a', j8')
are the roots of
u
prove that
a^^^-^^
and consequently
common
root is
the necessary
E=0,
and
R = (ac'- a c)
f
2.
Eliminate
x,
sufficient condition that the equations

2
- (ab' - a'b) (be' - b'c).
y from the equations
and show that the

(a, 0), (a', j3')
roots of the resulting equation in z are aa',

are the roots of
ax 2 + bx + c-0,
Show
have a
where
that this equation
a'x 2
a/3', /?</, jS/T,
where
+ b'x + c'Q.
is
f
a 2a' zz* - aa'bb'z* + (b z a'c + b /2ac - 2ocaV) z 2 - bcb'c'z + c 2c /2 = 0.
Prove also that the equation whose roots are a/a',

from the last equation by interchanging a' and c'.
a//T,
/a
//T is
obtained
SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
165
Solve the equations in Exx. 3-28.

3.
* 3 + 3^ = 8,
4.
X 2y + xy 2 + x + y^3,
5.
x(l-y*)=2y,
6.
x + y + z = $,
7. (y
*2
8
'
xy+(x + y)=2.
+y
l)
y(I-x*)=:2x.
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ^ 29,
+ z)(z + x)(x + y)=*,

9
[Put
2(x - l)(y -
(x
a;- 1
25
8
"
'
9.
10.
-=l6-xy,
^--^Q-xy.
x
12
l^
^ ---
15.
[(
a>
a z --y~
4.
i
y
-. _
-a z -x- a
?
l-p, and prove that
2 2 ==a
+ 2/"f z,
2
2:
4-a;
6-i-
- x 2 = 6 s - 7/ 2
yz + zx {-xy= a
2
+ y)(a? + 2)=o
[Put
18, ayz
-X(a-b) + a-b
z-f re,
- 22
etc.]
1_ d
A2
16.
+ (l-2/) 2 -(l-o:)(l-2/)(l-a: y),
a;l-A, y
[Put
i/
/,
13. (l~rr) 2
14.
-----4. y2
a y a a?
1
-
<2
11
C
~~
x=
+ by + cz= bzx + cz -f ax ~
19.
20.
= -_ = ..2
+ 0;
X4-7/-1
21.
22.
x(bc-xy)=y(xy~ac),
xy(ay+bx - xy) ~abc(x + y - c).
-x)=by (z-x)(z-y)=cz.
2
xy(c-z)cz 2
zx(b-y)=by
23. (x-i/)(2:-2)=aa;,
24.
yz(a-x)=ax
2
,
(y ~-z)(y
25.
26.
27.
28.
'
'
x+y=x' + y'=r,
112
112
=
--.
y'
-,
\ê + 1 + *Jy~-2 = *Jx -1 + N/jMh2 = 3.
x'
and
ELIMINATIONS
166
29. If
5a?
5t/
-2
pr0ve
y+\=x,
that
and
solve
the
equations.
30. If
-}-^
o
=~+
x
=a + b, show
that either
+ y=a + b.
(X+Y + I)(aX + bY -a-b)=Q.]
[PutaâJf, y=bY, zndshov?

31. Eliminate #, y, z
or x
-4-^4-1=0
b
--2)
from
---
and ax + by + cz-Q.
CL
x3 -y*~ y*-x*=a* and aM-y= -a, and a:, y are unequal, prove that
2
8
2
2
2
~
(iii) 3a (s 4-t/ )=
(ii) 3a -3a + 3a- 1 =0,
xy = a*(a-l)l(2a-l),
4
4
2
3
3 =
and (v) 3a(a; + t/ 4- l) = 2+4a
3a(z 4-y ) 2-a,
32. If
(i)
(iv)
1,
yV + (y + z)
33. If
2 2
a: !/ 4-
then will
(z-fir)
(x
Ayz -
+
+
+ i/) 2
+ A,
A2^ = l4-A and

Aa:y
-f-
x^y,
= 1 -f A.
111111111
__
__
__
34. If x, y, z satisfy the equations
__
__
y-\~z
__
y
_,
_._
__
+x
x-\-y
+ c a)=y(c-\-a-b)z(a + b c): and hence solve the equations.

+ by* -f cz 2 = 0, ayz bzx + cxy = and x3 + y3 -f z 3 -f Xxyz = 0, prove that
prove that x(b

35. If ax*
36. If a
-f-
+ 6-fc=0 and x + y + z = Q, prove
that
2
2
[Use the identities (6y + cz ax) = (bz + cy) ,
37.
Given that
a 2o: 2
and
Sh
etc.]
-f-
+ c zz 2 - 2bcyz - 2cazx - 2a6a:y = 0,
b 2y 2
W
38. Eliminate x, y, z
from
(
showing that the result
(x
+ y-z)(y+z~x)~bzx,
(y
+ z-x)(z+x-y)=;cxy,
is
abc~(a + b + c-4)
39. Eliminate x, y, z
41. If
a;
a?
4-t/ -f2
from
x + y-z=a,
40. Eliminate
a:
a
t/
-2 2 ==6 2
x8 + y8 -2 3 =c 3
xyzd*.
and y from
2
= l,
+ 2y 4-32=3,
a;
3o;
+ y4-2 = 3,
-8y-f52=
3.
prove that
CONSISTENT EQUATIONS
Show
42.
167
that the equations
are consistent,
and
x y
find
z.
and
x 2 - ayz ~y 2 - bzx = z 2 - on/ f (a; 2 + 1/ 2 + z 2 ),
a 2 -f & 2 4-c 2 = 2a&c + l and z a /(l -a 2 )^2/ 2 /(l -6 2 )=z 2 /(l -c 2 ).
43. If x, y, z are not all zero
prove that
Show
44.
that
z=c is a solution of
3
3
px* + #y -f rz = &M/Z,
if
a, ?/=&,
then
xa(qb* ~rc 3 ),
is
i/
= &(rc 3 -pa 3 ), z=c(pa 3 -gfc 8
another solution.
45. If
3/
7V
-(y + z-x)
*-
+ x-y) = -
(z
(x
+ y-z) and J-fw + n=0, show
46. Eliminate x, y from (fc~#)(c-t/)=a 2 , (c-a;)(a-i/)=& 2 , (a -x)(b
that
-y)=c
2
.
47. If the four expressions
u2 +
xz+zu),
are equal, prove that each
48. If x lt x 2 ,
... Xf,
2
2
z
2
equal to %(x + y + z + u ).
is
are all different
and
2
prove that
49.
(i)
x1 2 + xs 2 ~(k*- 4k 2 + 2) a:^.
from the equations
x
ax + by + cz + eft = 0,
a a; 6'y -I- c'z -f rf^ =0,
Eliminate
x, y, z,
-I-
x
showing that the result
&
-f-
c
-f
- + 6'
- + c- d'
T =0,
x
y z
+ -=0,
a'
-f-
is
L MN + Lmn + Mnl + Nlm = 0,
m = (ca
where
l-(bc
)9
L = (ad'),
(ii)
Use
this to prove Exercise
n = (ab'),
),
N=(cd').
M=^(bd'),
XVI,
25,
(iii).
[(i)
LV }
Prove that
...
...
(x*-t )yz
the unwritten fractions being obtained
(LMN). Now put x\
2
t/
z\
for x, y, z 9
...
v. ,
(y -z*)xt
by the
1
cyclic substitutions (xyz), (Imn),

in Ex. XVI, 25, (i).
Let # = cos a-f-tsina, y = cos -f t sin j5, etc., where a, j8, y, 8 are the
angles which the sides a, 6, c, d make with a fixed line. By projecting along
and perpendicular to this line, prove that the four given equations hold.]
(ii)
CHAPTER XI
RECIPROCAL AND BINOMIAL EQUATIONS
Reciprocal Equations.
1.
reciprocal equation
which possesses the following property

a root.
Let
a,
a xn
then
+ a^"-1 4-
a nx n
. . .
+ art^x*" 1 +
a reciprocal equation
is
(A)
any
root, then I/a is also
+ a n _yX + a n = 0,
.....................
(A)
are the roots of
...
I/a, l/)3,
Hence
is
an equation
be the roots of
...
/J,
a.
If
is
Denoting each
of these fractions
+ a x x + a = 0.
. .
if
by
and only
if
we have
k,
an a
so that
We
&=
1.
say that Reciprocal Equations are of the first or second types

+1 or k= -1, /&aZ i5 according as a r = a n _ r or a r = ~a n _ r
according as k
shall
=
/or r 0, 1, 2,
Theorem
...
n.
TAe
reciprocal equation of the first
Let f(x)
=a
x n + ajX**" 1
of the first type,
xnf (
\3//J
-f
Therefore/(z)
(z
is
2m + 1
-f
an =
be a reciprocal equation.
that of
// this
2m + 1. Then
+ 1) 4-a 1 x(a;
divisible
by x -h
2m ~ 1
1,
+ 1) +
and
if
may be
m
+a mx (x + 1) = 0.
the equation
...
</>(x)
+x
=
is
is
is
written
the quotient,
x+
X
hence $(x)
=/()
Let n be odd and equal to
=
f(x) a
any reciprocal equation depends on

type and of even degree.
solution of
a reciprocal equation of the
first
type of degree 2m.
TYPES OF RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS

Iff(x)
Let n = 2w +
xn
of the second type,
is
/( x/
169
-/(#)
Grouping the terms as before, we can show that /(x)
1.
2m (-} =
by x 1, and that, if <(x) is the quotient, then x
with the same result as before.
= ~a m
Again, if n = 2m, since a r ~ -a 2 m-r> ^ follows that a m
therefore a m = Q.
Hence the equation may be written
divisible
<
/(x)
=a
(x
Therefore /(x)
1)
+ a 1 x(x 2 - 2 -
divisible
is
equation
We
the
of the first
if
<f>(x);
and
+a m _ 1 m -1 (x 2 - 1) = 0.
tf
<^(x) is
the quotient,
in every case the solution of /(x)
=
</>(x)
...
2
by x -!, and
Thus
1)
is
type and
say that a reciprocal equation

type and of even degree.
depends on that of a reciprocal

even degree.
of
of the standard
is
form when
it is of
first
Theorem
The
2.
solution of a reciprocal equation of the first type
and of
2m
degree
depends on that of an equation of degree m.
Let the equation be
-1
a x2m 4- fljX 2
4 ax + a = 0.
4. . .
Dividing by
xm
this
may
be written
1 \
Let x f
-^=z
and x r +
xr
=t/ r so that
,
1\2
u*=z
+ -) -2 =
,
A
.(A)
.
then
-2.
x/
x+
Also
= 3,
and so on.
Thus equation
z 1 is
= ^ + -r ) + (x*~* -f -i-A
+ -^
^xv V
x 1 /) f\
xr 2 /
7
"-
wr = 2w
therefore
Putting
} (x'~
x/\
4,
...
in succession,
(A) can be expressed as an equation of degree
one of its roots, the corresponding values of xare given by
a?
m in z, and
if
- z^x + 1=0.
THE BINOMIAL EQUATION
170
The reader may
verify that
#*.
Solve 6s5
1.
One
root
is
w 8 = z8 - 8z6 + 20s4 - 16z2 + 2.
- 7z,
14z 3
1*4 - 33** - 33z 2
4- 1
Dividing by x +
1.
+ 1 1* + 6 = 0.
we have 6x4 + 5z3 - 38x2 + 5x + 6 =0.
1,
2
Dividing by # and grouping the terms,
If 2
= 3; + -,
this
.".
Whence we
becomes
find
a;
2"
6(z
an d x
or ~^sr
= 2,
|,
-3
that
-2)+5z-38=0,
i8
gi y ^ n
hy
x-\
The Binomial Equation x n -1=0.
(1)
If a
(2)
//
common
For
is
root of
xn -
prime
to n,
ar
so aZso is
=0,
=|- or
Thus the roots are -1,
or ~J.
2.
is
is
iÂere r is
2, |,
any
-3,
integer.
m -l=0 and xn -l=0 have no
the equations
root except 1.
if
is
common
positive integers.
can be found so that

If n
n roots are
(3)
then a pm = l and afln = l, where p, q are any

pm ~qn = 1, and since
is prime to n, j9 and 5
root,
Therefore
(x.
pm-qn=
(See Ch.
1.
a prime number and a
is
1, a,
2
,
...
a*
is
I, 4, (3).)
any imaginary
Hence a = l.
root of
xn -
=0, $e
"" 1
.
For every one of this set is a root and no two of them are equal. For
a
a~ =
l, and the
suppose that the two a and of (a>b) are equal. Then a
n
b
=
=0
and
x
1
o^~
l
have
a
common
This is
root.
equations
imaginary
- 6.
is a
for
and
n
is
thus
n
to
a
l<a 6<w,
impossible
prime
prime
fe
If
(4)
of
xn
n=pqr
1 =
...
are the
wAere p, q,r,
...
are primes or powers of primes, the roots
n terms of the product
a root o/x p -l=0, jS o/a?-l=0, yo/xr -l=0, ete.

Take the case of three factors p q, r similar reasoning applying in
where a
is
cases.
Any term
of the product, for instance
(a
and
similarly
(/J )
=* 1
and (y )*
= 1.
/?}/ , is
= (a*) a *r = l,
a n
5
a root.
For
all
SPECIAL ROOTS
any two terms are equal,
If
w hich
=0
and
since
aj8 y
--htsin -
where
xn -
of
prime to
is
have no common root except 1.

(5) As explained in Ch. V, 17, the roots
cos
if
instance,
=a
&/
'^9
c/
impossible, for jg*-*y-' is a root of z
is
^ft-fty-c'â'-a^
and oca '~ a is a root of x p
for
171
6
= 0,
/x
qr,
=0
>
-l=0
these equations
are
w-1.
-i
1, 2, ...
The imaginary roots are therefore
2r7T
cos
2riT
sin
= l,
.,
where
according as n is odd or even.

If x n - 1 is divided by x - 1 or x* the quotient, then <f>(x)Q
is
<f>(x)
or
...
2,
according as n is odd or even and

a reciprocal equation, and if this is
is
transformed by the substitution z = x + -, the values of

x
o
2 cos
r = l, 2,
If r is less
(1)
v
'
= 0,
same
but
to
than n and prime
r
i
.-
I or,
1
is not
type.
TH
-.
&
&
-n
,,
sm
2rn\ m
cos
Therefore
divisible
by
rm
is
n.
This
where
1,
2rm7T
2rm?r
---sm ---- = 1
h
Definition.
is
by
and since n
n,
of
xn -
The
roots of
special
r
prime to
number
#w -
1=0
is
and of
degree,
the
m<n,
is
prime to
r,
must be
is
not a root of an equation of
called a special root of the equation.
are cos
--hi sin
n
where
r<n and
-l=0 has <f>(n) special roots, where <f>(n)

numbers less than n and prime to n, including unity.
and prime to n then n -- r is prime to n, and therefore
n.
n
Thus, x
is
the
of
r<w
2f7T
cos
db
sin
2r7T
are special roots. These can be arranged in pairs, fa,

-j,
so that they are the roots of a reciprocal equation.
a root of
m<n.
=0 which
the same type and of lower degree
2rir
-is
.
sin
impossible, for
Any root
divisible
then
-2rrr
then cos
n,
any equation of lower
root of
2r7r
cos
if
If
or
...
z are
n
Special Roots of x -1 -0.
3.
xn -
10
v
where
M-
71-1
rt
fj8,
^J,
^
etc.,
B.C.A.
SOLUTION OF BINOMIAL EQUATION
172
a special root of x n - 1 =0, the n roots are 1, a, a 2 ... a 71 1

For every one of the set is a root. And if two of them are equal, for
~
a
b
then a a b = l, so that a is a root of x~ b = l. This is
instance, if a =a
""
If QL
(2)
is
>
impossible, for the last equation
c, ...
=0.
xn -
I =0, the
complete set of special roots is
are the numbers less than n and prime to it,
root of
//a is any special

a ac ... where a, 6,
(3)
than xn -
of lower degree
is
including unity.
a is any number less than n arid prime to it, the remainders when
3a
... (n-l)a are divided
a, 2a,
by n are the numbers 1,2,3, ... w-1,
taken in some order or other (Oh. I, 10). And since a n 1, it follows
~
that every number in the set oc a a 2a a 3a ... a (n 1)a occurs somewhere
in the set a, a 2 a 3 ... a n-1
Therefore a a is a special root.
For
if
4.
The Equation x n -AÔ.
(1)
Let
A =a(cos a +
(
\
are
^/a
For by De
its n values are
2r7rl
-h
where
J-,
then the roots of x n -
|,
-ft sin
where a =
sin a),
a + 2r7i
cos
= 0,
_
1, 2, ...
o,.
it
cos
1.
----
4- i
------
sin
cos
n values of
Â may
a\
-f i
sm -
cos
n/
-n
r?r
sin
h t
he found by multiplying
roots of xn
+ 1 =0
are
This
is
---------i-ivsm
Solve x 5 -
Ex.
1.
real root is 1.
~0.
Deduce
where
obtained by putting a^=l, a
The
= A(),
cos
The values
of
then
a;
22
-fz-1^0,
are
#2
is,
54
TT
.'.
cos -
=coa 0JO
36
s/5
^-- +
1.
,+ai-f
-f
--
+ 1 =0.
a:
2-|(-ls/5).
giving
cos - o
Therefore the values of z are 2 cos
n ~
30 and cos 72.
or-
2=3 + -
1, 2, ...
1,
x*+x*+x* + z + 1 ~0, that

Let
in (J).
77
the values of co#
Dividing by x
sin
=1
2)
--
5
l
and 2 cos
,
and
Now
55
54
.
2?r
cos --
72
=cos ,,^0
cos
V "-!
= ^-
),
any value of
by the n-th roots of unity.
The
and
r,
all different.
follows that the
(2)
Moivre's theorem, this expression is a root for every
bmce
^4
- cos -;
SOLUTION BY QUADRATICS
Ex.
2.
the roots.
173
What are the special roots of a; 15 -1=0. Find the equation of which these are
Show that this can be reduced to an equation of the fourth degree. What are its
roots?
The numbers
< 15 and prime to

1,
The
2, 4, 7,
special roots are
cos
15 are
15-7, 15-4, 15-2, 15-1.
-~
sin
The non -special roots are the

The L.C.M. of x3 - 1 and x* - 1
(r
ID
15
roots of z 3 is
4-
(x
x+
= 1,
1
5
(x
2, 4, 7).
and xb 1) and
Therefore the equation whose roots are the special roots
x - x1 + ar - x*
8
+#
- a; +
-0.
is
=0,-
thatis,
If
ZX + -, this becomes
that
z*
is,
of which the roots are 2 cos
2f7T
(r
-r-^-
15
5.
- z3 - 4z 2 + 4z + 1 =0,
= l,
2, 4, 7).
The Equation x 17 - 1 =0.
this equation
Gauss discovered that
the solution of
depends on that of four quadratic equations.
This can be
proved as follows.
The imaginary roots
of
2f7T
cos
-=y
x17 .
=0
2f77
sm -y=-,
are
= 1,
^
where
rk
2, 3,
...
8.
Let yr = cos
then we have
--y
,
yn-r = yr
Also the
sum
of the
and
2yrys - y f+J 4- y r .s ...................... (A)
imaginary roots
is
1,
therefore
Equations (A) lead to an arrangement in pairs of y l9 y 2 ... yg which has

a remarkable cyclic property. Starting with the pair y^y^ we have
,
On
trial, it will
like result.
Let
then
appear that no y except y4 taken with

,
t/j,
will lead to a
EXPRESSION IN SURD FORM
174
It follows that
relation connecting a,
any
j8,
y, 8 continues to hold after
the cyclic substitution (a/3yS).
Such
By
relations are the following.
a + j3 + y +
(B)
8= -i ................................... (E)
Again, using equations (A),
ay -i
to* 2/1^8+
2/42/2
+w^^
ay = - -^ ...................................... (F)
therefore
Consequently
j88
we can show
Similarly
-^
...................................... (G)
that
16aj8=-l+4a-4j9, .............................. (H)

4a 2 =l+2 8 + y ................................... (I)
j
Then by
+ S = 2/x ............................. (J)
a + y = 2A,
Finally let
A+^= ~i
(E)
Also
4A/x,
= <xj8 -f jSy 4- y8 4- aS.
Hence by (H) and three equations derived from

stitution (a/?yS), we find that
2/2>2/8
+ j3 =
y ~2fy + y -0
2
+ 8 -0
2/ ~2yy
2/6,2/7
^/*
2/
2 y l9 y^ are the roots of y
Thus
this
by the
cyclic sub-
2ocy
2/3.2/5
Since cos
quadratic
(K)
+ 82/-iV =
decreases as 6 increases from
is that
which
to
77,
the greater root of each
is stated first.
Thus, starting with the last equation and working upwards, the values
of y l9 y 2 ... ys can be found, and then the roots of x 17 - 1 =0 are given by
,
-2^3 + 1=0,
Ex.
1.
etc.
Express cos
as a surd.
and
=
Also
and by
(I),
(34 -2^17),
g^
(34 +2^/1 7).
REGULAR
therefor.
cos --
17-GON
175
J^{17 +3^17 ^(34 -2^17) -2^(34 + 2^17)}.
NOTE,
The
(i)
cosines of
~,
...
-^=-
can be expressed in a similar form; the
surd values of the sines of these angles involve one more radical sign.
(ii)
It
is
(Ex.
XIX,
22.)
length determined by a quadratic equation can be found geometrically.

therefore possible, by the use of ruler and compasses only, to effect the following
Any
construction.
To
inscribe a regular 17-sided Polygon in a Circle.

be the centre.
Take the radius of the circle as unit of length. Let
Draw x'Ox, y'Oy at right angles, cutting the circle in A, A' and JB, B'.
6.
Let the vertices of a regular inscribed 17-gon be marked 0, 1, 2, ... 17, the
The ordinates y l9 y 2 ... ys of the points
point
coinciding with B.
,
To solve these geomet8 are given by the equations of Art. 5.

1, 2,
2 =
6
are
the ordinates of the
observe
that
of
+
the
roots
2ay
rically,
y
2 2
=
cuts the circle x + y
2ay + 6 =
points where the axis x
Thus to find the points (0, t/j), (0, y 2 ), ... (0, j/8 ) (two of which are
...
marked
The
t/ 3 ,
y5 in Fig.
27),
we have
centres of the circles are
to
draw the
marked
o>,
circles in the following table.
A,
/z,
The
To draw the
a, etc., in Fig. 27.
p are easily drawn, giving the points a,

last four circles notice that
circles co, A,
j9,
y, 8.
(i)
The
circles a,
j3,
y, S meet
y=0
at the
as diameters, respectively.
For, since the equation to the circle on
By,
same points as
the circles
on
J5jS,
J58, J5a
_
2
which
is satisfied
by
x=
*J
- f$,
J5j8
as diameter
is
~
/
.y=0,
we can draw
the circles
j8
und
y.
REGULAR
176
(ii)
The diameters of the
to the circles
j8,
circles a,
/3,
17-GON
y, S are equal to the tangents
from
y, 8, a, respectively.
For (diameter of
tangent from JB to
- j3) = (2jS + y + 1) - 4j8, and the square

Hence we can draw the circles a,
2/2 -f y.
Q a) = 4 (a
Q = 2
j8
of
8.
14,
Construction.
Along Ox take OJ^ÔA. Along Oy take

and radius oo7 draw a circle cutting yOy in A,
f
With centre co
With
p.
centre A and radius A J draw a circle cutting yOy in a, y. With centre ft
and radius /i7 draw a circle cutting yOy' in jS, 8. Draw the circle on By
as diameter cutting Ox in G. With centre jS and radius $6 draw a circle
f
cutting yOy' in
t/3 , j/ 5 .
Through y 3 y 5 draw parallels to x'Ox. These lines meet the given circle
and 5, 12 of the required 17-gon, which can be comthe
arc 35 at 4 and setting off arcs equal to 34.
pleted by bisecting
Or we may draw the circles a, y, 8 as explained above.
,
in the vertices 3, 14
177
EXERCISE XIX

Solve the equations in Exx. 1-9
1.
x'-Sx* + Ilx*-Sx+ 1=0.
2. x*
3.
2# 4 + 3z 3 + 5* 2 + 3a; + 2=0.
4.
2x* + x* -I7x*
5.
2x* +
5x*-5x-2=0.
6.
3x 5 - 10* 4 - 3* 3 - 3s a - 10* + 3=0.
7.
2z 6
8.
2z 7 -a;-32; 4 - 3^-0; + 2=0.
9.
-z 5 -2z3 ~a; + 2=0.
-f
l+(s + l) =2(* + :r +
2
1
[Write this x* + x-* + (x + x~
+ Qx*-5x* + 6x + l=Q.
+ x + 2^0.
4
.
I)
+ 2)*~2(x + x~ l + 1) 4 and show

,
that this reduces
to
10. If sn
~l+u + u + ...+un
where u n
un+l -Un
and
*n=-T-9-2
*j
xn +x- n and
z=x + x~
prove that
*n= wn-i- 5 n-.
Hence show that
+sn = 1
[1
11. If a is
2
n=
xn
+ a5
as
12. If
13.
15 the
JL
-10 depends.
and
(1 -ar)(l
-ar')=2-z.]
an imaginary root of # 7 - 1 =0, the equation whose roots are a -fa 6 ,

8
a
is
*,=3 + z -22J - 1 =0.
+ a4
is
The
a prime, the special roots of x 2n
special roots of
2T7T
The
sin
special roots of
values are
d-
x9
-1=0
2f7T
values are cos

14.
n+ l
equation on which the solution of x*
x~ n
cos -
sin -
where
x 12
)
by
12
[To find the equation, divide a; 6 L.C.M.
of
a;
the
x*
i.e. by
1,
L]
\
15. If a,
/?,
are the roots of x n
are the roots of x*
~ 1,
-1=0
that
-1^0
+ x* + 1~0, and
=0.
their
2, 4.
are the roots of
is,
-f 1
g-(N/3
by the
# 4 -a; a -f
=0, and their
t).
L.C.M. of
x2 -
1,
#3 -
1,
x*
1,
x9 -
1,
3
2
y are the roots of o# -f bx + cx + d=0, prove that the equation
1
l
l
*
whose roots are a-f-, 5
+ -, y-f a
^
y
is
+ (ac + bd)z* + (ab + bc + cd- Bad) z + (a - c) 2 + (6 - d) 2 = 0.

2
3
2
[Prove that adIJ{x -a;(a-fa- + l} = {(aa; + bx* + cx + d) (dx* + ex + bx + a)}, and
write (x* + l)fx=z.]
adz*
that there is a value of k for which x* - I5x 3 -&r 2 + 2

find this value.
and
1,
that
x*-15x*-Sx*
+ 2=0 has two roots a, p such that
[Show
16.
x*
4-
Show
is
divisible
by
kx -f
a/?
= l. Then
CONSTRUCTION FOR REGULAR PENTAGON
178
17.
For the equation x*+px* + qx* + j34-l=0, prove that

(i)
and only if,

2
4(g-2)<p <(itf+l) 2 and 2g + 4<p
the roots are all imaginary if, and only if, p*<($q + I) 2 and at
one of the two inequalities p*<4(q -2), p*<2q + 4 holds
the roots are
all real
if,
(ii)
least
(iii)
two roots are
x + x~
[If z
l
t
then
z*
-f-
and two imaginary
real
pz + q 2 = 0.
Let
z l9 z 2
or
i(z 2
&=i(i>/z7^4)
if (fg-f
I)*4(q-2). The conditions in question can now be obtained by considering
the equation whose roots are z^ - 4, z a 2 - 4.]
If
18.
// in
the last
all the roots
example
values of z are real, prove that
[For then 4(q 2) <p* <2q + 4,

19. If (x
l)*=a(x* -
1)
of the given equation are imaginary and the
p <4 and q<6.
and
etc.]
x^ 1, prove that
'
x~
2(1 -a)'
Also if 0<a> 16, the given equation has three real and two imaginary roots,
if a <0 or a> 16, the only real root is 1.
but
20.
Show
that, if r
is
any
integer, the roots of
(4r+l)7r
are the values of tan
2fTT
21. If
yr = cos-~ show that

o
and deduce the construction indicated

figure
for
inscribing
regular
in the
pentagon in
circle.
In the figure
OH=\QA, and
22. Prove that the values of sin
and
cos-^ are respectively
-^^
and
(I
-v'17-f N /(34-2 N /17)}--i N /{174-3 N /17
[Referring to Art. 5, Ex.
1,
+ N/(34-2 x/17) + 2
sin=V(i-~iy2) and
{!
+A-
CHAPTER
XII
CUBIC AND BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS
TheCubic Equation.
1.
The standard form of the cubic equation
is
w = ra + 3ta + 3cz + rf-0 ............................ (A)

3
If
bja this equation
where
= ay = ax + 6,
becomes
= ac-6 2
//
If 2
If a,
j8,
y are the roots
2.
is
+ 3//z +
6-'
................................... (C)
a -ft/a,
of (A), those of (B) are
fl
+ b/a, y + ft/a,
a/3 + 6, ay + b.
+ 6,
Equation whose Roots are the Squares of the Differ-
ences of the Roots.

equations (A) and
(B).
The differences of the roots are the same

Hence the equation whose roots are
(-y) 2
is
G=â*d
the equation
z
those of (C) are aa
obtained by putting
The
(y-) 2
>
= 3H{a 2
q
resulting equation
r = G/a*
(<*-)
for
2
,
in Ch. VI, 17.
is
aV + 18a4^
-h81a 2flr2 2;-f27(G?2 -h4Jy 3 )==0,
...............
(D)
whence the important equality

a6 (]3-y) 2 (y-a) 2 (a-j8) 2 = - 27(
4-4# 3 ) ................ (E)
It is easily verified that

2
.................................. (F)
A = a?d2 - 6a6crf + 4ac 3 + 463rf - 36 2c 2
where
.................... (0)
a (^-~y) (y~a) (a-j3) =->27J ...................... (H)
so that
The function A
is
+ 4#3 = a 2J,
is
called the discriminant of the cubic u,
and
the necessary and sufficient condition that the equation
have two equal
roots.
its
t/
vanishing
should
CARDAN'S SOLUTION
180
Excluding the case in which two
Character of the Roots.
3.
roots are equal,

possibilities are
(i)
and remembering that imaginary roots occur
All the roots
may
One root may
and then by
be real,
and two imaginary
(H),
in pairs, the
J<0.
and, denoting the roots by a,

A IIJL, we find that the product of the squares of the differences of the roots
- A) 2 + /it 2 } 2 so that A >0.
is equal to 4p,*{ (a
(ii)
be real
Hence if J<0, all the roots are real and unequal ; ifA>0, one root is real
and two are imaginary.
Also it follows from equation (D) that J7 = 0, 6r=0 are the necessary and
sufficient conditions for three equal roots.
Cardan's Solution.
4.
z=az + 6,
If
the equation
az + 3&z -h3cz-hd =
3
becomes
z
z = w*~
Let
Comparing
(B)
+ 3#z + #=0 .............................. (B)

z3
+ w*; then
and
(C),
.............................. (A)
- 3rwn*z - (m + n) =
m*n* = -H, m + n=
-G.
m and n are the roots of 2 + <#-#3 =0,

and we may take
m = J - G + >/(r2 + 4/73).
Therefore
................ (C)
........................
(D)
If
denotes any one of the three values of
the three values of
m*
are Q, ajQ,
<*)
Q, where
CD is
of unity.
Also, because
w* = -/?, the corresponding values of
-H/Q,
Hence the values
of
z,
that
is
ri*
are
-<*HIQ,
of
ax 4- 6, are
Q-H/Q, O>Q+4H 8 <0, all the roots
NOTE. If C? 2
of the cubic are real, but Cardan's solution
them in an imaginary form, which is very unsuitable for practical purposes.*
In this case a solution can be easily obtained as follows.
gives
5.
Trigonometrical Solution when
G 2 +4H 3 <0.
Taking the
equation
z3
when
6r
+ 4Jff <0, a
+ 3Hz 4-0=0,
solution can be obtained
This
is
sometimes called the
................................. (A)
by using the equation
irreducible cote.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ROOTS

If cos
30
is
known, cos
determined by
is
0-i cos 30 =
cos 3 0-f cos

z = q cos 0,
Let
181
(B)
so that
cos 3
Equations (B) and
3ff
q*
+ ^-cos0+
2
-^
(C)
'
v
(C) are identical if
ff
= 2V-# and cos30-~-~=

3
2>/-/P
Now
G?2
<If
equation.
ifif
is
3
,
and so a
(D)
,___..
can be found to satisfy the last
real value of
any such value, the roots of (A) are

^27T
jcosl
^x.
1.
reduced
+ 3&# 2 + 3cx + d =0
3
// all the roots of ax
are reai, a/iow
tJiat
the equation
can be
to
3-j-f^=0,
where
27/x
<4,
xp
+ qt, where p and q are

by a substitution of the form
If z = ax + 6, the equation becomes z 3 - 7b + Q = 0,
A= -3#=3(6 2 -oc).
where
-aj
real.
Since aU the roots are real,
+4# 3 <0,
/.
#<0
and
h>0.
Writing
z=*Jh.t,
substitution
x~
NOTE.
reduction.
The
XXIX,
M =a-f
co y,
a> is
~- .t.
+ >Jh
=1,
of unity,
+ CO + C0 = 0,
2
TAe interchange of any two of the
CO
(0
a> /J-f coy,
and observe that
-^=1^3.
letters a,
into the other,

functions L ,
Thus the transposition (a, j8) changes
/J,
y transforms
either of the
+ coa +
a>
y)
3 ==
(cua
i3 into
3
co ^8
co y)
= coW 3 = M3
It is the existence of functions possessing this property which

the solution of a cubic equation depend on that of a quadratic.
(2)
the
3.)
.L=a-hco/J-f
CU
(1)
= GI*Jh\ and
Important Functions of the Roots..
Let
where
jj.
roots of the cubic can be expressed as convergent series by using this
(See Ch.
Two
6.
where
t*~t+p.~
is
L and
M are functions of
the differences
1-f co-f
they are unaltered by writing a + A,
j8
a>
o/a>
j8,
y.
For since
=0,
+ h, y + h
for
a,
j3,
y.
makes
SUM OF TWO CUBES
182
(3)
We
have the following equalities
wM = 2j8 ~ y - a,
orL +
a>
cu
M = 2y - a - 0,
by Ex. XII,
Also,
a>
L - wM =
a>L -
'
cu
a>
co
a>
oj
2
)
(y
- a)
- j8)
) (a
9,
Z 3 + M 3 = -27/a 3
Therefore
..............................
(A)
i3 -M 3 =-3(<o-a, 2 )( 8- y )( y -a)(a-jS) ................. (B)

j
iJf = 2k 2 - 2?j8y = -9#/a2 ......................... (C)
Moreover,
(4)
From
equations (A) and (C)
follows that (-|a) 3 , (-JaM) 3 are
it
Ae
roofs of
which
7.
is
the auxiliary quadratic in Cardan's solution.
The Cubic
Sum
as the
of
Two
3
2
// u == ax -h 36x -f 3cx + rf, Âew constants
Cubes.
,
B,
A, p,
uÂ(x-\Y + B(x-tf\
provided that u has no square factor
s=
(ac
Also
Eliminating A,
from the
equations,
coefficients it will be seen that the identity
\A + ^.B^-
first
a( A
Assume that
are the roots of
A+B = a
(A)holdsif
A, /x
........................... (A)
- 6 2 x 2 + (acZ - be) x + (M - c2 ) = 0.
By expanding and equating
of
A/u
jit
three
and from the
last three of these
+ 6( A2 -p?) + c(A -/x) -0,

- A 2 ) = 0.
and that A^/x, and divide the

these equations by A-/x and the second by Aju,(A~/t), then
= 0, and
aA/Lt + o(A+jLt)4-c
Eliminating
neither A nor
/u,
is
zero
first
/^,
Therefore A and, by symmetry,
^ are the roots of

- (bx + c) 2 = 0,
(ax + b) (ex + d)
which
is
the same as
H(ac~62 )x
Also A,
are given
by
+ (od~6c)x + (6d!-c2 )==0 ................... (C)

A + B =a, A-4 +fJ3 = - 6.
2
THE HESSIAN
183
// A = 0, then by equations (B),

TJ
2 =A
&i-c
so that also in this case A
// A
jit,
two equal
the reasoning
roots.
i
and
c
o<Z-&c
-- = ^ = ----//,=
^
oc-os2
6 v c
and p are the roots
Ex.
w=
if
and only
has two equal roots, so also has
H=
UG the preceding
1.
if,
Let
2x*
to solve the
2x*
equation
A+B = 2,
and
A+2B=;-l,
2
-(#-7) =0,
so that
vice versa.
giving
= l,/i=2;
.4=5, 7?^ -3.
and the roots
_ 5"^ -2A;3^ _ (5Jfc3*)
has
+ 3#2 - 2lx + 19 =0.
Hence the given equation may be written 5(x- 1) 3 3(#-2) 3

2
by -^/5 (x - I ) = k /3 (a: - 2), where k 1, co, co
are given
=1
w=0
+ 3x*-2lx + l$ = A(x-X)* + B(x-iJL)* ........................ (A)
Then A, //, are the roots of (2* + 1)( -lx + 19)

and, equating the coefficients of x 3 and # 2 in (A),
Since ^3
if,
For using equation (G) of Art. 2, we find that

2 - 6 2 (bd - c2 =
4
(ad 6c)
(ao
Hence,
H = 0.
of
This case will arise
fails.
Hence the roots are

|(
/75 -4/45),
The Hessian.
8.
is
called the Hessian,
The roots
of
H=
will
hQ =
where
(1)
and
is
of great
H = ac- 6
2
,
A,
ft,
and we
hâd- be,
shall write
h2 = bd-
c2 ,
A 1 2 ~4A A 2 = A .................................. (A)
Using the identities of Exercise XII,
~18H = a
(3)
importance in the theory of the cubic.
be denoted by
so that
(2)
H which occurs in the last article
The function
We
{(o;--a) ()8~y) 4-(a:--j3)
can find the values of
A, p, in
4, 5, 6,
we
find that
2
(y-a) -f(x~ y ) (a^j9)
terms of a,
/J,
y as
} .......
follows.
(B)
Let
M =a + eo j8 + coy,
y,
2
=
Z/ j8y + coya 4- a> aj8, M' = /Jy -f co 2 ya 4- a>aj8.
L =<x -H co/J + o>
Then,
and
if
P = (z-a)(j8~y), Q = (a?-j8)(y-a), R = (x~y)(a-j8),

P + <? + = 0, therefore Z"P2 = - 227Q/J
J
we have
AUXILIARY QUADRATIC
184
from (B) that one root A
It follows
that
2
A(> -
is,
(4) It is
by
+ (co 2 - w)L' =0,
^ = -M'/Jtf ...................... (C)
A = -L'/l and similarly
so that
easy to verify that the substitution
reduces the equation h^x?
which
<*>)L
H=0 is given
of
+ hfl + h2 =
to
the auxiliary quadratic in Cardan's solution.

Thus the roots of the auxiliary quadratic are
is
EXERCISE
XX
THE CUBIC
(i)
Find to five places of decimals the real root of

z s + 293-97=0, (ii) z 8 + 6a; 2 H-27a;-26^0, (iii)
2.
Find to
1.
five places of
(i)
3.
decimals the real roots of
x* -3a;-Hl=0,
(ii)
- 3qx +r =0 and k =
y are the roots of a:
(0-;
3
If a, 0,
(i)
>/3(4g
-r 2 ), show
tl
08 -;
(ii)
The equation whose
(iii)
roots are
j9
- y, y - a, a - j3
is
+ y + y a=|(r + Jfc), a y-f ^ a + y ^ = f (r-t).

a
8
8 = 3
a y-hj5 3 a + y 3 )8= -9g 2
a
(v)
j8 + ^ y-f-y a
If
the
are
all
roots
real and a> j8> y, the difference between any two
(vi)
of the roots cannot exceed 2 N /(3g), and the difference between the
greatest and least must exceed
aa
(iv)
4. If a, 0,
(i)
y are the roots

j8
y,
- a, a - jS
)
(ii)
is
the equation whose roots are a 2 j8 + ]8 2 y -4r y 2 a, a 2 y + 2 a -f y 2 )9

a4* 2 - 3a 2 (acZ - She) x -f 9 (a 2d 2 - fabcd + 3ac 3 + 36 8d ) = 0.
is
In &e following examples ike letters L, M, L', M' 9 h , h l9 h 2 have the meanings
assigned in Art. 8, and unless otherwise stated a, j9, y are the roots of
.5.
Show
that
L t + "Jf=3.M', and M* +
a
L=3L'.
TYPES OF SUBSTITUTIONS
If
6.
A (x - A)
A)
-f
B(x -
l
jB
A/B=
k=
s/(
;[
y are the roots of u =0, assume that
^=
(1, 1, 1), (1, o>, o>
),
(1, o>
- JUT '/ Jtf
w),
(A)
add and use Ex.
5.]
+ i )>
^(*i
and
a 2 y + j3 2 a + y 2
3^
(/H-fc)^
Find the values of I, m, n such that
2^0^-^ + ^,
proving that
That
is
to say,
'
homographic
^ ^
which
jS,
A = - L'/L,
- L 9 /M\
y + J/? + ray -fr&=0,
9.
a,
- JJ), prove that
+ /8V4V + 8 =
8.
and
Hence prove that
If
/x)
185
+*(a - M )=a>4*(|3 - A) + J3*(j8 - ,x)=a) ^*(y - A) -f JS*(y - ft)=0.
[Multiply equations (A) by

7.
'
yoc
mh
2h
any iwo roots
+ Jy + ma-fn-0,
(a,
-k,
a/?
n=h
+ Za + w/? + tt=0
where &
29
o/ iê cubic equation
j8)
u =0
iV( -JJ).
are connected by the
relation
Except when J =0, there are two substitutions of the form

will transform the cubic equation
u=Q into
itself,
and these
are
where 3& 2 =4A ^ 2 ~î 2 and ^ î>

Explain why this fails if A ~0.
>
[This
is
merely another
way
^2 are the coefficients of the Hessian.
of stating the last part of Ex.
8.]
10. Find substitutions of the form x~(ly + m}l(l'y +

transform
) which will
the equation x 3 - 3# 2 + 3=0 into itself, showing that these are
* = (2y-3)/(y-l)
11.
and
* = (y-
Find substitutions of the form x~(ly + m)l(l'y + m') which will transform
2 60; -f 1 ^0 into itself, showing that these are
4- 3#
the equation z 3
12. Show that any pair of roots a, j3 of the equation

x 3 -3ic 2 4- 3s- 2 =
are connected by a relation of the form pa. -\-qfi + r=- where p q, r are the same
numbers whatever pair is chosen, proving that the relation is
9
13. If a,
j3,
y are the roots of x* -30#-f r=0, find

Za
proving that,
where
+ ma 4- ft
if a,
j8,
y are
I,
m, n such that
n = y, Z
/j9 + mj5 +
real and a> > y, then
2
/?,
jfc
Hence show that with these values of I, m, n the substitution

transforms the equation x 3 - 3qx
+ r=Q
hi to
itself.
1S6
BIQUADRATIC EQUATION
14. If
either
2
y are the roots of a?-21a; + 35=0, show that a + 2a- 14
jS,
15. If a,
y=x* + 2x~
(In other words, the substitution
or y.
equation into
ft
is equal to
14 transforms the
itself.)
w=0 and
=
=
k,
<**+p<z + q
p +pp + q a>k, y
y are the roots of the cubic
/?,
*
prove that
where A
p=
36
A=
if
Further,
^=
tt=0
Prove that the equation

y x* + px + q,
16.
3i=Jf(A-,*) =
-Jf'/Jf, then
2
8
(1, 1, 1), (1, <o, o> ), (1, to , o>),
by
[Multiply
-L'/A
g= a hA-a
H =0.
a root of the Hessian
is
2c
-fA,
27/2
and add.]
transformed into
is
36
.-,
p= a
if
where A
is
H=0
a root of
2c
N
g= a + A-,
a
+A,
and k
determined as in Ex.
is
Find substitutions of the form y ~x 2 + px -f q which
17.
by the
y*=k?
substitution *
15.
will
transform
=0
into the form y 3 = ^ 3 , giving the value of k in each case.
3
- 3 =0 and ( L) 3 ,
[A, p, are the roote of x* + 2x
(JJif ) are the roots of
i.e.
of
t*
=4 3
If
we take A = 1,
fi
- 3, we must take
found that each of the substitutions,

reduce tfc=0 to
18.
In Ex.
Explain
9.
J^^S
why it is not to
x = y - 6/a,
If 2= ay = ax + 6,
have
6/a,
j5,
-f
i/
= 8,
giving
ic
-f
6H
4G
.OA
+_
_^
!f+?
* This is
is
(A)
iC
G =a2d~3a6o + 26s
=a3e-4a26d + 6a62c-364
(B)
+ &Hz* + Gz + K=Q
(C)
y, S are the roots of (A), those of (B) are
and those
4x + 3=0.
6c#2 + 4dz-f e=0
z*
>
It
becomes
this
iTac~62
where
If
will
The Standard Form of the Biquadratic Equation
-f
thus
6.
be expected that both roots of this equation satisfy u =0.
t
ay +
is
y=# 2 -f-7,
.]
u=*ax* + 46x
If
M=
and
y-x + 4x + 11, we may
17, if
L = - 6,
y~x + 4a;-f 11
2
of (C) are ooc

*
+ 6,
a/J 4- 6,
ay
-f 6,
a + 6/a,
/?
+ &/#, y + 6/a,
aS + 6.
a case of Techirnhausen't Transformation.'
(See Art. 17.)
REDUCING CUBIC
Some Important Functions
10.
A = /Jy-fa8,
Any rearrangement
(1)
functions
A,
/i,
of the Roots.
= ya-f-/JS,
/A
of the letters a,
v into itself or into
187
j8,
Let
i>=a/J-fyS.
y, 8 transforms
any one
of the
one of the other two.
found that the existence of functions having this property

makes the solution of (A) depend on that of a cubic equation.
It will be
(2)
We
The
cyclic substitution (a/Jy) changes
have
A to
/it,
/z
to
v,
v to A.
(j8-y)(a-S)=i>-/z
(y-a)(j3-SHA-v
Hence if two
of a,
/J,
three of a,
j8,
y, 8 are equal,
then two of
........................... (D)
A,
//,,
v are equal,
and vice
versa.
Also
(3)
if
The functions
A,
then A=/i = *>, and vice versa.
y, 8 are equal,
/x,
v are Ae roote
o/*
a*y*-&a cf + 4a(bd-ae)y-8(2ad* + 2eb*-3ace) = Q ......... (E)

2
For
2;A = 2:aj8 = 6c/a,

7a
ZajSy
+ aj3y 827a
- 4aj8y8 = 4 (4W - ae)/a2
~ (4d2 - See) + ^3 (4fc2 - Sac)

'
a2
The second term
of this equation
can be removed by the substitution
and the equation becomes

where
4^3_/^ + j = o,
=
/ ae 4bd + Sc2
(G)
(H)
Expressed as a determinant
a
&
bed
It will be
is
shown that the
solution of (A) depends
on equation
(G),
which
called the reducing cubic.
The functions 7 and J are
of great importance in the theory of the
biquadratic.
B.C.A.
THE DISCRIMINANT
188
Boots of the Reducing Cubic.
(4)
(Q) corresponding to A,
Let t^t 2
â = A-^-A-i(A+
a
be the roots of equation
Then by
v respectively.
/x,
(F)
+ v)=i{A- /t -(v-A)};
whence, by (A), t^â{(y - a )(j8-8)-(a-jB)(y-8)},

with similar values for 2 2 tz
If
real,
y, 8 are all real, or if they are all imaginary, then
/?,
and
of the three
or
if
A,
a,
Also
/z,
jS,
t% is real,
a,
y, 8 are real
and
t%
v,
and therefore
y, 8 are of the
if
j8
are real
and two are imaginary
3,
2,
lim,
forms
and y = / -f ^m,
are
V
8
all real if a,
im'
The Functions
/?,
2,
are all
I,
Since
J.
then only one
l9
t%,
jS,
y, 8 are all real,
m,
== /
imaginary.
statements are true.
(5)
conversely.
also
Moreover, one of these cases must
of a,
conversely.
If two of the roots a,
For
.................... (L)
a,
............. (K)
is real and A, /x are

and so the converse
then v
arise,
are functions of the differences
y, 8, so also are /, J.
/ and
It follows that
therefore in equations (H)
same
are the
and
(I)
6 = 0, c-H/a,
a I=
z
giving
K + 3H*
whence the important
for equations (A)
and
(B),
and
we may put
d=
/a
= #/a 3
a*J^HK-G*-H*>
and
identities
= a 2/-3ff2
Another important equality
is
8-y)2(a-8)2 + (y-a)
()
G* + H* = a*(HI-aJ) .................. (M)
2
8-8) + (a-j3)2(y-3)2 = 24//a2 ....... (N)
2
(j
For
and
(6)
The Discriminant.
By
equations (D),
a(j8- y )(y -)( -/3)(-8)(
- <3 ) 2 (<3 -
= 256J by
where
^ft -
< )
2
by equation (K)
Art. 2,
............................................ (0)
J =/
-27,72 .................................... (P)
REDUCING CUBIC
The function A
ing
is
called the discriminant of the quartic w,
and
the necessary and sufficient condition that the equation
is
have two equal

11.
its
vanish-
w=
may
roots.
Character of the Roots.
J = 0.
this
If two roots are equal, then

and remembering that if there are any
case
Excluding
imaginary roots, then these occur in
(1)
189
All the roots
may
be real,
pairs, the possible cases are
and then J>0.
Two roots may be real and two imaginary. Denoting the roots by a, /?,
im, it is easily shown that the product of the squares of the differences
of the roots is -4w 2 (a-0) 2 {(a - 1)* + !*}*{ (0 - 1) + 8 }*, and so J<0.
(2)
(3)
All the roots
may
Denoting them by
be imaginary.
lim, /'iw',
we
find that the product of the squares of the differences of the roots
is
16w2m' 2 {(Z Hence
(4)
12.
- m') 2
+ (w + m')*}*{(l + Z') 2 +
and so
A>0.
// J<0, two roots are real and two imaginary.
(5) If
For the
2
Z')
J>0,
the roots are all real or all imaginary.
criterion distinguishing the
Solution
Ferrari's
two cases
of the
of (5), see Art. 15.
Biquadratic.
Writing
the
equation
u=ax* +
we assume
bx*
+ &cx2 + 4dx + e^0,
(A)
that
au = (ax* + 2bx + s)*~(2mx + n)*

coefficients,
2w = as + 262 ~3ac,
2
(B)
we have
wn = &s-ad, n2 = s 2 -ae
(C)
Eliminating m, n,
2
(s
- ae) (as + 2V* -Sac) = 2 (bs - ad) 2
which reduces to
53
-3c5 2 + (46d-ae)5 + (3ace-2ad2 -2662 ) =
(D)
The second term can be removed by the substitution
= 2t + c
(E)
&3 ~/* + J = 0,
(F)
and equation (D) becomes

which
is
the
reducing cubic.'
(See Art. 10.)
= 2bt + bc-ad
Equations
(C)
become
(G)
FERRARI'S SOLUTION
190
Thus, if fj
a root of
is
m
the equation
its
n t = (26^ + 6c - ad)/m v
b 2 - ac),
l =\/ (at v +
u^=0 can
be put into the form
(ax
and
and
(F)
+ 26z + c + 2^) 2 - (2m 1 a? + n x ) 2 - 0,
roots are the roots of the quadratics
ax 2 + 2bx + c + 2^ =
(2m1x + 14).
It should be noticed tha^ the three roots of (F) correspond to the three
of expressing
ways
u as the product
of
two quadratic
=x* + 3x 3 + x* - 2 = 0.
u = (x 2 +px + s) 2 - (mx + n) 2
and
equating coefficients, wo have
Expanding
Ex.
Solve n
1.
Let
The
may
last
equation
is
and
[x*
if s -~
satisfied
take
and then
J-,
+ (p
-f-
77^) a;
?yr
-1+4, inn-
4.
Thus we
+ 5 -f n} {a; 2 + (p - ?/i) a; + s - n}
^(x*+2x-2)(x*+x + l).
-1 >/3, w, a> 2 \vhero w
,
is
an imaginary cube root of
1.
Deductions from Ferrari's Solution.
13.
then
=-|,
=i,
=--j,
Therefore the roots are
Let
factors.
]8,
y be the
ax 2 + 2bx + c + 2^ + (2m 1 x + 7i 1 )=0,
roots of
ax + 26x + c +
a, S are the roots of
Further,
let (y, a), (a,
/?)
(H) by changing the suffix
2/ x
(2^0; + n x =
)
...........
(H)
............. (I)
be the roots of the equations obtained from

into 2 and 3 respectively.
= c + 2t l + n v
a(3y
Now
a (/?y 4- aS)
therefore
which agrees with equation
(F) of Art. 10.
a(j8y-a8) = 2w
Also
= 2c + 4^,
a(]8-f
y-a-8)== -4m 1}
with similar equations given by the cyclic substitutions
................ (J)
(a,
j8,
y)
and
(1, 2, 3) of the suffixes.
Hence
(i)
the values of
m are
In connection with these functions
Ex.
3, (iii), p.
it
should be noted that by Ch. VI, 16,
96,
............ (K)
DESCARTES' SOLUTION
by
Also,
This
(F)
and
The values of n are
(ii)
The values
(iii)
whose roots are
(G), the equation
an important equation, obtained
is
of
J^ZY^
___
and from
y + oc ~ p
Of.
- yS).
r(
ya-)8S
3+y
la(oc^
are
2m 92
in Art. 15.
way
- j8S),
|a(ya
-~- 2
>
2ml
another
in
\a(fiy -aS),
-~-
191
ot
+p
that these functions are the values of z found by
(F), (G) it follows
eliminating tfrom
Z
+ bc~ad
2bt
1
__ _
~
,,
(M)
and
~2' 7
Biquadratic as the Product of Quadratic Factors.
14.
Let u
Descartes method.
ax*
4-
4foe 3
u = a (x + 2Zx -f
2

l
+l =2
--
?/i
2
)
(x
coefficients,
m+m =6
~ 4a
-f
6cx 2
-!-
4c?o; -f e,
and assume that
we have
k
-m?w
=-e
Now
1
m'
m'
Substituting the above values for
row by
If
we
a/2,
-f
m
1
m + m'
|-
211'
m + m' lm +l'm
m + m', etc., and
+
1',
-0.
+ I'm
2mm'
lm'
multiplying each
we have
a
3c-2all
all'
3c-2all'
=0.
write
which when expanded
I,
+ 2t
c-t
+ 2t
0,
is
Corresponding to any root ^ of this equation, we can

m, V, m' which will satisfy the conditions.
now find values
of
POUR REAL ROOTS
192
2
=
given in the form u^-ofl + px + qx + r Q, we
proceed as in Art. 15, using I instead of 2Z, to obtain the cubic in the form
2
2=
2
irl 2
0, which reduces to an equation lacking the second
P(l +p)
y
Again,
if
the equation
term on substituting
is
- 2p/3
for
2
.
In numerical work, unless this cubic has rational roots, the solution becomes
by the methods described in this chapter the student can convince
NOTE.
very laborious
himself of this
by verifying the steps of Cardan's method for solving the equation,

2 8 - 1 \z - 15 =0, which is obtained as above for the biquadratic, x* - 3# 2 - x -f 2 = 0.*
Later, by one of the methods described in Ch. XXVII, it will be found that one root
can be found approximately with very little trouble. This is all that
it is only
necessary to have one way of breaking up u into quadratic
15.
Four Real Roots.
In Art.
11, it
is
required, since
factors.
has been shown that
necessary condition that the four roots should be real

rule (Ch. VI, 11, Ex. 1), if #>0, at least two of the roots
Hence, J>0, 77 <0 are necessary conditions that

real
but these two alone are not sufficient.
J>0 is a
also, by De Gua's
must be imaginary.
the roots should be
all
The complete
may be found by using Sturm's theorem,

the
usual
course
This,
given
adopted in text-books, involves rather
tedious reckoning
the conditions can be found much more easily by the
set of conditions
later.
use of either Ferrari's or Descartes' solution of the biquadratic.

/
The necessary and sufficient conditions

u == ax* -f 46x3 -f 6cx2 + kdx -f e =
Theorem.
aw
all real i*
(i)
or their equivalents
Let
z = ax
+b
v = z*
(ii)
J>0,
J>(),
then by Art.
that the roots of
//<0,
and
12# 2 >
H<(),
and
2Hl>3uJ.
9, (C),
and Art.
+ 6Hz* + 4:Gz + K = O
/,
10, (M), z is given
K = a I-3H
2
where
by
2
.
v=
has the same number of real roots as w = 0.
For v = 0, using the method of Descartes, and supposing that
- 2lz +
v 55 2 + 2lz + m)
m')
Now,
(z*
(z
we
get,
by equating
Eliminating
Hence, since
coefficients,
and m' from these equations,
(2Z -f
3HI)
- G2 = 1 2K, or
W + l2Hl* + (9H*-K)l*-G*=Q.
K=a*I -3H2
the values of
are the roots of

2
which, with the substitution, y +
H = at,
=0;
reduces to 4J
..................... (A)
*Thus, tt'+v^lS, ut?ll/3, t*-t?= 5-27397, ti=-2-16423, t>=l-0943,

which ttS(*H2-42042s+l-63580)(s-2-42042a:+l-22265)=0.
-i+t>- 3-85845, from
FOUR IMAGINARY ROOTS

Now
the three values of
correspond to the three ways of expressing
v as the product of two quadratic factors.
and
the roots of v =
If
(i)
i.e.
positive,
are
all real,
Hence,
the three values of
the three roots of (A) are
the roots of v =
If
(ii)
193
must be
all real
all positive.
imaginary, then, since their sum is zero,

2
Ait/i, -A-ti/i/, and thus the values of I are
2
-i(/A-/i') i.e. the roots of (A) are all real, but only one
are
all
we may denote them by

A2
is
-4(/4+/z')
positive
If
(iii)
>
and conversely.
two
of the roots of v
are real
and two imaginary, we may denote
and then the values of Z2

A, JJL, A'i/*', where A-Fju-h2A' =
2
2
i.e. the roots of
of which one is real and the other
(A), are A' J(A -f X'
t///)
two imaginary and conversely.
them by
It follows that the roots of v

if,
and only
if,
Now, the
is
the case
the roots of (A) are
roots of (A) are real

if,
and only
if,
Descartes' rule (Ch. VI,
negative and
theorem.
if
12H 2 -a 2I
is
I2H
J=/ -27/
is
First observe that,
p + pq + q
but /
is
hence,
so that
J>0,
/>0
hence, since
//<0,
if
p and
<?
q are
q according as
2HI\>\ 3aJ\;
any
2HI<3aJ.
and
real
numbers, positive or negative,
hence, since
i.e.
2HI<3aJ.
2
3
3
2
p -q = (p- q) (p + pq + q ),
it
p g q*
we have 8/P/ 3 <27a3 J 3 <a3/V;

8H*<a*J. Now, G2 + 4# 3 - a 2 (HI - aJ)
2HI<3aJ, and J>0;

and therefore
G 2 + I2H*<a 2 HI
addition,
l2H 3 <.a 2HI, and
dividing by H, which
Thus, the two sets of conditions are equivalent.
therefore
suppose
i2H 2 >a 2I.
4# 2/ 2 >9a 2 </ 2
ff<0,
positive,
by
we have
>0,
= (p + %q) 2 + f 2 >0
follows that p*
Then, since
this
also, the roots of (A) are, by

and positive, if, and only if, H is
which proves the first part of the
and
negative, therefore
Next, suppose that

2
and
HI<0
P>a P>27a J
HI
and, since
are real
of the second set of conditions,
//<0>
3
Then, since
all real,
all real
positive
that
Also,
and positive.
those of 4 3 - It + J =
u = 0, are
9, 10), all real
follows that
it
therefore those of
A = / 3 -27e/ 2 >0
To prove the equivalence

first
= 0, and
is
negative,
12H 2 >a 2 I.
~l
* In
1
general, if n is odd,
=*(p-~q)(pn- +pn-*q+ ... +gn ), where the last factor is the
qn according
product of pairs of complex conjugate factors, and is therefore positive hence p n
pnqn
&spr^q.
But,
if
is
even,
and not as p :g q.
pnqn^ty
q)(p+q) (a positive factor), hence
pn^^n
as
|p|<|ff|,
EECIPEOCAL TRANSFORMATION
194
Alternatively, using Ferrari's method, the equation
whose roots are
which, when expanded, is equation (A) on p. 192.

There are three possibilities.
(i)
AH
the roots of u =
all three real

(ii)
and
may be imaginary
=
/?
A-<fc,
y = A' 4-
(iii)
Two
take a,
j8
I/JL',
of (A) are
-iaV-fO
three real, but owe owfa/
all
in that case the roots of (A) are
u=
a = A + i/z,
are
be real
positive.
All the roots of
and the roots
may
of the roots of
8 = A'
-iW)
I/A'
>
we may take
;
(A-
A')
which
is positive.
w=
to be the real roots
in that case
may
be real arid two imaginary

8 = A - t/i
and then
;
and y = A + t/i,
we may
are the roots of (A), of which one only is real.

The proof proceeds as before.
Another method
Exercise
XXI,
of solving the biquadratic,
due to Euler,
is
given in
17.
Transformation into the Reciprocal Form.

The substitution x = py + q transforms the equation w = into
apY + *BrPy* + Wp*y* + 4:Dpy + E = Q, .................. (A)
B = ag + b, C = aq 2 + 2bq + c,
where
D = (a, 6, c, <%, 1)3, E-(a, 6, c, d, efa I) 4
16.
=
if
ap* E, Bp*==Dp,
2 =
2^, p* = D/B .......................... (B)
by aZ>
This will be a reciprocal equation

that
is, if q,
are given
Suppose that the conditions (B) are satisfied, and that the roots of (A)
where J/22/3 == J/iJ/4 :== l* Let a, j8, y, S be the corresponding
!/i> 2/2> J/3> 2/4
are
roots of
w = 0, so that
It follows that
? H~?)(y-?) = (a~?)(S-?),
2
and
...................... (C)
therefore
Hence by
Art. 13,
(iii),
the values of q are the roots of the equation in z found
by eliminating tfrom
S'
2
LO
an d
TSCHIRNHAUSEN'S TRANSFORMATION
qp
The points corresponding to q and

respectively the centre C and the foci
NOTE.
F' of the involution determined by the
"p/
as given
COtfl
points a, j8, y, 8, in which (j8, y) and (a, 8)

are corresponding pairs of points. That
is
Find a
1.
substitution of the
form
x*
Use
into the reciprocal form.
o = l,
Here
4* 3
The equation
One
and by
solution
is
(C), are
fi"
C j8.Cy = Ca.C8=CJ2 ==JF C a

/
xpy+q which will change the
+ x*-2x-l=Q
equation
....................................... (A)
this to solve the equation.
= J,
-/* + Jr=0
$=-J,
by
FIG 29
to say, the line segments are such that

Ex.
195
and by
is
= 0,
4e 3
d=
c=-l;
-^,
-f^-^=0,
that
is
(4*)
+2 (40 -3=0.
(E) of the text, the corresponding value of q is
(B) of the text, the corresponding value of
is
-i + |~|_
Taking p = 1, one substitution of the kind required is * =y 1.

2 4 ~
becomes
the
+
in
3t/ -f 1 =0.
%!? 3y
y
equation
(A),
Substituting
1
2
Dividing by y and putting z=y-f-y"" we find that
,
2
1
Also
y -#s
/.
17.
+ l=0,
- 3* + 1 = 0,
giving
= | (3
/5).
2/=i(2V2 -4), and aj=J(z~2db^ a ~4)

a
.*.
*=i(- 1+^5^-2 + 6^5),
or
i( -1
-^^^2 -6^6).
Tschirnhausen's Transformation.
If
we
eliminate
between
~
+ a^-1 + a2x n 2 + + a n =
r "" 2
1
y=xr + p^" + ^2^ + + Pr
/(x)
and
we
shall obtain
=a
o;
an equation
. . .
of the
form
Thus
for a single value of y corresponds to each of the n values of x.
can be chosen so that r of the
... p r
theoretically, in general p v p 2 ,
^n are z ^ro.
coefficients bl9 62 >
Transformation
it
This process
is
called Tschirrihausen's
has been applied to the cubic in Exercise
XX,
16,
TSCHIRNHAUSEN'S TRANSFORMATION
196
Let
Case of the biquadratic.
a,
y, 8
j8,
be the roots of
u = ax 4 -f 46x3 -f 6cz2 + 4dz + e = 0.
We shall
prove that in general three

if x is eliminated between
such that
u=
sets
of values of
p and
q can be
found
2
y = x + pz + q,
and
the resulting equation is of the form

4
Further, the values of p
and
is
+ =
.................................. (A)
<7
q are given by
ap=-Ab +
where z
+/</
2/
aq = 3c + 2bz,
2az,
......................... (B)
one of the three
aff-yS
a + jS-y-S
ya-/3S
j8y~<xS
'
'
y+a-jS^
J3Ty-a-S
the resultof y corresponds to each of the four values of x

Let p, q be chosen so
ing equation in y is therefore of the fourth degree.
3
and
let
are
and
of
that the coefficients
zero,
y 2 be the values
y l9
y
y
One value
of y.
Then we may take

4-j>y
+ ?=
-~2/2
whence by addition and subtraction,
y-a-8) = 0, ................... (D)

s 2 +^5 1 + 4y = 0, ................................. (E)
and
where
sl
= 2oL,
sz
= Z<x?. Hence we
Now
therefore
(j3H-y)
-(
where
-p^s.-Zz,
*
we
a/
j8y-a8
p=
Hence
Substituting in (E),
have, from (D),
46
+ 2z ..................................... (F)
find that
3c
a
2
giving
Moreover,
is
of the
if
form
p, q
(A).
have these values,
it is
obvious that the equation in y
SUBSTITUTIONS
As
197
be seen in the next example, each value of y gives one and only
will
one value of x which* satisfies the equation w = 0.

Ex.
Find a
to the
form y
Here a = 1,
we have
+/?/
b
substitution of the
+ g ~0. Find
=0,
=0, d = 3,
of
is
1,
5, so
that
where
4* 3
z~f and
giving
y=xz +px + q
the values off, g,
z^
One value
form
which
and use
will reduce the equation
the result to solve the equation.
7=-6, J=-9; and using Art.
13,
(iii),
+5*-9=0.
then
One such
p=3, q=0.
substitution
is
therefore
To
eliminate x from (A)
and
(B),
x2
flH\
\D j
H~ oiC.
we have
- 3x) =a;4 - 9x 2 - - 9x2 - I2x -H 5,
y(x*
xz + 43#
But
frcttn
(A)
which reduces to
- 200-0.
The
values of y are
Hence we
10*,
\/2,
and the corresponding values of x are given by
find that the roots of (A) are
-lN/2,
EXERCISE XXI
THE BIQUADRATIC
Unless otherwise stated
1.
If
2.
If
+ y = a + 8,
( j8
-H
If
j8,
y, 8 are the roots of
y)8 = (-*- 8) j8y, show
[Deduce from Ex.

3.
a,
uâx* + 4bx* + 6co; 2 4- 4d(a: + e =0.

show that a zd + 26 3 - 3ofo = 0.
that e 2 6
-f
2d 3 - 3edc = 0.
1.]
2
2
0y=a8, show that od =6 e.
4. If
show that the interchange of any two of the four

3
and
into L 3
a,
j8,
* In the case of the

general equation, tt=0, and the substitution,
obtaining the second quadratic (G) is
y [ao? +(46 ~ap)x] * (
and
thus,
y, 8
changes
L3
into J/ 8
y**&+px+q,
the
method
for
FERRARI'S METHOD
198
5.
Show
that the equation whose roots are

j8y
- a8
ya
/94-y-a-o'
a/?
/?S
yS
-/
is
where
B-az + b, D-(a,
[Dimmish the roots of

6. If a,
ft,
b, c,
u~Q by
y, 3 are the roots
I)
#-(a, 6,
and use Ex. 3.]
d$z,
2
of w==o; 4 -fg# 2
-f
d, e$z, I)
c,
ra-f s ~0,
4
.
show that the equation
whose roots are

z3 -
is
and that
if 2 X is
<jz
- 4sz -f 4g# - r 2 = 0,
a root of this equation, then
where A ls A 2 are the roots of
AÂz^-sÔ.
7,
Show

3
[Use equations
8.
Solve x*
23
(D), (G) of Art. 10,
- 2x* -\-a(2x -
1)
^0 by
and Exercise XX,

putting
it
3, (Hi).]
form
in the
and choosing
s so that the right-hand side is a perfect square.

the equation has two and only two real roots unless a = 1 or 0.
Hence show that
Solve by Ferrari's method

9.
* 4 + 12:r-5=0.
11. x*
- 3z 2 - 4x ~ 3 ~0.
13.
* 4 -f 12x3 4-54^ 2 -f 96x4- 40 = 0.
14.
4 4x 3 + lx z Express #
6a: -h
x*~2x- 1 ^0.
10.
a4
12.
x 4 - 4* 3
4- 5.u
4 2
= 0.
3 as the product of quadratic factors in three
different ways.
15. If a,
jS,
y, S are
the roots of x*
-\-
3x 3 4-# 2
-20,
prove that the equation
whose roots are
(j34-y-a-S)
z
is
[Use equation (L) of Art.

16.
Show
and two
2
,
(y 4-a
ft
- S) 2
(a
+ j8-y-S) 2
- 19z 2 -f 243z - 225 = 0.
13.]
similar expressions
is
3
2
4(*4-L) -e /(z4-L)4-eV=0
where L=ce-d*.
[This follows from equation
reciprocals.]
(L) of Art. 13
by changing
a, 0, y, 8 into their
EULER'S SOLUTION
If
17. Euler's Solution.
and
= *Jl + \/m -f \/n,
(i)
(ii)
then
Z,
which
(iii)
- 223
z2
Jl,
*Jm, *Jn denote either of the square roots of
is
.z
the same as
The complete
4(s-f//)
and(K)
6//z 2
4-
4s
-f
+ 4Gz + A" = 0,
127/s 2
~-K)s- G
4-
(9//
is
given by
- 0,
-a 2/(s + //)+a3 </-0.
solution of the biquadratic u
aa -f b = -
*Jl + sjm + >Jn,
ay + 6 =
^Z + Jin -
Observe that the values of
18.
z4
identical with
a8
v/Z
-h
s/w
m, n are i\a
I,
af3 + b~
*Jn,
the square roots being chosen so that
(L)
m, n
l~- 22!tom =0.
m, n are the values of a given by

is
/,
prove that
- &*Jl*Jm*/n
If this equation
199
*Jl- *Jm
Jl-~
*Jm -
(j3
>/n,
same
s/n has the
+ -s/n,
+ y-a-8)
2
,
sign as G.
etc., see
equations
of Art. 13.
Find a substitution of the form
x=py + q
which
transform the
will
equation
into the reciprocal form.
to solve the equation.
19, In
Ex.
Show
of Art. 17,
if
that one such substitution
each value of y which

y
is
substituted for y in y
is
satisfies
x = 2y -
1.
Use
this
the equation
+ 9% - 200^0
2
x + 3x, we get eight values of

2
x,
four of which satisfy
Without solving any equations, show that the other four values of x are the
roots of
x* f 12.r 3
[The left-hand side
+ 54x 2 + 96x
40 = 0.
(Cf.
Ex.
13.)
is
5H(z 4 + 12* - 5).]

Find a substitution of the form y=x 2 +px + q which
3 2x - 1
to the form y4 -f fy 2 + g = 0.
equation x* + x
20.
will
reduce the
that one such substitution is y =x 2 - x - 1, this reducing the equation

2
Use this to solve the equation. (Cf. Ex. 10. )
(2y) + 26 (2y) -11^0.
Show
to
21.
Find a substitution of the form
y=x 2 +px + q
which
equation
to the form
2
y*+fy + g=Q, showing that one such substitution
this reducing the equation to
4(1
is
will reduce
the
CHAPTER
XIII
</ THEORY OF IRRATIONALS

Sections of the System of Rational Numbers. Suppose
the rational numbers to be represented by points in a straight line, and let
the line be cut at any point P.
1.
Lower
class
Upper
class
P
FIG. 30.
The system
of rationals is thus divided into
called the lower class
the rationals to the
two
parts,
which
will
be
upper dass A'. The class A contains all

and
the class A' contains all those to the
of P,
and
left
the
is less tlutn any number in A'.

Two
right of P. Thus, any number in
or
does
distinct cases arise, according as the point
not, represent a
does,
rational number.
to represent some rational, 3 for example. The

Suppose
contains every rational less than 3, and the class A' contains every
rational greater than 3. The number 3 may be assigned to either dass. If
First case.
class
3 belongs to A,
number
For
it is
the greatest
number
of this class,
and there
is
no
least
in A'.
if a' is
supposed to be the least number in

yationals exist which
and greater than 3, and which therefore belong to the
',
are less than a'

class
Similarly if 3 is assigned to -4', it

has no greatest number.
the class
is
the least
number
of this class,
and
Thus corresponding
the
dass
to
has a greatest
any rational, the classification is such that

number or the dass A has a least number.
1
either
DEDEKIND'S DEFINITION
ticcond caw.
number.
201
P does not represent a rational

be equal to the side of a square whose area
Suppose that the point
For example,
let
OP
square units.
Classify the rationale according to the following rule
The lower class A is to contain all the negative numbers, zero and every
7
is
number whose square
positive
The upper
greater than
The
A'
is
is less
than
7.
to contain every positive
number whose square
is
7.
such that
classification is
Every
(i)
class
rational is included in one or other of two classes
For
A, A'.
exists whose square is equal to 7.

number
in A is less than any number in A. For if a is any
(ii) Any
number
A
and a' is any number in A', we have a 2 <7<a' 2 and
in
positive
no rational
a<a'.
so
The
(iii)
number.
and we
class
has no greatest number and the class
have to find b (greater than

case
has no least
2
For, suppose that a is the greatest number of A, then a <7,
2
can find a rational b such that 6>a and 6 <7. To do this, we
that & 2
a), so
if
-a 2 <7
- <-s
-a 2
6-flK-r
a2
This will be the
-a 2
.
2a
b -fa
Thus, 6 belongs to the class A, and a is not the greatest number in A.

Similarly it can be shown that A' has no least number.
This classification
by
is
-s/7,
is
and we assign
said to define the irrational number which we denote

a place on the scale with rationals as follows
,J1
it
to follow or to precede
any
positive rational a, according as a
iJJKDedekind's Definition.
<7
or
Suppose that a certain rule enables
us to divide the whole system of rationals into two classes, a lower class
A and an upper class A', so that any number in is less than any num-
ber in A'
Two
cases arise
has a greatest number or if A has a least number, the

tion defines a rational number, namely the greatest number in
(i)
least
(ii)
If
'
number
or the
no greatest number in A and no least number in A', the

defines an irrational number which is to follow all the numbers
If there is
classification
in
in
classifica-
A and to
precede
all
those in
A.
number
is called a real number^ and the

and
is
irrationals
known as the system of real numbers.
aggregate of rationals
Any
rational or irrational
EQUALITY AND INEQUALITY
202
The
be called the classification or the

section (A, A'), and the real number defined by it may be known as the
classification just described will
number (A, A').

The real number
zero is defined
by the section (A, A), where
contains
the negative rationals and

contains all the positive rationals.
A contains some positive rationals, the section (A, A') defines a
all
If
positive real number.
A' contains some negative rationals, (A, A') defines a negative
If
real
number.
We
we
'
'
are not justified in regarding a real number as a

have given fresh definitions of equality, inequality
'
'
number until
and the fundadefinitions must be in
mental operations of arithmetic. Moreover, these

agreement with those already given for the system of rationals.
equal
If
Equality and Inequality. Two real numbers are said

when they are defined by the same classification of rationals.
a and
precede
/J,
// a and
/J
are real numbers,
we say that a
j8
is less
and some of the

than j3 and that j8
are unequal real numbers, infinitely
to be
rationals
which follow a
is greater
than a.
many
rationals lie between
them.
For
(B,
a<j9, where a and j8 are defined by the classifications (A, A'),

respectively. Since these are different classifications, at least one
let
rational r lies between

r belongs to
a and
jS.
each of the classes
Then r follows a and precedes jS, therefore

A' and B. If r is the only rational between
A'
ex
B
Fio. 31.
a and
then r
Art. 2,
is
the least
by
number r,
Thus at least two, and
andjS.
(ii)
in
A and the greatest in B.
therefore infinitely
(J5,
Hence,
B') defines the
many,
Each
Let
A and A'
be two classes of rationals such that
class contains at least one
Any number in
same
impossible, for a</J.

rationals lie between a
is
(See Ch. II, 10.)
Theorem.
(i)
number
(i), each of the classifications (A, A),

and we should have <x = r = /?, which
number.
A is less than any number in A
1
.
ENDLESS DECIMALS
203
.
(iii)
Two numbers a and
can be chosen from
a'
**
and A'
respectively, so
that
a'
-a<,
is any positive number we may choose, however

Then there is one and only one real number a such
any number in A and a' is any number in A'.
where
is
a<a<a'
that
where a
Divide the system of rationals into two classes according to the

The lower class is to contain every rational less than any
A The upper class is to contain every rational greater than
Proof.
following rule
number a' in
any number a
It will be
tion.
small.
For
A.
in
proved that not more than one rational can escape classificatwo rationals Z and V (l<l ) so escape, then for every a and a'
f
if
This contradicts the hypothesis, for

a'
so that either a or a' lies between
we can choose a and
a! so
that
-a<V -I,
I
and
I'.
one rational which escapes classification, then it is to be

the upper or the lower class.
to
either
Thus, by Dedekind's
assigned
a
number
defines
real
the
a which satisfies the
classification
definition,
If there is
Conditions stated above.
This theorem
may
also be stated as follows
If (a n ) and (a n ') are sequences of rationals such that

(i)
and
(ii) it
a 1 <a 2
is possible to
<
3 ...
<a n
e is
number
5.
<a,/
...
<a3 '<a2 '<<,
find n such that

<*n
where
...
-<**<>
any positive number we may choose, however small) then one

and only one, exists such that # n â<a w for every n.
real
'
a,
Endless Decimals.
Using the ordinary notation,

a -a 1o 2 ...a n ...
let
be an endless decimal, where the successive figures are formed according

to
some
Let
definite rule.
dn = a
a^
The sequences (d n ) and

theorem, and therefore a
We
o
. . .
aw
and
dn
'
= d n + 1/10W
obviously satisfy the conditions of the last

8 is defined by
real
(d n
number
say that the decimal represents or
is
equal to this real
number
S.
B.O.A.
FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS
204
Conversely, any real number 8 can be represented by a decimal. For,

using the same notation as in the preceding, if 8 is known, then for any
we can find d n so that d n <8<d n

number of figures a decimal which
suffix n,
to any
That
'.
Of course, a terminating decimal
to say,
is
represents
we can
calculate
S.
be regarded as an endless decimal
may
in which, after a certain stage, all the figures are zeros.
Since
any
by a decimal which terminates or

that a non-recurring endless decimal represents an irrational
rational can be represented
recurs, it follows
number, and conversely.
The fundamental Operations of Arithmetic.

follows, a Greek letter denotes a real number, a small
In what
Roman
letter
Real numbers will be defined by using the theorem
represents a rational.
of Art. 4, and when
we say that a
number a
real
is
defined
by aââ',
presumed that a, a' are any numbers in classes A, A! of rationals which

satisfy the conditions of the theorem.
it is
(1)
Addition.
then a -f j8
is
If a,
j3
numbers defined by
a<a<a' and &<<&',
are real
by a -f 6<a -f /2<a' + b'.
defined
This classification defines a real number, for

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
There
Any
We
is
at least one a
-f
< any a' +
can choose
e is
and one
a'
+ b'.
b'.
that
a, a', 6, b' so
a<ê
a'
where
-f
and
b'
6<i
any positive number, however small, and then

- (a 6) = (a - a) + (V - b)<.
(a -f b')
f
-f-
We
define
a -f /? + y as meaning
(a
-f jS)
+ y, and
it is
easy to show that
the commutative and associative laws hold good.

.
It
is
Show
1.
obvious that a
and
j3
= a.
b< 0<
-Ha are defined
defined
by
positive rational.
Let a be defined
by
is
a< a<
&',
a',
since every 6
where
-f
6<
classification of rationals.
is
is
any negative rational and
defined
+ 0<
a'
b' is
any
by
-f 6',
is
negative and every 6 positive,
a + 6<
Thus a +
then a +
a
and
by the same
Prove that a +
x. 2.
Zero
-f ft
a< a' -f 6'.
and a are defined by the same
classification of rationals
and are equal.
MULTIPLICATION OF IRRATIONALS
If
3.
is
Prove that
defined
by
205
a + ( - a) =0.
a< a< a',
then a +
a - a'< a
- a)
4- (
defined
is
by
- a)< a' - a.
every a< any a', therefore a a'< 0< a' a.

Hence a + ( -a) and are defined by the same classification, and
Now
We
(2) Subtraction.
If a,
(3) Multiplication.
/?
are positive real
and
aôcâ'
aj3 is
Whence
define <x~j3 as a-f (-/?).
follows that
it
for
(a-j8)+j8=a,
then
are equal.
defined
numbers defined by
6</3<6',
These conditions define a real number,
by afe<a/3<a'6'.
for
(i)
(ii)
(i\\)
There
is
at least one ab
Every a6<any
a'b'
We can choose a,
6, a', &'
For
positive number.
and one
a'b'
a'b'
so that a'b'
-ab<,
-ab = a'(b' -b) + b(a'
6'
>
/}
where
is
any assigned
-a).
a'
'//
FIG. 32.
Choose rationals
a'6'
We
can
now
choose
For
a'6'
zero
- ab<h(b' -
a, 6, a', 6', so
6'
and then
^/7
Show
4.
that
a'
-a<e/2k,
= = 0. a,
a(-j8H-aj8 = (~a) and (-)( -J8)=aj8.

It is easy now to show
is taken to mean (<xj8)y.
that
defined by
that the
and associative laws hold good.
^1.^1 = 7.
a< N/7<
a',
where
rt,
a2
Hence *y7 ^7 is defined by a2 < 7<

.
a'<A,
negative factors, the definitions are
commutative, distributive
is
if
b)
and
b</2h
a.
^ Ex.
and &>/J, then

+ k(a' - a).
- ab<.
and
Further, a/Sy
A>a
that
h, k, so
a' 2 ,
a' are
any
< 7< a'
and this
positive rationals such that
2
.
classification also defines the
number
7,
POWERS AND ROOTS
206
(4) Division.
If
is
a positive real number defined by
aââ', then
is defined by l/a'<l/a<l/a.
These conditions define a real number, for
I/a
There
(i)
We
(iii)
and one
at least one I/a'
is
can choose
Every l/a'< any I/a.

so that l/a-l/a'<, where e is any assigned
a, a'
I/a.
(ii)
positive number.
To prove
this,
we have
show that
to
"i
a, a'
7*
p IG
f
-a<aa
0<A<a. Next
.
choose a, a
First choose h so thaia'
"~~l
'
so that a>/i
and
a</re.
Since
h<a<a',
NOTE.
Tliis
Consequently
JSfo.
it
5.
meaning
is
follows that
// a,
and
a'-a<aa'e.
reasoning depends on the existence of positive rationals
rio
j9
l/(
(a/j3)
less
than
a.
to 1/0.
assigned
Further definitions are
whence
h 2 <aa'
we have
= - I/a and a/j8=a l/j8

for (a I//?) jB =a(l/jB
/? =a
-a)
are positive real numbers defined by
jB)
a< a< a' arw2 b< j8< &',
=a.
<Aen a/j9 is
a/<
a' ft.
defined by a/6'<
This follows from the definition of
7.
Powers and Roots.
and multiplication.
l/j3
a positive integer and a a real numdefined by a n ==a a a

to n factors.
n
m
n
m
+
follows that a .a =a
and (aw ) w =amn
If
n
ber, the nth power of a (written a )
is
is
. . .
m, n are positive integers, it

That these formulae may hold for zero and negative values
we must have a = 1 and a~ n = l/an
If
of
m and n,
Theorem
(i)
// a
x, x' positive rationals
is
a positive real number, n a positive integer and
such that
<a<x' n
then positive rationals
xl9 #/
exist such that
For
if
We
can choose ^ 1 >x, so that
x<x<x',
then
x x w - xn <a - xn
The existence
of a
number x
~#<(a -xn )fnx' n
xx
,
so that
such that
~l
:
and then
x^ <a.
a<x 1 n <x /n
'
can be proved in a
similar way.
(ii)
//
is
any
positive number, however small, then
For as in the preceding, x/ n
~x1 w <(x1
-ajj)
n
n
x/ ~x 1 <, provided
nx^- 1
PRINCIPAL ROOTS
Theorem
number
207
a positive real number, there

and one only, whose n-th power is equal to a.
2.
//a
If a = z n where #
is
is
a positive rational, there
is
is
one positive real
only one such number
x,
for the nth

If
powers of unequal positive rationals are unequal.

no such x exists, divide the system of rationals into a lower
class
and an upper class A' according to the following rule

The class A is to contain every negative number, zero, and every positive
:
',
number x such that x n <oc.

The class A' is to contain every positive number x such that x' n >a.
Then (i) no rational escapes classification for no rational x exists such
;
that x n =a.
(ii)
Every #<every
(iii)
There
is
x',
for
sc
<Ca<J?'
no greatest x and no
n
.
least
f
.
This follows from the last
theorem.
Therefore the classification defines a real number
Again, for every
x and every
x'',
xn <oL<x' n
xn <gn <x' n
and
Also every rational is an x or an x', therefore these may be chosen so

x is as small as we like. Hence, as in Theorem 1, they may be
where e is any positive number, however small.
chosen so that x' n -xn
that x'
<,
n are defined
Thus both a and
by the same
classification of rationals,
a classification which satisfies the conditions of the theorem of Art. 4 and

n
therefore
=a.
a positive real number, the principal n-th root of a

defined as the positive real number whose nth power is equal to a. This
Definitions.
is
is
If
written Jâ, and
is
is
generally called the n-th root of

n
Thus
(;/a)
a..
=a.
It follows that
ya.y]8-y(aj8)
If
is
odd,
we have
(-
When n
is
WHâ^ y(.
and
an odd
simply the n-th
n==
(-
1 )n
w== -a.
we therefore define the

-a as - â thus
integer,
root, of
(â
principal n-th root, or
even, the 7^th power of every real number is positive, and therefore
no real number exists which is the nth root of a negative number.
If
is
SURDS
208
Indices
which are Rational Fractions.
If p, q are positive integers,
aq
is
p
defined as *]a* or (!ja)
This definition assigns no meaning to a x
is
considered in Art.
Surds.
8.
If
when x
is
This case
irrational.
9.
is
not a perfect nth power, ^Ja
is
called a surd of the
nth order.
Two
rational
surds of the same order are like surds
when
their quotient is
otherwise they are unlike surds.
The following theorems and examples depend on the

number cannot be equal to an irrational.
Theorem
1.
If
x+Jyâ + jb
fact that a rational
x, y, a, b are rationals, then
where
x=a
and y = b,or else
y and b are the squares ofrationals.

For suppose that x-â and let x = a 4- z,. then z + Jy
Jb,
and by squaring,
Therefore ,Jy is rational, and from the given equation

the other hand, if x = a, then y 6.
is
Jb
rational.
On
Ex.
1.
// a
+ b^/p + c*jq
where
a, 6, c are rationals
and Jp
^/q are unlike surds,
thena = Q, 6=0, c=0.

By transposing and squaring we can show that
2 c*q ~a
b~p.
2ab^/p
If
ab^Q, the left-hand side would be irrational and the right-hand side would
be rational ; which
is
impossible.
Therefore a6=0, and consequently a
or
6~0.
a=0, then b*Jp + CsJq~Q; and, if 6^0, then Vp/\A?~ -c/6;

and
which is not the case.
*/p
*Jq would be like surds
Therefore 6=0 and c = 0.
//
so
that
7/6 =
Ex.
2.
then a
// a
-{-
~
c^q ~ 0, and therefore a
+ 6^/p + c^ 2 =0
wAere
a, 6, c,
and
= 0.
are rationals and
is
not
a perfect cube,
then a, 6, c are all zero.
Multiplying the given equation by %Jp
cp +a?Jp
and eliminating the terms containing

Since ^/p
is irrational, it
therefore
c^Q we should have p 2 =(
fy
= ac and c 2p
3
2
2 2
c*p = a 6 = a c.
)
\ c/
Hence c=0, and
+ 6Ap 2 =0,
follows that
b2
If
we have
therefore also
so that ^/p 2
a=0
ab,
would be
and 6=0.
rational,
which
is
not the case.
IRRATIONAL INDICES
Theorem
2.
Suppose
square, then if
p + *Jq
is
For we have
Since
Jq
is
Putting
a polynomial with
2
&ndf(x) = Q{(x-p) -q}
9.
Irrational Indices.
if
f(x)
is
identity of the form
x=p + Jq, we
irrational it follows that
a perfect
a root off(x)
we obtain an
are rationals.
is
0//(#)=0 where f(x)
is also
divided by (x-p)*-q,
root
that q is not
= 0.
p-*Jq
2
=
+
{x-(p Jq)}{x-(p-Jq)} (x-p) -q, and
rational coefficients,
where R,
and
that p, q are rationals
209
have
Rp -f S = and R = 0.
p-Jq
therefore
The theorems
Consequently
a root of/(z)
is
of Art. 7 hold
= 0.
when a
is
number, the indices being rationals, and lead to the following

Definition. Let a be a real number greater than unity, and let
be an
positive real
irrational defined
by x<g<x' where
x belong to classes of rationals
x,
Then
satisfying the conditions stated in Art. 4.
a*
is
defined
by
These conditions define a real number, for

(i)
(iii)
there
at least one a x
is
'
and one a x>
we dan choose x and
x
every a*<every a ',
(ii)
'
x' so that a x
ax
<
where
is
any assigned
number, however small.
positive
To prove
this,
ax
Next, by Ch.
'
then a x <a h and
&>,
choose a number
-a x = a x (a xl -x - l)<ah (a x '~ x - 1).

we can
II, 18, (7),
find a positive integer
n such that
an
NOTE.
The
'
-a x <ah (a n ~
At present
7/0<a<l,
a*
is
defined
show that
ax .
hold for
all real
it
way, is called its

from other values which will be found
of will stand for its principal value.
by the
defined as (I/b)*, where 6 = I/a.

able to assign a meaning to a*
It is easy to
real positive value of a*, defined in this
principal value, to distinguish

later.
x<.l/n, and then
Finally, choose x, x' so that x'
ax
-l</ah
if
classification
We
ax '<af<a x
define 1* as
when a
is
1.
negative.
a>0, the index laws
ay
= a*+* and
values of x and y.
(a
x y
)
= axy
At
Or
present,
it
we
may
be
are not
OPEN AND CLOSED INTERVALS
210
10.
and
a^l,
a single real number
there exists
If a and
Theorem.
Logarithms.
are positive real numbers
such that a*
= N.
N
<N<a
x
and first let
Suppose that no rational x exists such that a =
x
x '.
n>l. Then, by Art. 7, rationals x, x' exist such that a
Divide the system of rationals into a lower class A and an upper class A'
Proof.
by the following rule

The class A is to contain every rational x such that ax <N.
The class A' is to contain every rational x' such that a x '>N.
Then (i) no rational escapes classification for it is assumed that no
for a x <a x '.
rational x exists such that a x = N.
(ii) Every #<every x'
:
There
(iii)
is
no greatest x
the last article,
a*<jy.
The
we can
Similarly
for
find x2
if
>x
ly
supposed to be the greatest, as in

so that a^ aPK^N
i.e. so that
is
-a^
can be shown that there
it
classification therefore defines a real
Again, for every
x and every
is
no
least x'.
number
#',
a x <N<a*'
and
a*<af<a*'
and since every rational is an x or an x', these may be chosen so that

x -x is as small as we like. Hence, as in Art. 9, they may be chosen
so that a x -a x <, where e is any positive number, however small.
Thus both N and a* are defined by the same classification of rationals,
f
'
a classification which
If
a<l, we
satisfies
the conditions of Art.
find f so that (l/a)*
= l/N, and
4,
and so
a^
= 2V.
then a* = N.
any positive real number a is chosen as base and N is

any positive real number, the number
given by the relation a*~N is
called the logarithm of N to the base a, and we write f = log a N.
Definition.
Definitions. We say that

between a and 6 forms the (open)
1 1
lie
(ii)
The
real values of
or the range
(iii)
If
closed at
'
a^x^b form
(x)
which
a<x<b.
the closed interval
(a, 6)
the real numbers x form an interval
(a, 6)
open
at
a and
or the range (a <#<&).

'
'
generally means open interval/

number x in the interval (a, 6) is often called a point in the interval.
Interval
Any
x such that
the set of real numbers
(i)
interval (a, 6) or the range
a<x<6.
a<x<6,
6,
'
'
If
x l9 x2 are any numbers in the interval (a, 6) and/(x) is a function

x such that f(xl )^f(x 2 ) when x 1 <x2 we say that/(x) increases steadily
through the interval, unless the sign is always that of equality, in which
(iv) If
of
case/(x)
is
constant in the interval.
DEDEKIND'S THEOREM
)
when x^x^
then
211
said to increase steadily in the
/(a?) is
stricter sense.
f(x l )^f(x 2 ) when #T <#2 f(x) decreases steadily; and
If
if
when x l <.x2 ,f(x)
f(x 1 )>f(x^)
decreases steadily in the stricter sense.

9
'
is the set of
a real number, the
neighbourhood of a
real numbers in the interval (a-e, a + e), where e is as small as we like.
If
(v)
is
12. Sections of the
System of Real Numbers.
Dedekind's Theorem.
vx(i)
// the system of real numbers
is
divided into
and A' such that (i) each class contains at least one number,
number belongs to one or other of the classes, (iii) any number
(ii) every real
in A is less than any number in A' then there is a single real number a, such
that all numbers less than a belong to' A and all numbers greater than a belong
The number a may be regarded as belonging to either of the classes.
to A'
two classes
Consider the rationals in
Proof.
and AI, which form a section
number
If
(1)
Two
a.
is
of the
and A.
system
These form two classes
and define a
of rationals
real
cases arise.
rational,
it is
the greatest
number
in
Al
the greatest number in A v it is also the greatest

suppose that there is a number ft in A greater than a.
or the least in A^.
number
in A. For
Between a and /?
there are rationals greater than a which therefore belong to A and also
to A'. Hence j8 must belong to A', which is not the case.
Similarly if a is the least number in A^, it is also the least in A.
If
is
If
(ii)
is irrational, it is
greater than
all
the numbers in
Al
and
less
Also, a must belong to A or to A, and just as in the

show
we
can
that it is the greatest number in A or the least in A'
preceding,
than
all
those in A^.
The theorem
just proved
section of the system of real
is
of great importance.
numbers
defines
It
shows that any
a real number.
Thus the con-
sideration of sections of this kind leads to no further generalisation of our

idea of number. All this is sometimes expressed by saying that the system
of real numbers is closed, or the aggregate of real numbers is perfect.

On the other hand, the rational numbers do not form a closed system,
or in other words, the aggregate of rational numbers is not perfect, for a
section of the system of rationals does riot always define a rational.
(2) // the numbers in the interval (a, b) are divided into two
A' as in (1), the section determines a real number a.
classes
and
For
if
we take with
A
1
all
all
the real numbers x such that
the real numbers x such that x'^-b,
of real
numbers.
we obtain a
xâ
and with A'
section of the system
ARITHMETIC CONTINUUM
212
1 that if we take any

we
in a straight line as origin and any length
may choose as unit
point
of length, then to any point P in the line there corresponds a real number p.
The Continuum.
13.
from Art.
It follows
choosing suitable axioms regarding the characteristics of a straight

line we can ensure the truth of the converse of this statement, namely,
that to every real number p there corresponds a point P in the line. Thus
By
the correspondence between the points of a straight line and the
numbers
If
that
p
p
is
complete.
the real number corresponding to the point P of the line, we say
Hence the system of real
is the measure of the length of OP.
is
numbers
This
real
is
adequate for the measurement of the length of a straight
an instance of what
is
The aggregate
of real
is
known
numbers
as a continuous magnitude.
called the arithmetic continuum,
is
of the points of a straight line is called the linear
the aggregate
line.
and
continuum.
RATIO AND PROPORTION

NOTE.
small
In
Arts. 14-16 capital letters will denote concrete magnitudes
and not numbers
denote positive integers.
letters will
Equality and
Inequality of Concrete Magnitudes. In

how
a
magnitude or a quantity of any kind is to be measured,
considering
the
at
outset we must define what is meant by saying that 'A is equal to
14.
and B are quantities of the

greater than or less than J5/ where
of these statements depends on the particular kind
of quantity we are considering. For instance, let A and B denote segments
J5,'
'A
is
The exact meaning
kind.
if A can be made to coincide with J5, we say A = B

can be made to coincide with a part of B, we say
and B>A.
The student should reflect on the meaning of equal angles, equal
of straight lines
if
A<B
velocities,
equal forces, equal quantities of heat, etc.
We
15. Ratio.
number
said to contain
This
is
able,
exactly
Definition.
(that
can be divided into any
Denoting any one of these parts by C, B is

n
times, and C is called the nth part of B.
(exactly)
expressed shortly by writing
nth part of
a and
assume that a magnitude
(n) of equal parts.
we denote
C = ^B.
this
If.
by writing
A
A
contains the
B.
A and B are magnitudes of the same kind, and if integers

such that A contains the fcth part of B exactly a times
A~j BJ,
and the
times,
or
If
b exist
is, if
B^nC
ratio of
the magnitudes
to
(written
and
:
B)
B
is
are said to be commensur-
defined as the
number
a/b.
RATIO AND PROPORTION

If
no integers a and
6 exist such that
213
A = ^B, the magnitudes A
and
are said to be incommensurable.
Axiom
of Archimedes.
If
no matter how small
A may
always be found such that
mA>B
kind,
16.
Two
Ratio of
are magnitudes of the
same
be compared with 5, an integer
m can
and
or
^B<A.
Incommensurables.
If
and
are incom-
mensurable magnitudes, the ratio of A to B (written A B) is defined as

the irrational number determined by the following classification of the
:
entire
the
the
system of rationals
Lower
Class
Class
Upper
is
to contain every rational a/6 for which
is
to contain every rational a'/b' for
This classification defines an irrational

(1)
every rational
hypothesis, there
(2)
(3)
every a/6
there
is
hypothesis
is
falls
than any
no greatest a/6
bl
A>a
because
into one or other of the
no rational a/b
is less
number
for
a'/6'
which bA
for
bA>aB,
which b'A<a'B.
two
= aB
classes;
for,
by
^B<A<^B
for suppose ajb^ to be the greatest, then
by
B.
Now by
the axiom of Archimedes, a multiple of a magnitude (however

small the magnitude may be) can be found which exceeds any magnitude
of the same kind, however
Therefore an integer r can be found such
great.
^-a
JS)>a 1 J5, and therefore rb l A>(r + 1)a 1 B. Let r61==62

and (r-fl)a 1 -a2 then bÂ>o 2 B and a^-a^r-f l)lrb{> ajbl9 so that
be shown that there is no
ajbi is not the greatest a/6. Similarly it can
number.
irrational
an
defines
Hence the classification
least
that
r(6 1
a'/6'
Theorem.
If
A, B, C,
are four magnitudes of the
same kind, the
ratio of A to B is equal to that of C to D if mA> =oi<nB according as

mC>=of<nD, for all positive integral values of m and n.*
= nB, then by hypothesis
If rationals m, n exist such that mA
Proof.
mC^nD and A/B = C/D = n/m. If no such rationals m,

A, B and also C, D are incommensurables, and the ratios
exist,
then
A/B, CjD are

therefore
are
and
irrationals defined by the same classification
equal.
= C:D,
A:B
and
kind
same
the
of
If A, B, C, D are magnitudes
then A, B, C,
D are said to be in proportion.

* This
is
Euclid's definition of the equality of
two
ratios,
SQUARE AND OTHER ROOTS
214
EXERCISE XXII
IRRATIONALS
is
1. Show that no rational exists whose nth power is equal to ajb, where a/6
a positive fraction in its lowest terms unless a and 6 are perfect nth powers.
/x \** a
- where
x/y is a positive fraction in its lowest terms.
[Suppose that ( j =
Then bxn =ayn

where k
is
Therefore
Since y
prime to
a whole number. Then
.
is
a~xn and byn

Jx + *Jy = */a + >Jb
,
that
is
x,
to say,
then either
2. If
9
Ja, */b are all rational or all like surds.
Hence
a and b are
.
xa, y=b
and *Jxy = */ab, unless
[Squaring, x + y=a + b,
3.
n must be a divisor of
akxn
^fa
where
a, b are
in terms of
= kyn
for
b,
Va6 are
y=a,
6.
or *Jx, *Jy,
rational.]
not a perfect square.
Also find x and y
b.
[Proceed as in Ex.
4. If
is
Let
exist such that
x, y may
+ ^/b = *Jx + *Jy,
given rationals and 6
a and
6.
a is prime to
perfect nth powers.]
Jk
or
*fxy,
Find the condition that rationals
= l,
2,
and show that x
a
\(a dbVa -6).]
a + b*Jp + c*Jq + d*JpqQ where *Jp
*Jq are unlike surds,
then
a, 6, c,
are all zero.
[We have
Hence by
Art. 8, Ex.
1,
ac=bdp,
and consequently,
if c
^0 and a ^0,
bc=ad, c*=dp,
then p=c*.]
5. If x + $y=a + $/b where x, y, a, b are rational

cubes, then x=a and y 6.
[Put
z= a; -a.
rational.
Show
Now use
that 2 8 H-y~6
+ 32\/6y =
a$lp* + b$]pq + c$q*Q

that a, 6, c are all zero.
and neither of
7.
cients,
not zero, since pjq
j? ^, j?^
_+ _
3
z
2
[Show that C*q*-a*p -b pq = 3db(ap\/pq
is
.*.
y, b are
not perfect
$y=mg/b 2 where
is
Art. 8, Ex. 2.]
6. If
in brackets
and
is
bq\/p
q),
is
a perfect cube, show
and that the expression
not a cube.]
Show
that *J2 and v/3 are cubic functions of J2 -f *J3 with rational
and that ^2-^/6 + 3 is the ratio of two linear functions of *J2 -f \/3
coeffi-
8
[For the first part, let y s/2 + \^3 ; find t/ , and eliminate \^3 and V2 in turn :
for the second part, find the value of the product ( \/2 - V6 + 3) (V2 -f N/3 + a:), and
show that this is equal to y + 5 when x 1.]
8.
root
Find the equation of lowest degree with rational
is
(ii)
[(i)
(ii)
(iii)
If * =
&2 + 3^/4;
(iii)
2
N^ + %/SL a: -l=2\a;, etc.
8
if y=#2 + 3#4, i/ = 110 + 18(4/2 +
8
=5 + 34/6.2, and (28 -5) 8 =
if z=4/2 + 4/3,
;
coefficients of
4/2 + 4/3.
which one
RATIONAL COEFFICIENTS
9.
If all the solutions of
as 2 + 2hxy + 6t/ 2 = 1,
a'x 2 + Zh'xy + b'y* = 1
then (h -A') 2 - (a -a') (6 -&') and

- a'6) 2 - 4 (aA' - a'A) (W - h'b) are the
squares of rationals.
and
are rational
(oft'
215
a, A, b, a', h' 9 b' are rational,
[Let (a lf j8i), {a 2 ,
are the roots of
j8 2 ), (
i,
ft) (
2>
^2)
be the solutions. Prove that
,.
/
show that a^, a a j3 8 are the roots of

- 4 (a*') A6')} + 2z { (a - a') ( A6') - (6 - 6') (aA')} + (a - a') (6 - 6') = 0,
- a r&. Hence show that
=ab'
where (ab')
Also,
z 2 { (oft') f
aiaa
/
.
whence the second

10. If a, 6, x,
prove that
i
)
-4(aA
)(A6
result follows.]
y are rationals such that
eiJAer
a;
a,
yb,
[Put*-a = -S:,y-&==r;
If
(o6
or I
.'.
-ab and
-cry are the squares of rationals.
(aY -bX)* + 4XY=Q.
X
X and 7 are not zero, solve for ~
Next observe that the given equation

y and 6.]
is
and show that
-ab
is
a perfect square.
unaltered by the interchange of x and a,
CHAPTEK XIV
INEQUALITIES
IN
this chapter, various
of the results are of
Many
of dealing with inequalities are explained.
fundamental importance.
Weierstrass' Inequalities.
1.
less
methods
than
whose sum
Ij a v a 2
denoted by s n then
is
a n are positive numbers
...
+sn ),
-s n ),
where, in the last inequality,
For
(1
and continuing
-a
x ) (1
thus,
it
supposed that s n <l.
is
- a2 ) = 1 -
(a l
+ a 2 + a x a 2 > \-(a l + a 2 ),
)
we can prove that
(l-o 1 )(l-o 8 )...(l

In the same
way
Again, 1 -a 1 <l/(l +%), and 1 +a x <l/(l

these and similar inequalities, we have
(1
and
-a,)(l -o.)
if s n
(1
2.
-a^,
...
(1
-a n )<l/(l + 0l )(l +a2
...
(1
H-o n )<l/(l
) ...
Many
inequalities
depend on
-00(1 -o,)
...
Ex.
2.
For
Using
+a n )<l/(l +*n ),
7/a>0 and 6>0,
// a,
6, c
(a
then
are positive
and
(a
(1
-)<!/(! -*)
the fact that the square of a real
positive.
1.
0<a 1 <l.
<l,
+ 0l )(l +az)
Ex.
(1
for
+ b)>*Jab.
not all equal, then
(a + b + c) (be + ca + ab) >9abc.

+ 6 + c) (be + ca 4- ab) - 9a6c
number
is
TYPICAL METHODS
3.
Ex.
1.
We
have
217
special arrangement of terms or factors is sometimes useful.
Show
that
[n>w
(|^)
and r(n~r + l)>n
8==1
if
r2
2
.
n 2(n-l) 3(n-2)
...
-r(n + l) + n<0
that
r(n-r + l)
is if
...
1,
~n)<0
(r-l)(r
or
if
l<r<n.
Therefore
j&e. 2.
are positive numbers
6, c
// a,
any two of which are
together greater than the
third, then
Now,
since
a(c
+ a-b)(a + b -c)>0, we have
a(a + 6 -c-f c-f a-6)>2(c~f-a ~6)(a
if
which
the case.
is
greater than
4. If a,
Similarly, l/(a
2/6, 2/c respectively
x are
6,
For since
6 (6
according as ab
+ x)/(b + x)â/b,
that
+ c - a) + l/(c -f a - 6),
l/(6
result is obtained
(a -f x)/( b
positive,
+ bxâb + ax,
o 2 >a 2 -(6-c) 2 ;
or
is,
by
are
addition.
according as
a$b.
+ x)^ a/b
according as
ax^bx
or a $6.
Prove that
r. 1.
positive, then (a
-f x) is
+ 6-c)
+ a-6) + l/(a + 6-c)>2/a,
+ 6 - c) + 1/(6 -f c - a),
and the
l/(c
..
(2*-D
A
then
'
/o
AI
Also
(2*
4 6
>- -.
+ ix
!)^-.-...
^<r
Therefore
*^
and
'
5. If both sides of an inequality are symmetric functions of a y

no loss of generality in assuming that
6, c, ... A, k,
there is
Ex.
"
1.
6, c
// a,
are all positive
and
nÔ or n^
1,
then
a n (a-b)<a-c)+bn (b-a)(b-c)+c n (c-a)(c-b)^0.

First
an
let
w>0.
^b ^c
therefore
whence the
//
On
account of symmetry, we may assume that a^6>c.

and a n (a-6)(a-c)>6n (a-6)(6 -c), also c n (c-a)(ca n (a-6)(a-c)+c n (c-a)(c-6)^6 n (a~6)(6-c),
Hence,
result in question.
2;a n (a-6)(a-c)=Z(a-6)(a-c)=27a2
n=0,
27a 2
and
-l,
let
easily seen that
n= -w-1,
-.
2:6c
<
-276c
so that
Ean (a - 6) (a - c) = -r-
mÔ.
2?a
Let a = l/a, 6 = l/jS,
m (a -
j8)
(a
y)
= l/y,
then
by the preceding.
it is
INEQUALITIES INVOLVING POWERS
218
6.
//!, a2
((!&!
-f
a n and bl9 62
...
let
a 2 b2 +
A=
bn are two sets of real numbers, then
...
-f a n ) (6 X
#tA) 2:^( a i + a 2 +
=
=
occurring only when a^Jb^ a^jb^
-f
. . .
the sign of equality
For
. . .
B = 2arbr C = 2b rz then
2
Z(ar + A6 r - A + 2 A
a r2 ,
have a r -h \br =
for every
is
the
7. If a 19 a 2
. . .
= a n/b n
. . .
-f
6n2 ),
+ A2 C.
the sign of equality occurs,
we must
so
of
also follows
sum
from the identity
\n(n -
of the
1)
squares of the form (a^g
a n are n positive numbers, not
...
all
equal
according as x and y have the same or opposite signs.

First suppose that x and y have the same sign. Let
the numbers
-f
-f
The theorem
where S
and
62 2
A + 2XB + A C = are equal and B 2 =

A 2A$ + A2 C>0 for all values of A, and therefore B2 <AC.
Hence the roots

Otherwise
r,
If
-f
for all values of A,
Therefore ^4-2AJ5+ A 2 CÔ.
1, 2,
negative or zero.
...
n,
then a rx -a sx and arv
Hence
a
(a r
x+v
to
- a 2 î) 2
one another, then
r, s
be any two of
are both positive, both
-a/
-a8x )(ar y -a8 v )^0, and
x y
v
v
-h a*+ ^*a r*a 8 + a s a r
There are 2^(^-1) relations of this sort, not

occurs in n - 1 of them and a r xa s v in only one.
consequently
all equalities.
Also a rx + v
Hence by addition
(n- \)Za r
Therefore
nEa
x +v
x +v
>Z:a rxasy where s^r.
> Sa x +v + Safa* = Za x
r
If x and y have opposite signs, then (a r

be substituted for
in the preceding.
2a rv
- a,*) (a r y - a/)<0, and
< must
>
8. The inequality in Art. 7 can be written
n
Hence
to
it
follows that if
one another, and x,y,z,
a^ a 2
...
...
a n are n
positive numbers, not all equal
are all positive or all negative, then
27a r +y++...
Ea
^
Zgv Zaf
^
FUNDAMENTAL INEQUALITIES
**-
9. If a is any positive number except

then
First suppose that
we have
(a
l)/p
(aP
= (a - l){pa~ l - (a p
p, q are positive integers.
V)/(p
If
1}
4-a*~ 2
y are positive rationals,*
x,
x>y.
if
x~p, y = q where
_i
and
1,
219
... 4-
l)}/p(p
- 1).
Now, the expression in the large brackets can be written

1 a*~ 2 ) + (a*- 1 - a*- 3 ) +
+ (a~ l - 1 )}
(a*. . .
and each term
of this is positive or negative according as a.^\.

in either case, (a p -l)/p- (a** 1 - l)/(p - 1 )>0,
Hence,
that
p,
(a
is,
l)/p decreases as
if
y are fractions, we
may
one or both of
q,
d are positive integers and p>q----
TT~
d
P/
p>q.
(a-l)/p>(a<*-l)/q
If
cc,
and therefore
decreases,
j>
> --TT~~
d
x,
take x=p/d, y = q/d where

have to show that
We
A
>
that, is
?/
where b = a d
NOTE.
6>0 and
This follows from the preceding, for
It has
been shown that
a>0
and ^1,
passes through positive rational

x
values, (a ~l)/x increases with x.
Putting I/a for a, it follows that (a- ~l)/x
increases.
x
and
as
decreases
Further, putting
increases,
consequently (l-a-*)/*
if
as
a;
we conclude that x(a x - 1)
Ifx for x,
decreases
~
Ex.
Ifa>l and n^l.then
I.
n(a
and x(l ~ a x )
1
-l)>l
__ji
If
w>l, n(an -
If
n = \ the inequality becomes a -1>1 --, or a (a-
1)
=an .n(l-a n)> a^(l
- a~ 1 )>l - a- 1
1)
> a-1,
10. If a and b are positive and unequal and x

except
unless
1,
then
<x < 1
Proof.
6)>a _
^-i (a
,
in which case
xa
x ~l
6x
>x6
x-i
(a-b) <a
(a
is
any
i.e.
2
(a-l) >0.
rational
number
_ 6)f
- bx <x6x ~ 1 (a ~ 6)
First observe that, in either of the cases, the truth of one of
the inequalities involves that of the other.

* It
increases as x increases.
can be shown that
this is true
when
x,
v are positive
Thus,
real
if
for all positive
numbers.
(See Ex.
XXIII,
and
37-39.)
B.CJU
FUNDAMENTAL INEQUALITIES
220
x ~l
x
x
we may interchange
(a-~b)>a -b
unequal values of a and 6, xa
l
x - a x and therefore a x -b x
a and 6, so that xb*~ (b a)>b
>xb x ~ l (a-b).
Thus it is only necessary to prove one inequality in each case.
,
',
Let a/b = k, then
(i) if
according as
(ii) if
is
- bx ^xbx ^ l (a - b) according as kx - I $x(k - 1), or

x (k
l)/xg(A 1)/1, that is according as xgl (See Art. 9.)
x
positive a
is
negative and
equal to
y then xa
x ~l
- b) â x - b x according
(a
-l
(k-l)>k-v-I, that is according as -y(k~l)^k-k y +

v +l - 1
5 k (y + 1 ) - y - 1 or according as
according as k
(*+'-l)/(y + 1)2 (*-!)/!;
-yk~ v
as
l
,
or
that
is
Now y>0, and
y + l^l, or t/^0.
(by Art. 9) according as
xa*- l (a-b)>a x
so
-bf*.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

1 1
When
= 1,
the second inequalities in Art. 10 become
ax
-I>x(a~I)
-l<x(a-l)
ax
Writing n for x and
and
1,
1 -f
x> -1 and 7^0,
x for
0<z<l.
>l+nx
if
n<0
(l+x) <l-fnx
if
0<n<l.
-x)
(l-x)
Ex.
or
>l -nx
if
n<0
<l~nx
if
0<n<l.
// m, n are positive and
1.
>1,
any
rational except
that
m<n,
>1,
x<l and ^0,
again, changing the sign of x, if

(1
it
or
is possible to
>1,
find positive values of x such
(l+x)<
this inequality holds
Now
(1
if
or
follows that, if n is
it
For
x<0
JAen
(l+x)
Or
if
(1
+ x)- m >l -mx,

or
+7ix)(l
~mx)>l,
Ex.
// sn = a + a 2 +
2.
Denote the left-hand
if
if
x>0
and
hence the inequality holds
x{(n-m) -mnx}>0,
. . .
side
+ an
where a v a 2
by un then
,
r=n4- 5
HH-Un-^^-j*
if
or
...
if
if
-mx>l/(l +nx),
0<x<(n -m)/mn.
an are
all positive t
n>l,
*_
^(l+aja+o.)...
then
or
if
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC MEANS

Now
s r
-^ n Li> ra n ^n r^Tl
1
>
when r>l
and when
(Art. 10),
221
= l,
this
becomes
an equality, therefore
un - u n _ l >an u n ^
therefore
Now
M!
>0
and
n=2,
for
n >(l
+an )u n _ >u n ,
1
3, 4, etc.
Arithmetic and Geometric Means.
12.
are
0, therefore w n
If
(1)
a,
c, ...
6,
n numbers and
A^
then
^4
and
+ c+...-h)
arithmetic
n
G= J
(abc
...
&),
mean and G the geometric mean
of
&.
Theorem.
13.
not all equal
For
the
called
is
...
a, 6, c,
-(a + 6
let
T/?e arithmetic mean of n positive numbers, which are

one another, is greater than their geometric mean.
he the arithmetic mean and G the geometric mean of the n
to
numbers
positive
a, 6, c, d,
Suppose that
aâny
other
number
...
A* ..................................
(A)
and that fcâny other
of the set
number, then
Let
&'
na>a + b + c + ... +k>nb and a>A>b.

=a + 6 - -4 so that ?/">0, and consider the set
A,b',c,d,...k,
obtained by substituting A,
Thus
A + b' =a
-f
the same arithmetic
b'
for a, 6 in (A).
and Ab'>ab.
mean
.................................
We
(B)
have
Hence the numbers
of the set (B)
as those of (A), but a greater geometric
have
mean.
the numbers in (B) are not all equal, then A is neither the
the least of the set. By repeating the process we can therenor
greatest
fore obtain a set of n positive numbers containing two A's, with the same
Again,
if
mean
as before, but a greater geometric mean.

we shall finally arrive at a set of n numbers each equal
of which the geometric mean is greater than (?, and since
is the
arithmetic
Continuing thus,
to
geometric
Thus
mean
for the
of these equal
numbers
10, 1, 2,
7;
The arithmetic mean
numbers,
it
follows that
A>G.
10, 1, 2, 7, the successive sets are

5,
of the
increasing from left to right.
6,
2,
7;
numbers
5,
6, 4,
5,
5,
5,
5.
in each set is 5, the geometric
mean
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM
222
Taking the
Alternative proof.
set (A),
we have
Proceeding in this way, we can show that

abc
k^
...
(1
(a
-f
6+
is
k)
}*
>
if
...
a power of
2,
then
'/
so that
is
where
If
not a power of
2,
occurs r times
and n-f r
a b
consider the set

is
a power of
c9
...
By
2.
A A A
9
...
the preceding,
abc
The right-hand
GÂ,
...
n +r
A n+r
side is equal to
Gn A r Â n + r
and therefore
when
the sign of equality only occurring
the numbers
all
so that
a, 6,
...
are equal.
Shoiv that n n >l
J&r. 1.
We have
(1
Now
AV
>\
1.3.5...
...
For
...
(2n
1).
(2w !)}/>
+2n - 1 =
&{!
(2-l)
and
.3.5
a^ (n
There are n inequalities
- a 2 ) + (0 - a 8 ) +
- a 2 ) (5 1) ^ {(5
. . .
...
(2
(2*-l).
2
1)} -r/
n n >l .3 5
.
a n are positive and (n - 1)* =
(*
therefore
+3 +5 -f ...
// a x , a 2 , a 3
2.
3 5
+ 3 -f 5 + ... +
1
.'.
...
^+a
(2- 1).
+ ...
-f
an
+ (* - a w = a lf
)
8 ) ...
(a
-a
n )}
(or equalities) of this kind,
l /(
n~ l \
and the
result folloâ
by
multiplication.
14.
Theorem,
//a,
6, ...
k and
x, y,
...
are two sets of
positive
numbers, those in the second set being rational, then
+
ku
For in Art. 13 we may take x^x'lg, y = y'lg, ... w = w'/g, where x' y
... w' and
g are positive integers, and then it is sufficient to prove that
9
+
''
ax'
Now
is
fy'
+ ...*M/
'
the left-hand side
the geometric
mean
b occurs y' times,

the last theorem.
...
is
...
'" k
the arithmetic
of a, a,
6, 6, ... k,
mean and
k
...
the right-hand side

where a occurs x' times,
and k occurs w' times, so that the
result follows
by
MAXIMA AND MINIMA

.15.
all
Theorem.
to
equal
// a, 6,
one another, and
k are n positive numbers which are not
c, ...
m is any rational except
.,
let
or 1, then
m does not or does Iw between
according as
For
223
and
1.
a + 6-f c-f
...
+&
then
1
fl
m ^ l-a
m m m
-a
-(a + & + c + ...+ k )^
l-(a + + c + .:.+
and
xm + ym -f zm +
according as
If
m does not lie
xm + y m +
Hence
...
and therefore
If
0<m<l,
and
between
-f
w-n) = Q,
. . .
Art. 11, the sign
>
must be replaced by
+wn <n.
xm + i/m + ...
inequalities, so that
Art. 11,
+ wm -n>m(x4-y-h ...
rw
xm -f m -f
-f t^ > n.
y
by
+ wm $ n.
. . .
by
1,
<
in all these
This completes the proof of the theorem.

1
6.
Theorem
Ifa,b,...k and x,y, ...w are two
sets
...
+wk m
ofn
rationals
and
m being any rational,
those of the first set are not all equal to one another, then,
.
does not or does lie between

and 1.
according as
* This
depends on Art. 15 in the same way that Art. 14 depends on Art. 13.
17. Application to Questions of Maxima and Minima

Val ues. In the theorems of Arts. 13-15 the inequalities become equalities
when all the num'bers a, 6, c, ... k are equal. Hence we draw the following
;
conclusions
Suppose that
then:
(1) If
x, y, z,
x+y+z+
...
. . .
w are n positive variables and that c is a constant,
+w = c,
the value of xyz
so that the greatest value of xyz

(2) If
...
is (c/n)
xyz...w = c, the value of x + y +
...
...
+ y+
... -f
is
is
greatest
when
n.
w
i
so that the least value of x
ncn
is
least
when x = y=...
=w?,
APPLICATIONS
224
if
Again,
ra is
rational except
any
or
from Aft. 3 we conclude that
1,
between
x + y + z + ...+w = c then, according as m does not or does lie

and 1, the least or the greatest value of xm +ym + ... +w m occurs
when x
y...w,
(3) If
the value in question being n l
~m
cm
m
m
m = c, then
-f w
(4) If x + y +
according as m does not or does lie
between
and 1, the greatest or the least value of x + y + ...+w occurs
when x = y=...=w, the value in question being n 1 " 1 /. c1 /.
. . .
Ex.
1.
Find
the greatest value of
xyz for positive valuer of
x, y, z, subject to the con-
dition
Since yz + zx + xy~l2, the value of (yz)(zx)(xy) is greatest when yzzx^xy, that

when x~ y~z-2.
Hence the greatest value of (yz) (zx) (xy) is 2 8 and the greatest value of xyz is 8.
is
Ex.
2.
// the
sum of the
sides of
w given, prove that
a triangle
when
the area is greatest
the triangle is equilateral.
Let
If
a, b, c
is
be the sides of the triangle, and let

2
- b)
zJ
s(s - a)
the area, then
(s
Now
(.?
Hence the value
of (s
Ex.
3.
Since
Find the
x 2 y3 6.
o%3 = 6,
Therefore A#
if
-f (s
- a) (s - b)
Therefore the value of
condition
a)
is
/x
are
6)
(s
-I-
- c)
(s
is
(s
-f
+ c ~2s.
a constant,
greatest
b
- c).
c)
when a
greatest
when
-a~s -b~s -c.
= c.
3x + 4y for positive values of x and
least value of
A,
any constants, we have
+ Xx+^y -f/xy+^y
is
least
when
2
\x) (Xx) (^y) (py) (/z//)
A#=/u,?/
= (6A 2/z 3
+ 4t/
of 3z
Find the least value of x~* + y~ l + z~ l for positive values of x,

the condition x + y + z = c.
In Art. 17, (3), putting w= - 1, n~3, since m does not lie between
+ y~ l + z' 1
is
SV" 1
4.
value of x~ l
= 6A 2/x 3
Hence the least value of 2Az -f 3pty is 5(6A /i )^.

Putting 2A = 3 and 3/x 4, it follows that the least value
Ex.
y, subject to the
is
y, z
which satisfy
and
1,
the least
or 9/c.
EXERCISE XXIII
In
marked with an
the inequalities
*, all the
numbers concerned are supposed
to
be
positive.
... a
1. If
,, cr 2
n and b 19 b 2 ... b n are two sets of numbers and
the second set are positive, then (a l -f a a +
-f a n )/(6 1 -f 6 2 +
+ bn)
lies between the greatest and least of a^/b^
an lb n
...,
2 /6 2
,
. . .
2.
If a,
6, c
are
(b
any
4-
real
a)
numbers, show that

a - 6) 2 -f (a + 6 - c) 2 ^ 6c
-f (c -f
. .
-f
ca
-f
ab.
all
those in
TYPICAL EXAMPLES
225
3. If J + w -fn = l and J' + m' -f w' ^l, then

2
2
[E(mri - m'ny + (W + mm' -hnn') = El* Z7' .]
2
4. Show that a(x + y)*

the quantities involved.
5. If any two of
showthat
a>0
If
6.
+ bz + cz(x ~-y) cannot be

2
positive for all real values of
together greater than the third and x
a, 6, c are
and x>y, show that ax + a~ x >a y + a~ y
+ y + 2=0,
c, d are in harmonical progression, then a + d>b + c.

[Let p 3g, jp f, 2>-l-#> ^>4-3^ be the reciprocals of a, b, c, c?.]
~
~
8.* If x^ty, then (axn + byn )l(axn l + byn l ) increases as n increases through
7.* If a, 6,
integral values.
9. If a, 6, c,
[2(ab
m*
10.*
-4-
dareall >1,
1)> (a +
+ 1),
!)(&
then
etc.]
--- +
^ a + b + c.
c+a
2
2
[For, (& + c )/(& + c)^(& + c), etc.]
11. If x>0 or <-l, then
r
zn ' r
^ I +x
[Show that x + + x
-r
&4-c
12.*
(i)
(ii)
a(a-b)(a-c)+b(ba 3 -f 6 3 + c 3 + 3a5c ^ a 2 (6 + c)
[The second inequality

13. If a, 6, c
> 27a
15. If
[If
a>6, then
16. If
n>0
Za Ella^n*
.
and not
p>l
Za 3
(ii)
all
El'.a'&nZa*.
equal, then
y are any two positive numbers such that
#,
\*
(^
-l<x(?-l
a?
+ y = l,
then
.]
anda?>l, then
> ~nx
x n ~x~- n
17. If
first.]
and Za(6-c) 2 >0.]
JEb"
a 9^6 and
+ a) -f c 2 (a 4- b).
merely another form of the
is
14. If a, b 9 c are positive
6 2 (c
are n positive numbers, then
... fc
(i)
[327a
-I-
and
r is
(p
any
4.
[Use Art.
ni
9.]
rational except zero, then
l)f+i
- r+i^( r + l)pr >-pr + l p
where the upper or lower signs are to be taken according as

lie between
and - 1.
Hence show that
(l
+ 2 a + 3 r 4-
...
)/w
r4
'
lies
does not, or does,
between l/(r-fl) and
[In Art. 10, let a;=r4-l. First put 0=73 + !, &=/>,

Finally let p = l, 2, 3, ... n in succession, and add.]
and next a=|9, 6=p-l.
HARMONIC SERIES
226
19.* a*b
+ b*c + c*a^3abc.
21. If
x> I
22. If
any two of a,
and n
is
20.
a positive integer,
(#
1)1 (x
are together greater than the third, then
6, c
23. If all the factors are positive, then
abc^TI(b+c-a)
(i)
24.
The
and
25. If
x+y+z
of,
is
a, 6, c,
abcd^ TI(b + c+d -2a).
-ax -by -cz)
greatest value of xyz(d
factors are positive,
(ii)
provided that
d are given positive numbers.
is
<Z
/4 o&c,
all
the
6, c are positive rationals and x, y, z are positive variables such that

a b
constant, show that x y sf has its greatest value when x/a y/b zlc.
26. If x, y, 2 are positive
and x + y-f- z
then
1,
8xt/z
<( 1 -z)(l
-i/)(l
-z)<-2
[Observe that 27(1 -a:) = 2.]

27. If
*=!+-A + -+.
..+_
n
o
and n>2, show that
[Consider the sequences \, \, ?,
^04:
...
!L^
and ?, ?,
1ZO
71
...
!tl
.]
71
28. Let a l9 a 2 , ... an be a sequence of

positive numbers and let A,Q,
respectively be the arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means of a^ and an , then
n <a a ... a
n
(i) If ttj, a 2 ... a n is an arithmetical progression,
1 2
n
(ii)
29.
(i)
(ii)
an
a harmonical progression,
nH<a 1 + a 2 + ...+an <nA and H n <a la 2
,
<A
If a x a 2
...
is
n
IfzjX&t ...xn =a where a
is
...
an <(? n
a constant, then
r
The sum of the products of every r of the x's >
CJ?a
The least value of (x l -f (a?a + k) ...(xn + k) is (a 4- k) n
.
ifc)
30. If a is
any positive number except 1, and x, y, z are rationals no two of which

and which may be positive or negative, then
a x (y - z) +a*(z - x) +a*(x - y)>0.
let
z
be
x,
[First
y,
integers and let x> y> z (Art. 5). Consider the A.M. and
the O.M. of the set of numbers a x a x a x ... a 2 a 2 a 2 ... where a x occurs
(y -z)
times and a? occurs (x y) times.
If x, y, z are fractions, denote them
by p/d, q/d, r/d where p, q, r, d are integers
and d is positive. This case can then be at once deduced from the preceding.]
are equal
31.
Deduce the theorem of Art. 9 from Ex.
32. If
a l9 a 2
...
(a 1
[In Art. 15 put
a n are positive and

+ aJ + ...+an*)<
w = ?, a-a^, etc.]
p>q
30.
then
333
IMPORTANT GENERALISATIONS
-f-
16
a-f b
w= -1, n4, $(b+c+d)
[In Art. 15, put
227
+ c + d'
fora, etc.
Use Art. 16 to show that
34.*
a" 1 + b~ lc + cr l a
a+b+c
*)
35.*
[Use Ex. 34.]

36. If
a2
!,
...
OK and b l9 b 2 ,
then
...
two
bn are
sets of positive
numbers arranged
in descending order,
(a l
+ a 2 + ...+an )(b + b 2 + ...b n ^n(a b +a 2 b 2 + ... +a n b n

- 2a
br
Use the relation (a r ~a n )(b r ~bn )^0
r r
r
l
~na b
[Let u n
that w n >w-n _!.]
37.
If a>
and p, q are
a*
).
positive integers,
aa
-I
p
[Let
~l
p-q, a
2
u^(a? - l)lp -(a*- - 1)1 (p ~ 1),

1
show
tfiat
to
2
-I) when p>q.
then by Art.
9,
... -f
show
1)};
~.
p(p-L)
a p -l aq ~l
and
p
38. If
a>l and
q
x,
y are
"
positive rationale, then
[Put x pfd, yqjd where p,

Ex. 37, we find that
q,
d are positive
Let a lld
integers.
then, using
and by
Art. 9, Ex.
39. //
a> 1
ami
1,
x,
d(a
y are
- 1)> 1 -a- 1 .]
positive real numbers, then
(a*-l)lx>(av-l)ly
if
x>y.
[Let x' y' be rational approximations to x, y such that x'>x, y' <y, and there7
x - 1
fore x' - y > x - 1/. Let /( # )
)/, and suppose that
(a
9
then
We
/(*)
can choose x', / so that

when *>!/. See Ch. XIII, 7.]
-c' <l(x-t/)(l
|
-a" 1
2
)
and so
/(a?)
-f(y)>0,
CHAPTER XV
SEQUENCES AND LIMITS
(Continued from Art. 11 on p. 15)
Limit of a Function of the Positive Integral Variable
When
is
large,
1 4-
enough, we can make

This
as
n tends to
infinity.
further,
by making n large
as nearly equal to
1 -f
roughly what
is
nearly equal to
is
n.
is
as
we
meant when we say that
like.
1 is
the limit of
In this explanation, the meaning of
+-
'
large
enough/
'
as nearly equal to 1 as we like,' is by no means clear.

If u n is a function of the positive integral variable n> the
n tends to infinity is usually defined as follows
limit of
u n as
'
that we
(1) If corresponding to any positive number
no
matter
how
a
there
is
m
such
that
small,
positive integer
may choose,
for every integer n greater than or equal to m
Definitions.
where
is
a fixed number, then
is
This
lim u n
called the limit
is
tends to infinity.
lim u n = L
or simply
/,
ofu n as n
n->oc
We also say that
un
tends to
as n tends
u n -~>l
as
to infinity
n-+vo
corresponding to any positive number

how great, there is a positive integer
matter
no
then u n
this
by
that
we may
choose,
such that for every
n greater than or equal to m,

u n >M,
is
said to tend
to infinity
wn
>
as n tends
or
oo
to
lim u n
w n ->oo and v n = - u n we say that

If u n -->l we say that the sequence (u n )
If w n ->oo or - oo
to the limit L
the
If
and express
(2) If,
integer
infinity)
= oo
v n tends to
is
and we write
minus infinity (-<#).

and that it converges
convergent,
sequence (un )
is
said to bo divergent*
THEOREMS ON LIMITS
u n does not tend to a
If
oscillate
un
If
limit,
It
if|a|<l, a^-Ô;
a n ->
is
u 2 ),
or
oo
a=-l,
if
according as n
oo
an
is
This
u3 ),
(3,
...
=r
even or odd,
often useful to represent the
graphically.
(2,
it is
that, for
first
a n ~> oo if a - 1, a n = 1 for
and a n oscillates finitely; if
and so a n oscillates
1,
infinitely.
few terms
of a
sequence (u n )
done by plotting points whose coordinates are
is
It
said to
\<M,
does the function a n behave as n-> oo ?

II, 18, (5), it will be seen that if a>
How
1.
1,
Otherwise, u n oscillates infinitely.
said to oscillate finitely.
is
every n;
-
oo
n,
Referring to Ch.
a<
nor to -
\u n
Ex.
and the sequence (u n ) is called oscillatory.

can be found such
oscillates and a positive number
every positive integer
then u n
+ oo
nor to
229
(1,
),
usual to join points representing consecutive
is
terms.
Ex.
2.
un = ( -
//
n
l)
+-
represent
Jew terms of the sequence

and examine the diameter of the sequence
graphically the first
(un ),
as
n->
oo
As ?i~> oo u zn -> 1 and u 2n ,!-> Thus un oscillates finitely.

,
2.
1.
FIG. 34.
Fundamental Theorems on Limits.
(1)
Ifu n -*l and
v n -*l\
then
u n + v n ->l + l',
(i)
l/u n ->l/l, unless
(iv)
Proof.
(i)
and
un
(ii)
-v n ->l-l',
= 0,
(v)
Choose a positive number

(ii).
By
w n ^ n ->Zr,
(iii)
u n \v n ->l\l' unless
,
I'
= 0.
no matter how small.
the definition of a limit
we can choose MJ and
so
that
\u n -l\<.l
and
If
\v n
we denote
will hold for
-l'\<\t
the greater of
n^m, and
and
|
Wn
mv m2
for
n^m
for
n^m%.
by m, then each
n we have
for such values of
_ Vn _
(J
_ J')
Hence, by the definition of a
sg
|
Mn
limit,
u + v->l + l'
and
of these inequalities
MONOTONE SEQUENCES
u n = I + a and vn = T +
Then
230
Let
(iii)
j9.
Choose any positive number
greater than
V + j8
then
1,
\u nv n -ll'\<\fll\+\\.L.
By
provided only that
n^m. Hence
Let
tt n
= Z+a,
is ftoJ zero
we can choose a
Now by
IV
\
<.
This follows from
(iii)
number L
positive
and
than
+a
|,
and
|ifX'
we can choose
m so
that
also
*
and therefore
11
i_
c,
less
<
-|
n>m. Hence
<
provided only that
(v)
then
A
//
then
u nvn -
also
u nvn -+ll'.
Therefore
(iv)
m so that
we can choose
>T
for
(iv),
when r
Ifu n ->l and v n ~w n ->0, <Aen v n ->l.
For Vn -Z = Vn - Wn ) + (w n -Z), therefore
(2)
Now we
can choose
|w n
Hence
-J|<|
vn
-un
+\ u n -l
\.
and
|^ n
-w n |<i.
for such values of n,

|
3.
n^m both
so that for
-Z|<ic
f>
|
vn
-1
1
<
c,
Monotone Sequences.
said to increase steadily, and (u n )

If w n +i<w w for all values of n,
and therefore
w n +i^ M
If
is
un
v n -> Z.
for a11 values of n,
un
is
called a monotone increasing sequence.

is
called a monotone decreasing sequence.
said to decrease steadily,
and
(w n )
is
EXISTENCE OF A LIMIT
Theorem
less
231
// every term of a monotone increasing sequence (u n ) is

than a fixed number k, then the sequence converges to a limit equal to, or
1.
less than, k.
Divide the system of rational numbers into two classes as
Proof.
follows
:
of
The lower class is to contain every rational a such that, for some value
n (and therefore for all greater values), w n >a.
The upper class is to contain every rational a! such that u n <a' for all
values of n.
No rational escapes classification, and every a

the classification defines a real number A.
We
shall
is less
prove that the sequence converges to
First observe that
every rational
which
than any
a'.
Hence
as a limit.
u n cannot exceed A. For if u n >A, u n would exceed

This is impossible, for such
lies between u n and A.
a rational would belong to the upper class.

Next, choose a positive number e, no matter
how
small,
and
let
a be a
rational such that
A-<a<A.
Then a belongs to the lower class, and
sequence and by all succeeding terms
0<A-un <
therefore
is
exceeded by some term um of the
if
limu = A.
Hence
kÂ,
Again
for otherwise k
would be exceeded by some term
of the
sequence, thus
It follows that
or to
For
u n <k
-f
oo
if
if
un
increases steadily as
n->oo
then u n tends to a limit
u n does not tend to +
oo
number k
a positive
exists such that
for all values of n.
Theorem 2. If every term of a monotone decreasing sequence (u n ) is greater

than a fixed number k, then the sequence converges to a limit equal to or
greater than k.
This can be proved by an argument similar to the preceding, or thus
Let v n = -u n then (vn ) is an increasing sequence of which every term is
Therefore (v n ) converges to a limit less than - k. Hence
less than - k.
:
(un ) converges to a limit greater than k.

Hence also if u n decreases steadily as n->oo
to -oo
then u n tends to a limit or
EXPONENTIAL INEQUALITIES
232
i
Ex.
If
1.
un
//
~0
un
1,
--ii(x
n -
1)
where
for every n,
#>0, show
that
un tends
to
a limit as n-^&
and so lim u n ~0.
x>I, u n >0, and by XIV, 9, un decreases

limit, which we shall denote by /(x), as ?i~> x
If
Hence un tends
as n increases.
to a
If
0<#<1,
(1) ///or all values of n* u n is positive and u n

a constant greater than unity, then ?/ n ->oo
Theorems.
4.
where k
is
For u n >ku n _{>k*u n _2

(2)
y>\ and
x~l/y, then
let
all
Iffor
>k
...
values of n,
un
n ~l
u1
Now &>1,
therefore u n -+co
and u n i<Jcu n where k
is positive
is
a positive
constant less than unity, then u n -0.
The proof
(3)
// u n
For
if
is
similar to that of
is positive
Theorem
(1).
and lim u n n /u n = l then w n ->o> ?//>!, and u n -+Q

.
/>! we can choose k so that >&>!, and then hy the definition

we can find m such that u n+1 /u n ^>k for n^-m. Hence by
of a limit
Theorem
(1), w n ->oo
l<] we can choose k so that l<k<I, and then we can
u n+l ju n <k, for n>w. Hence, by Theorem (2), w n ->0.
If
Ex.
1.
If p
is
a given
integer, positive or negative,
*
(i)
un =
If
and the
5.
(1)
results follow
xn
-^
->oo
if
x>l
u
then
=(
~->0
(ii)
sJww
\v
-_
if
find
m so that
that
|*|<1.
'X>x
as
rt-> oo
from Theorem
(3).
Exponential Inequalities and Limits.

If n
For,
is
a positive
integer,
+-
<3.
by the Binomial theorem,

...
to
n -f
12 '(3
Or,
it'
^ m where M
is
a fixed number,
i.e.
after a certain stape.
terms
EXPONENTIAL LIMITS
(2)
m and n are positive integers
//
1+
>
w/
\n
+m/
>
and
n/
ml
m>n,
/
m.
11,
and therefore
then
1-
For since m/n>\, by XIV,
and
233
1 \
1
m/
l\ n
>l-f-j.
\
n/
n
therefore
Moreover,
0<w/m<l,
Hence
l-<l-
'
'
by
J XIV,
1\*
f
1
11,
--
<1
n/
and
n/
(3)
The number
andu n = (l--)
\
n
Ifu n = (l+-)
n/
e.
'
through positive integral values,
and
the
same for
the limit is the
,thenasn-+oo
'
tends to a finite limit, so also does
71
This limit
both.
is
denoted by
and
e,
is
un
'
one of
most important numbers in mathematics.
For
(i)
every n.
has been shown that u n increases with n and that u n <3 for
Therefore u n
as n->co where e is a fixed number less than 3.
it
-e
\~ n
(f\
-~
'
'
(ii)
Again,
Wfl
-*- - u = u fu
n (
n
\u n
\
1
= un
0<w n
therefore
'
- un l,
<-. Now
->0,
and
u n '-+e.
u n <e
(ii)
n + (-l) n
(v)
n 2 -f(
->
as n->
(i)
+ (-l) n
(iv)
+ (~l) n -.
xn
2.
Prove that
QO
(iii)
XIV,
\
j
11),
EXAMPLES ON LIMITS
234
Represent graphically the
3.
say
how each behaves
||<l,
n->oo
%n
un ~
If
6.
A*
[The limit
~~
Show
is 1, if
and -
> 1,
otherwise.]
-H---- _H-------o+...-fr-, prove that f<t*n <l,
tends to a limit as w-*oc

7.
then
^.fl
Find lim
5.
few terms of the following sequences, and
first
--*
(Os.i.
2 o
4. If
as tt~>oo
that
-n< -^ + o- + 4- -f
vr<n.
/i
... -f
,4
Hence show that
and that un
1 H-
4-
. . .
---><
n
/I
[Group the terms thus: -+
1\
^+-
as ?i->oo.
/I
1\
-4- -4-
... .]
^-4-
8.
If lim
71(0;^
prove that
1) =/(a;),
z>0 and
if
Ex.
llli
[See Art.
xn y n -
3,
=yn (xn -
For the
1.
1)
lim yn ^
and
Q
9
T
If
tt
^v
[If
/>0, then -
5
2
vn ->oo
n ->0,
/v
10. If
wn -
_^_^
and
i<
w n i' n
<
according as x
2n
"
^^'s-srn:'
4
Now
_____
1).
1) -f (y
we have f(xy)-\im n(xn yn -
last part
5 y,
1
hence
v< 2-^n
and
2w
46
''*
2n + 2
N/2/Hrl, prove that
between l/\/2 and 1 as n->oo

[Show that w n ^<wn then by Ex.
lies
wn
tends to a limit which
"
/2"
has shown that this limit = A/ - .]
' 7T
9,
wn *=un vn and
<wn <l.
Wallis
GENERAL PRINCIPLE
n ^ 3,
11. If
n+
prove that
\/(n +
<s 'n. Hence show
1)
[For the
first
also
steadily;
part use the inequality
w>4
(r + 1)^
(i)
between
lies
7J
71
and
1 -f
+ l>0,
lim u n ^\l(r f
-f
2r
-I-
r-f-i
nj
\
(ii)
that
lim {(a
n-
3 r -f
r-,--l
Corresponding
small,
decreases
. .
-f
4-
l
,
n +
(a
-f
2)
-f ... 4-
(a
The
and add.
+ tt) r j/tt f + 1 = l/(r + l).
^-00
to
any
positive
must be possible
it
n r )/ti r
The necessary and
cient condition for the convergence of the sequence (w w )
how
oo
1).
General Principle of Convergence.
6.
n ->
Show
as
s'w
[In Exercise XXIII, J7, put 1, 2, 3, ... n in succession for ?;,

necessity for the condition r~hl>0 in (ii) should be explained.]
13.
If Z>1, for ?*>3 we

C'^>1, therefore "?i->Z where Z^l.
n
But J n /n->oo when J>1 (XV, 4, Ex. 1).]
l /n<l.
any rational except zero and
12. If r is
If r
Thus
<3.
4 ---I
that */n ->
^n>L and
should have
show that
235
to
number
find
we may
choose, no matter
so that, for every positive integer p,
\u m + ,-u m
1(
that
suffi-
as follows.
is
\<
(A)
say, the difference between u m and any subsequent term must

be numerically less than e, so that if the terms of the sequence are repre-
That
is to
sented graphically, all the terms beginning with u m lie in a strip of width 2e.
This statement, called the general principle of convergence, is of the
greatest importance,
(i)
The condition
and may be proved as

For
is necessary.
um + p - u m
<
\
The condition is
points Wj, u 2 ... on the
(ii)
so that
all
um + P -
I
\
un
we can
>l,
find
u m+p - u m - (u m
Now
for every positive integer p.
Hence
if
follows.
+ u m -l\
]1t
and
|
-l)
um
+ (l- u m ).
^ -um \<
e.
Represent the terms u v w 2 ... by the

The condition asserts that m can be found
sufficient.
x-axis.
so that
the points,
on a segment of length
with its middle point at um
lie
2e
FlG
35
By
like.
choosing e small enough, we can make this segment as short as

Hence it seems reasonable to conclude that as n->oo the point
,
tends to a limiting position somewhere near to um

If the student
satisfied with this reasoning, he may omit the proof on the next page.
.
B.C. A.
we
un
is
NECESSARY AND SUFFICIENT CONDITION
23G
Given
for every positive

such that
integer
e,
that,
no matter how small,
un - um
for every integer n greater than m,
a positive
<e
required to prove that the sequence (u n )
is
it
there exists
is convergent.
Using the given condition, we can determine a positive integer

w 2 >Wj, u mi> is within the interval
Proof.
so that, for every integer
('U mi
Denote
this interval
by
-,
U mv
+).
(a v b^.
w >w2
Again, we can determine m 2 so that, for every integer

3
within the interval (u mm
Thus the whole or part
Denote the common part

This
//
^Hi.2
is
of length
The
(w ?Wo
Je,
of these intervals
lies
-e,
of
entirely within
figure illustrates the case in
um^ +
um ^
is
for
(c^, 6 T ),
within (a v
b^).
and contains u n
tor
\t)
is
(a 2 6 2 ).
by
/^),
(c/ 1?
which the intervals overlap.
FIG. 36.
repeating the process, we can find a succession of intervals (a^

such that (i) each contains all that follow
...
(a,., b r ) ...,
By
(a 2
6 2 ),
(ii)
(iii)
for sufficiently large values of n,

b n -ff
a n <J, t -->
tl
Hence by Ch. XIII,

that
b^),
1,
there
is
and
for every n,
ns
uu
H
is
~~*
within each of the intervals
'
one real number
and one
only, such
this is the limit of the sequence (u n ).
NOTE. The necessary and sufficient condition for the convergence of

the sequence (u n ) is usually stated (less simply) as follows.
Corresponding to any positive number e that we may choose, no matter how
small,
it
must be possible
to
find
\
if
>w,/w
so that
",
"
<e
.................................
(B)
every positive integer p.
The condition (B), though apparently more general than (A), is equiTo prove this, we have only to show that if (A) is possible,
valent to it.
then (B) is possible when n]>m.
BOUNDS OF A SEQUENCE
we can
the condition (A),
By
all
the terms w wfl
m so that
U^^-Un
and then
find
<ic,
um+z>
m+z
wf 2
.
237
He in the interval
Therefore the difference between any two terms which follow u m

so that
Hence we can find
than
is less
|w n + p -tt n |<
H>w.
if
Therefore the conditions (A) and (B) are one and the same.
Bounds
7.
of a Sequence.
If
(1)
there exists a
number
such
that, for all values of n,
the sequence (u n ), and also the function u w are said to be bounded above (or
on
the right).
If
number
there exists a
JV
such that, for
all
values of n,
then (w n ), and also w n are said to be bounded below (or on the left).
A sequence (u n ), or a function w n which is bounded above and below,
,
is
said to be bounded.
Examples.
Here
(un ) has a greatest term,
namely w 2 ="2
^ has
also a least term,
These are called Ae upper and lower bounds of (MW ), or of u n (FiG.
namely
- 2.
37).
-1
FIG. 38.
FIG. 37.
2.
Although there
wn
is
no greatest term, we say that
for the following reasons

(i)
(ii)
No term
of (u n ) exceeds
Infinitely
many terms
is
the upper bound of (un ), or of
1.
exceed any number
For similar reasons, we say that -
1 is
less
than
1,
for
u.in
-+
1.
the lower bound of (u n ) of u n (FiG. 38).
UPPER AND LOWER BOUNDS
238
// u n
Theorem.
no term of (u n ) exceeds h
(i)
at least
(ii)
This
bounded above
is
number
function u n
a number h such
there exists
one term of (u n ) exceeds any number

h
is
that
less
than
h.
called the upper bound of the sequence (u n ) or of the
Divide the system of rationals into two classes.

The lower class is to contain every rational a such that for some value
Proof.
of
n
u n â.
The upper
of
class is to contain
every rational
a'
such that for
values
all
u n <a.
Since u n
is
classification,
defines a real
bounded above, both classes

and every a is less than any
number
exist.
a'.
No
rational escapes
Hence the
classification
h.
Moreover, no term of (u n ) exceeds h, for in that case it would exceed a

rational a' greater than h. This is impossible, for a' belongs to the upper
class.
Also
if e
is
any
positive
number, no matter how small, we can find a
rational a such that
h-<a<h.
Now a belongs to the lower class and is exceeded by some term of (u n ).
Hence at least one term of (u n ) exceeds h - e.
Hence the number h satisfies the conditions stated above.
This theorem is often stated as follows
// u n is founded above, then it
has an upper bound.
In a similar way we can show that
// u n is bounded below there exists a
number I such that
:
(i)
(ii)
no term of (u n )
at least
The number
function u n
NOTE.
h and
is less
than
one term of (u n )
I
is
any number
is less tJian
called the lower
bound
of the
greater than
I.
sequence (u n ) or of the
// (u n ) JLOS no greatest term, infinitely
many
terms of the sequence
lie
between
h-.
For every term is less than h, and at least one term u m is greater than h - e. Since
ia no greatest term, infinitely
many terms are greater than u m and therefore also
greater than h e.
there
Similarly, if (un ) has no least term, infinitely
and
many
terms of the sequence
lie beticc.cn
LIMITS OF INDETERMINATION
Terms selected from u l9 u 2
said to form a subsequence.
Ex.
Explain how
1.
to select
t/
3,
...
239
according to some definite rule are
a subsequence which will converge
to the
upper bound h
If a 2 ^h, let a 3 be the lirst

If Ui^h, let a, 2 be the first term of (un ) greater than v
term of (un greater than a.2 Continuing in this way we form the required subsequence
The formal proof is loft to the student.
î a2 <x 3 ...
t
Lower Limits
Upper and
8.
(of
Indetermination) of a
Sequence.
Let (u n ) be a hounded sequence and let h l9 h 29 A 3 ... and l v J2 ^>
the upper and lower bounds of the sequences u 19 u 2 u% ..., u 2 u 3 w 4
(1)
u39 w4 u 5
,
If
fi
...
...
etc., respectively.
then u v
l=sUl9
* >e
hû
h^h^.
If
hl = h 2
Thus, in
not
is
ly
than any term of
less
then Aj
is
t/
2,
^h
%, ^4
...
u 2 u3 w4
the upper bound of
>A
therefore
...,
and so
and so on.
4
Similarly A 2 ^/fc 3 A 3
any case, h l
2
and
Hence h l9 h 2 A3 ... is a steadily decreasing sequence
every term is
greater than or
greater than l v Therefore this sequence tends to a limit
.
equal to l v
Similarly
than h v
l9
2,
3,
Therefore this
The numbers
H and
an increasing sequence and every term is less

sequence tends to a limit L less than or equal to h r
is
...
are called the upper
and lower
limits (of indeter-
mination) of the sequence (u n ).
lim u n = //
It is usual to write
(2)
and
lim u n ~L.
Examples.
Here h 1
= h 2 =h3 = ...=H.
(Fig. 39.)
FIG. 40.
FIG. 39.
1\
Here
^ = ^3-
h^hû^;
=l z ~Uq-,
etc.
etc.
.',
/.
//=lim u2n ^l.
L~tim w 8n+1 =
-1.
(Fig. 40.)
GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF CONVERGENCE
240
(3) It is
all
easy to see that,
terms of u lt w 2
...,
wn _1
After a certain stage,
(i)
that
if
A n >Aw+1 then h n = u n and h v A 2

,
As w->oo two cases
arise
the A's are equal, that
all
7>
/>
/>
~ "'m+2
~
n
m ~ Mrn+l
m exists
to say,
is
h n -\ are
...
so
H
"
In this case, (u n ) has no greatest term. None of the terms from u m onwards
- e.
can exceed H, but infinitely many terms exceed
There
(ii)
no such stage as that described in (i). That is, no matter

h n >h n+l
be, we can find w, greater than m, so that
is
m may
how
great
Therefore every h
is
a term of (u n ), and in
cases //
all
such that, after a
is
certain stage, every term of (u n ) is less than

+
e ;
Hence in all cases, infinitely many terms of (u n ) are greater than
a
in
other
than
are
certain
all
the
terms
less
+
also, after
stage
of (u n )
.
words, only a finite number of terms exceed II
In a similar
way we can show
+ e.
that infinitely
many
terms of
un
are less
L+e
than
and, after a certain stage, all the terms are greater than L~-e; in
other words, only a finite number of terms are less than L-c.
It follows that, if
H=L=
then the sequence converges
l,
For, after a certain stage, all the terms of (u n )

//
-f
that
is
between I -
and
lie
to
as a limit.
between
L-e
and
+ e.
We can at once deduce a proof

(4) General Principle of Convergence.
that the condition in Art, 6 is sufficient for convergence.
Given that
can be found so
that
\u n
-u m \<e
nl>m,
for
it
is
required to prove that (u n ) is convergent.
u n cannot tend to
First observe that
-f
co
or to
oo
Therefore
We can therefore choose m

(u n ) has upper and lower limits // and L.
u n - um
and n (n> m) so that
un
3-6
Je,
Je,
\u m L
|
and since
-L
- u n + um
<
-L + u n - um
<
<
\H-L\^\H-u n \+\u n -L\+\u n - u m
<c.
H and L is
H = L and
to say, the difference between the fixed numbers

Therefore
less than any positive number c, however small.
That
is
(u n )
9.
is
convergent.
Theorems.
(1)
certain stage,
where k
is
But
un
if
In
// (u n )
a positive constant
-u n ^ ;>w n - u n
}
the first case,
is
an increasing sequence and
if,
after
u
less
^.
than unity, then the sequence

the sequence is divergent.
suppose that the conditions hold for
is convergent.
Then
if
therefore
IMPORTANT THEOREMS
w>s, u m+l -um <k(um -um ^) ... <ten 9 (u -u8 ),
um+l - um <km c where c = (us+l - us }jks
241
Also
Hence by addition
Choose any positive number

can find
no matter how small then, since &<1, we

and since 'Umirn >um it follows that
;
m so that &m <e(l -k)/c,

I
tWn
- um
<c
for every n.
Therefore the sequence (u n ) converges.

In the second case, if n>s, u n+l - w n >w s
Now
(2)
us
w s+1
is
~ w 6-
a fixed positive quantity, therefore obviously
// M M >0 /or a^
m^.9
o/ n awrf w n+1 /?/, n ~>/>0 where
w n ->oo
is
a fixed
n
number, then u n ~+L
Because Z>0, we can choose a positive number
like.
Then we can find m so that
e< and
as small as
we
and by multiplication,
Since
Z-e>0,
it
follows that
û n
û n
therefore
(Z-)
<
J m <(Z + e) n
'
and
i
(t
')
(I
-)]
and
?/
n
n
>i!.
The converse of this theorem is not true. That is to say, if ^n n ->

follow that w n4l /w n ->/. For consider as a special case the sequence 1,
NOTE.
/,
it
does not
2, 1, 2,
...
in
which the terms are alternately

a limit.
and
2.
Here w n n ->
1,
but n n
fl /^ n
does not tend to
IMPORTANT THEOREMS
242
(3)
We
//
,<?
= u + uz +
can find
-f
u n and Urn u n = I,
so that for
any
Urn
then
n-*x
positive
>
oc
sn
/.
c,
Hence by addition,
- m)(l - e)<s n - s m <(n - m)(l + e)
(n
for
and
Now let m and n lend to oo in such a way that w/m->oo

we may suppose that m~>cc and n>m 2
(For example,
.)
We
show that under these circumstances s m /n~>0.

Since u n -*l we can find a fixed number k such that u r
and then
m < WA',
8m < % + h/ 2 4- ... 4shall
r,
so that
<
.v
Thus
(4)
//
Let
like,
and
P n = a n & +a n _ 1 6 2 + a n _ 2
1
and
bn
';
= + f3 ni
l>
---
+a
(3),
We
shall
+a 2 + ...+a n )->0 and
l(a 1
can betaken
j8 n
->0, then
4-a^).
i(j8 1+
j8 a
...
+j8 n )-^0,
Te-
prove that $,,->0.
have
|
and since a n->0 and
jS n
can also find

|
as
A-m
Q n |< ~n T|
r =i
->0 we can find a

|a f
We
and
to zero
so that a n -~>0,
?Z
and we
n->(>.
Q = ~(î+n-ift +
where
by
for every
therefore s n jn->l.
nfy^â-fay,
Now
<k
m/n and 5 m /?i tend
in the inequality (A),
we
A:
7i
as small as
and
|<*
fixed
number k such that for every s
|ft|<t.
so that
<
/k
and
|
f38
< c/A
for
Hence
|a r ]9 n _ r+]
and
COMPLEX SEQUENCES
for n-r + l>m,
|<*| j8 n-r+1 |<
* r
n>2w,
10.
zn
If
(1)
i.e.
= xn +
corresponding to any positive

such that
integer
-z\<t
\z n
where
we
a fixed number, then z
z is
zn = z
lim
write
said
(z n ) is
is
a positive
n^m,
for
called the limit
is
limz n = z
or
however small, there
e,
r^m,
where x n and y n
iy n
are functions of a positive integral variable n, the sequence

to be complex.
If
for
B)
P n-~>ab.
|Q n |< e: consequently Q n->0 and IV
Complex Sequences.
l^r^n.
Therefore
(A)
r>m
f^>r r<m + I,
|r0n-r+l|<*| a r|<
the inequality (A) will hold

for
so that, with this^proviso,
oc r n _
f3
r+l \<e
If
243
or
ofz n as n->oo
and
z n ->z.
n->oo
Under these circumstances the sequence

limit
(z n ) is
said to converge to the
z.
In order
lim z n
that
=x+
it is
ty
limx n = x
and
necessary and sufficient that
limy n ~y.
2
K-H=-y{(z-z) + (2/--?/) 2
For
Therefore
|
zn
z
\
First suppose that z n -*z.
and
xn
By
l^n" !"^^?
z
\
|# n -#|
therefore
~z\-> 0,
All this is evident geometrically, for \z n
points z n
and
yn
and
tend to zero, so that xn +x and //>?/.

Again, if x n ->x and y n ->y, from equation (A)
\z n
(A)
.
\
definition,
therefore
zn
-z\
\y n ~y\
it
follows that
zn
-> z.
is
the distance between the
z.
The theorems of Ch. XV, 2, regarding the limits of the sum, difference,
product and quotient of two functions of n, continue to hold when the
(2)
functions are complex.

(3)
Limit of
zn
as n->oo
Otherwise z n does not tend to
For
let z
(i) if
(ii) if
= r(cos 6+ i
=l
to a limit.
then z n
z is
complex.
a limit except
then z n = r ri
sin 0),
|z|=r<l, then
z
when
r n ->0
= l, and
and
z
if
|
zn
->0;
then
|>
7/|z[<l,
then z n ->0.
when z = l, and then limzn = l.

(cos n0+ sin nd), and
i
r n ->oo
and
zn
does not tend
SUBSEQUENCES OF PROPER FRACTIONS
244
11. General
condition for the convergence of a complex sequence
sufficient
as follows
so that
\
to
(z n ) is
Art. 6,
any
e,
positive
-z m \<e for
zm + p
If
Proof.
and by
(z n )
is
Corresponding
The necessary and
Principle of Convergence.
however small,
convergent, then (x n )
we can therefore choose m

\
N W
X
^m+y
__
Jr'm
it
must be possible
to
find
every positive integer p.
|<-1<:
^ 2 fc
and
(y n ) are
convergent sequences
so that for every positive integer p,
MTU]
*iu-i
< 2f
e
Mm \^l
lay
|
__,,/
.7^40
->.
htn + p-^ml
therefore
Hence the condition

Next suppose
that
\
Therefore (x m )
(y n )
is
As
any
^ - z m \<t,
then
|
convergent (Art.
(z n )
is
6),
however small,
e,
and
x w +p - x m
it
similarly
<
z
|
it
may
be stated thus.
must be possible
to
find
can be shown that
convergent, and the condition
in Art. 6, the condition
positive
if
necessary.
Hence
convergent.
NtfTE.
to
is
is
zm
is
sufficient.
Corresponding
so that
for every positive integer p.
EXERCISE XXV
1. If u n is a
decreasing function of n, then, after a certain stage, all the terms
of u n have the same sign.
- QO
First let u n -> I. If / ^ 0, u n is positive
f Kithor u n tends to a limit or to
for all values of T?, for un tends to / from above. If I <0, we can choose
so that
.
l<un <0
n^m.
for
Therefore the terms of (u n ) beginning with u m are

negative.
If u n ->--<*), we can find
so that u < - k for
2.
If u n
is
n^m.]
an increasing function, the statement
in
Ex.
3. Show that the positive

proper fractions can be
arranged in a definite order, so as to form a sequence.
Represent the first few terms graphically indicate
terms which form subsequences converging to the
upper and lower bounds as a limit.
[The sequence, omitting such fractions as |, is
1 is
true.
;
'
2'
3'
4'
5'
5' 5'
The required subsequences

dotted
lines.]
5'
6'
arc indicated
by the
-Q
FIQ. 41.
GEOMETRICAL CONVERGENCE
4.
un >0
If
[See Ex.
5.
6.
n and un+l /un ->l then (nun
for all values of
XXIV,
and Art.
11,
\+1+
2
n (\+
V
3
un ^
n -+l.
9, (2).]
Prove that lim -
If
245
. . .
-0.
[Art. 9, (3).]
n/
show that
->
and consequently
e,
(n
e.
4-
"n-l
7.
- .^
z~
"~l.n
5-
71
~w
-7i
prove that
oo
[Show that
r(7i
k>0
prove that
(ii) if
>
where
for
and
(j) if
+ -^T;,
-zr*+
prove that un -*
If
If
9.
i
.
+l
8.
...
3(71-2)
a,
= l,
2, 3,
...
n.
Hence show that
and negative roots of x 2

and %>0, then ^ ->a;
and v 1 <fc, then vw ->j8.
-/? are the positive
= */ (k + u^)
vn = */
vn
un
__ l )
(A:
-x-k
rt
Illustrate geometrically.
[(i)
Here
t*
= ^ + w n -i ^n
~&+w
'
f2-2
wn 2 ~ wn - 1
~ u n~i -Un-zi
hence u n 'û n _ l9 according as u n _^'u n _ z therefore (u n ) is monotone.

2
2
u t ~ a) (u l + /?),
Jîr5< suppose that u t > a, then u l >u 1 +.k for 'i^! - u t - k
(
2 =
2
a
u
and
is
/.
/. u 2
2 <t6 1
(u n
l + ku 2 + k .'. u 2 >oc. Similarly u n ><y, for n 3, 4, ... Hence
;
i/,
^n -> Z ^ a.
The
Thus wn
case in which
i^ n_!
and
->
follows that
u l <a can be treated
of y x and
(ii) Draw graphs
meeting at A. In Fig. 42, we have
in the
same way.
y~
PrPr ~ u r ~ u r+\*
and thus
The
it
figure illustrates the case in
which
Ui = ON = N p > a,
l
and shows that (un ) is a decreasing sequence.

Thus J\^rPr > Nr pr for every r, and so Nr is
always to the right of N. Thus un -> I ^ a
and
Hence
tends to
as a limiting position
and un -> a.]
NN r N 2
FIG. 42.
N,
CONVERGENCE TO ROOTS OF EQUATIONS
246
Wn=/( wn-i) where f(x) is such that (i) f(x)>0

and (iii) the equation x=f(x) has a single
w
that
->a.
prove
n
[It is advisable to draw a figure.]
10. If
increases with x,
11.
Show
number
that as the
tend to the roots of x 2 - x - 7
=0
if
*>0,
positive
f(x)
root a,
(ii)
of roots tends to infinity, the expressions
as limits.
3 = v7-v7+y, prove that

2/ ^( a; 2_7)2_7
last
the
Draw a graph of
equation, and prove that
12. If
un ^
\7-V7-f \/7-N/7T...
%, w 3 u5
u Z9 u^ u$
then
to
if
2n
roots,
a decreasing sequence,
... is
... is an
increasing sequence,
and that both sequences converge to 2 as a limit.
Prove also that
\7-fv7- V 7 WT"^"...
13. If
to oo ^3.
u l9 v1 are given unequal numbers and
n^^
for
u n decreases, and vn increases as n increases, (ii) Each of the

functions u n and vn tends to a limit, which is the same for both. This limit is
called the arithmetico- geometric mean of u and i\ (Gauss).
~ v = i ( \^w_i - N/v -i ) 2 >
u > v for ever ^
prove that
(i)
>
Un - I u n~i + vn-i) < Wn-i

... <v
n ... <^ w ... ^n-i-
and so does vn
Also lim vn = lim n_ 1 = lim (2un - Mn^) = lim
to a limit,
and
n .j
CHAPTEK XVI
CONVERGENCE OF SERIES
1
Let u n be a function of n which has a definite value
Definitions.
An
for all positive integral values of n.
which every term
in
is
R Ui v
by
sn
followed by another term,
This series will be denoted by En^\u n
n terms by
The sum
(1)
or
by
is
27w n
called
an
infinite series.
and the sum
of its first
of the
p terms immediately
following the nth term
is
denoted
so that
**n, v
As n tends
~ w n-f 1 + u n+2
~^~
~^~
u n+j> ~ s n+v~~ s n-
to infinity, there are four distinct possibilities
to a finite limit, to infinity or to
minus
infinity, or it
sn
may
may do none
tend
of these
things.
If s n
tends to a
called its
sum
finite limit s,
to infinity.
Thus
lim
s n = s,
the series
is
said to be convergent and s
is
defined by
s is
or briefly,
lim s n
= s.
n->oo
This
is
also expressed
w t + w 2 + w3 +
If s n
tends to
oo
by writing
=s
to oo
...
or to -
oo
or
the series
27fw n = s,
is
or
2u n = s.
said to be divergent.
tends to no limit, whether finite or infinite, the series is said to

oscillate.
We say that the series oscillates finitely or infinitely, according
as s n oscillates between finite limits, or between + oo and - oo
If s n
Series
which diverge or
The sum
not a
sum
be non-convergent.
essentially a limit, and
oscillate are often said to
(to infinity) of a
convergent series
is
in the sense described in the definition of addition.
We
is
are
therefore not justified in assuming that the sum of an infinite series is

unaltered by changing the order of the terms or by the introduction or
removal of brackets.
In fact, changes of this kind
may
alter the
sum, or they
may
a convergent series into one which diverges or oscillates.

Thus the series (1 - 1) + (1 - 1) + (1 - 1) + ... is convergent and
zero,
but the
series 1
+ 1-1 + ..
oscillates.
transform
its
sum
is
ADDITION OF SERIES
248
The Geometric
2.
converges
l^l^l and
if
oscillates finitely if x== - 1,

For sn (l-z n )/(l-z) if
5 n~>oo
If
x^l,
If
x< - 1,
s n->oo
If
x=
or
Theorems.
3.
Uj
The
Series.
series
+x + x* + ... +xn - 1 -t-...
its
sum
and
oscillates infinitely if
If |z|<l, z n ->0
is
It
l/(l-x).
diverges if
x< - 1.
x^l.
-1, sn = l
and
or 0, according as n
oo according as n is odd or even.
(1)
If
+ Wg + tia-f
is
...
a given number, the
is
* n->l/(l
-x).
odd or even.
series
um+l
and
converge, both diverge or both oscillate.
6<tfA
For
let
Then
5n
n = sm 4. n -Sfn
(i) if
(ii) if
(2)
= w 1 + w 2 -f...+w n
sm+n
an d
tends to a
is
*n
a fixed number, hence
finite limit or to
oo
so also will t n
sm + n tends to no limit, whether finite- or infinite, neither will t n
If k
a fixed number and Eu n converges to a sum s, then Eku n is

its sum is ks.
Also if the first series diverges or oscillates, so
is
convergent and
does the second, unless & = 0.
-oo
if s n ->s, then ks n ~+ks.

If k 9^0 and s n
so. does ks n
tends to no fixed limit, finite or infinite, neither does ks n
For
$n
If
4.
Addition and Subtraction of Series.

wx
converge and
(i)
(ii)
(Wj
4-
(MJ
their
Vj)
Vj)
+ (u 2 -f v 2 ) +
-f-
(ii)
v2 )
(u 2
-f
NOTE.
-f
sums are
w2 -f
In the proof,
The proof
is
-f
. . .
all
w2 +
s
. . .
. . .
and
- . .
and
vl
+ v2 +
If the
series
. . .
respectively, then
converges,
and
its
sum
is s
converges,
and
its
sum
is s
+ w n ) + Iim(v 1 -f v 2 4-
the series in brackets are
. . .
+1
t.
+ v n ) = s 4- 1.
finite.
similar to the preceding.
SERIES OF POSITIVE TERMS
We
first
heading we
consider series in which all the terms are positive. Under this
include series in which all the terms are positive beginning with
some particular term.

5.
Introduction and Removal of Brackets. Let Zun be a series

and let the terms be arranged in groups without altering
of positive terms,
SERIES OF POSITIVE TERMS

Denote the sum
their prder.
(i)
// Su n
For
converges
to
a sum
let
Then
m tends
where
Now
lim
n we can
terms in the nth group by vn then

,
so does
s,
2v n
for every
of the
find
m and p,
to infinity with n.
therefore
m = lim sm + 9 = s,
so that
lim t n = s.
If Zv n converges to a sum s, so does Zu n

For corresponding to every n we can find
(ii)
But lim tm = lim tm+l = s,
so that
lim s n = s.
therefore
Changing the Order of Terms.
6.
249
// the terms of a convergent

remains convergent and its
series of positive terms are rearranged, the series
sum
is unaltered.
Proof.
manner.
is
Let
Eu n -be
Denote the
first
n terms
Further, suppose that the
(n +p) terms of
Zu n
of
first
Zu n
are,
among
the
first
n^m^n+p,
m tends to infinity with
Also
n.
sn
< >m<s n+1)

f
lim 5 n ==lim 5^ +J> ==5, therefore lim m = s.

Hence Zvn is convergent and has the same sum as
Now
NOTE.
The argument
fails for
MI
Zu n
such a derangement as
+ wa 4- u6 -f
..
+ uz + w4 + w e +
. . .
where Zun is broken up into two (or any finite number of) infix
For here we cannot find m so that the first n terms of Zun
m terms of Zvn Thus u2 does not occur till infinitely many of ti
have been placed.
The rule for the addition of aeries applies in cases of this kind, but
Sun is broken up into infinitely many infinite series.
Derangements of the last sort are considered in another volume.
.
tsrms of
terms of 2v n are among the
Thus
and
Let
u.
Suppose that the
Zv n
convergent, and let the terms be rearranged in any

v n so that every u is a v and every v
series by
new
first
COMPARISON TESTS
250
Theorem.
7.
of positive terms cannot
series
and
oscillate,
than some fixed number k, the series converges and
less
always
if s n is
sum
its
is less
than k.
For
XV,
(Ch.
and therefore tends to a
increases with n,
sn
Hence the
3).
every n, then
s n ~>s,
s is
Comparison Tests.
Ua n is known to be
8.
terms and
*
(i)
(ii)
u n â n for
* or
if
or if
(iii)
Proof,
u n/a n
to
...
a + a2
If
(i)
u l + uz
and since
For
(ii)
is
less
to oo
-r ...
be
Eu n and Za n are
divergent, then Uu n will
(ii)
(iii)
3).
we have
...
a n <t
un
follows that
it
is
convergent.
Now
ka n
is
convergent,
convergent.
//
(i)
for
limit.
+ u n ^.a 1 +a 2 -f
This follows at once from
XV,
than some fixed positive number k
for
(ii),
if
lira
a positive constant k, such that u n /a n <k for

(2)
<k
we have u n <ka n
values of n,
all
than k (Ch.
//
a finite
a fixed number,
is
un
therefore
(iii)
sn
if
Further,
less
<x>
2u n and Sa n are two series of positive

convergent, then Zu n will be convergent if
(1)
always
u n/a n tends
oscillate.
a fixed number
values of
all
is
cannot
series
where
finite limit or to
u n /a n
all
we can
is finite,
find
values of n.
two series of positive terms and
Za n
is
known
to
be divergent if
â
un
n for all values of n ;
* or
if u n /a n is always greater than some fixed positive
or if
u n/a n tends
to
a limit greater than
/.
:
zero.
TV be a positive number, no matter

(i) Let
Proof,
Ea n is divergent, m can be found such that
how
great.
a l + a2 +
. . .
-f
>N
provided that
n> m
t^-f w 2 +
...
+w n >JV
provided that
n>m,
an
number k
Since
divergent.
values of n,
u n >ka n
% therefore Eun
is
Now Ea n
is
divergent
therefore
divergent.
at once from (ii), for if lim u n /a n is finite, a positive

ound such that u n/a n >k for all values of n.
.y these tests, we require certain series which are known
or divergent. The geometric series and the series of the
.hose which are most generally useful as test series.
flcient
that these conditions should hold for
all
values of
greater than
some
METHOD OF COMPARISON
Theorem.
9.
The
series
p>l and divergent if

Denote the given series by
convergence or divergence
any way we
in
First
let
is
+ H^ + O +
TJ
Group the terms
is
Now
the
(B)
unity, for
Next, if
thus:
as follows
2, 4, 8,
and the
terms, respectively.
than the corresponding term in
is
/ 1
1 \
!+_+_ +
same as
!+_+
or
...,
a geometric series whose
common
+ ....... (B)
ratio 1/2 P-1
is less
than
last
Each term
terms in the brackets are 1/2 2
brackets contain
Now
etc.,
in (A) after the first is less
is
convergent if
p>l. Hence (B) is convergent, and therefore S is convergent.

p = 1, the series S becomes 1+J-f^ + J-H...
Group the terms
i
i+
i + i +i +
...
.................. (C)
i +
+
+
i)
+(
i)
where the
which
^s
is
...
which
terms in the brackets are l/2 p l/2 2p l/2 3p
brackets contain
Each term
a series of positive terms, its

not affected by grouping the terms in brackets
Since
S.
first
.+-
please.
p>l.
where the
251
2, 4, 8,
of (C)
...
3
,
1/2
1/2
and the
etc.,
terms, respectively.
greater than the corresponding term of
is
the same as
+i + f + f + ...,
l+ + i + J + .......... (D)
or
and therefore S is divergent.

Lastly, ifp<l, each term of/S after the first is greater than the corresbut the last series is divergent, thereponding term of l+^ + J + i+...
(D)
is
divergent,
fore
is
10.
divergent.
Examples on the Comparison Tests.
1.
Is the series
- -f
=
.
Ex.
j.*>.4:
let
+ o~~l
an
r
o 4 o
.
+ ~*
converge^ or divergent
Then we have
Now Zan
is
convergent
un
therefore
is
convergent.
The nth tenn a w of a suitable test series is found thus Keeping only the highest powers of
n in the numerator and denominator of u n we obtain 2n/n8 or 2/n*. Disregarding the numerical
factor 2, we take !/
for e*
n
:
B.C.A.
D'ALEMBERT'S TEST
252
Ex.
Test for ro nvcrgence or divergence the series

x
xn ~ l
1
x2
2.
<1,
If
a;
l+#2
l+o: 3
->0 and vn lxn ~ L
->
a:~
n ->
and
w^
71
#n
=1
1
a:
= 1, u n = ^ and
If
the series
is
+-
...
l+zn
Now Zxn ~
1.
convergent.
If a;>l,
4.
1+z
+ xn
=1
...
where x>0.
convergent, therefore
is
1
--
x x~ n +
->
Hence
ZV-,
n
is
divergent.
divergent.
TESTS DERIVED FROM THE GEOMETRIC SERIES
D'Alembert's Test.
11.
u n+l ju n <Jc<\
vergent if
where k
Zu n
series
is
of positive terms is eon

may have an\
a fixed number and n
value.
The
series is divergent if
For
if
u n+} fu n ^l for
u n+l /u n <k<l for every
Thus w w <Wj k n ~ l and
71
2^7/j
all
values of n.
n, then
"1
A-
is
27w n
ii
convergent.
Again,
if
u n+l/'u n ^l for
+u n ^nu
w t -f w 2 +
therefore
values of n, then
all
-*cc
In particular, if u n ^/u n tends
l<\ and
to
Hence Su n
a limit
is
divergent.
then 2!u n is convergent whei
Z,
when />!.
divergent
For if Z<1, choose k so that l<k<l. Then by the definition

u n+\lu n<k f r ^>^ where m is a fixed number. Hence
of a limit
Wi +
is
convergent, and therefore
Again,
if
/>!, then
um+2 + NOTE,
(i)
is
Zu n
tt
is
m+2 +...
convergent.
can be found so that u n+ ^>u n for
divergent, and therefore
It is sufficient that the conditions
un
is
n>m.
Henc<
divergent.
should hold for
all
values of
greate
than some fixed value.
Nothing is said as to the ease in which Urn un+l lun ~l. In this case the
be
convergent or it may be divergent, and we say that the test fails.
may
For example, consider the series
(ii)
1111
+ + + +
The
If,
first is
divergent, the second
however, u n ^û n tends to
the series
is
divergent.
The
"'
series
and
2i
1
i
4*
is
convergent, and in both
as a limit
from
1+2+3 + 4 +
...
seriei
--
we have lim un +Ju n = 1

u n+l >u n
above, so that always

is an instance of this
.
CAUCHY'S TEST
12.
Cauchy's Test.
Eu n
series
253
of positive terms
is
convergent if
w n n <&<! where k
is
a fixed number and n can have any value.

i
The
series is divergent if
u n n ^l for
many
infinitely
values of n.
u n n <k<l, then u n <k n and since k<\ the

vergent, and consequently Zu n is convergent.
For
if
series
Zk n
many
values of n,
con-
is
w n w >l,
If
Zu n
then
is
and consequently w n >l,
for infinitely
obviously divergent,
i
In particular, if u n n tends
and divergent when l>l.
The proof
Zu n
a limit L then
to
is
convergent when l<ll
similar to that in the last article.
is
It is sufficient that the conditions should hold for
n>m,
where
is
number.
fixed
but
Also nothing
the limit
if
is
Zu n
approached from above,
Comparing these
13.
said as to the case in which lim u n n
is
useful than Cauchy's.
concerned, u n+l ju n
is
is
divergent.
more generally
with which we are
tests, that of D'Alembert
For
most
in
the series
of
\,
a simpler function than u n
is
On
the other hand, Cauchy's test is more general than D'Alembert's.

That this is the case will be seen by noting that
Cauchy's condition for divergence
(i)
is
greater than a fixed value,
and
this
is
For
wider than D'Alembert's.
in D'Alembert's test the condition has to be satisfied
by
all
values of
not the case in Cauchy's.

i
(ii)
It
has been shown in Ch.
XV,
9, (2),
that
if
u n+1 /u n->l then u nn ->l.
But
if
u nn ->l,
So we
does not follow that u n+l /u n tends to any limit.

expect that Cauchy's test will sometimes succeed when
it
may
D'Alembert's
fails,
as in Ex. 3 below.
2
Ex.
Show
1.
that the series
ic
#3
yA
+ ...
is
convergent if
0<#<1
gent if
un =
Here
Hence,
If
and
is
if
1,
xn
-
un
n+1 =
0<:r<l, the
~;
n+1
.*.
lim
n
w n41
=lim
T
un
n-fl
series is convergent,
D'Alembert's test
divergent.
xn+l
fails,
and
if
but in this case the
x>l,
series
xx.
it is
divergent.
becomes
and
diver-
EXAMPLES OF SLOW CONVERGENCE
254
Ex.
Show
2.
that
series
the.
+x + x2 /
+ x* f
12
+ ...
convergent for all positive
is
(3
"~~
values of x.
/>.n-i
TT
~n
7?
lim
II
-= 1'
lim
iv
=i
series is convergent.
+ 6 + a 2 4- 6 2 + a 3 H- 63 -f
Test for convergence the series
3.
,,,
'
Hence the
Ex.
Horo
. . .
-^
Here
according as n
divergent
is
a^l,
if
test
is
odd or even, the

or if b^\.
series is
0<a<l
if
convergent
w n n ->a a or 6 2
and 0<6<1, and
test, since
Using Cauchy's
inapplicable.
and D'Alerabert's
EXERCISE XXVI
1.
State the character of the series
showing that
for the
second series lim$o M ~-l and lim
2.
Show
that the scries x
3.
Show
that,
if
ci
l -\-
-?>
+ x ^ + x2
+ 3
+ a t ) 4-
a2
(a,
ft
...
-\-
is
5 2n _
x~ 2 + x + x~* +
-}
4-^4)
Criticise the following

2(-J
i-
J-f-.-)
which
5.
(iii)
is
absurd, for
If
is
11
<1,
^-i-*-l-i
+ l-+-J +
<,
'
(ii);
v
>
some
fixed
number m.
=(i + 4 +4 +
...)
+ (* + ! + i +
= n-i+4 + ...,
,..11111
first
million terms of the
. .
that
(m +
The sum
lies
(iii)
is
....
4-
Given that 2 20 > 10 6 4- 1, show that the sum of the

series I -f i f 1 4- j -f
is less than 20.
Show
never convergent.
and so on.
6.
-..
...
a positive integer, show that

1
is
...
=i+
.-.
2.
convergent, so also
J (a 2 + a 3 +
Prove also that the converse is true if a n >0, for n

[Consider the sum to n terms of the second series.]
4.
.
|
between
Hence show
4-
m-fl
and
m+1
,
. .
.,
must be taken.
with an error
-~
(m-fl)
-f(ra
that, in order to find the
^ + 4~r +
to infinity
J of the series
less
/rr2 + :
~^r2 +
(w-f2)
(m-l-3)
rri.
+ 1) 2
sum to
than
infinity of the series
001, at least 1000 terms
Determine whether the
n
9.
a+6
+ 26
a + 36
3.4
.2
Exx. 7-14 are convergent or divergent.
series in
o.lll
10
. .
255
5.6
_5_
~
13.
J_ + __ + _?_ + ....
-A-
H.
Test for convergence or divergence the series whose nth terms are
15.
19.
-^_.
is.
-JL_.
17.
/t
-.
+a
20.
n-
21.
N/rc
2n
/_4.
is.
_______
2
+ l-n.
22.
V^-fl-s/n 8
For what positive values of x are the

what values are they divergent ?
23.
25
'
l+2x + 3x* + 4x* + ...

.
29.
32.
terms
--
30.
31.
refer to series of positive terms.
Zun
is
34. If
Hun
is
35. If
Eun
is
-2! ^ -^t-
convergent and
convergent, so
un
vn
^t-1 ^ ^=^
vn
un
divergent and
[After a certain stage
un z
is
un <l,
for
37. If
2un
is
convergent, so
Find the sum to

n ^
1.3.5
,
ww ->0
2.5.6
then Zt'
is
is
convergent.
divergent.
un 2 <un .]
/.
).
+ ~~^-~ -f ...
5.7.9
4
3
i
1.4.5
n ^ m, then Zvn
Zun f(\ +un

is Sun ln.
[For ww /
infinity of the series in
3.5.7
for
36. If 27wn is convergent, so is
A
41)
Explain why D' Alembert's test cannot be stated thus A series of positive
convergent if the ratio of each term to the preceding is less than unity.
33. If
a;
is
Exx. 33-37
38.
.....
26
3a
2a
7.8.9
Exx. 23-31 convergent, and for
+ */2 2 4- x 2 /
24. 1
4.5.6
1.2.3
series in
_i
3.6.7
Exx. 38-41.
39. -
1.4
-f :r~
2.5
3.6""
.,12
41
-i
.3
3 .6
--
11
ABSOLUTELY CONVERGENT SERIES
256
TERMS ALTERNATELY POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
Theorem.
14.
alternately positive
The
and
u^-u^ + u^-
series
negative, is
...
in which the terms are
convergent if each term
is
numerically
less
than the preceding and lim u n =^0.
We
Proof.
and
have
can be written in the form
this
= w l-( w 2- w 3)-( w 4- w 5)----- w 2n
*2n
Now
Wj-i/a, w 2 -i/ 3?
From
(A)
it
-w 4
...
are
all
therefore follows that s 2n
positive, for
is
and increases with
positive
n,
(B)
always less than the fixed number u v
Hence, s.2n tends to a limit which is less than MJ (XV, 3).
and from
it is
seen that
2n is
$.
Again, S 2ni l ~s 2 n + u 2n+i an( l l* m U 2n+i

same limit as s 2n
The series is therefore convergent, its sum
.
therefore
tends to the
s 2n+l
Ex.
Show
1.
that the series
^ 4- -3"--
...
is
positive
and
less
than u v
is convergent.
Here the terms arc alternately positive and negative, each term is numerically
than the preceding and lim l/--0
hence the series is convergent.
less
SERIES WITH TERMS EITHER POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE
Absolutely Convergent Series. The series 27w n containing

positive and negative terms, is said to be absolutely convergent if the series
15.
un
is
convergent.
Hu n
convergent and
u n divergent, then
or
conditionally convergent
semi-convergent.
If
is
Thus the
series 1
-f
series
f+
l-| + i-i + --+
ally convergent, for
An
Theorem.
Zu n
Let
it
is
is
Su n
said to be
is
absolutely convergent, because the
is
But, 1-^4-
convergent.
convergent and
1 4-
3 4-
3-
-$+...
4-
. . .
is
is
condition-
divergent.
absolutely convergent series is convergent.
be absolutely convergent
then by definition
un
is
con-
vergent.
Now
i/
4j
un
=2u n
or 0, according as u n
is
Therefore every term of the series

(u n + u n \) is
term
of
the
series
272 u n |.
corresponding
convergent
\
>0
and
is
< the
Hence Z(u n + u n
\
convergent.
\)
is
convergent and consequently, by Art.
4,
Zu n
is
PRINGSHEIM'S THEOREM
NOTE.
if
we say
is
absolutely convergent,
and not that of 2u n itself.
Zu n
that
another series,
un
From Arts. 11 and 12,
\
it
a fixed positive number
is
absolutely convergent
<k
less
than unity.
Since s n
of the positive integral variable n,
Zu n
sufficient condition for the convergence of
Corresponding
it
to
must be possible
//j/7/
HUM
any
to
-jo
t-o,
Thus
Zu n
if
is
positive
find
7?
it
n>
Ex.
is
p
1.
to
tend
if
-4^
convergent and
allowed
Apply
Mft-fi
and in particular u n ^0.

But the condition (A) is
unless
so that
-4-
'*n~f 2
is
'
in
to oo
-U II
* *
'
<^~
~-
ensure the convergence of
Hu n
any way whatever.
11
4
+ '"~
2 "3
7f w
'
p ~
n+
f "'
4-
n+2
+...+
n+p
For any fixed value of p, p/(n H />) -> as ?i-> oo

hence, Rn p cannot tend to zero, and so the series
>
n~\-p
But
is
Pringsheim's Theorem.
'
lp
/i'
Here
tive
n-f j?|
the general condition to the series
17.
and
any integer,
sufficient to
'not
a function
e that
?/
as follows
is
is
(B), the necessary
we may choose, however small,

uîn^for every positive integer p,
number
'}/
j,
after
|uj<*,
or if
General Condition for Convergence.

by Oh. XV, 6,
16.
if,
i_
?p
is
Zu n
follows that the series
certain stage,
where k
statement of this theorem, he should

we assert the convergence of
If the reader fails to see the point in the
note that,
257
// Su n
if
ri
then p/(n
-f
p) ~>
not convergent.
is
a convergent series of posi-
decreasing terms, then nu r ~>0.
For
if
is
any
positive integer
as W->OQ
P u m+v
=
Let p m, therefore mu 2m >0 and 2mu 2m->0 i.e. nu n -*Q, when n = 2m.
and
Let p = m 4- 1 therefore m + 1 u 2m +l~->
;
(2m +
1)
u 2m+l
= 2(m + 1) u 2m+l - u2m+l ~~>0
This proves the theorem, whether n

Ex.
1.
Use
Hero nun
and, since
this
n-
it is
theorem
to
show
=1, and does not tend to

it
nu n
when n = 2m -f
Hence E- cannot be convergent

n
i.e.
>Q,
odd or even.
is
that the series
a series of positive terms,
27
zero.
is divergent.
must be divergent.
REARRANGEMENT OF TERMS
258
of
Zu n
sum
Removal of Brackets.
Introduction and
18.
Denote the
be arranged in groups without altering their order.

terms of the nth group by v n then
of the
2u n
If
(1)
Let the terms
is convergent, so also is
Sv n and
these series have the
same
sum.
For
Then
= !*! +
let
for
any value
sn
of
= m
+ ...+M n
n we can find
or
sn
= v l +v% + ...+vn
m so that either
= tm + (ww4l + w m+2 +
..u m + 9 ),
where the terms in the bracket are included in the group vm+1
If
Zu n
is
convergent,
fi
n,p
w n+1 + t w+2 +...ttw4 ->0 as n~oo,

therefore s n - Z m-> 0.
as n ~> oo
:=s
m~> QO
also
J>
Hence Svn converges to the same sum as Su n

If
(2)
Sv n
is convergent,
Zv n
For, given that

for all values of p.
Denote
(3)
as in
Ev^
un
is
Eu n
is
not necessarily so.
convergent,
we cannot conclude that
by u n \ and suppose that the terms of Zu n
Rnjtf->Q
are grouped
'
Let v n be the sum of the terms of the nth group.

(1).
is convergent, so also is u n (Art. 5)
and, as n -> oo
Then, if
'
Therefore, as in
(1),
Zv n
Rearrangement
19.
converges to the
of Terms.
same sum as Zu n
The following example shows
rearrangement of the terms of a semi-convergent series may alter its

sum. and a rearrangement of the signs may change the series into one
that
it
which
Ex.
is
1.
divergent.
With regard
t
1
sum
Lft's be Ihe
to the, series
I
oj the tern i -convergent series
-5-4*3-5
1 + 5-
/ri
^r^rr^r-
........... (B)
......... (C)
obtained by rearranging the terms and the tigns of (A) respectively, prove thai (B) is convergent with a
(i)Let
then
sum
- 1 -5
{s
and
(C)
divergent.
-r- ---,-... to M terms.
or
= l -~ --H-- -- -~ + ...
to
n terms
SUM ALTERED BY
*.
1
--lim9 2n =-*.
Hence, the second
(ii)^t
*>(
then
converges and
series
<
Also
= i + l_l + l + l_l
-+-
}+( -+- -O
I/,
Now
the series
+- +-
sn +%
&U tend to
oo
-f
is
. . .
2i
Hence the
divergent
series (C) is
Theorem.
// the terms of an absolu

remains convergent and its su?
the series
Denote the new
We
And
(u n
have un
since E\
un
-f
|
Let
E\u n
|),
-f
un
v n) so tha
series by
u n = 2u n or 0, accor
is
a convergent se
for its terms are
<
the c
Z\u n \=s and Z(u n + \u n \)^

and
(u n + \u n \) -are series o
unaltered by any rearrangement of tern
27(^ + 1^1) =
2\v n \=s>
Ex.
Find a range
1.
of values of x far whicJ

2
z
l+(x-* + (x-x*)
can be arranged as a convergent
series of ascendi
Expanding the terms of (A) and removing h
Now,
|a?-a^|<l, the series (A) is coi

removal of brackets or a derai
if
justify either the
However, by Arts.
convergent
where
a?
16, 18 (1), 19,
and, by Art.
=| x
|,
is
convergent
is
NOTE.
be the case
that
x'<\(*J$-l)
which
each of these
5, this will
or
is,
if x'
-tON/5-
the required range.
What
has been said does not preclude
can be made over a wider range.
ERROR
ârching for the sum of an infinite

content with an approximate value.
and
>,ries
approximate value of
Rn
sum, denoted by
Thus we have
(A).
its
called
is
It should be
5.
s.
)er
limit to the numerical value of the
number which
o find a
Rn
cannot
\
t series
w
4-...+(-l) W w +...
Here
ive terms.
n+ 3
Brackets
Hence
lij less
is
positive
the
than w n
less
than u n ^
error in taking s n as
_ _
i
ror in taking x
an
- x2
/2 as the
sum
of the
than x 3/3.
3ss
.n
and
which
erms are
all
the terms are positive or in

the same sign. This is
all of
n often proceed as
3
--K"H
3
xn
+... where
follows.
0<^<1.
The
series is
n +1
numerically less than x
/ (n
le of s is
;ence or Divergence,
lue of
Rn
+1
) (
- x).
For a con-
for a given v&lue of n, the
more
ge.
ilue of r y the
more rapid is the convergence
convergent, but in order to find

mals, at least 1000 terms must be taken
/4
. . .
is
fore say that the series converges slowly.
SERIES OF
-v"
Next, consider the

of a million terms
series
is less
1 -f
|-
than 20
(st
therefore said to diverge slowly. In prat,

the reckoning so that we have to deal
For instance, the series, 5 = 1 - J J

By grouping the terms, we find
'
This series converges more rapidly

8
5
*-2[t + i(i) + i(i) +.
find that
rapidly than a geometrical series

'
22. Series of
Complex
Zx n and Sy n c
that the series

sn ,
r n be the sums to n
cr n ,
Ch.XV,10,
tei.
lim Sn
= lu
and we say that z n converges ti

Thus Ez n is convergent if Zx n a
(2)ByCh. XV, U^t

of Zz n
it
is
as follows
must be possible
\s n+v -s n
(3)
to
Definition of
As
zn
find
tha
\<,
terms and 2\
Corrcs
is
\
for real sei
convergent.
then 2\
zn
is c
\
Consequently
(4) It is
impo.
2x n and Zy n9 an
The
first
Hence
if
part
Z
\
xn
The theorems c
brackets and the c
(5)
of
complex
series.
This
'
FOR SERIES
is
..+zn
complex, the series
~l
and when
convergent,
if
|
+ ...
|>
0, (3),
3
sum
is
1, z
its
n does
sum
is 1/(1 -z).
not converge to
*->0 and
s n -*l/(l-z),
1/(1 -0).
0<r<l, we have
>s2tf + tsin2fi) + ... to oo
re
- r cos
ir sin
- r cos 6
that these results are also true
1-5
FIG. 43.
then
w n->0.
then we can find
ULTIMATE SIGNS OF TERMS
Now
m m+I m+2 +
+
the series
. . .
The Binomial
-
is
~ 7
-~
+ n(n-l)(n-2)
When n
called the Binomial Series.

its
sum
is (1
which we denote by
+ x)
In
+ ti 1 +
tt
all
...
stage, the terms are alternately positive
'
if
+ t< r +
...
1).
which
1, 2, ...
Convergence, etc. We shall prove that the series

1 ; and when x = l, the series converges if
vergent if x
(2)
Denote the
Proof.
n-r
r+1
ur
and the
<
n = -1 and
finitely if
oscillates infinitely if
is
-.x,
r->oo
as
series is absolutely
convergent
x = l.
. . .
is absolutely
n> - 1,
con-
oscillates
then
therefore lim
if
greater than n,
negative, or all
w< - 1.
by UQ -h u + u2 4-
series
a certain
negative, or they all have the
um+2 ... are alternately positive and

have the same sign according as x^Q.
,
the beginning, or after
and
m is the least of the numbers 0,
the terms u m um+l
a positive integer, the series terother cases, it is an infinite series,
same sign according as xÔ.

For
w r +i/ M r = (n-r) xj(r +
Hence
of n, the series
+ 1)
(n-r
*
...
is
From
Ultimate Signs of the Terms.
(1)
w n->0.
For any given value
Series.
9
+ nx + n(n-l)
-Vs ' ^ +
minates and
divergent, therefore
and
uju n-><x>
25.
is
263
<
*r+l
1.
and u r have opposite signs, so that, after a

If r>n, ur
Next let
certain stage, the terms are alternately positive and negative. Also
r-n
(i)
Also
|
n>-l,
If
u r+ i
<
ur
(ii)
//
n= - 1
(iii)
//
n<-l,
as
|.
-si
r~>oo,
a,,.->n
Hence, by
the series
let
is
n + l=
Hence u r -> oo and the

The case in which x~ - 1
|
+-T where a r =
Hence, by Art. 24, w r-0.
+ l>0.
Art. 14, the series
1-1 + 1-1 +
-m
so that
..
is
and
w>0,
convergent.
oscillates finitely,
then
series oscillates infinitely.

is
considered in Ch.
XX,
6.
264
EXERCISE XXVII
RANGE OF CONVERGENCE
Show
.
K
that the series in Exx. 1-5 are convergent.
_J___
a+
,
|
a+2 a+3
L__JL
1
1
L
_____
__ ____ __
22 32 42 52
I
6.
Prove that the
7.
Show
V'2.4
3
"
+4
'
2.4.6
'
62
series
that the series
X
-l+x
#2
1 4-
x + x2
+4-
X^
...
^3/ 3
4-
. . .
is
convergent
6
is
if
<x< 1.
all
values
a divergent
series.
convergent for
of x t real or complex.
8.
9.
Show
Show
that - +
-a+2
- -f
a-f-1
+3
-+
a-f5
-
a+4
;
...
is
that the series
is
convergent if /n <4/27.
[Consider separately the
10.
is
(i)
sum
odd and the sum of the even terms.]
of the
Find a range of values of x
for
which the
series
convergent.
(ii) Find a range for which the series can be arranged as a convergent series of
ascending powers of x.
11. If
0<z ^
0-4,
show that the series

2
1 4- (2x cos 6 - x
+ (2x
)
cos 6
- a: 2 ) 2 -f
. . .
can be arranged as a convergent series of ascending powers of x.

2x cos
[It is enough to show that with the given condition
4-
x 2 < L]
12. Let the terms of Su n be arranged in groups, without altering their order,
and denote the sum of the terms of the nth group by v n
Given that 2vn is convergent, prove that Eun converges to the same sum as
.
Evn
in the following cases
(i)
(ii)
If the
number of terms
in every bracket
If all the terms in each bracket have the
[See Art. 18. In case (i), J?n , j,->0.

v n tends to zero, and case (i) applies.]
In case
is finite
same
(ii),
and w n->0.
sign.
v n -+Q
hence, every term in
SUMMATION OF SERIES
Show that the series
l/(l+i), and find its sum.
l+z + z~ + ...
13.
2
14. If z n
+-~i
n
show that Ezn
L>
is
is
265
convergent
absolutely
when
convergent, but not absolutely con-
vergent.
Rn
Prove the results in Exx. 15-17, where

the given series.
the remainder after n terms in
is
15.
For the
series 1
16.
For the
series
+ry-
+ 7-5 - - +
. . .
\R n \<r ft provided
that
X
17.
For the
series
Q<x<n + l.
18
AnL--
27
+-J +
-.
20. If
2L
l_
1^:
Exx. 18-23
in
X^
i
that
~ x provided
--
tOQ0
^
]
or
!^
as
TI~> ^cording
x \$l.
then
a(a
6-2>a>0,
Show
|n
+ l)
a(a-f l)(a
+ 2)
6-1
^ ^^
f "
"
'
then
___ __
24.
r-
""'
i
6-l>a>0,
+1
19
ii/
/-
tl/
n+
L
-i- + -l- + _i- + ...to*=- T
?
I-x*
x-l
|*|>1,
23. If
Rn <
li + l-i4 + ri~;8 +
22. If
X^
!_
IJ
Prove the results stated

JLU<
X^
+ r^ + |- -+...,
+r
6(6
that the
6(6
1)
sum
l)(6
cos
I
^(6"-a-l)(6-a-2)'
n terms of the
to
is
+ 2)
{sin
series
+ cos 2^ + cos 30 + ...

- 1}.
(n + 0) cosec \Q
Hence show that the series oscillates

of TT, in which case the series diverges.
finitely
except
when
is
an even multiple
[2 cos r6 sin
25.
of
TT,
26.
Show
in
(r
+ 16) - sin (r - 10).]
that the series Z'sin nO oscillates finitely except

it converges to zero.
when
is
a multiple
which case
Show
convergent,
onvergent,
by
-sin
that the series z
when
= cos +
-
+ |2 2 +
sin -
plotting the points 8 19 s 29
4
...
$7
+ ...
is
convergent, but not absolutely
Illustrate the slowness

slownc
of the convergence
on an Argand diagram.
CHAPTER XVII
CONTINUOUS VARIABLE
1
it
We
Definitions.
passes once through
cumstances x
is
say that x varies continuously from a to b when

real values between a and b. Under these cir-
all
called a continuous real variable.
Limit of f(x).
Consider the function
When x = Q,f(x)
f(x)
= {(1
has no definite value, for
3
-f-
x)
l}/x.
then takes the form 0/0.

In other words the function f(x) is undefined for the value zero of x. For
3
2
2
every value of x except zero, we have f(x) = (3x + 3x + x )/^ = 3 4- 3x -f x
it
Thus, if x
is
nearly equal
to zero,
f(x) is nearly equal to 3 : further, by

the difference between f(x) and 3 as
making x small enough, we can make

small as we please. This is roughly
limit off(x) as x tends to zero.
what
The matter may be put precisely

number e, no matter how small. If x
f(x)
Thus, as x tends
positive
number
-3
1
<e
meant by saying that 3
as follows
therefore
is
< 1,
is the
Choose any positive
then
provided that
<
\<L.
|/(z)-3| becomes and remains less than any

we may choose, no matter how small. This is precisely
to zero,
that
meant by saying that 3
the limit off(x) as x tends to zero.

The usual
It should be observed that f(x) never attains the value 3.
what
is
definitions are as follows

(1) //,
any
small, there exists

I
where
to
corresponding
how
matter
~
f( x ) 1
is
<
positive
a number
number
rj
provided only that
and a are fixed numbers, then
which we
may
choose,
no
such that
x-a
|
<
is called the limit
TJ,
off(x) as x tends
to a.
This
is
expressed by writing lim f(x)
I.
z-+a
Or we may say that /(#)-> I as x-â, where it is understood that x

may approach a from either side, i.e. x may tend toa+Oora-0.
Observe that nothing is said as to the value of f(x) when # = a. Such a
value
may or may not exist.
In any case, we are not concerned with
it.
THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS
corresponding
(2) If,
exists
to
any
number
no matter how small,
c,
there
N such that
- <
provided only that x> N,
f(x)
a positive number
where
positive
267
This
c,
off(x) as x tends
is
is
expressed by writing lim /(#)== Z or f(x)->l as x->oo
is called the limit
to infinity.
.
'x-+<x>
,(3)
If
any positive number

number N such that
a positive
or
no matter how
and we write /(#)-> oo
that f(x) tends to infinity with x,
correctly) lim f(x)
(less
oo
great, there corresponds
x>N,
provided only that
f(x)>M,
we say
M,
to
as
x->oo
3->oo
The reader should be able to frame for himself corresponding

for the meaning of f(x) tends to minus infinity as X-+CG
definitions
'
.'
2.
tend to the limits
lim (u v) = I + V,
liml/w = l/Z unless
(iv)
infinity,
lim (u - v) = I - 1',
(ii)
(v)
Z--=0,
(iii)
Two Theorems
(1)
= aQ + ax -f a 2 x 2 4-
is
If
number
17
any
. . .
f(x)
a
1
<c
and the
how
small,
provided only that

|
Z'
make
for
said in this article

coefficients are real
we can find a
positive
'<!,
f(x) a Q
then
kx'f(I
<
al
/(k+*)
is
f(x)
|,
-f
|
\a n
-a
1
),
<
that
c,
<
77.
that
is if
if
a suitable value of
a 2 x' 2
-x')<, provided
kx'<(l-x
Therefore
|a 2
x'
...
x
\
k be the greatest of the
let
(a^,
then
= x' and
let
numbers
so
is
easily
= IV,
= 0.
a n xn , then
positive number, no matter
For shortness,
Proof.
and
-f
lim uv
so that
If
What
on Polynomials.
holds good, no matter whether the variable x

or complex.
Let f(x)
then
limufv = l/l' unless
Apart from some verbal changes which the reader can

himself, the proofs are the same as those in Ch. XV, 2.
3.
x which
u, v be functions of
V as x tends to a or as x tends to
I,
-f-
(i)
Let
<
/(k
+ e)
77.
B.C. A.
QUOTIENT OF POLYNOMIALS
268
(2)
//
number
is
a positive number, no matter how
m so that
\f( x )
The
letters
\>M,
provided only that
having the same meaning as in
|/(*) !=*">.
great,
n -l
+n-2
we can find a
positive
\x\
we have
(1),
^2
1
Choose any number
and a n
between
For such values
of
x we have
= i|a w
if
theorem
#'>
is if
f(x)
> x' n
{|e&
- e}.
then
|,
|/(x)|>t|a B
Hence
last
<
that
In particular, put
Then by the
< K+
if
.
\
if
x':
m is the greater of the two numbers

and
then
f(x)>M
From Theorem
(1) it follows that
if
\x\>m.
lim f(x)
= aQ *
a;->0
=
Again, if x y -fa, then y->0 as x-â and /(a)
Hence
of y in the polynomial f(y + a).
-
lim /(x)
1.
// f(x)
_3
the term independent
lim f(y -f a) =f(a).
Km /(a;)
-3
is
(i)
0,
(ii)
(iii)
cw
a?-
^5'
(ii)
Let
a;
= 1/y,
then y ->
*-~
lim
->
as
lim /(X)
(iii)
Let x = 1
-f y,
then
as x -+
t/
The reader must understand that
a?
oo
->
and
and
this is not
a roundabout way of saying that f(x}â Q when
CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS
4.
269
Continuous and Discontinuous Functions.
We
confine
ourselves to one- valued functions of the real variable x.
We may say that/(x)

if
is
a continuous function of
the curve whose equation
where
xa and x =
yf(x)
is
is
or
in the interval (a, 6)
continuous between the points
6.
This supposes that we know what is meant by a continuous curve/

representation of the curve in Fig. 44 can be drawn without allowing
'
the pencil to leave the paper, and we say that it is continuous. In Fig. 45,
the curve cannot be so drawn near the points where x = x and x~x 2> and
we say that
the curve
is
discontinuous at these points.
FIG. 44.
We
curve
FIG. 45.
choose the following as the distinctive feature of a continuous

As the point P (x, y) passes along the curve, any small change in the
value of x is accompanied by a small change (or by no change at

value of y.
is true everywhere in
Fig. 44, but
xl and x=*x% in Fig. 45.)
(This
More
precisely thus
P(x, y) any other point on

c, no matter how small.
values of
|
Further,
X~XQ
PQ (xQ
let
on
it
|,
is
point on it.
Thus the curve
AB is
(1)
(or at the point
XQ
for all sufficiently small
continuous
is
if it is
continuous at every
x=xt
and
x=x2
it is
discon-
single-valued function f(x) is continuous at x = x

or for # ), if for any positive number e that we may
The
however small, a number

provided that x XQ <TJ.
choose,
\y-yQ \<
if
continuous in Fig. 44, but in Fig. 45
tinuous at the points where

Definitions.
yQ ) be any point on the curve and

Choose a positive number
ofP
said to be continuous at
we say that a curve
in the
not true near the points where
is
either side
Then
the curve
all)
77
exists
such
that
\
f(x) -f(xQ ) <<=,

\
This is equivalent to the following f(x) is continuous at x

iff(x)~*f(xQ )
as X-+XQ, where x may tend to XQ either from the
left or from the right.
:
TYPES OF DISCONTINUITY
270
It
important that the student should fully realise all that

If /(#) is continuous at z then
is
the definition just given.

(i)f(x) has a single
is
implied in
definite value
when
x~x
h tends to zero through positive values, then /(x + A)-> a

number L 19 and/(x - A), a finite number L 2
(ii) if
finite
i x =/(# =
and we must have
(iii)
."#. 1.
A simple case, in which f(xQ ),
given by Goursat.
If f(x)
zero,
= x2 +
x2
...
^-f
1 ~}-X"
and so
f(x)0
x2
+7
4-
(1
,î
T*
ar)
...
L 19
to oo
L%
but are not
all
equal,
is
when #=0, every term
of f(x)
is
all exist,
then,
but, for all values of x except zero, f(x) = 1 -f x

lira /(*) = 1, so that f(x) is discontinuous at
2.
Thus, /(O) =0, and
# = 0.
*->0
TAe function f(x)
(2)
is
continuous ih any interval if
every point of the interval.

If the interval (a, b) is closed (a<b), so that the
f(x)
as x-+b-Q.
continuous at
end points are included,
x->a + Q and
continuous at a if f(x)-~>f(a) as
is
it is
at b if f(x)->f(b)
b X
FIG. 45.
Types of Discontinuities,
7
C,
as
x->x l from the
then y-^y^ as x-^x l

i.e.
right,
lim
JC
(ii)
In Fig. 45 let y v y/ be the ordinates of

from the left, i.e. as x-^xl -0 and y->y%
(i)
^
7
'^^
7 JL
^ fl/j
and
lim
X
At the point where x = x2
Thus y
This
as x-â^-hO.
2
example, 1/x and 1/x
^ 3/1 ~H
supposed that y is infinite.

For
x = x1 and at # = #2
are discontinuous at x = 0.
in Fig. 45, it
is
a discontinuous function of x at
is
is
v = Vo.
7a
,"
that f(x) has real values only on one side of the

In such a case the curve y=f(x) stops abruptly and/(x) is
discontinuous at #
(iii)
It
may happen
=
point x x
Taking
x,
we
see
(as usual)
Jx
that v x - x
to denote the positive square root of the

is
discontinuous at x
number
FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION
Theorems on Continuous Functions.
5.
(1) It follows
x=x
from the
called
a,
and product of these functions.

= 0.
except when <f>(x Q )
// f(x) tends
lim
tinuous at x^lythen
y=
If
function of a function of
Theorem.
and
x,
is
is
</>{f(x)}.
and
as x->a,
then y
w=/(x),
denoted by
= cf>{lim
<f>{f(x)}
if
where
(f>(u)
a finite limit
to
=
lim/(x) = Z, then /(z) Z
=
continuous at x I, therefore
For
are continuous at
<f>(x)
is true for the quotient f(x)/<f)(x),
Function of a Function.
(2)
and
definition that iff(x)
so also are the sum, difference
The same
is
271
con-
is
<f>(x)
f(x)}.
+ 7?, where
77
-->0 as
x->a;
also
<f>(x)
lim
Continuity of Rational Functions. If/(x) is a polynomial,

by Art. 3, lim/(x) =/(&), where a is any real number.
6.
then,
x >a
Therefore the polynomial
continuous for
is
values of x.
a polynomial or the quotient of
all
Hence also any rational function of x (i.e.

two polynomials) is continuous for all values of x except for such as make
the denominator vanish.
The Function x n
7.
// n
is
rational,
xn
is
continuous for
all
values of x for which x n has definite real values.
Suppose
(i)
that
x>0.
If
is
any
positive
number, we can choose
a, b
0<a<x <6.
Let x be any number other than x in the interval (a, 6)
then by
~
~
Ch. XIV, 10, x n -x n lies between nxn 1 (x~x ) and wx n 1 (x~x ).
so that
Now
~
both x"- 1 and x n 1
greater of the last

If
then
c is
(ii)
7/x<0,
At
<,
and
bn
let
~l
,
hence
|<&.|w|.|x~rX
provided that
continuous at x = x
x-x
|
is
the
|.
small,
<k
=-.
if
n
I
x= -y, so that xn = (-l) nyn where it is supposed that

Now yn is continuous for positive values of y> therefore
xn has a real value.

xw is continuous for
(iii)
~1
any assigned positive number, however

xn - x n
is
xn
two numbers,
Hence xn
between an
lie
the point
negative values of
x = 0.
If
is
x.
positive,
limx n = 0.
If
is
negative,
s~>0
xw ->-oo or to
tinuous at
x=
-oo, according as x->4-0 or to -0.
Hence xw
for positive, but not for negative values of n.
is
con-
CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION
272
8.
and f(a)^Q, then f(x) has

the neighbourhood of
the
(1)
is
continuous at x=*a
same sign as f(a) for
that is to say,
a;
If f(x)
if
values of
all
a-r]<x<a +
r]
where
x in
77
is
arbitrarily small.
For since /(a)^0, we can choose e so that f(a)-e and f(a)+e have
and since f(x) is continuous at x a, we can find
the same sign as /(a)

so that
77
f(a)
<f(x) <f(a)
For such values
provided that
-f e,
of x, f(x) has the
<
77.
same sign as f(a).
// f(x) is continuous for the range

the value a to the value 6, f(x) assumes at
(2)
and
x-a
|
then as x passes from

least once every value between f(a)
a^x^b,
f(b).
From
the graphical point of view the truth of this statement
is
obvious.
Let A,
6,
and
We
let
be the points on the curve y=f(x) whose abscissae are a and

k be any number between /(a) and f(b).
assume
that
any
straight line
which passes between the points A,
cuts the curve at least once.

It follows that the line y
varies
=k
cuts the curve at least once.
from a to b,f(x) takes the value k at
Hence as x
least once.
y-k
a XQ
FIG. 46.
Proof.
Suppose that
tween /(a) and
f(b).
f(a)<f(b). Let k be any number beBecause f(x) is continuous at x = a and f(a)<k,
of x in the interval (a, 6) for which f(x)<Jc: and

continuous at x = b and /(&)>&, there are- values of x in
there are values
because f(x)
(a, 6) for
is
ak.
DERIVATIVES
Divide the real numbers in the interval
The lower class
is
to contain every
273
(a, b)
into
two
classes as follows
number x such that f()<k where
any number
in the range a<f <#.

|
The upper class A' is to contain every number x' hot included in A.
consists of the range (a<x<x ). The range
(Thus in Fig. 46, class
is
(#!<#' <#2
some
)
belongs to class A', for although f(x')<k, yet
values of in the range a <<#'.)
It has been
shown that both
(a, b) is
included,
Therefore the classification defines a real number. x
in
for
classes exist.
Also every number in the interval

than any x'.
number
f()>k
or the least
number
in
and every x
which
is
is less
either the
greatest
It remains to prove that /(# ) = k.
we can find
If f(x )-k<0, by reason of the continuity of f(x) at x
so that f(x)-k<.0 if #
Thus f()<k when
-f.
-i-e.
'.
-<<#
<
Hence x +
belongs to class A, which is impossible, as it is greater than x

If f(x )~k>0, we can find e so that/(x)-fc>0 if XQ
Q + c.
Thus XQ e belongs to class A', which is impossible, for it is less than x
.
-^X^X
Hence it follows that/(# ) =

case when /(#)
It
is
NOTE. If f(x) =k for more than one valuo

mined as above, is the least of these values.
9. Derivatives.
If f(x) is
easy to modify the proof to suit the
of
x in tho interval
(a, b),
is
and
by the equation
denoted byf'(x).
o:
deter-
a function of x such that
tends to a limit as h tends to zero, this limit

is
then
Thus/'(x)
is
defined
called the derivative off(x),
The function f'(x) is also called the differential coefficient of f(x).

It is possible that for some values of x, this limit does not exist. If x is
such a value, f(x) has no derivative at X = XQ This is certainly the case when
.
discontinuous at X = XQ
For in order that {f(xQ + h)-f(xQ )}/h

f(x)
tend to a limit as h-+Q,f(x + h) must tend to/(x ).
is
Ex.
1.
Wo
have
// f(x)
=xn
where n
f'(x)= lim
is
a positive
integer,
prove that f'(x)
may
GRADIENT OF TANGENT
274
10.
to a Curve.
Tangent
be a point which
from either
Let
supposed to move
is
be any point on a curve and let

along the curve, so as to approach
It is supposed that the curve

continuous near P, so that Q may be as near
is
to
as
we
side.
like.
T'PT
If a straight line
approaches
PQ
exists such that, as
from either
makes with T'PT
tinues to approach P) remains less than
we may
the angle which

becomes and (as Q conside,
choose, however small, then
any angle
T'PT is
called
47.
the tangent to the curve at P.
This
at
is
sometimes expressed by saying that
is the limiting
position of the chord
PQ
as
tangent to a
the
curve
tends to coincidence
with P.
Notice that
P,
PQ
The curve
(ii)
is
(i)
would cease
direction
at B,
supposed
a chord,
in Fig. 48
thrown from A,
ball hits the
is not
to be
is
to
reach P, for if
were
to
coincide with
supposed to represent the path of a ball which

ground at B and proceeds to C. Just as the
strikes the
it is moving in the direction TB and,

just after, in the
We may, if we choose, say that the curve has two tangents
BT and BT Strictly speaking, according to the definition,
ground,
BT'
namely
'.
the curve has no tangent at B.
This
at
is
an instance
of a continuous curve which has
no
definite tangent
one point.
B
FIG. 48.
Gradient of Tangent.
on the curve whose equation
1 1
curve has a definite tangent
PT
Let
be the coordinates of a point

is
y=f(x). We shall suppose that the
at P, and that this tangent is not parallel
(x, y)
to the y-axis, as in Fig. 49.

Let Q be the point on the curve whose coordinates are (x
+ A,
y-f k).
DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENT
Draw
QM, and draw PR
the ordinates PiV,
R.
Then
and
since
P and
($ are
Now,
as
PT and h
y + k =/(x 4- h)
gradient of chord
.'.
Q tends
PQ = n\
J^^M
gradient of
is the
PQ tends to the limiting position
Pr =
lim^4^W'(*)^-~>;o
Hence /' (x)
OX to meet QM in
k =/(* + h) -f(x)
/.
to coincidence with P,
tends to zero
/.
parallel to
on the curve, we have
and
y =f(x)
275
fl
gradient of the tangent to the curve y
f(x) at the point
fey).
PT
tends to
is nearly parallel to OY, f'(x) will be large, and if
If
coincide with a point where the tangent is parallel to the y-axis, we may
expect that/' (x) will tend to infinity.
Ex.
1.
Find
the equation of the tangent to the curve,
point whose abscissa
whose equation
y = x?,
at the
is a.
If f(jc)~x^, we have /'(#)

the gradient of the tangent at the point
3# 2
.*.
3a 2 , and the equation to the tangent is
3
2
-a) or y = 3a z 2a
;
is
is
(a,
a3 )
12.
Notation of the Differential Calculus. In the differential

is given a different name and a different
calculus the derivative of f(x)

notation is used.
Any number
by
z-f 8x; and,
nearly equal to x is denoted

if
<?/=/(#), the value of y cor-
responding to x
thus we have
+ Sx
is
denoted by y + 8y
2/
This limit
is
denoted by
(with regard to x).

to x,
In finding
and the process
We
often write
-=^.
is
of differentiating f(x)
is
-=-
we
called 2Ae differential coefficient of y
are said to differentiate y with regard
called differentiation.
-~ in
dx
and
ctx j
where ^~ denotes the operation

the form ~7 -/*(o:),
v
'
*
it is
<r
dx
also written shortly as -~-
ax
DIFFERENTIATION
276
Rules of Differentiation.
13.
(1) If u,
v are functions of
,..
(l)
.....
(Ill)
dx
'
(.
and
in (v)
Proof.
dv
iP\
dx
dx
dx
and
-=-
ax
have
(i)
(iii)
and
du dv
T"""T">
dx dx
'
I du
5 -Tu ax
d /1\
>
definite values, also that in (iv)
Let
-5-
ax
(ii).
8 (uv)
Sv> 8(uv), etc.,
Su.,
^~ are not
ax
These are
= (u + Sw)
be the increments in w,
x.
infinite,
left to
v, wv, etc.,
Sw and Sv tend to zero as 8x->0.
the student,
( v + Sv)
^+
lim(fF
dw
dx
dv
dx
+ fc)lim
'
l^___Sw_^
du
dx
A^V
^ v ^
dx\v/ dx
dx
1
1N
.
dx v/
du
v dx
u dv
dv_l1 / du
2
v dx~^v*\ dx
fo J3 + l)2-(2-l)8_
'da:
d /^N
/u\
dx\v/
(i)
(
rf
(Sar+l)"
-l
dvN
dv\
dx/
~(3a: + l)*'
du
wlim(u-fSw)
u(w-fSu)
We have
v^Q.
responding to an increment 8x in
Because
dx
ax-u/
du
-=-
..
T-""
'
(iV) -y-
assumed that
.
,.. %
^
dx
dx\v/
dv
-J-
d
dv
du
T- (UV) = U -7- + V -7dx
dx
dx
d /wN
It is
du
Tdx
then
x,
-_*._
cor-
POWER OF A FUNCTION
Ex.
Slww
2.
277
a product and a quotient can
that the rules for the differentiation of
be written in the forms
du
dv
dp
/!)___+_
p dx u dx v ax
...
where
(iii)
1 dq
= 1 du---1 dv
u \_^
qdx u ax v ax
....
/
an ,
2
..., t^,
...
are functions of x; then
\- Z
zdx
(i)
,
If
uv,
then
-V-T- + u-=-
~f-
ax
dx
and,
dx
each side
if
divided by
is
p(=uv) the
t
result follows.
(ii)
(iii)
This follows in a similar manner.
Let
UjU2
...
^n V
v^
...
__...
/
Z_ \J
and by repeated application
'
= !^+! du*
u 3 u^
= Z ~ m(-~};
^^
V dx
^\v dx
8
i ssc
Prove
that,
dx
rr
U
*j^
j:
V dx
dx
un)
w3
55"
dx
... i*
and the
a function of
is
rs=1
dx
\ur
result follows.
3.
I dV
dz
_
_ dU
~_
_
_
'
dx
Ex.
of the rule for a product,
dU _ 1 d%
1
rf(w
U dx ~u dx u2 uB ... un
1
SimUarly
J
then
onH
cHlU.
[/
r
/ /
vm
and -~
if
let
n be a positive integer
x,
then for
exists,
all
rational
values of n,
Let
n
\
and
.
f t
(ii)
Let n
(i)
Idw == 1 dy 1 dy
_.
_^__^.
w dx y dx y dx
-m, where
is
<
Hence, by^
wy = 1
and
m dy
1 ^w
~
y- +- dx =
w dx
y
,-r
(i),
dy
__j____
y dx
a positive integer
_
/.
,.
then
w~y
y^
n terms) = ndy
T
-
...
y (n factors)
y dx
then w=y~~ m ,
m
Idw -~
1 dy
+ m -|~ =0.
w dx y dx
- -=-
~1 rfw
-r- =-
or
w dx
y dx
then
wy*
P
(iii)
Let n=p/q where p and q are integers

'u
cr
Hence, by
J
That
is,
we have
/-\
(i)
w or
/--v
(11),
'
v
in all cases
d2
^ c?y
i-^^-fl-^
wdx zdx ydx
rft^
-=-
=-
*f
oo?
NOTB.
*
(
oo;
and
and
t)
say.
- dw ndy
--.
1
dx
y dx
and multiplying each
^ )=ny
wQ =y =z
side
by w(=y
n
),
-i.*
It should be carefully observed that there
00;
is
always a factor
y-,
unless
y=s.
FUNCTION OF A FUNCTION
278
Function of a Function.
14.
is
If w=/(x)
(1)
and y~<f>(u)
a single-valued function of
x, continuous for
a single-valued function of u, continuous for the correvalues

sponding range of
of w, then yisa continuous function of xfor a^x^b.
Let x be any value of x in the given range, and w , yQ the corresponding
is
u and
values of
y.
Because y = <f>(u) is continuous at w

we can find a number 77 such that
for
any assigned positive number
e,
provided that \u-uQ \<r),

\y-~y<>\<
is continuous at x
we can find r\ so that
>
and because /(x)
and consequently
\u~UQ\<r),
\y-yo\<e
if
|
x-x
]<?}'
This proves the theorem.
If the derivatives
(2)
values of u,
and
if
f (x) and
a<x<6 and for corresponding
(u) exist for
<f>'
F(x) = <f>(u) = <f>{f(x)},
fW-f <) ./<>,
then
ttati,,
|=|.g.
Let 8w, Sy be the increments u and y corresponding to an increment 8x

in x, then
Sw^0,
if
8y^8y Su
Sx
du
ax
8u
--->- and
As o#->0,
fi
oo;
~8u'
du
-r~
dx
since
and therefore
ou
Sx
is
a
finite,
Sw->0
-+--.
du
Consequently
dy = .. 8y _. 8w dv dw
r
ax lim/-lira^--^-ow
ox du dx
,^ v
(B)
It
may happen
that Su =
for
some value
In this case we must have 8y = 0, for otherwise

7
= 0.
hence
and then equation (A)
of Sx,
does not hold.
Also
-^-
= 0,
8w = 0.
for
~ would not be
finite
U/U
Thus the equation
dy ^dy du
dx du dx
is
true also in this case.

Ex.
(i)
/Y
(11)
Find
Let
u=ax + b,
Let
ti
(i)
then
70.1
-f-
when y =
(ax
y=u n
ox% then y =u
and
i
n
fc)
and
dx
<^V
-
dx
(ii)
=-~
du
/
=(
\
when y =
.
dx
1
=nu n~ l .a=na(ax+b} n~ l
\
)
u*J
'
~,
26x =
26a;
(a+bx*)
SIGN OF FIRST DERIVATIVE
//+,!,
a
6
&.*.
We
279
'
regard y as a function of x, and differentiate both sides of the given equation
with regard to x thus

9
2k 2y dy
~ + 7? -5? =0.
a j cr eta
15. Derivative of
xn
// y = x
n wfore
is
any
rational, then
<fy
dx
x
If
Proof.
of h,
is
positive, x
and by Ch. XIV,
Also
a;
71
"1
is
is
positive for all sufficiently small values

~
1 -1
'and nhx n l .
lies between
is
nh(x + A)*
a continuous function of
dy
-ax
If
+h
+ h) n - xn
10, (x
Therefore
x.
--
..
(x
hm
+ h) n -xn
'
h-+Q
- u, then = ( y
=
negative, let x
l)
n wn
and
r~
n
n l when n is a
Or,* having proved that the derivative of x is nx
positive
integer, we can prove that this is also true when n=p/q as follows.
Let y = a^, therefore y* = x p

,,
therefore
16.
qtf^
.dy
1
1
/- = px*>dx ^
Now
_
and
Meaning of the Sign of
~T-y
= qy9 " 1 ~/-
~
dy = px p l = pdx qy- 1 q
-/
xp ~l
Z^v
xq
Iff(x )>0
f'(x).
--*
= -p x ^
q
then for all values
x
of x in the neighbourhood of x /(x) </(x ) according as x
For {f(xQ-^h)-f(xQ )}/h tends to a positive limit as A->0.
,
sufficiently small values of

/
Similarly
t//
(x
A,
Hence
/(x + A) ~/(x
)<0, /or every x in

z
JAe
a5
has the same sign as

)
neighbourhood of x
for
A.
5x
NOTE. If /'(a;)>0 only for the single value # of #, it does not follow that f(x)
increases steadily as x increases through XQ
For if x t <a;2 <a; where x l9 x2 are in the neighbourhood of a? , it has pnly been proved
.
that f(Xi)<f(x
17.
and f(x2 )<f(x
)t
and we cannot conclude that f(xi)<f(x2 ).
Complex Functions of a Real Variable

is
See also Art. 13, Ex.
3.
+ i<(x),
+
i<f>'(x).
f'(x)
x. If y=/(x)
called a complex function of x and its derivative

rules of Art. 13 obviously hold for such functions.
then y
The
is
MAXIMA AND MINIMA
280
Higher Derivatives.
18.
the derivative oif'(x) exists, it is

called the second derivative or the second differential coefficient of f(x).
If
this is written in
y =/(#)>
If
of the forms
any
So by n differentiations (when possible) we obtain the nth derivative

or the nth differential coefficient of f(x) which is written in any of the
9
forms
The, following are important instances.

(i)
If
(ii)
If
t/
= zn
-t = nxn - 1
= a^xn + na^*- 1 + - ~^~1
a 2xn ~* +
f(x)
4-
. . .
a n)
L?
then /' (a?)
=n
a^f
+ (n - l)a^- 2 + (n
Or, using the notation of Ch. Ill,
= n(a
f'(x)
then
and by successive
a l9 a 2
...
2)
1)
^"
f(x)
a 2^~ 3 +
= (a Qy a v
a n _Jx, I)*-
a2
...
. . .
+ an
a n $x,
w
l)
...3.2. (a^-f a x ),
Maxima and Minima. We say
that/(z) has a
maximum
XQ when f(xQ )>f(x) for all values of x in the neighbourhood

In other words, if a number exists such that f(xQ )>f(x) when
at X
then /(x
replaced
is
by
<
maximum
,
differentiation
Hnfn- 1)
19.
1, if
"
value of /(x). If in the preceding, the sign

then f(xQ ) is a minimum value of (fx).
Maxima and minima
value
of
>
is
values of a function are sometimes called stationary
or turning values.
necessary condition that f(xQ )
may
be a
maximum
or a
value of f(x)
is that
f'(xQ ) =0.
This follows from Art. 16 but the condition
;
is
not
sufficient.
minimum
TEST FOR MAXIMUM OR MINIMUM

If f(x
a maximum
is
281
then for sufficiently small values of
value,
A,
Hence by Art. 16, as a increases through x the sign of

).
from
-f to -.
f'(x) changes
Suppose now that /"(# ) exists and is. not zero. Then since f'(x) decreases as x increases through rc
f"(xQ ) must be negative.
/(z + A)</(a;
Similarly
sign of f'(x)
be
minimum value, as x increases through z the

f(xQ )
must change from - to + and if f"(xQ ) is not zero, it must
a
is
if
positive.
If the sign of
(x)
does not change as x passes through x
is
f(x)
neither a
maximum nor a minimum. The

/" (x = will be considered
ma 7 be a maximum, a minimum or neither of these.
later. In this case /(#
To illustrate this geometrically, in Fig 51, the tangents at A, B C to
case in which
the curve y ~f(x) are parallel to
OX.
FIG. 51.
The
sign of f'(x) for different parts of the curve
has
f(x)
maximum values
Fig. 52 represents the
C and
graph of
t/
minimum
= x3 -f 1. Here
as indicated,
Thus y
1.
Here
Thus
-=^
= 3z2
dx
is
neither, a
Search for
maximum
nor a
so that
-~=0
ax
maxima and minima
/'(*)=6*
minimum when x=0.

values of
-6*-12=6
/'()=0
if
*=-l
or
2.
As x increases through -1, the sign of f'(x) changes from

increases through 2, the sign of /'(#) changes from - to 4Thus /( - 1) is a maximum and /(2) a minimum value.
to
Or
and
value at B.
dy
=0, but as x passes through 0, the sign of -~ does not change.
ax
when
Ex.
at A,
is
thus,
f"(x) = 12s
- 6 =6(2* -
so that f"( - 1)<0 and /"(2)>0, leading
to the
1),
same
results as before.
and as x
CALCULATION OF LIMITS
282
20. Points of Inflexion.
APE
In Fig. 53
is
supposed to be part
of a curve represented
by y =/(#).
moves along the curve from A to B, the gradient
increases along the arc AP and then decreases.
If a point
Thus
maximum
has a
ax
of the tangent
value at P,
and therefore
-~=
at P.
dx*
If
is
the secant
a point on the curve near P,

QP cuts the curve at another
point Q' near P, and we may regard the

tangent TPT' as the limiting position of
the line QPQ\ when the three points Q, P,
and Q' are very

Definition.
minimum
is
At such a
Q
FIG. 53.
close together.
point
(x, y)
on a curve at which j-
is
maximum or
called a point of inflexion.
dty
-~
point,
dx*
and the curve
0,
crosses the tangent.
EXERCISE XXVIII
Find the limits of the functions in Exx. 1-3
tends to oo .
1.
(i)
as x tends to zero
3.
'
(1
+*)- (l-
Find the values of

4. lir
Prove that
(i)
10.
Prove that
sin
[sin (x -4- h) -sin
a;
8.
Iim
1;
a;
hm
,.
6.
(ii)
Iim -
a:
= 1.
x and cos x are continuous functions of
x.
=2 sinÂ cos
For what values of x
12.
Prove that
Iim
Iim cos
11.
5.
sin
9.
-7-
sin
is
tan x discontinuous
x = cos x 9
Bm(x + h) -sin a; = 2 sin

_ %h
(ii)
-=-
cos x
,,
- sin x
CO8 (x -f \h) ~> cos x as
-=-
tan x = sec 2
x.
as x
DERIVATIVES AND TANGENTS

13. If
f(x)=z(x-a)
Hence,
14.
m (x-b) n
if
m, n are
prove that
positive, f'(x) vanishes for a value of
Prove the following

d \r
283
x between a and
b.
(i)
dxj
dx
(m)
15.
(d
_1
/
jl
l-x*-2\"((l-
(dx)
+ ~
'
l)
Find the derivatives of

(iii)
n
(iv) sin z.
16.
Find -%
n
(v) cos #.
if (i)
(vi)
ax 2 + 2hxy + by* + 2gx + 2fy + c=Q,
tan n tf.
(ii)
if
x 3 + y* =
(Z-iC
,-
17.
cZ o;
12 =
Prove that
rfy
- d*y //dy\*
-^
/
aa: / \^/
2
18. If
y=A
19. If
y = cos x -f
20.
cos
Prove that
if
|Lia;
+ J5sin
sin
21.
is
r7 y
then T-O
"
2/-
then -~ = iv.
or,
dx
= tan-
[Consider the values of
IJLX,
a/a:,
(x
then
I /
10)
(x
+ ia).]
Find the equation to the tangent at the origin to the curve whose equation
on the parabola y ~px 2 + qx + r whose abscissae are

a - h, a + k respectively, prove that the tangent at P is parallel to the
22. If P, Q, Q' are points

a,
chord QQ'.
23.
24.
x(x25.
Prove that the function 2x 3 - 3x 2 + 6x - 5 always increases with

Sketch roughly the graph of y = x(x~
2
for values of a; between
and 1.
I)
and
x.
find the greatest value of
I)
(i)
If f(x)
=(x-l)*(x- 2),
for
what values of x does f'(x) vanish
= to x = 2, and show that one

(ii) Sketch roughly the graph of y=f(x) from #
of the values of x found in (i) gives a minimum value of f(x) and that the other
gives neither a maximum nor a minimum.
26. Prove that
aa; 2 -f
x~
-b/2a
bx -f c according as a
^ 0.
gives
maximum
or
minimum
value
B.C. A.
of
INVERSE FUNCTIONS
284
27.
When
(i)
does the function 3x* - 4# 3 -
36a; 2
increase with
Find the turning values of the function, and state the character of each.
(ii)
Show
28.
that the turning values of (x-l)(x -2) (2 -3) are approximately
0-38.
Four equal squares are cut off from the corners of a rectangular sheet of
8 inches long and 5 inches wide. The rest of the sheet is bent so as to form an
open box on a rectangular base. Find the volume of the box of greatest capacity
which can be formed in this way.
29.
tin,
30. The regulations for Parcel Post require that the sum of the length and
girth of a parcel must not exceed 6 feet. Prove that the right circular cylinder
of greatest volume which can be sent is 2 feet long and 4 feet in girth.
Show
31.
that the height of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume

ball of radius r is 2r/\/3.
which can be cut out from a spherical
21.
Inverse Functions.
Let f(x) be a single-valued function of
x, continuous for the range a<x<6.

Further, suppose that throughout
the range, either f(x) increases with x, or decreases as x increases. We
shall
prove that
The equation y=f(x) determines x as a
(1)
function of y.
This function
x=/~
(y)
denoted
is
mean the same
by/~
thing.
(j/),
single-valued
so that the statements
Also the function/"
is
continuous
y=f(x) and
called the inverse
of/.
Since f(x) is continuous, as x varies continuously from a to 6,

Also f(x) takes
f(x) takes every value from /(a) to f(b) at least once.
Thus, correevery value once only, for f(x1 ) =f(x2 ) only when x 1 = x2
Proof.
sponding to any value yQ of y between /(a) and/(6), there

XQ of x such that yg=f(xQ ).
l
For, taking
Again, f~ (y) is continuous.
the case in which y increases with x, let yQ
be any value of y between /(a) and /(&) and
is
a single value
XQ the corresponding value of #, so that
For
sufficiently small values of c,
x -
and
Let yQ -k
X Q~6 X Q X^ X
and y + k be the corresponding values of y,
FIG. 54.
and let 77 be the smaller of the two k, k'.
As y varies from y -7? to y + 7?> x ^ es between # -e and XQ + C, for a;
are within the interval
(a, 6).
increases with y.
x~x
Hence
|
-1
and therefore x =/
<
(y) is
provided that
continuous at
j/
PRINCIPAL VALUES
285
- k' as the values of y

y decreases as x increases, we take yQ + k and y
~
To show that/~ 1 (y) is continuous at
and XQ +
corresponding to x
If
y=zf(a) and y =/(&), we consider the variation
(2)'
^
//
J
For
~ax
if
-~- exists
dx
and
is
then ~-
a<x<b,
dy
Sx and 8y are corresponding increments of x and
is finite,
as Sz->0,
8y
dx
T
dy
ox
,.
22.
never zero Jfor the range

y
of y for the ranges
and
by
Sv
/,.
Si"
~-
dx
then, since
Therefore
vice versa.
Joi,
,.
^-
y,
=1
lim^ = l
Idy
--
dx
The
value of
Inverse Circular Functions. The numerically smallest

=
y which has the same sign as x and is such that sin y x is called
the principal value of sin~ l x. A similar definition applies to tan^ 1 x.

The smallest positive value of y such that cos y = xi$ called the principal
value of cos~ l x.
jy=s//i"
jr
FIG.
Thus the principal values

,
and that
of cos" 1
lies
of sin" 1
between
5^>.
x and tan" 1 x
and
lie
between - - and
n.
Unless otherwise stated, sin" 1 ^, cos" 1 ^ and tan"" 1 ^ will be used to

represent the principal values of the functions for these, the derivatives of
;
sin*"
a;
and cos" 1 ^ are
positive
and negative
respectively, as can be seen
from Fig. 55.

Ex.
I.
Show
Let y = tan~ 1
that
-=-
dx
a;,
then
tan~ l x =
l+x*,
x=t*ny and
dx
-=-=8
dy
'
dy
te
r+?'
BOUNDED FUNCTIONS
286
Bounds of a Function.
23.
Let f(x) be a function which has
a definite value for every value of x in the interval (a, b).

If a number
exists such that/(z)<lf for every x in
is
(a, 6),
then/(x)
said to be bounded above.

If
a number
N exists such that/(x)>2V for every
a;
in (a, b),f(x) is said
to be bounded below.
A function
which
is
bounded above and below
said to be bounded.
is
Suppose that f(x) is bounded above in (a, 6).

Let S denote the aggregate of the values of /(x) as x varies continuously
from a to 6.
applying Dedekind's theorem (Ch. XIII, 12) to the set S,
exists such that
By
we can
show that a number h
no value of f(x) exceeds h
(i)
at least
(ii)
one value of f(x) exceeds any number
number h
This
is
than
h.
called the upper bound of f(x).
Similarly, if f(x) is bounded below, a

(i)
less
no value of f(x)
is less
than
number
exists
such that
one value of f(x) is less than any number greater than

(ii)
This number I is called the lower bound of f(x).
at least
Ex.
Consider the function f(x)
I.
lim
n-^-oo 1
If
+nx 2
3=0, f(x)=0.
If
I.
xÔ.
Thus f(x) has a definite value for every value of x. But f(x) is not
any interval including zero, for by making x small enough, we can make
exceed any number we may choose.
f(x)~ljx.
bounded
I/a;
in
Theorem
bounded in
1.
If f(x)
is
continuous in the closed interval
(a, 6),
it
is
(a, b).
Suppose that f(x) is not bounded in (a, b). Because f(x) is continuous
at x = a, for sufficiently small values of x - a, f(x) lies between f(a) - c and
/(a)
x in
+ e, where
is
any small
such that f(x)
(a, 6)
is
positive
bounded
possible) not bounded in (x, b).

Divide the real numbers in (a,
A' as follows
f(x)
is
is
or
is
The number x
not bounded in
b)
is
number.
in (a, x)
Hence there are values

and (if our supposition
into a lower class
to be placed in
and an upper
of
is
class
or in A' according as
(a, x).
According to the supposition, both classes exist and every number in A

less than every number in A'.
The classification therefore defines a real
number
a,
which
Now f(x)
is
the greatest
number
in
or the least in A'.
continuous at x=a, therefore for sufficiently small values

of x-a, f(x) lies between /(a-e) and /(a-f e), where
is any small
is
ROLLE'S
positive
belongs to A, which
Theorem
2.*
is
287
bounded in (a, a-fe), and so

impossible, for a + >a. This proves the theorem.
Hence f(x)
number.
THEOREM
// f(x)
is
is
continuous in
lower bounds f(x) takes the values h

9
and
(a, 6)
and
h,
at least once as
are
its
x wries continuously
from atob.
For if c is an assigned positive number, however small, there
one value of x in (a, b) for which f(x)>h -, so that
h-f(x)<
and
1/{A
upper and
is
at least
-/(*)}> 1/c.
Hence l/{h-f(x)} is not bounded. But if h-f(x) does not vanish

for some value of x in the interval, l/{h-f(x)} is continuous in (a, 6).
Therefore h=f(x) for some value of x in (a, 6).
=
Similarly there is a value of x for which f(x) I.
Theorem. Suppose that f(x) is continuous in the closed

and has a derivative f (x) for every x such that a<x<b.
and f(b) = 0, then f'(x)=Q for at least one value of x between
24. Rolle's
interval (a, b)
If /(a)
a and 6.**
This theorem is of the greatest importance. A strict proof (as given on
the next page) depends on the rather difficult considerations of the last
article, but from the graphical point of view its truth is obvious.
Let the curve y=f(x) cut the x-axis at A, B. Suppose that it is conA to B, and that at every point it has a definite and finite
gradient. The theorem asserts that there is at least one point on the curve
tinuous from
between
and
B where the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.
FIG. 56.
FIG. 57.
= l -x$. Here f'(x)= -GO at

j/
not zero for any value of x between - 1 and + 1.
Fig. 57 represents the curve
f'(x)
is
* This
proof
is
and
taken from
** If
f'(x) exists for a<a;<&,/t)
sarily in the closed interval.
must be continuous
in the
open interval
(a, &),
but not neces-
MEAN-VALUE THEOREM
288
Because f(x) is continuous in (a, b), it is bounded in (a, b) and

attains at least once its upper bound h and its lower bound /.
Either (i)/(z)=0 for all values of x in (a, 6), in which case /'(z) =
Proof.
for every
or
some values
(ii)
of f(x) are positive or negative.
positive and unequal to /(a) or /(&).

Moreover, f'(h)=*Q, for otherwise there would be values of x in the neighbourhood of h for which f(x)>h, which is impossible.
If positive values of f(x) exist,
is
there are negative values of f(x), then I is negative, unequal to /(a)

or /(6) and /'(Z)=0. For if f'(l)^Q, there would be values of x near I
If
impossible. This proves the theorem.

simpler proof, for the case in which f(x) is a polynomial, is given in
which
for which f(x)<l,
is
the next chapter.
25.
The Mean-Value Theorem.
and f'(x)
where
exists for
is
a<#<6,
-f(a)
= (b-a)f (),
some number between a and

Let
Proof.
<f>
then
(x)
=/(&) -f(x)
<f,'(x)
is
Iff(x)
continuous for
a<x<6
then
........................... (A)
b.
--
= -f(x)
-/(a)},
{/(&) -/(a)}.
Also ^(a) =
and <f>(b)=Q, hence by Rollers theorem <f>'(x) = Q for some
value f of x between a and 6, which proves the result in question.
Let A, B be the points on

Geometrically.
the curve y~f(x) where x = a,b respectively.
The theorem asserts that there is a point C on
the curve between
and
B where the
If P(x, y)
parallel to AB.
the curve, and the ordinate
is
NP
duced) meets
AB in
Q,
it is
tangent
any point on
is
easily
(or
NP
pro-
shown that
Fia. 58.
Corollary.
(i)
(ii)
//,
throughout any given interval,
f'(x) is always positive, then f(x) increases with

if f'(x)
is
(ill)
if
(x)
All this follows
two values
NOTE.
of
always negative, f(x) decreases as x increases
is
always
zero, then f(x)
from equation
x in the
(A),
is
where
it is
supposed that
interval.
It has not been
assumed that /' (x)
is
constant throughout the interval.
continuous.
a, b are
any
AREA UNDER A GRAPH

26.
a given function of x, and that

Such a function is
</>'(x)~f(x).
Suppose that f(x)

we try to find a function ^>(x) such that
called
If
and
ntegration
an
and
<f>(x)
t/j(x)
differ
Hence
if
(x) are
denoted by \f(x) dx.
is
that
<f>'(x)
any value
of
(iii),
<}>(x)
is
(f>(x)
-i/f(z)
=a
+ C.
Thus
equations which
Ex.
NOTE.
mean
^
dx
Since
xn
denoted by
Integration
Ex.
2.
//
n>0,
+ 1)
j-</>(x) =/(#),
and
<f>
(x)
f(x) dx
+ C,
are
two
the same thing.
^^
(
v
n+
)
'
x n , therefore (x n dx -
...
dx
is
*-
n+1
+ C.
to bo regarded as denoting the operation of integra-
These are inverse operations.
denotes that of differentiation.

'
where
<f>(x)
-j-
then
/(x)rfx, the general value
The symbol
tion, just as
= $'(x),
constant C.
/i
f(x) dx
\l(n
and
by a constant.
r
is
or),
any two functions such
Art. 25, Cor.
by
therefore,
iff
is
integral of f(x) (with regard to
289
PN
can be applied to find the area of a curve as in the next example.

ordinate of
is the
prove that the area
any point P(x
ONP
of the rectangle contained by
y)
on
bounded by ON,
the curve represented
NP
and
the arc
OP
by
y~kxn
is
equal to
ON, NP.
FIG. 59.
Denote the area by S and let #, y be the coordinates of P. Let Sy, 8/9 be the increments in y, S corresponding to the increment ox in x. If Q is the point (x -f oxt y + Sy)
and QM its ordinate, then rect. PM<oS<Tect. QN, i.e.
O
therefore
y<
JO
Of
< y + Sy
!f
y rfa: =
Now S=Q when
a;
and
since Sy -> 0,
.*.
y=
11 "1" 1
A:a;
<fo:
/b:
= --
-j-
(7,
^0 and 5=
where
is
a constant.
TAYLOR'S SERIES
290
27. Taylor's
Theorem.
is
If f(x)
tives f'(x),
Theorem,
known
also
as the General
the first
values of x between a and
b,
continuous in the closed interval
f"(x) .../
(n)
(x) exist
for
all
=/() + (6 - a)f () + -(&-
f(b)
/" (a) +
i^
some number between a and

is
then
"
|>*-1
The proof
deriva-
2
)
f/
is
and
(a, b)
where
Mean Value
b.
similar to that of Art. 25.
Let
and
then
F' (x)
and
f (x)=
Now
= -
(b
- x)"-
= Q and
^(6)^=0, therefore by Rolle's theorem

for some value ^ of x between a and 6, hence
which
<f>(a)
is
Let b
</>'(#)
equivalent to equation (A).
= a + h,
then equation (A)
may
be written
..+
...(B)
/^
where
J2 B
pA /<
w
>(a
+ 0A)
and
i.
0<0<1.
For any number between a and a-h/* may be written in the form
a + Oh where 0<0<1. In general, the value of depends on n.
Taylor's Series.
(a-c, a + c),
and
Suppose that f(x) is continuous in the closed

n derivatives f'(x), /"(#), .../(n) (^)
the
a/wi /Aa<
|
h |<c.
Then equation
(B) holds.
interval
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
Rn =
Further suppose that
-.-
h"f
w (a
-f
n-> oo
as
9h)->Q
291
then
vL
"
For
sn
if
is
the
sum
/(a + h)
The
:he
to
n terms
...to*>.
of the series,
s n = 7? n ->
so that
When
V(0) +
Rn
A) .
-4-
is
Lagrange's form of
equation (A) becomes
0,
AT
s n ->f(a
and
series in (C) is called Taylor's Series
remainder after n terms.
...(C)
(0)
...to
................
(D)
11
This expansion
is
known
as Maclaurin's Series.
THE COMPLEX VARIABLE
The Quantity
28.
x-f ty, which we denote by
z, is
called the
com-
Here x and y are real variables, independent of one

variable.
oo to +00.
another and each capable of assuming any values from
As z passes from a value z to a value z v we suppose the variation to be
plex
By this we mean that the point z is to move along a continuous

curve from the point z to the point z v
Thus the variation of z is continuous if the variations of x and y are
continuous.
continuous.
29. Function of a
and
Complex Variable
are functions of x
and
y,
z.
If
we say that Z
is
Z=X+
iY, where
a complex function
of the real variables x and y.

If z is known, so also are x and y. Consequently X, Y and Z are known.
Hence it would be perfectly reasonable to call Z a function of z.
But
it is
usual to restrict the meaning of the term
'
function of z
'
as
follows.
We
use the equation Z=f(z)
to indicate that
is the result
operations performed on z, the variables x and y not occurring

we say that Z is a function of z.
Thus 2x -f 3iy
is
a function of z in the
first sense,
of definite
explicitly,
but not in the
and
restric-
ted sense.
For
if.
terms of
z is
known, so
z alone, i.e.
It follows that
is
2x + 3iy
but 2x
-t-
3iy cannot be expressed in
without the explicit use of x or
y.
if
one series of operations determines
X and Y in terms of x and y.
CONTINUITY OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
292
30. Definitions relating to Limits

(1)
way
and Continuity.
To say that z tends to zero (z->0) is to say that z varies in such a

that z
becomes and remains less than any positive c we may
|
choose, however small.
Thus, after a certain stage, the point z (on an Argand diagram) is within
which may be as small as we like.
with centre
and radius
circle
To say that z tends to a (z->a), where a is a fixed number, is to say

that 2-a->0. After a certain stage, the point z is within a circle with
centre a and radius c, which may be as small as we like.
(2)
We
say that /(z) tends to a limit I as z tends to a if, for any posithat we may choose, however small, 77 can be found so that
tive
/(z)
-1
1
<
provided only that
e,
-a
<
rj.
In other words, as z approaches a by any path whatever the distance

from the fixed point I becomes and remains less than
of the point f(z)
any length e that we may choose, however small.

= z or at (the point)
(3) The function /(z) is continuous for z
e
that
we
however
choose,
small, we can find 77
may
any positive
z -z
provided only that
f( z ) ~f( z o) <
<^.
I
>
if
for
so that
the same as saying that as z tends to z along any path whatever, /(z) tends to /(z ) as a limit.
It is assumed that /(z) has a definite value at every point in the
This
is
neighbourhood of the point
The function
if it is continuous
/(z) is continuous in a region
of
the region.
at every point
Hence if z describes a continuous curve in the region of continuity of
the function /(z), the point /(z) will also describe a continuous curve.
(4)
31. Continuity of Rational Functions of z. All that has been

and 3, with regard to the real variable, holds for the complex
said in Arts. 2
In particular
variable.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
lim (o
z-o
+ az + a^
-f
. . .
+ a wzn ) = a
A polynomial in z is continuous for all values
of
values of z except for
rational function of z
those which
make
is
continuous for
the denominator zero.
all
z.
EXPANSIONS IN SERIES
293
EXERCISE X3TTX
1.
Prove that
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
x-x always decreases with x.

tan x-x increases with x in the intervals
sin
(-lU,
ITT),....
(71-,
|TT),
decreases as x increases from
to
TT.
2
3
2
1
2. If a, ax + b, ax + 2bx + c, ax + 3bx + 3cx + d and ax + 4bx* + bcx* + 4<fo 4- e
are denoted by w , u l9 u 2 U B respectively, show that, if C7 = w 2^s -3u u l u 2 + 2u l 9 9
,
F=ô w 4~4ii 1 w 3 + 3% 2 then
=0
-7-
ax
and
ax
=0, so that
and F are indepen-
dent of a;.
3.
/
-l-
cos,
If
re 2
and
dun
dvn
^=- -
xi_ x
prove that
^=
Hence show that un and vn are
'
positive or negative according as
is
odd or
even.
[If
#=0, then wn =0 and

dui
-7
Now
= ~v >0,
.*.
= 0;
vn
is
also
= cos x- 1<0,
an increasing function,
= sin x - x < 0.
%>0;
.*.
rfv
and
^-=w
and so
4.
>0,
/.
Prove that for

(l)
(ii)
[(i)
Let
3, for
all
an increasing function,
t;
2 ),
(w a v3 ),
,
sina;
/.x
... .]
y*
3
X*
= x- X + -
QO;
to oo
r^
be the rth term of the series arid sr the

x, s zn
x as
< cos x < s 2n+l and s
r -> oo
+i
- s zn
sum
tzn+i
to r terms.
~>
as ?i ->- oo
Then by
.
There-
.]
sin (x
rv
=sm x + hT
+ h)
-
cos
W- sin x - & cos x

r^
o
2i
(ii)
= cos - A sin a: - h
cos (# -f- h)
a;
2
-
cos x
2i
6.
^!>0;
Use Taylor's theorem to prove that

(i)
[(i)
/.
values of x
COSX = l-+r-... tO
every
fore sr -* cos
5.
is
on, in succession for (u 2 ,
X2
Ex.
vx
If f(x) = sin x,
|^n
|<-|^n |->0as
+ ...
a; -f- ...
h3
sin
n-*oo.]
Deduce the expansions of sin 2 and cos x
in
Ex. 4 from Taylor's theorem.
CASES OF BINOMIAL
294
7.
Prove, by means of Art. 22, Ex.
tan" 1
;*;
=# -
x--5 -f
x'
Sr =x-~ + ~-...+(-l) r ~i
{Let
/(0)=0, and/
(x)
0<a:^l, then
that, if
1,
x*
THEOREM
tooo.
4-
^,
and
/(s^tan- 1 *-^;
JLf
= l/(l-fa: 2 )-(l-x 2 4-a:*~...4-(-l) r-1 x 2r ~ 2
so that
which is positive or negative according as r is even or odd.

Hence, tan~*aj lies between Sr and Sr+1 and 8r - Sr+l
so long as x is positive and not greater than unity.]
,
8. If f(x) is
a function whose
first
=
[Proceed as in Ex.
9. If
derivative
show
is I/a;,
then
as r ->
-> 0,
that, if
oo
0<a?< 1,
x3
x2
x-j + ---...
to QO.
7.]
0<0<7r/6, prove that tan
+ i0 3 and
between
6 lies
+ f0 8
= + a03 -tan
show that /(O), /'(O),

;
[For the second
/"(O), are all zero, and that /'"(0)^0 throughout the interval 0<0^7r/6 if
9a>8 hence, in succession, / // (0),/ (0),/(0), are all positive.]
inequality, let /(0)
/
The Binomial Theorem

a positive integer, show that the expansion of (a+h) n by the
Binomial theorem is given by Taylor's series.
10. If
11. If
is
is
any
rational
number and -
n(n-l)^ z 2
+
^
...+
-- -
<x< 1,
(i)
show that
n(n-l) ...(n-r + 2) x^T-*

'
-.
-,
IT
where
(ii)
If
0<a:< 1, prove
that
J r
->0 as
r -> QO
so that in this case

...
[For r>n, (l+0x)

(iii)
If
n - r <l
and
"'
to oo ...................... (A)
xr ->0 as r~>oo.]
<#<(), explain why we are unable to say that

+ Ox) n ~r > 1 for r>n, and so far as we can tell,
1
ftr
-+Q.
Rr may not tend to

the expansion (A) in this case, another form (named after
Cauchy) of the remainder after n terms of Taylor's series must be used. See any
treatise on the Calculus.']
[Here
zero.
To deduce
4
CHAPTER XVIII
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
(2), POLYNOMIALS
RATIONAL FRACTIONS (1)
Multiple Roots.
1.
is
a polynomial, then
(x
For /(#) = (#- a) r
<f>(x)
one real root of
Let
Proof.
If<x,isanr-multiplerootoff(x) = Q, where f(x)

r~ l
is a common factor off(x) andf'(x).
<x.)
Theorem
2. Rolle's
at least
a,
j8
where
<f>(x)
is
a polynomial and
for Polynomials.
f (x) =
lies
// f(x) is a polynomial,
between any two real roots of f(x) = 0.
be consecutive real roots of f(x) = 0, so that
f(x)=(x-*r(x-p).(x)
integers, and <f>(x) is not
where m, n are positive
Then
#-/?.
(2),
is
<f>(x)
divisible
of invariable sign for ocâ^jS
by x-at or
and
/'() = (x a)
where
Now
0(a)
= m(a-j8)<(a) and
Therefore 0(a) and 0(jS) have unlike signs

where continuous.
Hence
and consequently /' (x)
\fj(x)
between a and
3.
(
1)
is
moreover,
ift(x)
is
every-
equal to zero for some value of x
/?.
Deductions from Rolle's Theorem.
=
// all the roots of f(x)
are real, so also are those of
f (x) = 0,
and
the
roots of the latter equation separate those of the former.
For if f(x)
is
of degree n, /' (x) is of degree n-1, and a root of /'(x)

n - 1 intervals between the n roots of f(x) = 0.
exists in each of the

(2)
//
all the roots
f" (x) = 0,
=
f'" (x) 0,
of f(x)
. . .
and
those of the preceding equation.
This follows from
(1).
are real, so also are those of /'(x)=0,
the roots of
any one of these equations separate
DEDUCTIONS FROM ROLLE'S THEOREM
296
Not more than one
(3)
(ii)
be the real roots of
j8x , /J 2 , ... ]8 r
a x =a 2 then a x
,
If 0^:56 a 2 ,
Hence
by
if
(i)
if
(ii)
(iii) if
or
jS1
= 0, any
/'(o;)
<j8 2 <...<j3 r
Let
of which
o^,
may
a2 be
real
=
f(x) 0.
roots of
roots
off (x) = 0,
be greater than the greatest of them.
be multiple roots, and suppose that

If
can
be less than the least of these, or
(iii)
let
between two consecutive roots
(i) lie
For
root of f(x)
j8 r
is
one of the set
j8 1? j3 2 ,
(Art. 1.)
j8 r .
between o^ and a2
cannot be consecutive
Rollers theorem, a root of f'(x) lies
<a1 <a2 <jS2
j31
a 1 <a 2 <j31
<a1 <a2
then
then
/J 2
cannot be the least root of f'(x)=Q

cannot be the greatest.
then
and
j8 x
j8 r
Thus, not more than one root of f(x)
can
in any one of the open
lie
intervals
(4)
// /'(x)
Aas r razZ roote, <Aen
f(x)=0 cannot have more than
+1
has no multiple roots, none of the roots of f'(x) =

is a root
of /(x)=0, and the theorem follows from (3).
If f(x) =
has an in-multiple root, we regard this as the limiting case
in
If /(#)
=0
which
(5)
If
(r
is
\x)
It follows
from
(4)
=
f(x)
that
true in
is
and
all cases.
(r)
the equation / (#)=0 has

as many.
has at least as many imaginary roots
derivative of f(x)
any
roots, then
imaginary
Thus the theorem
roots tend to equality.
has at
/(#)=0
least
as/'(z)=0.
(6) If all
number of
the real roots

real roots of
...
j8j, j8 2 ,
f(x)=Q by
Ex.
and
1.
have opposite
/(/J 2 )
Find
the character of the roots'of
*
/(*)
and /(#)=0 has a
real root
f(x)
same
-1
1,
j3 x
and
/? 2 ,
faw a4
2.
a // 6
tecw*
oc<
0,
are
one between
(uw imaginary
For
and the equation
then the equation

roots.
1, 1, 2.
00
+
+
-1 and
oa; -f-26a;
= (a,
6, c,
See Ch. VI, 11, Ex.
/(->(*) = ?i(tt-l)
2
f(x)
...3.(a
according as
sign.
and two imaginary
1,
roots.
Ex.
....
= 3a;4 - &E3 - 6* 2 + 24x + 7 = 0.
roots of /'(*)-=
-00
<-
between
lies
signs, or the
Here f'(x) = 12(x*-l)(x-2). The
find the
considering the signs of /(&), /(/J2 ),
single root of /(x)=0, or no root,
f(Pi)
f'(x)=Q are known, we can
of
3i
-f26
+ c =0 has two imaginary
. . .
1.
+ c)
roots.
k $ #,
w
)
NEWTON'S THEOREM
Sums
Powers
Newton's Theorem.
4.
Let a,
j3,
of
let s r ==a r
+ j8r -h... + K T
n ~l
(r
+pzxn
= 0,
-2
...
1, 2, ...),
+p
(fi)
*r
+Pi*r-i+Px*r-*+- +Pn*r-n=<>
(i)
sr _ 1
We
..................... (A)
= n,
have identically f(x)
- (a? - a) (x - j8) ... (x - /c),
and, assuming the rule for differentiating a product (Ex.
(B)
2, p. 277),
synthetic division,
2
- a) = xn ~ l +
Atf"- -f
f(x) / (x
where the
coefficients are given
by
A2=a?+p <x+p 2 ^ 3 =a -hjo 1 a2 -hjo2 a-f j 3

and finally, -4 n _ 1 =a n 1 +j9 1 an 2 -f ... +y n -v
3
=<x,+p v
in succession
other quotients in (C) are expressed in a similar way,
If the
Q l - s l + np v
and so on
and
Q<z
- ^ 2 -f p^ L -f np2
Q n ^ - * n-1 -f jvn _ 2 -f
Now f'(x)nxn ~ + (w-l)p

l
comparing
this
with (D),
-*
"-*
-*
'
xn
*~ 2
^ - (n -
on,
it will
be
. . .
+ ...+Q n
................. (D)
Q3 = s3 + p^ 2 + p^ -f np3
+ ;v-2*i + w ^n- 1-
-h(n-2)^2x
1
and so
~"
~*
seen that
where
.........
x~
x-oc
By
then
+p2 s r _ 2 + ...+slpr _ l +rp
sr
+;p n =0,
so that $
(i)
Proof,
Equation
be the roots of
... AC
f(x)^x +p lx
and
Roots of an
the
of
297
n -3
4-...
+|> w _!
^^ Q 2 - (w - 2)^2
. . .
and
Q n =p n - V
Therefore
(ii)
+ --+^--
)Pn-l
Let r^zn, then multiplying each side of /(a)

"- 1
a r -h fta 7
+ p 2 a *- 2 -f
7
. . .
-f-
r-w =
0,
^ a
rt
and similar equations hold for each root.

Hence the second result follows by addition.
(E)
r
by a
~n
we have
ORDER AND WEIGHT
298
Ex.
an
For equation (A) of
1.
the last article, find the value of
even number, in terms of S Q s l9

,
If q, c 2 ,
(a
r
x)
In this equation, substitute
= a - qxa
r
a,
/?,
...
y,
in the expansion of (1 4-x) r ,
...
7"' 1
+ C 2z V~ ~...+x
2
is
then
r
.
K in succession for x and add, therefore,
Similar equations can be deduced from the expansions of (/3-#) r ,
(y~ z)
r
>
etc.
we have
hence, by addition,
5.
where r
....
s.2
are the coefficients of x, x 2 ,
...
27(a-/?)
Order and Weight of Symmetric Functions.
Leta,
/J,
...
be the roots of
xln
+p
xn
-l
+p&n -*+...+p n = Q ...................... (A)
Consider any function of the coefficients
for example, let
Let ^ be expressed in terms of the roots by means of the equalities
Consider Jfo highest power of any root a which occurs in

u, and denote it by a*.
Each of p 19 p 2 ... involves a to the first degree

from the highest term Pi 2p% and /row. /i/s alowc
,
degree of this term, namely
The
order of a
this expression for
5
only, therefore a arises
also the index s is the
3.
symmetric function of the roots of an equation
is
defined
as the index of the highest power of any root which occurs in the function.
Thus the order of 27a 3/8 is 3, and that of Za/3y is 1.
From what
function of
the coefficients
If u
is
has been said
it
will
be clear that
the roots is the degree of the
p l9 p^
...
pn
a symmetric function of order

atfv
+ al
xn l
of the roots of
+ ...+a n = Q,
then a Q u is a homogeneous function of # a l9 a 2

For if the equation is written in the form (A), u
,
which the highest term
The
in a,
is
of degree s
and Pi =
........................... (B)
...
is
of degree s.
a function ofp l9
i/a
>
weight of a symmetric function (u) of the roots a,

|8,
...
Thus the weight of Za3/?
a symmetric
in
the order of
function ivhen expressed in terms of
is 4,
and that of ZajSy
is 3.
?2 ==a 2/ a o
j8,
...
is its
j> 2 ,
e^ c
...
degree
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Theorem.
// a symmetric function
expressed in terms of the coefficients

term,
when
299
(u) of the roots of equation (A) is
pv pz
sum
the
...
of the suffixes of every
written at full length,* is equal to the weight (w) of u.
Denote any term in u by Pi hp 2 kp^

and in equation (A) write
n
1
n
The equation becomes y -f A^y"" + A2j92 y n ~ 2 44- A p n ... 0,
1
Proof.
x = yl A.
. . .
and the roots of

If then
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
this are
Aa,
we multiply every
to multiply
A/3, Ay, ....
root by
\w
u by
the effect of this
is
to multiply piSpz, p^
to multiply
A,
pfp^pz
by
...
A2 A 3
A,
...
respectively;
by

down the literal part of Za 2/? 2 expressed as a function of the coefficients.
of
2 and weight 4. The only terms of weight 4 are such as contain
order
p
2
z
The first two of these are of too high an order.
Pi*> Pi Pz> PiPv Pz Pv
Ex.
oc
1.
Write
is
>
2 2
2
Thus we have
27a j8 = ap\p$ 4- bp 2 -f cp^,
where a, 6, c are independent of p lt p 2 p 3
.
6. Partial
Derivatives.
Suppose that u=f(x,
y, z, ...)
is
a func-
tion of the independent variables x,y,z, ...

The operation of differentiatu
with
on
to
the
x alone varies, is denoted
that
x,
ing
respect
supposition
.
by the symbol OX
^~
respect to x.
and ^~
CfX
called the first partial derivative of
is
u with
-.
Sometimes the ordinary symbol -p
the context implying that the differentiation
_
2
d u
___
used in the same sense,
is partial.
_3 fdu\
_
.
dxdy
is
We
also write
d*u
dy\dx/
with similar notation for higher derivatives.
For example,
if
u = xm y n
j.nereiore
(xx)
^ ^
ox oy
oy ox
It follows that equation (A) holds
when u
Thus the term
2>i j> 2
is
is
a polynomial in
x, y.
written PiPiPzPzPzB.C.A.
TAYLOR'S THEOREM
300
It is
proved in books on the
represented by (A) holds
'
when
'
that the commutative property

the functions in question are continuous.
Calculus
A strict proof is difficult, and here we are only concerned with polynomials.
Again,
we
often regard
h^ + k-^-
as
an operator, and we write
du
da ( d
9 \
7
7
^
h-~-+k-=- = (h-r-+k-^-}u = Du,
ox
oyj
oy \ ox
^^=^^^--5-^
dx
if
h k are constants
y
a result which
dx 2
dyJ
dxdyj
we may
dxdy
express as follows
u.
dxdy
The value of
D n u can be written down in the same way
by the Binomial
theorem.
7.
Taylor's
Theorem
nomial of degree n in
for Polynomials.
//IN
-r^r
av
...
a n are independent of
A,
+ TT. a n
'
\^
and
if
X=x+h
Hence, by successive differentiation with regard to
f (x + h) = aj + ha
The
result follows
by putting h =
+ :-- a3 +
(A)
we may assume that
[L
a poly
...+~fM(x)
n
This follows from Ch. XVII, or thus
f(x + h) a + hdi +
where a
is
x, then
~
f(x + h)=f(x) + hf'(x) +
f"(x) +
&
Proof.
// f(x)
(1)
. . .
h"-
h,
1
-
-^
we h&ve
an
in these equations
for
we
find that
EULER'S THEOREM
If u z=f(x, y)
(2)
is
a polynomial of degree n in
1
f(x -f A, y + k)
For we
where a
may assume
301
x, y, then
_+*-Dn u
u + Di
that
... are
independent of A, k.
=
k
A
we have a = u', and differentiating
0,
Putting
with regard to h and r times with regard to k, we find that
,
^T) /(# + A, y +
Then,
if
X = x + A, Y = y
m -r
( d
-f
yfc,
k)=pr + terms
m-r
times
A,
(D)
equal to
is
\r
and putting A = 0, A; = 0, we have

// u?Ef(x,
involving
the left-hand side of (D)
=
\SV/ /(^ ^) /tn-r,r(^
^3T/
(3)
y, 2, ...) is
^)> sa 7 ^ e fm~r
-
^ r =/m _ r
(x, y)
=^
a polynomial of degree n in
v^
x, y, z,
ZAen
...
(E)
n
where
D denotes the operator
The proof
is
8. Euler's
x,
B )*
dx
and, in general,
+ l~- +
...
oz
similar to the above, using the Multinomial theorem.
Theorem.
y and of degree
-~-
h -- + kôx
oy
Let
(1)
be a polynomial
homogeneous in
n, then
J ^~
dy
=,
^9
dx 2
^^-
dxdy
+ y-^-) w = n(n-l)(n~2),..(n-r=f
(x^
\
ox
oy/
Proof.
Let u=f(x,
y),
then by Taylor's theorem,
f(x + \K,y + Xy)
du
---
>
and
since
is
homogeneous and
of degree
6.
........................... (B)
The coefficients of the powers of A in the expressions on the

(A) and (B) must be equal, whence the results follow,
end of Art.
in x, y,
/(x + As,y+Ay) = (l + A)t
* See
/AX
(
right of
PARTIAL FRACTIONS
302
// u=f(x,
(2)
a polynomial homogeneous in
is
y, z, ...)
x, y, z,
...
and
of degree n, then
du
du
dn
z *x a" +y~*-+
y
oz
ox
dy
D u = n(n-l)(n-2)
r
wAere
D r tfawdx for
J
(x
\
^dx
4-
y
J
^~
dy
9. Partial Fractions.
. .
...
Let
in
form.
J
expanded
r
its
in equation (E) of Art. 7, the proof
is
be a rational proper fraction

// x a is a non-repeated
f(x)l(f>(x)
let
x-a
the fraction corresponding to
<f>(x),
(f)'(a)
<f>(x)
rv
= (x-a)^(x)
/r
'x-a
and
is
x-a
^>(x)
From
l)w,
to be expressed in partial fractions.
is
factor of
For
4-
(n-r +
...
dz
=
Putting h = Xx, k Xy, /-Az,
similar to the preceding.
which
2 -5-
4-
+-^nu>
4-
the second equation

f(x)
and (rom* the
first,
by
= At(x) + (x
differentiation,
Putting x = a and observing that 0(a)^0, we have
and
f(a)=Aif>(a)
Ex.
and
If
1.
^(a)=0(a),
therefore
A=f(a)/<l>'(a).
m - 1 /(x n ~l) in partial fractions, where m, n are positive integers

Express x
m^n.
x-a is any
factor of x n
xn ~
The imaginary roots of xn

cos
according as
Let
1,
then a n
na n ~ l
= 1 and
x-a
x-a'
are
sin^-^ where r = l,
2,
...
i(w-l)
*
or ^(n-2),
odd or even.
is
a = cos
and denote the sum of the
sin
then a" 1
= cos
fractions corresponding to x - a
sin
and x - a"
the preceding,
wr = -
# cos rmoL
/.
a;
r
2
tr
- 2a:
cos
r(m - l)a
where a =
+1
,
cos ra
2?r
*
by u r then by
,

Hence, according as n
1
x-l
r-*i
Theorem.
10.
7/a,
...
j8,
are
is odd, or even,
+r =J(n-
m -l
l(x
n-
equal to
is
1)
303
1..J .(zl)
n
x-l
'
r'
!.
a;
4-1
1--K-V
T
r--i
The following theorem is often useful.

n
w==(a a p ... a n $#, l) =0 awd
roote of
f/te
t;s^(a ,a 1 ,...a n )
is
a symmetric function 0/a,
...
j3,
involving only differences of the roots,
then v satisfies the equation

'
dv
dv
dv
For the substitution x = X + h transforms w =
A l = a l + aî J 2 = a 2 + 2a
where
are
a -A, ]8-
A,
...
A-f a A 2
etc.,
into
and
since the roots of [7
we have
v = (f)(a^
a l9
= (f>(a^ A^
an )
...
... ^[
n ) ................... (B)
If the right-hand side of (B) is expanded in powers of A, every coefficient

must vanish, and by the extension of Taylor's theorem the coefficient of h
is the same as that in
dv
dv
dv
a Qh
2
2
^- + (2a x A -f a Qh ^~ + (3aji + 3a x A + ajh?) ^
)
dv
.'.
ôr
J&x. 1.
dv
. . .
dv
a,Q^~ + 2a l ^~ + 3a 2 ^ +...=0.
â x
ca 3
aa2
biquadratic (a
a lf a 2 a 3 a$x,
,
1)
~0, find in terms of
the coefficients
the value of
This function
where p
of
a,
j8,
q, r
. . .
is
of order 3 and weight
are independent of a
a lt
...
3.
We may
And
therefore
since v
is
assume that
a function of the differences
we have
l
l5
+ 3a 2^
+ 4a 83 ^
4
2
This
is
true for
all
values of a
a 1$ a 2 therefore
,
= 0,
giving
q-~3p,
r-2p;
The value of 3? may be found by giving special values to a,

y, 8. Thus by taking
= 1, y=-l, 8=4, we find that ^=32, which agrees with Ex. 3 of VI, 16.
,
<x=0,
APPLICATIONS OF ROLLE'S THEOREM
304
EXERCISE XXX
1.
Prove
ating
The equation f(x)==x* + 3qx + r=:0 has two equal

this (i) by applying the II.C.F. process to f(x) and
x between /(#)
and f'(x)=0.
The condition that the equation
2.
equal roots
Show
that this
may
Find the values of a

and solve the equation in one
bx 2
and
by
elimin-
may have two
+ 2cx + d~Q.
which ax3 -9x 2 -f I2x -5 =
for
the
5. All
are real.
.
roots
Ii
!_?
[Use Ex. VII,
Show
if
of
roots
has equal roots,
case.
~
The equation xn -qxn m + r=Q has two equal
14.]
that the equation x 3 - Ix + 7
and one between - 3

7. If
(ii)
be obtained by eliminating x from
3.
6.
+ 3bx* + 3cx + d =
if
;
is
ax 2 + 2bx + c=Q
4.
ax*
roots
f'(x)
has two roots between
and 2
- 4.
arid
~
~
the equation x n +p 1 x n l +p 2 x n 2
show that a is a root of
n~2 + n _
n txn-i + n _
+ ... +p n ~0 has
each
three roots,
equal to a,
n ~*
-f ... +Pn -i =0.

p 2X
2
equation x -4a^-hlOx + 7a;-5-0 has one
(
l)*p lX
2)
8. Show that the

negative and two imaginary roots.
1
9.
The equation 3x 4 + Sx3 - 6# 2 - 24x 4- r =

7 13<r<
has four real roots
positive,
one
if
-8,
real roots if - 8<r< 19, and no real root

[The roots of f'(x)=Q are -2, - 1, 1.]
two
if
r> 19.
The equation f(x)=(x - a) 3 + (x - 6) 3 + (x - c) 3 -0

has one real and two imaginary roots.
10.
11.
The equation x 6 -5a# + 4&=:0 has
three real roots or only one, according
as
12. The equation x 5 + 5o
(i) if a>0 ; (ii)
ing cases
:
+b
if
a<0
has one and only one real root in the followand 6 2 -f 108a 5 >0.
13. The equation x 6 + 5ax 2 + b

has one and only one real root in the
following cases
(i) if a, b have the same sign
(ii) if a, b have opposite
5
signs and b(b* + 108a )>0.
[Deduce from Ex. 12 by putting I/a? for a?.]
:
14.
Show
and that
that
if
36 2 <a 2 there are real values of #, y, z which satisfy
a>0
these values are all positive if

and a <46 .
2
[x 9 y, z are the roots of an equation of the form 0*-a8* + b +
2
2 3
this
reduces
to one of the form
+<(6 Ja ) + fc'=0.]
B=<f> + a/3,
2
<
#=0
and
if
FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS OF EQUATIONS

15. If
A2
Aj,,
A 3 are the values of A given by the equation
jc*^ +
Â
prove that these are
all real
order, then
y
&2
z2
^+
Â ^-A~
also, if
6,
'
and A lf A 2 A 3 are
...
a-n-i
x n- 2
ZVÔ
show that
+ "- +_____
for
_i
'
h*~~
|2
|j.
= 2,
3, 4,
...
n.
17. If f(x)~0 is a cubic equation whose roots are

harmonic mean of the roots of /'(a?) ~0, prove that a 2
The sum
19. If s n
a,
the
is
sum
and a
y,
/?,
is
the
/?y.
of the ninth powers of the roots of # 3 -|~3#4 9
of the nth powers of the roots of
that
x-
is
4
-x
zero.
1
-~0,
show
H7r
s 2 tt-i^0,
a,
/?,
...
equation whose
m and n
according as n
is
* 2n -=-4cos
-.
3
are the roots of (a a l9 a 29 ... n ^/, l) w ---0,

are ay-x, py-~x etc., is (a u l9 u 2
,
roots
where ^â^x-â^,
21. If
descending
are the roots of the equation

'vn j______ _________i_
20. If
in
a 2 > A x > 6 2 > A2 > c2 > A3
16. If a, 0, y,
18.
305
U.2 ~~a
x 2 + 2a 1 xy + a 2 y*,
are positive integers
odd
or even,
and
show that the

un $t, l) n ^0,
...
etc.
m^n,
prove that
where
__-to
#cos(2r-f l)wa-cos
_
__ ___
// ~ _ ___
"
r
j
rc*
22. Let k be given
^^
__
cos (2r
(2
\_
by the equation
A
J'^ a-fc
^
6 -
f7
If this equation has a rejx?ated root
^, prove that
kâ-gh/f^b- hf/g - c -fg/h,

provided that none of
another (h), and then
/,
&!
g,
is
zero.
= a and
(a
If one of these (g)
-b)(a- c)
is
zero, so also is
2
.
Under these circumstances, show that

ax 2 + by 2 + C2 2 + 2/yz + 2gzx + 2hxy - k t (x 2 + y* + z 2 )
a perfect square.
[Denoting the cofactors of the elements of J' by A' 9 F', etc., the equations
are qiiadratics in ^, and the roots of any one of them
A' =0, B' 0, C" =
Hence if k~kn then A\ B', C' and consequently
separate those of J' 0.
See Ch. IX, 21, (4).]
F', G', H' are all zero.
is
CHAPTER XIX
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND SERIFS
Continuity of a* and log a
1.
tinuous for
all real
XVII,
(Ch.
2.
Ch.
21.)
Exponential
XV,
(1)
The reader
log a x
and Limits.
where
and
(l--}~*-*e.
xj
m is
a positive integer, then
11
+ ~<lf-;
!+<!
m+
m
1,
therefore
If
z->oo
(l
<(
1 -f
1+
/
/
XV,
5, (3),
in -f-1
"
=fl+
<(l +
xj
then m->oo and by Ch.
1\ m
1
A
-7-I1+-
m + lj
'
m+l
1+1)
(\m
m/ .(l+j^
e;
therefore
Next
let
x=y +
l,
then as
x->x
?/->co
and
v
=(i+ii
.fi+h
V
\
y/
yj
It follows that
if
x->x
or
=
lim(l+^)*
and consequently
9.
(Continued
through real values,
m<x<m +
lim
con-
continuous for positive values of
is
Inequalities
(l+-)%c
\
xJ
let
is
reminded that log x stands for log e
is
5.*
As x->oc
For
a>0, the function a x
If
This follows from Ch. XIII,
values of x.
Hence the inverse function
x.
1 -f x)
(
6.
x.
x.
from
EXPONENTIAL THEOREM
If z
(2)
is
any
real
number,
z \x
= ez
lim (14--)
X/
aôo \
This
is
obviously true
or -
oo
if
= 0.
*Aew
a*_i
hm
is
=
obviously true jf a
Now by
Ch. XVII,
1/2;,
then as
a^l,
If
ax = l+y, then as x->0,
let
5, (2),
1
lim log a
a;
= loga.
------
x-*Q
This
let
In either case, by the preceding,
y/
(3)// a>0,
zÔ,
If
according as z.50.
307
(1
+ y)* - log a {lim
y~>o
(1
+ y) y } - loga e = r
a*
lim
ic->0
Aoga
i/->o
therefore
= log a.
Here x may tend to zero through positive or negative values, so that

x
1 - a~
ax 1
and
x
x
--
each of the functions
tends to log a as a limit as #->0.
been shown in Ch. XIV, 9, that the first of these functions

increases and the second decreases as x increases from zero. Hence
It has
.,
if
x>0,
then
l-o-*
---
The Exponential Theorem.
3.
<
<log
For
a*-l
all real
values of x,
xn
'
Proof.
The
series (A) is
function of x which
x, n
we
Convergent for all values of x,
shall denote
2
by E(x).
If
- --
is
where
sum
is
its
a positive integer,
,
n(n~l)/x\ w(n-l)(n-2)/a\
~
=l+n.~
+
+
(1+-)
f-)
\
3
n --Vo2 ^(-)
\n/
\n/
n/
/-
and
+...
ton + 1 terms
IRRATIONALITY OF
308
Now
jo r
<l, and
since
E(x)
are positive
1/n, 2/n, ...(n-l)/n
than unity, for the values
- 1)
2, 3, ..., (n
of r
we
numbers
have, by Ch.
less
XIV,
1,
n
.;
Let
be the
sn
sum
0<l-;p r <r(r + l)/2n.
n terms
to
<voj
^1(2 + ^"
^(x!)
is finite
let
|
x =^x 1
\
2.3
Now
and
of (A),
3 -4
>-D
,.
for all values of
then
i.
TT a!l+ - +
+
,
Xl
g
Xl
^.\
j
x ly therefore
x\
Iim^ n4 1 = lim( 1-f
n '00^
>QO
71
but
W-ÔO
This result
is
called the Exponential Theorem.
In particular, when x =
6
we have
11
+
+-+
- ii
1+1+
[2
from which
Ex.
it
can be shown that
|3
e
= 2-7182818284
...
$A#tt> JAaJ e i$ irrational.
1.
Suppose that e=pjq
where p and q are integers
then
where
?
If the equality (A) holds,
account of
4. //
(B).
a>0
Hence
and x
we should have
is
integer,
which
is
impossible on
cannot be a rational number.
is
any
real
a* = e*
that
R y=an
+2
number.
lo 8
= jE(zloga),
........................... (A)
to say
2
3
)
.................. (B)
GRAPH OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
An
6.
When a>0 and x
Irrational Index.
309
is irrational,
we take
ax
~E(x log a) as defining the meaning of a*.

This agrees with what has been said in Ch.SXIII, 9, for it will be shown
later that the sum of the series denoted by E(x) is a continuous function.
the equation
6.
(1)
Derivatives of a, logx and xf.

Suppose that a>0, then by Art. 2, (3),
x
-j-a
r
lim
ah -l
lim a x
ax
In particular,
NOTE.
= a x log a.
x
.
Tx
be observed that,
It should
a<0, ax has not been
if
defined
for all real values of x.
y = logx, then
(2) If
^
therefore
and
dx
-j~
= ev = x
-,-
-=-
is,
dx
=log
G x
has been shown that when n
(3) It
prove that this
is
true for
_d
NOTE.
Since
is
y log a,
all real
d
y,n
dx
it
en log a;
_n
__
if
rational,
en log a?
instance,
the curve
(1) that, for
TN
TN
i.e.
y=ax
until it
at B.
the gradient
OX
the subtangent is constant.
l,
A,/'
mark one of the rulings as the axis of y. On this

take OA, equal to, say, 4 intervals, as the unit;
and on OX, to the left of O, lake Oa OA. Draw
OY
To
on the graph meets
sheet of ruled exercise paper and draw a line perpendicular to the ruling as the axis of x ; and
Aa
--nx n
the tangent at a point
PN is the
xn = nxn ~' 1
= l/log a
ordinate of P, then
This fact gives a rapid construction for the graph of
y=ax , with considerable accuracy.
= ex where
For
for
take a
and
in T,
ax
we proceed thus
_n
_ xn
dx
follows that,
is
values of n,
has -been shown in
it
ay
fy = 1
xi. *
-; that
dx x
dyjdx
x = ev
meets the first ruling to the left of

Without' removing the pencil-point
da
O
FIG. 60.
B9 rotate the ruler until it passes through 6,

the foot of the ruling next to the left of or, and draw bB until it meets the ruling
next to the left of A ; and so on. Find .points on the curve to the right of Y in
fr6m
the same way, and replace the broken line by a

If,
in Fig. 60,
Also,
if
'
fair curve.'
OX and OY are interchanged,
the paper
is
turned through 90 in
its
the curve
is
then the graph
own plane, and then turned
over, the curve as seen through the back of the paper

y = log x, with the axes in the usual position.
is
the graph of
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC LIMITS
310
7.
(1)
For
For
all real
let
f(x)
so that /' (x)
from
(2)
values of x other than zero
= ^-1 -x,
(3)
then
according as x 5:
//
- 1 and ^0,
x>
//
t/
For
x>0,
then
Hence, if x increases or decreases

from zero, and is therefore positive.
0.
x>log
ix2/(l + x)<x-log
-l<x<0, then
let f(x) = x - log
-|x
(1
<x-log
i
-*
if
Hence
0(#)
+x)<s
/(l
+ &).
T2
increases
according as x
= a;~log(l + x)-%-
from -1, and since /(0) = 0,
it
0.
x2
X
1 ~r
then
and
increases as x increases from -1,
<f>(x)
I+x
Hence f(x) decreases as x
Again,
(1
+ x)<-|x2
(1
- |-x 2 then
+ x)
f'(r\
Ji vv**'/'
follows that f(x)
+ x).
(1
by taking logarithms.
(1)
then
e*>l +x.
and /'(z) = e*-l,
/(0)
zero, in either case f(x) increases
This follows from
and
and Limits (continued).
Inequalities
since <(0)
= 0,
it
0.
according as x
<f>(x)
This proves all the inequalities in question.
follows that
(4)
//
x>
greater of the
"2
-'1
^0
and
numbers
and
and
I,
1 -f x,
h are respectively the smaller and the

then
x2
This
(5)
is
merely another
For any
x2
way
of stating the inequalities in (3).
positive value of n*
(i)
lim
a;->oo
(i)
For
all
positive values of
logx
_2__
xn
Choose
m so
that
0<w<w,
x
(ii)
<-
n - w ->ao
we have by Art.
1
_1n x__m -l__ ^ ______
x
mxn ~ m
m
and
(log x)/x
2, (3),
~>0.
and
= ~ (log y)/yn ->0.

log x
lim (x n logx)
x >o
J/->QO
(ii)
then a^ x~>cx)
Put x = l/y, then as x~>0,

xw
-~- =0,
X
= 0.
EULER'S CONSTANT
(6)
For
This
is
all values
of
lim x
r,
obvious when r<0.
/e
= 0.
r>0,
x
let e
If
311
= y,
then, putting -
=n,
'
e*
Now
lence
8.
>e
as
it
x-ôo, y->oo;
and, by
follows that x r /e x -+0.
The Manner
which e and log x tend
any positive number.

First suppose that #-ôo
Now, by
n
;
in
Art. 7,
however great n
xn
(6),
w = ->0, (logy)/yw ->0.
since
(5),
may
then
e x ->oo
Let n
to Infinity.
and logx->oo.
/e -+Q, therefore e* tends
to infinity
faster than
be.
n
Again, by Art. 7, (5), (log x)/x ~>0, therefore Zo<7# tends
n
nore slowly than x
no matter how small n may be.
to infinity
n
If #->0, then -logx->ao., and
by Art. 7, (5), (log x)/x~ ->0; hence
n
log x tends to oo more slowly than l/x , no matter how small n may be.
9.
// M n = l+-g- + J
Theorem.
...H----
logn, then as n->oo
w n->y
Tt'
a fixed number lying between
is
Art. 7, (2),
By
Proof.
n-l
1\
/i
log
1+-
w/
log f
log(n-f
,
,
that
n-
<1
1,
n - 2,
...
2, in
7, (2),
n+1
is,
log
<-w
<log
i
succession for n, we. have
and by addition,
Art.
& \
Substituting
Also
n _l
Again, by
1\
/,
< n <-log& (1-n/
that w n decreases as n increases.
1.
and
it
l)<l+!-h! + ...-f-<l + logn
follows that
;
i.e.,
log (w
But log(w + l)-logw>0, hence 0<w n <l and, from above, u n

Thus u n is a decreasing function which is always >0. Consequently
;
V>y
NOTE.
/
where y
is
a fixed
The number y
0-577215
....
It
is
is
number >0; and,

known
as
since
Euler's Constant.
w w <l, y<l.
It
can be shown tnat
often convenient to state the theorem as follows

,
where
->0 as n-ôo
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION
312
10. Series for log 2.
Let
i_
l_-i
(-n-i!
,,11
.,
then
1 N
= (y + log 2n +
Therefore
2B )
(y + log
the
z2
- log 2 + e2n - en
~s2n --0, hence
s 2n+1 ->log 2.
l+z +
series
r-
+-- +
jE
Proof.
It has
fv hen
T
...
is
is
sufficiently
is
z.
real,
first of
these equalities
and exactly the same proof holds when
z is
complex.
II
+- = 1 +- -M - =p(cos
n
n
n
For
sum
z n
3T
real
z,
Its
convergent.
been shown in Art. 3 that the
Let
values of
x
(z)=lim (1+-) =e (cosy + 1 siny).
z is real,
Z
all
denoted by E(z), or by exp
// z = x + ly where x and y are
Theorem.
For
and
called the Exponential Function,
(1)
z3
holds
w+
The Exponential Function.
or complex,
(2)
1
-+... to oo.
log2 = l-| + |-... + (-l)"- 71
Thus,
11.
to r terms of the series,

to oo
/I
Also s 2n+1
2n --log2.
sum
be the
sr
<f>
sin
<f>),
where
p>0 and ~7r<^<7r.
cr
values
large
of
n,
1+->0;
n
P>0,
hence, since
and />cos< = l+-, we have cos ^>0, and -\-n

n
^ = y/(n +
Also tan
x \2
<- 0, and ^/tan ^ -> 1

=
lim {ny/(n + x)} == y.
<^)
)-> 0, therefore
lim 7^^ = lim

y2
(n tan
x \2
n/ +î=(l+-)
nz \
( 1+-)
n/
w
therefore p
r
/
and,
lim see"
since
we have
lim p n = e*
and
- lim
sin
+ tan 2
hence, JE(z)
jE (z)
(3) It follows
nor cos y +
<f>
\n
sec 2 <;
T
<f>)*
n = lim
x
= (l-f-j
+^
sec"^;
n/
w2\in
hence
JL
2n
(^
=1
>
= lim p n (cos n<f> + i sin n^)
= e?(cos y -ft sin y).
that E(z) cannot vanish for any value of

y can vanish.
z,
for neither e*
AND COSINE SERIES
SINE
313
The function E(z) is periodic, and its period is 2i7r.

For if k is any integer, positive or negative, the values
(4)
siny are unaltered by adding 2&7r to y. Therefore E(z)

<
adding 2ik7r to z, thus E(z + 2 ikn)Ê (z).
is
and
of cos y
unaltered by
A Complex
Index. When z is real, e z is a multiple-valued

The real positive value of e z is
function, except when z is an integer.
called its principal value, and it has been shown that
12.
E(z)= the
z
principal value of e
We take this equation as defining the principal value ofe when z is complex.
z
This implies that for imaginary (as for real) values of

garded as a multiple-valued function.
For
the present,
Thus
e
if
z
z=x 4
we
and %' = x' 4-
iy,
= E(z) = ex
e
thus,
z
.
take e z as denoting
(cosy-f
iy
e z is to
be
re-
principal value defined by E(z).

we write
its
and
sin y),
z,
ez
'
= ex
'
(cos y'
tsint/')
= ex e x (cos y + i sin y) (cos y' + i sin y)

= ex + x> {cos (y + y') + i sin (y 4- y')} = e* +2
z'
'
'.
Hence
the
Again,
if
same index laws hold for imaginary as for real indices.

a is real and positive and z is real, a z = ezlo ^ a = E(z log
In agreement with
E(z log
this, if
a) and, at present,
we
a>0, we
take a
a).
a z as
define the principal value of
as representing this value.
and Cosine. For all real values of x and y, it

x
E(x + ty) = e (cos y + i sin y). When x = 0, this gives
13. Series for Sine

has been shown that
cos y
Equating
real
+i
sin
and imaginary
14.
mean
yE(iy)
parts,
we have,
t/
for all real values of
-*y
3
?/
Exponential Values of Sine and Cosine.
Using
exactly the same as E(z)> by the preceding,

cos y
therefore
+i
sin
cos
y = E(iy)
j/
(c
= &u
ty 4- e"~ l
*0,
cos ?/-
sin ?/=
sin
y~E( - iy)~e~~ iy
(^ rJL~^li
""*"JWK*"
e*
to
SUMMATION BY EXPONENTIAL THEOREM
314
which can be summed
15. Series
by the
Exponential
Theorem.
(1)
The
Zu n
series
xn
where u n
is
a polynomial in
n.
'-
We
can find a
un = a
av
-f
a 1n
...
ar
independent of n, so that
+ a 2n(n -l)-f
...
+a r n(n~ 1)
...
(n-r-f
1),
and then
s^n
/v>tt
spf*
n=rr
= (a + a^x + a2x 2 4Ex.
1.
Here
2
in
-f
the value of
(n*
n-r
a rx r ) e?.
5)/ n.
i
6=n(n-l)(n-2)-f 3n(n- l)+n-f5;
TAe
n
5en*65 2/M n x /(w
n and
a, 6,...
+ a)(nH-6)...(rn-A;)
A are unequal positive
Series of this kind can be

Ex.
-f
-f
hence,
putting
5,
a8 = l, and * = 1 in the result above, we have
= 3,
(2)
Find
. . .
T**
2..
Find
summed
|n w;Aere
t/
n is
a polynomial
integers.
as in the following example.
the value of
Denote the sum by
$, then
Now
where
a, 6, c,
d=l.
Thus
rf
can be found by division, their values being
XT
Now
=->-'-*)>
_
-"' 6
a=
-5, 6 = 5,
c=
-2,
LOGARITHMIC THEOREM
315
EXERCISE XXXI
X
Show
1.
lim fl -
that
Find the sum to
= 1.
Exx. 2-9
infinity of the series in
3579
0,234
3579
+
f
4
f
ji" [6 "L?"
1*1
23
1
Prove that
33
1+2
""
+ '-
'
s
" 4 + ""
23
+2+3
ni~
38
4"
a;
48
4""
" "
""^"
2**
3a:
-=t(4S-16e).
11.
~ii"
12.
cos
6 ox
13. If
= tan" 1 -
where
16.
-f
^^ + ...4- wa:n + ...
//
Suppose
then
(i)
yn = log
rz^
- !<#<!,
+ x) - s n
^ 0,
0<x<l.
that
dx
n terms of
and
1-hx*
" "
l
s n~>log (1
is
even or odd.
and s^^
1
/( w f i)"^
-
+x)
this case of the theorem.
in
to
The case
sum
x = 0,
when
1+a;
a;
sn
which proves
be the
sn
__
1 -f
according as
therefore
Let
yn =
then
Hence log(l-fx) lies between

n n
But
n+l-n = (~l) ^
Therefore y n
Theorem.
series,
(ii)
then
Proo/.
the
cosfea;=w
as
(Of.
for every n.
as W-^QO,
n->oo
Ex.
XXIX,
which x = 1 has been dealt with in Art.
8.)
10.
B.C.A.
LOGARITHMIC SERIES
316
When x<0, changing
(iii)
the sign of
has to be shown that
x, it
3
Xn
X
~ X
+
-x) = x + + -+...+
2
0<x<l,
if
Let y n = -log
therefore y n
>0
-log
(1
-x)-s n9 where
(1
yn =
then
series;
then
sn
x = 0,
when
and
~r
n
_ x ~
=
(i
then
'
~5
xn
i-x
~dx
-x
)_
~
'
(T7*)
r^Ti
0<y w < n H- 1
Logarithmic Series.
î
Changing the sign
and, since
0<x<l,
s n~>-log (1
+# =
log (1
+ x) - log
- x),
(1
x3
./
1+x = n-f
--1
1-x
,,
so that x
=^
4-
(A)
follows that
it
x5
5
-;
/nv
......................... (C)
7,
we nave
2n-fl
7^
.....
//
0<x<l
o:
and sn ~x+ o
a;
4-
If
the,
Rn
value of log
"
is
is less
1
~~
than
...(D)
- +... to
1-fa;
2s n as
-x),
have
/-tv~,i**
71 - 1
3
.
of x,
1+x
Writing
&
-...+ (-I)
("r-lo^
-l<x<l, we
If
log
--
'
thus y n->0 and
since
__
1x =
x n+1
-------
the last expression ->0 as n->oc

which proves the theorem in this case.
and
this
x" +1
17.
n terms of
when x = 0, and
2n
x n+1
Hence
z n <0.
therefore
to
for every n.
n+i
x n+
ofe n
=^
cfx
Zn^yn-"*
Let
sum
the
is
....
2ii\>
terms,
---
+1
the remainder after n terms of the series,
show
that the err.or in taking
CALCULATION OF LOGARITHMS
18. Series
317
which can be summed by the Logarithmic
Series.
Ex.
1.
Ex.2.
The
If k
If
is
a positive integer and x < 1, then

n
xk
f
x2
1
^n=oo' x
\
\x\<l,
series is
find the value of
convergent when \x\
< 1.
*-*
~~~
Let
be the sum, then since

3
*"
wehave
TAe method of Ex. 2 can

term
sum any
6e applied to
series of
which the general
is
where
is
a polynomial in n and
a, 6,
19. Calculation of Napierian
k are unequal positive integers.
...
Logarithms.
The number
e is
chosen as the base of the system of logarithms used in theoretical work.

Such logarithms are called Napierian after Napier, the inventor of loga}
rithms.
In theoretical work, log^V means log e
reckoning, log^ means log ]0 jV.

The method of applying the equations
Napierian logarithms
Ex.
T
Let
1.
N;
just as, in practical
of Art. 17 to the calculation of
exhibited in the following example.
is
Calculate Iog e 2 to seven places of decimals.
i+*
.-.=-;
=2;
rt
.-.log, 2
-2
Carrying the reckoning to nine places, we have

333 333
1/3 =0-333
1/3
1/3
8
5
1/3=0-333
3 8 ) =0-012
333
345
679
3 5 ) =0-000
823
045
=0-000
065
321
=0-000
3 11 ) =0-000
005
645
000
513
=0-037
037
037
l/(3
=0-004
115
226
l/(5
=0-000
457
247
I/ (7
=0-000
050
805
I/ (9
=0-000
18
1/3 =0-000
005
645
1/(11
000
627
I/ (13
000
070
1/3
1/3
1/3
11
15
1/3
=0-000
/.
log e 2
3')
3')
3 13 ) =0-000
1/(15.3
15
)
333
000
048
=0-000
OOP
005
=0-346
573
589
0-693
147
178
=0-693147178 nearly.
BORDA'S METHOD
318
The
(i)
this
error in the value obtained for log e 2
We
have taken 2S 8
account
is less
for log e 2.
JL
The
Ex.
the error on
1 of Art. 17,
than
17
(ii)
By
due to two causes
is
>000 000 002.
2SQ
error in the calculated value of
is
numerically
2x8x0-000 000 000 5 = 0-000 000
than
less
008.
Adding the results of (i) and (ii), we see that 0-693 147 178 is an approximate value of log,, 2 with an error numerically less than 0-000 000 01.
V. 0-693 147 168<log e 2<0-693 147 188.
Hence, to seven figures, log e 2 = 0-6931472.
Having found log e 2, the Napierian logarithms of the natural numbers
can be found in succession by using formula of (D) Art. 17.

The logarithms of successive prime numbers may be calculated by the
following method, due to Borda, in which the series employed converge
very rapidly.
Using the identities
x3 -3x + 2 = (x-l) 2 (x-f2)

it will
and
z3
-3z-2
be seen that
(x
+ l) 2 (z - 2)
"
x3 - 3x - 2
~
1
- 2/(z3 - 3z)
-f ...
Putting z = 5,
6, 7, 8,
log
-|
it will
+
-
+ log 5
log 7
Hence
it
log 3
+i
log 5
=0-0181838220
...
=0-0062112599
...
= 0-0040983836
....
= 0-0101013536
log 7
-2 log 2 + 2 log 3 -i log 5

~I
be found that
2-f log 3
log 2
'
log 7
can be shown that
= 0-693147 180
= 1-609437912
log 5
log 2
The logarithms
= 1-098612288
7 = 1-945910149
...
log 3
...
log
of successive primes 11, 13, etc., can

etc., in the formula.
....
now be obtained by
putting z + 2 = ll, 13,
The method
of the
example which
follows, in
which logarithms to a base
10 are calculated without the use of the logarithmic

interest, being one of the methods given by Briggs.
series, is of historical
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
Ex. 2. Obtain
5 decimal places.
319
by the use of square-roots only,
the logarithm of 7 to the base 10,
to
In the reckoning below, when a square-root has been obtained which is greater than
the square-root of the product of it and the last square-root obtained that was less
than 7 is found next and vice versa. Thus we have
7,
= log ,4 =0-5,
log */T6I=log 5-623413 ... = log J5=:0-75,
=0-875,
Jog ^105 = log 7498942 ... = log
log >/]&;= log 6-493816 ... -log D = 0-8 125,
^0-84375,
log s/'OD^log 6-978305 ... = log
=
7-233941
...
^
0-859375,
log */(7JE=log
=log
log
and so on
until
we
VT6-log 3-162277
arrive at
= 0-845100
= 0-845096
log 7-000032
log 6-399968
thus, Iog 10
...
7=0-84510 to
five places,
and probably
Common
20. Calculation of
...
is
equal to 0-845098 to six places.
We
Logarithms.
have
logjo.V-log.tf/log.10.
The expression
of logarithms and
is
l/(log e 10)
is
modulus of the
called the
denoted by /*.
It
common system
can be shown that, to
fifteen places
of decimals,
/*
Thus Iog 10 tf =/*log
21
tf
0434294481903251.
where
tf,
has the above value.
ju,
The Hyperbolic Functions.
hyperbolic cosine, sine and tangent

and tanh x, are defined by
The functions known as the

and denoted by coshx, sinhx
(1)
of x,
--*
,
The
reciprocals
secant, cosecant
(2)
x
.
=
.
cosh x
cosech
WQViVAU.
x = -r-i
*/
-7-
ax
sinh x
T- cosh x = sinh x,
and we write
of x,
Hence the following equations

cosh 2 x - sinh 2 x == 1
ax
cosh x, sinh x, tanh x are called the hyperbolic
of
and cotangent
sech x =-
*~
A
tannx
sinh x
coth
VVVJLX
x
rf/
--
tanh x
- tanh 2 x = sech 2 x,
cosh
x,
-7-
ax
tanh x = sech 2 x.
ADDITION FORMULAE
320
cosh ( - x) = cosh x, sinh ( - x) = - sinh x, tanh ( - x) = - tanh x,

so that cosh x is an even function, and sinh x, tanh x are odd functions
of x. Graphs of these functions are shown below
rough sketches of the
Also,
two can be constructed quickly from the curves y = ex yê~ x

(see p. 309), by observing that, in Fig. 61, C is the middle point of AB,
and ED = BC. The ordinate of y = tanh x is equal to the ratio ED/EC
first
this
can be found numerically or by a geometrical construction.
61.
(3)
We
Addition Formulae.
2 cosh x cosh y
have
= \(ex + e~ x
-f-
(e
+ e~ y
= cosh (x -h y) -f cosh (x-y).

Similarly,
= cosh (x + y) - cosh (x-y),

2 sinh x cosh y = sinh (x + y) + sinh (x - ^
2 cosh x sinh y = sinh (x + y) - sinh (x
2 sinh x sinh y
Therefore
(xy) = cosh x cosh y

sinh (x y) = sinh x cosh y
cosh
sinh x sinh y,
cosh x sinh
y,
and consequently
A
tanh
(x
v
dby)
y/
=^
tanhxtanht/
T
r^-
ltanhxtanhy
where in each equation the upper or lower sign
is
to be taken throughout.
INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

(4)
321
Using the exponential values of sin x and cos x (Art.
14),
we have
cos x =
x=
sin
= ~ sinh
tan x=
tanh
ix,
ix,
cosh x = cos
and
tx,
sinh x = i sin *x, tanh x
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions. Let

x
e -x _
and e2x - 2e*z/ -f 1
e
22.
^ = ?/v/(2/
therefore
Thus
if
there are
#>1,
i/
==--
2^
_j_
and
-l)
two
tan
= coshz,
positive
x~log{y,J(y
-l)}.
real values of x, equal in
which correspond to any given value

value is denoted by cosh" 1 y, so that
cosh" 1 y = log {y + J (y2 ~
Next,
let
?/
values of #,
= sinhx,
1)}
magnitude and
of y.
-2e /-l=0, and since

we have eF~y + ,J(y 2 + l), so that # = log
then
2a;
then
0,
of opposite signs,
The
ix.
a?
ex
{y
>0
for real
+ J(y2 + 1)},
and we write
sinh- 1 y = log {y
*
Again,
it
e2
then
=-
= tanhx
~
+ Jy2 + 1}.
e^-e-*
=
and
Hence we write
,,
Thus cosh" 1
is
a single- valued and continuous function of y (see
sinh"" 1 y is a single-valued and conCh. XVII, 21) for all values of j/>l
tanh"" 1 y is a single-valued
tinuous function of y for all values of y
and continuous function of y over the range -l<y<l.
;
EXERCISE XXXII
The notation of Art. 9
1.
Show
2.
Prove
that
that
is
used in Exx. 2 and
-~H--- -+
1 -f
t+
---
+ ...
-J-^71
-f
. . .
3.
-f ur-
2n
~"=log
1
-> log 2 as
n->oo.
+ Jy + J
n+
log
2n
n,
so
that
LOGARITHMIC SERIES
322
1-J-fJ-J-f... be deranged as follows. Write down the

by the first q negative terms, then the next p
positive terms followed by the next q negative terms, and so on.
Prove that the series so deranged is convergent, and that its sum is
3.
first
Let the
series
positive terms followed
log 2
[Let ar be the sum of the
first r
+ | log plq.
groups of
positive followed
by q negative
terms, then
1
I/
= (log 2 + Jy + \
- i + log qr + c ) -+ log 2 + \ log plq.

log pr + 2pr
(y
ar
pr )
Also, if sn is the sum to n terms of the deranged series, r can be found so that
Thus ar -sn is the sum of a
all these terms are contained in oy, but not in a r i.
Also r->-oo as w->oo, and
finite number of terms each of which ->0.
consequently sn -> log 2 4- i log p/q.]
4.
Use the
(i) if
if
(ii)
[For
(ii)
series for log
1 -f x)
to
show that
0<#-log(l + x)<\x*
0<#-log(l +x)<\x*l(l + x).
x= -y, then 0<t/<l and
0<x<I,
-l<x<0,
then
let
then
...),
5.
etc.]
(i)Showthat
(ii)
Hence
calculate Iog 10 7 to five places of decimals, given that
Iog 10 2 =0-301030,
6.
(i)
(ii)
7.
(i)
(ii)
Showthat
lo glo
1-1=2,1
|l
+i
g=2 M {^ +
that log,
=0-434294.
i+i
21-.+ ...}
11 to five places of decimals.
Given ^=0-434294, find Iog 10
Show
p,
1
.
^.
^+
...}
Given that Iog 10 2 =0-301030, Iog 10 3=0-477121,
^=0-434294, find
log lo 13 to five places of decimals.

8.
(i)
(ii)
x + z 2 ) = log e ( 1 - x9 ) - log e ( 1 - x).

x
x2 ) to six terms, and show that the coefficient of
+
Expand log c (l-f
xn in the expansion is -2/n or Ijn according as n is or is not a
Show
that log e
1 -f
multiple of 3.
9.
Find the
Sum
coefficients of x*
m and
x* m+ l in the expansion of
to infinity the series in Exx. 10-14.

1
'
IT2
37*
6~6
APPROXIMATE FORMULAE
15.
323
In the expansion of (I +bx + cx*) log e (1 -fa;),

(i) Find the coefficients of x* and a*, and determine the values of b
and c so that each of these coefficients may vanish,
Giving to 6 and c the values so determined, expand the given
expression as far as the term containing x*.
(ii)
(iii)
Hence
an expression of the form
find
r-
the best possible approximate values of log e

16.
(6
(
6 J
.
---
Denoting the
(ii)
--
by u v
series in brackets
un
(in- 1)
will give
+ x) when x is small.
(1
- (6x + 3x*)
+ 6x + x*) log e 1 -f x)
1.2
2.3
3.4 t2 x
xH
x
5.6. 7
[3.4.5 4.5.6
Prove that
(i)
which
... V
w a -fw 3 -
/'
...
prove that
*n-i (n-l)( + 4)
If 0<a?<, show that un <u n _ l
O
Q'*'2
A<|
Hence show that if 0<x<~, then - is an approximate value
b -f bx -f x*
3
5
of loge (1 +x), with an error in defect less than x / 180.
.
(iii)
-i
(iv)
17.
Use Ex. 16
759
(iv) to
with an error in defect
show that Q0ÂO
less
than 5/10
11
is
an approximate value of log e
Hence
find Iog 10 1-024
and
to ten places of decimals.

18. If
a-b=h, where h is
a-6/1 l\h
a-b\
small,
h2
show that
h
2/a-6\ 3 _^
h*
" +
A8
(iii)*
Hence show
that, if
+ "'"
is^nearly equal to 6,
a-bfl
the error being approximately equal to (a -6) 3 /6a 3
Sum
in
the series in Exx. 19,

v"*
83*
00
~*~*
21. If 8n is the
on
~n
sum
to
n terms of the
1
1. 2.
20':
3*5.
6. 7
v WamQO
n + *-J
xn
series
9. 10. 11
13.14.15
'
prove that
a
8^=
Hence show that the sum to
1
i
..,
infinity of the series is
* This is
Napier's formula.
J log
2.
1-024,
Iog 10 2, each
LOGARITHMIC SERIES
324
22. If sn
is
the
sum
to
n terms of the
series
2. 3.
45. 6. 78. 9. 10
(3w l)3n(3n +
1)
111^3+".+3^T- L
2^^+^
prove that
Hence show that the sum to
infinity of the series
is
(log
3-1).
23. Prove that
+++
24.
By expanding
(i ,
log(l-f-o;-fa;
as
,..,
is
of the form 3r or
n a (?i 2 -l 2 ;)
w2
1-^+-^
1^
Li
n(n +
g)
[3
cording as n
,...,
in various
i- +
^Ll)-(-f)(|J8
(u)
ways show that
+ ... =( -i r
.-ii
is
is
+1
1XM
=(-!)"
or
of the form 3r or
the form
6r,
6rl, 6r2,
[These are obtained from the identities
-, -
or
71
according as n
71
6r~3.
:
2
-^)-21og(l -x ) + log(l -s)=log
identities
^-^
to show that
This formula
is
ac-
3rl.
(ffi
Use the
lmn - 1
(-|)
or
7Z-
25.
...
3rl.
of the form 3r or
-=0,
log(l
according
(n-
l)
according as
(iv)
(-ir-
l_z
2n
(ii)and
2 or
3rL
n 2 (n 2 -l 2 )(n 2 -2 2 );
i
-=
"- to
72
72
4
2/
+ ""
"
useful in finding the logarithms of large primes.
is
of
CHAPTER XX
CONVERGENCE
(2)
SERIES OF POSITIVE TERMS (Continued)
Cauchy's Condensation Test.
1.
and a
creasing function of n,
n
and 2a n
f(a
Group the terms
is
any
// f(n)
positive integer
is
>1,
a (positive*) dethen the two series,
are both convergent or both divergent.
),
of Zf(ri) as follows
{/(I)
sum
v n denotes the
if
where,
v n =f(<*
The number
n -1
of the
+ 1) +f(a n ~ l + 2) + ... +/(a).
of these terms
function,
n
(a
/.
- aw ~ 1
terms of the nth group,
is
)/(a
~
a n - a n l and since f(n)
,
< vn < (an - an ~ )f(an l
-(a-lJaYKXvn^^- 1 )^" /^'
a nf(a n )
verges (Ch.
XVI,
1
)-
therefore
2.
5).
vn
and therefore Sf(n) conconvergent, so also is
a nf(a n ) is divergent, so also is vn and therefore
i
If
But a
An important
p>l
gent if
terms must converge or diverge,

n
n are both
and
a
f(a )
convergent or both divergent.
f(n)
2f(n) diverges.
.
is
a decreasing
Now, if
is
and
series of positive
Test Series.
The
2r
series
is conver-
divergent if
positive integer, this series is convergent or divergent according as the series Zv n is convergent or divergent, where
If
is
any
a n (log an )*
~
(log
ay n p
"
Since (loga) p is constant, the given series is convergent or divergent according

as 21/n p is convergent or divergent, that is according as p>l or
*
In any case, the terms of the decreasing function /(n) are ultimately of the same sign (Exercise
A-A.V,
1}.
RAABE'S TEST
326
Kummer's
3.
and
terms
Test.
that
suppose
Vn = dnUn/Un+i-dn+l ;
for
vn >k>0,
n^m,
if v n
(ii)
Proof,
condition,
...
that
so that after
a certain
stage,
say
is convergent ;
n-1
the
s r is
if
sum
. . .
in succession for
+ u n < 7 (dm um - dn u n ) < 7 dm um
in the given
Su n
is
a fixed
convergent (Ch. XVI,

-
dn
Since
to r terms of
m + dm u m
(ii)
suppose
is divergent.
m + 1,
Putting w,
found
Zu n
the series
um+l + ww + 2 +
therefore
also
divergent;
we have
whence
Thus
be
<0 for n^m, Zu n
(i)
is
2l/dn
be two series of positive
then
number k can
if a fixed
(i)
Su n and 21/dn
Let
dn4 1 <0
.
number
7).
n^m, we
for
have
"n+i
d
therefore
u n >dmum
divergent, therefore
Now
-5-.
an
2u n
is
d mw m
is
a fixed number and
l/dn
is
divergent.
NOTE. If t>n ->-0 we cannot find k so that t;n >&>0 for n^m, and the test fails.
In part (i) of the test, S\jdn need not diverge in fact, dn may be any positive
function of n.
;
Raabe's Test.
4.
(i)
Let
Zun
be a series of positive terms, then
if after a certain stage, say for
where
(ii)
"k
If
is
n(
Xu n+l
1)<1,
'
then
Zu n
Zu n
is convergent.
is divergent.
This iollows at once from Kummer's test by taking d n = n, giving
GAUSS'S TEST
In
This test
û
n+l
may
TT
*,
un+l -~-^
(2-l)
D'Alembert's
fails
test, 27wn
with Raabe's
-'
.-.
;
'
2un
NOTE.
From
5.
that
is
*
-f
4 o
hm
n 2wn+1 x92
<
.3 x 5
5
^2
=-
1 and diverges
converges if x
we
have
however,
|
-r
4 o
if
|
x >1.
If
|
= 1,
test,
-n
convergent.
This series
is
the expansion of
he deduced the series for sin
it,
fails.
--
x+-
..
-~
*a
6n 2
therefore
when l> 1 and
converges
,.
-T5L
Here
By
Zu n
then
Z,
the convergence or divergence of
1.
the test
.,,-,..,
Consider
Ex.
'J
but if Z = l, the test fails.

be tried when D'Alembert's test
when l<l
diverges
n(
particular, if Urn
327
sin" 1 x,
and was discovered by Newton.
x.
Gauss's Test. Let Zu n be a series of positive terms and suppose

u n/u n+l can be expressed in the form
^n-fi
where
and
p>l
limit as n-><x>
\< a fixed number k or
bn
then
Zu n
First suppose that
Proof.
U
n( n
\u n+l
n ,,
|
bn
<k
and diverges
If
a=
in Art. 3
1,
bn
j=a+ n p^ --*r
,
a>l
and
diverges if
><
as
and p>l. Therefore, by Raabe's

if
a finite
then
a^l,
l\
i
for
converges if
(in particular) b n tends to
test,
Su n
converges
if
a>l
a<l.
Raabe's test
fails
Taking dn = n log n
and we apply Kummer's.
we have
-
(n
+ l)
log (n
log
n-
(n
+ 1)
^n+l
=n( 1
Now
and
(n-f-l)log
i^.6n->0,
Therefore v n->
divergent.
4-
for
+ -j J
= (w-f l)logf 1
jp>l (Ch. XIX,
+ 1)
log (n
+1
r)->-l
and, after a certain stage,
as
and
7, (5)),
t>
n <0.
Hence
,^
27w n is
BINOMIAL SERIES
328
In
cases
many
u n/u n+l can be expanded
and we have the following
rule
in a series of
b
u n _ Î j__a j___
i -r
-r
o ~r
n n2
U
r*
Tf
.,_
//
J
valws of
the series being convergent for sufficiently large
convergent if
For
a>l and
sum
Zu n
n, then
is
a^l.
divergent if
in this case b n is the
powers of 1/n,
of a convergent series.
the most generally useful test for series of positive terms, and in
cases where it applies, it is better to use it at once instead of beginning
This
is
with D'Alembert's and Raabe's

Ex.
_.
By
P
-
Discuss the convergence or divergence of
1.
tests.
division
we can show Athatx
where
bn
=^1
-r
\2
32.52
42 6 2
'
"
'
n
n->oo.
aa
)/(l 4-^)
is
+n
v- - i
32
l%
+ W~T* * 02
I/, + -i\ //,
Therefore by Gauss's test the series
Raabe both
=[
Here the
divergent.
tests of
D'Alembert and
fail.
CONTINUED FROM CH. XVI, 25

6.
Binomial Series.
When x=-l,
(n-l)
v
the series
n(n-l)(n-2)
L
converges if n>0
diverges if n<0.
When x== -1, after a certain stage
and
+ Wj -f w 2 +
Denoting the series by u
M-
n-r
w r +i
& r = n(n
where
Hence, by Gauss's
5 1,
+ 1)
test,
+1
l( I
the terms have the same sign.

division that
all
. , .
we can show by
n-fl
.,
b~
*
~j
--)->n(n + l)
rz
r~>oo.
as
the series converges or diverges according as
0.
according as n
the
that
the
test says
series diverges when n
Apparently
the reasoning fails because u r/ ur+i * s f the form 0/0.
n+1
7.
that
is
The Hyper-geometric
X+a
1+
rT^
is
known
Series.
The
0,
series
xi
"-
r.2.y(y+V
as the hyper-geometric series,
and
is
of great importance.
but here
HYPER-GEOMETRIC SERIES
If none of the constants a,
and we shall prove that
(i)
j3,
is
329
a negative integer, the series
the series is absolutely convergent
|x|<l, and
if
is
is
endless,
divergent if
\x\>\;
(ii)
when $
1,
(\\\)
when x
-1,
the series converges if y-f
Denoting the
Proof.
and not otherwise;
the series converges if y>a-f-/8,
by UQ + ^ +
series
. . .
l>a + /3,
-f
un +
. . .
and not
otherwise.
where
...
1.2...n.y(y + l)...(y + n-l)

.
we have
Hence the
(i)
series
converges absolutely
if
|x|<l, and diverges
if
|x|>l.
(ii)
When x = l, w n /w n+1 ~>l.
have the same
Hence, after a certain stage, the terms
sign.
Applying Gauss's
we can show by
test,
division that
n+i
where
n-
and 4,
are fixed numbers.
verges according as y-f
Thus
-a->l
y>a-f/J
(iii)
If Aen
x= - 1,
or
or
w/
b n -+A
and Z"w n converges or
<1, that
is
di-
according as
yâ-f/?.
after a certain stage, the terms are alternately posi-
and negative.
Also |w n +il<! w n| ^
tive
(a
+ n)(]8 + n)<(l+n)(y + n)
that
is,
if
(a + j8)<y-fn(l+y),
or
l+y~a-j8>(ajS~y)~.
if
This
is
true for sufficiently large values of
if
--!*_-.! +-5
y 4- l>a -f /?.
where a n->y-f 1 ~a~)3 as

w n+1
n
n->oo. Hence by Ch. XVI, 24, u n->0 if y-f I>a4-j8, but not otherwise. Therefore by Ch. XVI, 14, the series converges if y-f l>a+/}, but
Again, as in the preceding,
not otherwise.
ABEL'S INEQUALITY
330
De Morgan's and Bertrand's
8.
positive terms,
and suppose
Test.
u n/u n+l can
that
Zun
Let
be
series of
be expressed in the form
~~
u n+l
a certain stage an >l + k where k
then
(i)
Zun
is convergent.
if after
// a n <l,
(ii)
Zu n
Using Rummer's
Therefore v n ->a n
diverges
If
is
a fixed positive number,
is divergent.
test,
we take dn = n log w. Then,
v n ~n log
if
nlogn'
-l
u u n+l
as n->oo
(n
as in Art. 5,
+ 1 ) log (n + 1
Hence Zu n converges
if
an >l
+ k and
a n <l.
a n = 1, vn <0, for log ( 1

\
-n
-f-
-n+
)<
1/
Zun
therefore
is
divergent.
SERIES WITH TERMS POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE

9.
// Eu n is a convergent series of positive terms and

a sequence of real numbers, positive or negative, and all
than some fixed number k, then 2a n u n is absolutely con-
Theorem.
av a2>
t5
39
numerically
less
vergent.
For
|
Since 27wn
where
is
is
+ a m+2w
1
convergent,
we can
find
such that for
any positive number, as small as we choose.

|
Hence
am ûm
am+lum+l
-f
|
am+2um+2
-f ... -f
1
values of p,
Therefore
am+ ,um+ , <c.

|
27a n w n is absolutely convergent.
â:. 1.
// Eun is a convergent series of positive terms,
are absolutely convergent for all values of 0.
10. Abel's
numbers
all
swh
for the values
Inequality.
// uv
ti
t^,
2un cosnO and Sun ainnB
8 , ... t*
a sequence of
real
that
nofr, and if al> aa a3 ... is a

a j < Q,^ + a
+ + aj^ n < a
1, 2, 3, ...
of positive terms, then
m . .
decreasing sequence
DIRICHLETS TEST
For
let
tf
~ u l + u^ 4-
-f
. . .
un
331
- a Wj 4- a 2 n 2 + + a n w w
n
=
Then u l s v u^s z -s v W 3 = s 3 -.s 2 etc., therefore
= 1 5 1 + 2 5 2 ~ S l) + + a n (*n ~ S n~l)
*
= (a l - a 2 }s 1 + (a 2 - a 3 )* 2
>+ (a n ^ l -o n n _ 1 + a n * n
and
' ' '
-t-
Now
and
the factors a l
sum
their
Also
52 ,
sv
-a 2>
~a
av
...
5 n are all greater
).s
a n-i~~ a ni a n are positive or zero,
3>
is
than
and
than
less
h.
Therefore
Dirichlet's Test. // Zu n converges or oscillates between finite

and a l9 a2 a 3 ... is a decreasing sequence- of positive terms which
tends to zero as a limit, then Ea n u n is convergent.
11.
limits
Let
sn
= u l 4- w 2 +
+ u n-
we can
Since 27w n converges or oscillates finitely,

and p,
that, for all values of
find
numbers
A,
so
l<s m+ v-Sm<h>
that
is
to say,
l< um+I + w m+ 2 +
by Abel's inequality
Therefore,
Now
m+1 ->0 as w->oo
// (an )
limit, both the series
which case
For
therefore for
â nu n
hence
j&ar. 1.
if
Ean
is
cos
n6
*s
any
we can
find
so that
convergent.
a decreasing sequence of positive terms which tends to zero as a

an sinn& are convergent unless 0=0 or 2for, in
an cos nQ and
diverges.
not a multiple of
2?r,
ScoBnO and
tho series
27 sin
n^
oscillate
between
(Exercise XXVII, 24, 25).

the result follows by Dirichlet's test.
finite limits
Hence
12. Abel's Test.
n n converges and a 1? a 2
then
Za nu n is convergent.
sequence of positive terms,
For as n tends to infinity, a n tends to some limit
Hence by
Dirichlet's test,
a n u n - lLu n
But Zu n
y
If
Z(a n -l)u n
is
a3
I,
...
is
a decreasing
therefore
convergent; that
is
to aay,
is
is
convergent.
a nu n
is
convergent.
B.C.A.
CONVERGENCE OF POWER SERIES
832
POWER
series of the
x may be
real or
type
SERIES
Za n xn is called
a Power Series.
In Arts. 13-15,
complex.
Za nx n
converges (absolutely or conditionally) for x

x
x1
verges absolutely for all values of x such that
13. //
For
a n x^
since
convergent, a n a: 1
is
k exists such that

|
a n xf
\<k
n ->0.
<
= x ly
con-
Therefore a positive
Hence
for every n.
it
if
|
<
xl
number
|,
In
4
Therefore every term of 27 a n
xn
is
less
than the corresponding term
of the convergent series

7
k+k
Therefore
Za n x n
14. //
x such
For
that
is
is
\
H-An
I
X
T
^l
convergent and
non-convergent for
Ea nx n
x^x v
is
it is
absolutely convergent.
non-convergent for every
\x\>\x\.
x 2 where I^l-Hîl* by the last
which is contrary to the hypothesis.
the series converge for x
if
theorem
an
xn
X
Tl
X
converges for
it
x^x^
and
15. With regard to the series Za n xn either (i) it converges for x =
it
all
other
or
values
no
value
x,
(ii)
converges absolutely for
of x,
for
of
a n x n converges absolutely
or (iii) a positive number R exists such that
,
when
x
|
<R
and
is
non-convergent when
\x\>R.
Suppose that there is a value of x other than zero for which

converges. Also, suppose that there is a value x' of x for which
x'
non-convergent. Choose a positive number a greater than
Proof.
2a nx n
it
is
then,
by Art.
14, the series is
Divide the real numbers in the interval
The lower
class is to contain
(0, a)
every real
into
number
two
classes.
such that
Sa n x n
The upper class is to contain every real number r',

does not converge if |x|=r'. Both classes exist, and
follows from Arts. 13 and 14 that every r is less than any r'.
Therefore the classification defines a real positive number R which
converges
such that
it
non-convergent for x = a.
if
x\ =r.
Za nxn
This number
separates the classes and may be assigned to either class.
such that a n xn converges absolutely if x <R, and is non-convergent
is
if
|
x \>R.
Nothing
is
said as to
what happens when x = R.

|
RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE
333
=
=
writing R Q, R <x> in the exceptional cases
tively, these may be included in (iii).
By
All that has
been said applies to any power
16. For a real series

of convergence.
according as x
Za nxn may
The
is
Za nx n
the interval
series, real
(~R,R)
and
(i)
is
(ii)
respec-
or complex.
called the interval
converges absolutely or is non-convergent

within or outside the interval. At either end point
series
converge, diverge or oscillate.
Fdr a complex series Za n zn R is called the radius of convergence. The

circle (0, R) with centre at the origin and radius R is called the circle of
convergence. The series converges absolutely or is non-convergent according as the point z is inside or outside the circle. If z is on the circum,
ference, the character of the series
Sa n z n
17. Let
be any
not determined.
is
series, real or
complex, and suppose that
lim \a n+l /a n
Then
and
it
\=l
= l\z\,
lim
R = l/l.
follows from D'Alembert's test that

i
Again,
if
lim
|
a n n = l, then lim
\
anz n
n
\
^l
z
\
|,
and by Cauchy's
test
18. In considering the behaviour of a complex series at points on

of convergence, the following theorem is often useful.
its
circle
// (a n ) is a decreasing sequence of positive numbers such that a n+l/a n->l

and a n ->0, then, (i) if Za n converges, 2a n z n converges absolutely at every
n
point on its circle of convergence, (ii) if Za n diverges, Za n z
converges
= 1,
(though not absolutely) at every point on the circle, except at the point 2
n
n
where it diverges, (iii) the same statements hold for the series
(-I) a n z ,
except that
For
it
diverges at the point z
= lim
1/72
an
Moreover,
(i)
a n+l /a n =
zn
if
l,
= - 1, when Z( -
and at a point on the
l)
na
n is divergent.
circle of
convergence
= a n (cos + i sin d) n = a n (cos nO + 1 sin nO).

Za n
converges, both
absolutely convergent (Art. 9,
Ex. 1);
Za n cos nO and Za n sin nO are

therefore Za n z n is absolutely
a n cosnO and
convergent when |z|=l. (ii) If Za n diverges, both
=
or 2&7r; in which case
2a n sinnd converge unless
a n cosn0
Ex.
the
Hence
statement
follows.
diverges (Art. 11,
1).
(ii)
(iii)
This follows from
(i)
and
(ii)
on substituting -z
for
z.
COMPLEX VARIABLE
334
19. If
Za n
n
z
vergent when
when
converges
z
|
<|
zx
z=*z lt
Denoting
|.
Art. 13,
by
sum by
its
/(z),
= a + a 1z + a 222 + --- + (a n + n)z n where

/(z)
z n = a n+l z n + l + a n +2* n+2 +
We have
>
As
|<| a n+l z+
T?Z
we can
in Art 13,
+ a n+2z+
find a fixed
number
as
|z|->0.
>
T?
and
absolutely conprove that
shall
|^| >0
it is
we
...
such that for every
k,
r,
20. Criterion for the Identity of Power Series. // Za nzn =Zb n z n

=
for every value of z whose modulus is less than some number /z, then a n b n
for every value of n.
For by Art.
where
77
and
19, for
every
n,
tend to zero as
17'
z |-->0.
- 6 <any positive number,

By making
however small, and since a 6 are constants, it follows that a == bQ
Since the above equation holds for values of z other than zero, we
|
be seen that
z |-^0, it will
can divide by
z,
therefore
+ a n + 'V)^n ~ 1 = î +
a l + a2? +
Making z->0 as
a n = 6n
21
before,
^+
'
+ (^n + ^)2;n "" 1
we have a l = bv and by continuing the
process,
for every n.
We
Binomial Series.
(n-l)
consider the convergence of the series
n(n
...
1)
(n
+ 1)
where w
is real
Denoting the
and
series
complex.
by
...
n
Therefore,
(i)
it
we have
=1
r
follows from Art. 17 that
The series converges absolutely
if
z
|
<1, and
is
non-convergent if
z>l.
MULTIPLICATION OF SERIES
When
shall
|=1, the point
2;
1
on the
is
circle of
335
convergence, and
we
prove that
(ii)
// n>0, the
series converges absolutely at every point
on
its
circle
of convergence.
l<n<cO, the series converges (though not absolutely) at every

If
- 1, where it diverges.
the
on
circle,
except at the point z=
point
Let accents indicate absolute values, so that u r = u r \, then if r>n,
(lii)
'
ur
4. i
"
u/
Therefore
If n
^~
u'r+l
1?
ur
=u
r ',
according as r
increases with
r,
or
is
n^r + l,
that
is
according as
constant and the series cannot be
convergent.
- 1, we
If ?i>
apply the theorem of Art. 18. After a certain stage, u r
a decreasing sequence, u'r /u r '- >l and, as shown in Ch. XVI, 25,
'
is
<->0.
These are the conditions required in Art. 18, to apply the theorem of
ur
and we have to consider the convergence of
'
this article,
'.
After a certain stage, the terms of Zu r are alternately positive and

r
- l) ru r
negative, so that Zu r is convergent or divergent, according as Z(
is convergent or divergent, that is according as nÔ.
(See Art. 6.)
Hence the statements
(ii)
and
(iii)
follow immediately from Art. 18.
22. //
t/j
sums being
... and V ^v 2 + v + ... are

1
3
convergent series of posiare absolutely convergent real or complex series, their
respectively, then the series
+ Wg-f w3 +
tive terms, or if they
and
U l v l + ( U IV2 + U 2V l) + ( U 1 V3 + U 2V 2 + U 3 V l) +
is absolutely
convergent
and
Multiply the terms of

products as below.
its
sum
is st.
%-f w 2 -fw3 +
...
by vl9 v2
v3
...,
and arrange the
This array extends to infinity on the right and below, and we shall consider
two ways of arranging the terms so as to form simply infinite series.
PRODUCTS OF SERIES
336
Let
an
is
sn ,
the
sums
n be the
sum
to
n terms
n terms
of the first
of 27w n
Evn
of the first
FIG. 62.
Draw
respectively
n rows
then
if
we have
of (A),
Fia. 63.
a set of squares, as in Fig. 62, where the terms are represented

by
cr
Then the terms
n
dots and the nth square just contains the terms in

in (A) can be arranged to form the infinite series
u i vi + ( u i
+ W 2v 2 + uflj + (ttjVa + U 2v3 + u3Vz + U 3 v2 + u^) +
where the nth term
is
the
sum
of the terms of (A)
. . .
......
(B)
between the nth and
the (n - l)th squares.
The sum
to n terms of this series
and
is cr n ,
its
sum
to infinity
is
st.
Again, the terms of (A) can be arranged to form the infinite series
U V l + (M l Vt + U 2V
1
where the nth term
the
is
1 )
+ (tijVs + Wg^ + tVi)*...
sum
of the terms
(n-l)th diagonals, drawn as in Fig. 63.

If the brackets are removed in (B) and
differ
only in the
convergent and
series
Ex.
The
(Chap.
1.
sum
and
= l +S +
5,
series equivalent to
~n
where
is st
XVI,
// E(x)
arrangement
its
<C
= r- +
\!L
it
we have two
The
series
first series is
which
absolutely
this is therefore also true for the second
19).
+ ...
prove
that,
for all value* of x
and
y,
E(x) and E(y) are absolutely convergent, therefore

~n~i
l^Lil II
In Arte. 23 and 24, the series

dn
............... (C)
between the nth and the
(C),
of terms.
= uvn -f
i/
n ii2
(C) will
l?_
be denoted by
w s l -2 +
2 tv_i -^
should be noted that, in every term of d n the

,
Zdn where
+ w w Vi
sum of the suffixes is n + 1.
MERTENS' THEOREM
337
23. // Su n and Ev n are convergent with sums s and t respectively and

one of these series, say Zu n is absolutely convergent, then Zd n is convergent
,
and
sum
its
Let
sn ,
is
tn ,
.st.
(Mertens.)
Dn
Considering the array (A) in Art. 22,

2
wl = v n
w2 -
t;
+ vn
w-1
wn -i = ^2 +
lastly
?;
+ ...+u n w n _ l
............... (B)
w3 = vn _ 2 + t;^ + vn
wm - vn _ m+1 + v n _m+2 +
and generally
be seen that
it will
-Dn = u w +u w +u w
sn tn
where
u n 2vn Edn respectively.
be the sums to n terms of
+ vn
+ vn-
. .
The series Zvn is convergent; and hence (i) we can

v r +v r+l +v r+2 + ...
number p such that
v n |<
for
is an arbitrarily small
number
therefore
and
positive
-f
find a positive
r>/x,
where
l^l'
lîl*
w'm|j
the sequence
number k such that
is
(t n )
(ii)
t
|
are
\<k
<c, provided that n-w-hl>/x;
all
bounded
hence we can find a positive
for every
/?,
and consequently
We
therefore consider separately the sum of the first

series in (B), and the sum of the remaining terms, where m
p=u
Let
chosen.*
^ + u#o +
2
+ u m+l w m
. . .
...(C)
m
is
terms of the
to be properly
Q^W
then
with the condition

2?|t/ n
|,
then
if $'
is
the
sum
of the convergent series
\P\<s'c.
Also
and
Hence,
(C).
since
27
1
that
|
vm f 2
un
H
1
is
\
convergent,
u m +% +
. . .
-f
|
nn
and then
|
we can
<,
find a positive
provided that
number
4-
pf such
2>//,
. .
.(D)
<A'e.
\
The conditions (C) and (D) are satisfied if n>2m and m> either of the
- 2. Hence, as ?/?, and
p 1 and
consequently w, tend to infinity,
two,
/u,'
\Q\->0
|^|->0,
and
sn tn
-Dn ->0,

*
This artifice
is
often useful.
THEOREM
ABKIAS
338
24. // Eu n and Zv n are convergent with sums

if
Sd n
Let
it
sn,
convergent, then
t
Dn
n,
sum
its
is st.
and
respectively,
and
(Abel.)
he the sums to n terms of
Zu ny ZV n Ed n
,
respectively,
then
+ D 2 + D3 +
Hence
Now
and /->/,
s n ~->s
/r
Also,
if
the
is
sum
+ D n - ,Vi + n-Va ^ *n
therefore by Ch. XV, 9, (4),
. . .
s n t,1
+$ /<^1.L2 -f
of
ZWW which
...
is
convergent,
by Ch. XV,
9, (3),
D=
Therefore
l/^. 1.
//
.s/.
-l<.r^l,
-prove,
(log
dn
that
1
+ x) 2 ^ rfrr2 - ^.r3 -f c?3 r4 -
"-,
'/*
Under
4-
is
. .
-f
.,
...
4--
).
W- /
suitable conditions, the rule for the multiplication of series gives
easily
applies,
// -1<#<1, the series for log ( 1 +

question holds by Art. 22.
- + ~ +
~
4
2
"a
// x 1, the series 1
it
shown that dn <dn
and the statement
is
a;)
is
absolutely convergent and the result in
and so is d l - d% + d3 is convergent
for
,
and dn ->0 by Ch. XV, 9, (3J. Hence Art. 24
. . .
true in this case also.
EXERCISE XXXIII
Prove that the
.
1 H-
1.3
--
series
1.3.5
-
r T-^-f...
is
,.
divergent.
-...
la + 1.3
2T4
a(o +
'
l)
is
convergent
1.3.5 a(oH-l)(o+2)
if
6-l>a>0,
its
sum
un
rr
If
A
4.
nP + <M?~ l + bn
,
'
a - a' > 1 and divergent
series 27#n cos
The
5.
a - a' <
if
+k
. .
M
'-*
,,
v~ z
.-
2/w n
is
if
convergent
&
1.
Exn sin n0
n# and
show that
=->
' >
339
are absolutely convergent
if
|
< 1.
2n
6.
The
series
7.
The
series 27 - cos
a
2
and
cos nO
diverges
The
8.
sin
n6 are convergent excepting that the
71
when
an even multiple of
6 is
27 - cos nS
series
are absolutely convergent.
n2
nO and 27 -
71
first series
~ sin nO
27
and 27
IT.
n6 are not absolutely convergent
sin
71
71
excepting the last series,

[Use the following
when
a multiple of TT.
is
cos
n6
>
cos 2 nB&%(l+ cos 2n0)
9. If u l9 u, u 3 , ...
as a limit, the series
is
is
and
sin
nB
sin 2
nO
-J
- cos
2n0).]
a decreasing sequence of positive terms tending to zero
convergent.
[Deaote the
*>i9
v z> ^3 ,
...
is
series by vl - v% -f v3 Using Ch. XV, 9,

a decreasing sequence tending to zero as a limit.]
convergence of
10. Discuss the
If.
Show
11.
that, if
Q<p<l,
Zun
where
show that
(3),
the rule for multiplication
fails
to
obtain a
convergent series for
/i__L_j__
[Show that the
series is 1
- d^
-f
d2 -
. . .
L_j_
where
1
12. If
/
an = ( 1
-f
^\
-
-l=-2
is
13. If
that
i)v
-~
e
absolutely convergent for
27l/n
_ r+
r p( n
r(n-r+l)^%(n + l ) 2 .]
and
[an
r=I
show that the
all
series
whose nth term
is
an -
is
values of x.
2
2
-t-r~-...; therefore n .|an -l|-*-|2;| as n->oo.
Also
convergent.]
+
FfrlKX^l+x
*Y
L
yJP(a,j8 > y,*)-(y-a)JP(,j8-f
Under what circumstances
is
1,
-^-y(V +
y+
this true
1,
**^
1
and \x\<l, prove
*)=a(l -*)F(a-f
(i)
when z = l, and
p + l,y +
(ii)
l 9 x).
when a= -
1 ?
CHAPTER XXI
BINOMIAL AND MULTINOMIAL THEOREMS
1.
the
sum
General Statement.
The Binomial theorem
asserts that
of the series
n(n-l)
_J_^_J x 2+_
when convergent,
is
L\(w-r
- +Jx
n(n-l)
+__V----
one of the values of
...
(1
-f
1)
n
x)
^
r
mtm
(Of course, in a com-
must be specified.)
and only if, n is a positive integer
plete statement, this value
The
the
series
sum
terminates
is (1
+x)
if,
in which case
n
.
This leads to the following theorem, which enables us to deal with the
case in which
is
rational number.
any
Vandermonde's Theorem.
2.
used
we
The following notation
x r = x(x-l)(x-2)
where x
is
often
is
write
any number whatever.
...
(x-r +
1),
Vapdermonde's theorem
asserts that
if m and n are any numbers whatever, then
Proof.
First suppose that
m and
n are
positive integers
then
+r
n *+ro*+r
Z
x r in the product of these series

the coefficient of x r in (1 -f x) m + n that is to say,
The
coefficient of
is
therefore equal to
r
._
^r-1^1
^r-2^2
.^r
Multiplying by r, we obtain equation (A).

This equation holds for all positive integral values of
since each side
is
a polynomial in m, n
it is
true for
all
'
and n
values of m, n.
and
BINOMIAL THEOREM
Case of a Rational Index.
!, the sum of the series
3.
n(n-l)
is the real positive
We
value of
// n
nln-l)
(1 -f x)
is
...
341
rational
any
(n-r + 1)
'
number and
n
.
give what is essentially Euler's proof, although in the

we have to assume a property of infinite series which is not proved
The series
and let
Eiderjs proof.
sum by
its
last step
first
f(n),
is
M fM
n r ~n(n
1 \
Art
O\
&)
///.
i)\n
...
A*
r +
\n
if
|
<1
till
later.
demote
1 \
i j,
so that
n2
For
values of
all
and
wr
n, the series
absolutely convergent, therefore
corresponding to f(m), f(n) are

the
rule for the multiplication of
by
series,
f(m) f(n) =
.
dr =
where
d vx
1-1-
-I-
dzx2 -f
. . .
-f-
A^x
-f
. . .
^+ -^l + ,-Â + - +^-
Hence, by Vandermonde's theorem,
and
/(/).
/"(/A)
/(m)./(n)=/(m + n) .............................. (A)

./(p) =/(m 4- n) .f(p) =/(m + n +p),
so that
Hence
/(m) ./(n)
a similar result holding for any number of factors.

Positive index.
If
n=p/q where
jo,
</
by the
preceding,
Hence
/(~j
by
(1 -fx)
we
With regard
is
q-th root of (I
+ x)
......................... (B)
the real positive gth root of (l+x) p

?
"
/p\
= (1 +x)* that is f(n) conclude that
Thus, x being
?
real, if
/(
to sign,
it will
a continuous function of x in
is
denoted
(1 -f x)
be shown in another volume that f(n)

the interval
n.
is
BINOMIAL THEOREM
342
Now
f(n) does not vanish for any value of x in the interval, and consequently its sign is the same throughout the interval.
But when
cc
= 0,/(n) = l,
therefore the sign
to the real positive value of (1
-f
x)
is
positive
is
equal
Let n be a positive rational.
Negative index.
and/(n)
Putting
m~ -n
in
equation (B),
............................. (0)
l;
therefore
/(
- n) =
= (1 +
NOTE, (i) Equations (A)-(C) hold when x is complex, provided that x |< 1. Hence
x is complex, \'x\<l and n rational, f(x) is one of the values of (l+a:)n In
|
if
a positive integer, /( -n)~ (1 +x)~ n

x |< 1, it can be shown that f(n) is continuous for all
n
x
are
real and
and
(ii) //
values of n. Hence if (l+x) n is defined as in Ch. XIII, 7, when n is irrational,
we have (1 -Hx)n f(n).
is
if n.
particular,
Second Proof for the Case of a Real Index.
4.
The following
proof depends on very elementary considerations and, although it is

unsuitable for reproduction in toto, the reader will find it a very useful
exercise to work through the details. We shall prove that if n and x are
real
and
\
x |<1, then
n(n-l)'
v
n(n-l)
'
...
lo
T*
(1
+ x) n
Proof.
Let
where
Also
series.
has
t
its real
...
positive value.
be the rth term and
nt r
(w-r + 1)
...
s nt r
sum
the
to r terms of the
let
Q<x<l, then
= (!+ z) n -150
!
First suppose that

1/n,
Also
~j^
If for
= ny n ^
any assigned values
of invariable sign for

sign as ny n _ lt r-1
according as
and y n
of
n and
0<z<l,
nÔ ................ (A)
when x =
................ (B)
can be shown that yn -\, r-i i Q

(B), y nt r must have the same
r it
then by
Repeating this reasoning when n-\, n-2,
and observing
that,
by
(A),
y n - r +i
ê
^ as
...
are substituted for
same sign as n-r-f 1,
n
it
follows that the three expressions
yn
n(n-l)...(n-r-f-2)2/n ^ r4 1>1
have the same
sign.
Therefore y n
After a certain stage, say for r
and
n(w-l)
> some
fixed
(n-r + 1)
...
number
nt
k,
r+v
the signs of
ALTERNATIVE PROOF
^n,
an(i consequently those of y nt
r+i>
Therefore (l+x) n lies
increases.
But
are alternately
between
since the series is convergent, s n>

s W| r-> ( 1
Therefore
which proves
Next
let
0<z<l,
\*
n
/i
(l~x)
Here
so that
+ x)
343
and
s Wjt
r -> oo
as
* Wff+1
s n> r~^0 as
y^
4-
and - as
for r>&.
,
r->oo
this case of the theorem.
x<0.
Changing the sign of
x, it
then
has to be shown that if
(n-r-f 1) r
-^
= il~nx + n(n-l) x 29 ---+ (- 1 _ n(n-l)
-x + ...
^T-*
-~2~~
^^ = (1 ~^) n ~n,n
n
y njl = (l -cc) -1^0 -according as wgO; ............... (C)
x
also
-^-
= -^-i,*.-i and
y w ,r =
...
^=
when
............. (D)
Reasoning as in the previous case and observing that by (C), yn _r+l>

and n -r ~h 1 have opposite signs, it follows that the three expressions
and
(~l) n(w-l)
have the same
...
(n~r-f
1)
Hence, as before,
sign.
yn
r,
n>
r+l is invariable,
and
For every
r+1 ..................... (E)
nt
After a certain stage, say for r>k, the sign of
we proceed thus
n r+1
we have
+^- r
Therefore
(l-x)* n>r = * n+1

'
Hence
(1
Hence by
(E), 2 Wt
-x
- x) z w
by
and
(1
-x)y n
= y n + lff + 2* n>r ....... (P)
= (1 - a?)y n r - tn> r+1

^ 2/n+l, r + x^n, r ~ ^n, r-fl
,
so that
ntr
n+lj r+2 .
Now
r+2
(E)
z n>T
(w-
+ l)y nif ................ (H)
PARTICULAR INSTANCES
344
n>
If
(i)
fore
lies
yn>r
follows that y nt
SL8
cession
n-h
it
Hence
r-^
since
m> -1,
and
-x)
z nt
-x)
n
,
.(1 -x)""
r +i
have opposite
1
But
We shall prove that
if
where
by
case
from
(F) that
yn + m
(i),
a negative
21)
and
(compare equation
n>r ->0
as
r->o>
yn> r->0.
r->0;
Hence
^nd
to zero.
complex and
in suc-
z
\
<1,
Using the same notation as before, we see that the
XX,
in all cases.
integer, z
n(n-l)
(Chap.
r+1 ->0 as r->oo
u positive integer. If
is
//*
a ll
is
r
yn +m-2,r>
2/n,r
and the theorem is proved
,
^n
There-
signs.
ntr->Q it follows
therefore,
follows that y n + m _ 1
s nt r->(l
*w
s Wjr ->(l
and
,.
-M-l<X-w
//)/<-!, then
Now
and
between
yn+i,r~*Q
5.
1 it
yn r->0 and
therefore
(ii)
Also
(1
series is
+z)ynj r =
convergent
(F)).
Hence as before, if yn+l} r->0, then y n> r~>0.

Now when n= -1,
Hence
in succession y n
~>0
for n==
-2, -3, -4,
...
So that
nir ->(l+z)n
when w is a negative integer.

The theorem is obviously true when n is
which n is a fraction is considered later.
a positive integer.
The case
in
6. The reader should be familiar with the following particular instances

is assumed that
x
1
in each case it
and
<
in a similar
way
2
(l-z)- = l+2z
3.4.5
3 4
-
n(n-f-l)
1.3
1.3.5
3.4.5.6
NUMERICALLY GREATEST TERM
345
Ex. 1. Expand l/(3 + 2a:) to three terms (i) in ascending powers of x;

scending powers of x ; (iii) say for what values of x each expansion is valid.
(ii)
in de-
27
The
(iii)
first
The second
Ex.
To
see
if
valid
if
|
-|ar
<1, that
is if
|
x |<f
valid
if
this
that
1,
+ +
is if
can be done by the Binomial theorem, take some particular term, say
the fourth, and proceed thus
5.8.11
._..
o
f.f.^s
o
3
/5.\3
__.
J
!-!
J
1
^
_______
* \4
5.
".
'
sum
is
equal to 2n(n
of the series
+ l)(n + 2)(n + 3)x*/\
4,
where
treating every term as above,
Numerically Greatest
+ x) n where |x|<1.
7.
(1
1.2.3.4
2.3.4
8.12.16
which
3
is
Sumtheterie*
2.
is
expansion
w~|
and
a;
= -|.
Let
be the
we have
Term
in
the
Expansion
of
Let u r be the rth term, and let accents indicate numerical values so
that x' = x and u r = t/ r
t/ n is positive,
f
wr
Let
ifc
be the positive integer such that
therefore ^4-1,
greatest term
If r^.k,
.,
that
is
is
% +2j
among
is
the
a decreasing sequence,
k 4- 1 terms.
and the numerically
first
then wr _}_iw/
,.
^ -according
& as r dr.
-* 1
i<n H- 1 <k + 1.
according as
(n-f 1
r)x' .-
r,
NUMERICALLY GREATEST TERM
346
If
(i)
r~ ~i+f, where
~\~
proper fraction, the
tth term
Next,
is
let
~r~
(i
+ l)th term
= i, where
//
(ii)
is
a positive
numerically the greatest term.
is
a positive integer, then, numerically, the
t is
+ l)th, and each is greater than any other term.

and equal to - m, then
equal to the
a positive integer and
i is
(i
be negative
l
'
wr+1 ~w/ according
therefore
,,,.,.
according
8 as
that
is
It follows that
(ii)
If
= i +/, where
i is
a positive integer or zero and
(m-l)x' =
"*~~
to the (i-f l)th,
We
first
JL
7
'
r,
the
(i)
//
positive proper fraction, the

(iii)
<- (m-l)x'
~
-:--
m^l,
If
(m + r-l)x'
as
(i
where
i,
and each
term
+ l)ih term
i is
is
is
the greatest,
is
greater than
any
other.
have thus proved the following important property

n
// |x|<l, the terms in the expansion of (l+x)
series:
is
the greatest.
a positive integer, the iih term
of these
is
equal
of a binomial
either decrease
numerically from the beginning of the series or else they increase numerically
up to a greatest term (or to two equal terms) and then decrease numerically.
""
Ex,
when
Which
1.
numerically greatest term (or terms) in the expansion of (I
is the
+ a;)"2
x%?
Let ur denote the rth term
ur
or
if
14.
First consider the terms for which
4r>54
54 - 4r
%^ -r + l 4
u r+i
uril jur
For such values of

M r+i
(A)
5r
is
negative.
if
r,
ur
Hence the
greatest term or terms must be included among the
first
4 terms of the
expansion.
If r
13,
u r+l /u r
is
positive,
u r+1
rr
1
and from (A)

\u r
that
Hence, the sixth term

other term.
is
is
it
follows that
according as 54 4r
according as r
5r,
6.
equal to the seventh, and each of these
is
greater than
any
CALCULATION OF ROOTS
The Binomial
Approximate Values.
8.
tain approximate values, as follows

Ex.
347
series
can be used to ob-
Calculate */2 to six places of decimals.

perfect cubes are 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, .... Search for
have
roughly twice the other.
1.
The
two of these such that one
We
is
3* 5 s
1
1.2.3
1.2
59
+
""/
Denoting
this series
by u t + u 2 u 3 + u t - u 5 +
. . .
'
we have
=1*25,
^
-
*.=
-0-01,
--
= 0-000
07
001
08
=,0-000
Jj
~=
4
0-000
OOP
02
0-000
080
02*
'
'2
Therefore,
07
001
1-260
= 1-260
= 1-259
001
07-0-000
921
05 nearly ......................................... (B)
02 nearly
080
possible error in this result, let s n be the sum to n terms of the series
R
and
after n terms. The error arises from two causes
the
remainder
(A)
n
The
error
caused
(i)
by taking s 5 as the value of '^2 is R 5 Now, in the series (A), the
terms beginning with the second are alternately positive and negative, also each is
therefore J? 5 is positive and less than w e
numerically less than the preceding
To estimate the
u= -^5
Now
.'.
The
.~-u 5 = ~~u 5 < 0-000 000 000 4;

3
the error
5*
is less
than 0-000 000 000
4.
from the errors in the calculated

(ii)
values of w 4 and u 6
These cannot exceed 0-000 000 005, hence the error in the
calculated value of s 5 cannot exceed 0-000 000 01.
Adding the results of (i) and (ii), we see that the error in the result (B) is numerically
less than 0-000 000 010 4.
Thus, to six places of decimals,
error in the calculated value of S B arises
.
/2
= 1-259921.
i
Ex.
2.
p + qx
-,
We
and
If x
where p,
is
small and
q,
p' 9
q'
n>l,
obtain
an approximation
to
(l+x)
n in the
form
are independent of x.
have
(B)
B.C.A.
NEWTON'S APPROXIMATION
348
Choose a and
b so that
2
and
a-b-l/n
-&)&-=(&- l)/2w
and a = (n + l)/2/i.
(a
b-^(n-l)l2n
Substituting these values for a and 6
/.
-l)x
we have
in (B),
\n J
both convergent, and since they
\nj
(C)'
v
If x is small, the series (A) and (C) are

as far as the terms involving x 2 it follows that
are identical
+x
(1
9.
Theorem.
----
- rf- nearly.
n>l and 0<x<l,
//
^
~
n2 -
proximate value of
By
it
(1 -f
x)
w/A an
error in defect less than

-ys~3
^3
multiplying each side of equation (A) in the last example by
2n + (n- l)x,
can be shown that
__
-x-x
.x)
on"5
Denoting the
< 1
--
series in brackets
MI
-h
u r-
we have
w r _!
=7
OX
4w .on
r
+ (-
rn
l) '^r
--,
(r-f-2)n
r-1
. . .
i-
x.
(rn-l)r<(r-f2)(r-l)?t provided that r>2, for

_ 1 r _ ( r + 2) (r - 1) n - - r ~ (r - 2) n<0
(
...
by
-^ +
2
^3
Now
LX
4n
and since 0<x<l, it follows that u r 1
and x
is
Ex.
-l)rryi2n
v2
than
3
,
that 63.5/504 is
an approximation
\2
to
with an error in defect less than
0-0000005.
Here
is less
result follows.
Show
1.
than unity
positive, the last expression
(n
whence the
less
henco, an approximation
5750-4-12
4
750
635
r
'
504'
--
...
r *
an error in defect
with
i
12.27
liM 3
10 8
10 7
is
KXAMPLES OF APPROXIMATION
349
EXEECISE XXXIV
If a:
1.
is
positive,
which
is
the
first
negative term ih the expansion of

I
2. If
is
1 -f
x)
*~ ?
terms in the expansion of (1 -x)~*

beginning with a
Prove this, and find which is the first of this series
positive, the
certain term, are all positive,

of positive terms.
Which
3.
(1+x)*' when ar^J
5.
(l~x)~
7.
Between what numbers must x

_
(I
the numerically greatest term or terms in the expansions of

35
_3
is
-x)
(l-x)
when x = ]l
6.
(l+x)~* when *---{??
2,
the third term
x> 0,
9.
If
0<#<1, show
(ii)
lie
order that, in the expansion of
in
If
than
when *-:&?
4.
8.
and
defect
less
which
than
~x~ \ ~\x
\/l
may
the
is
be the greatest
first
that
(i)
negative term in the expansion of

1
Vl 4-x
+lx-{x-
nearly, the error being in
^x'^.
-
.r-
nearly
the error being in excess and numerically less
10. If
is
large
and
positive,
s/a;
3
-t
show that
~
\~x-\3
^2
the error being in defect arid less than 5/81 a11.
IfO<<l
1/(1 -ir)
2
,
and
show that
/? n
is
x5
nearly,
8
.
the remainder after n terms in the expansion of
0<a;<0-01, show that (i) l-f2a; + 3a; 2 is an ap])roximate value of

1/(1 ~x}* with an error in defect less than 0-000005.
2
with an error in excess
(ii) 1 ~2x + 3x'' is an approximate value of l/(l+x*)
less than 0-000004.
12. If
0<#<1, and Rn
13. If
1/(1
-x)
3
,
14. If
1/(1
-x)
(ii) 1
less
is
the remainder after n terms in the expansion of
show that
0<#<0-01,
show that
with an error
in defect less
-3#
f fix* is
(i)
l+3o; + 6x 2 is an approximate value of

than 0-000011.
1/(1 +x)*
with an error in excess
than 000001.
15. If
is
small,
show
that, neglecting cubes
and higher powers of e,
APPROXIMATION TO ROOTS
350
16. // we have tables giving the square roots and cube roots of numbers to f signicant figures, show that the roots can be found by division only, to 2f significant
figures as follows.
If *Jx~a
to
f significant figures,
then *Jx
f significant figures,
then
2 (\a
1
If
$x-a
Show also
Given
Given 4/10
19.
Show
is
20. If
(i)
(iii)
\
to
)
2f significant figures.
that
is
by
= 141 421356237
division, that
(approx.).
2-1544 (approx.), show, by division, that

$ 10 = 2- 154434690 (approx.).
if
(i)
is
small,
v/(z
large,
*J(x*
+ 4) - *J(x* + 1) ~ 1 - i* 2 +
3 /
s
~
+4) -V(x + 1)=
2
7
4
6 4~z
nearly
21 \
^ + ^)
nearly-
show that approximately
small,
V(4 - 3*)
/x
$x = o-(\a~ + 2a
1-41421 (approx.), show,
v/2
18.
if
2f significant figures.
use Ex. 15.]
>/2
(ii)
to
that in each case the error is in excess.
*Jx-, and
[Put a
17.
to
/x
- + a\
)
=1
4-
# (8 + 3*) -r (9 - |z)
+ 4a; -f 10x 2
*
)
= 1 -f 2x + 3z
--,
(1
-iVr)
(iv)
(v)
I -fa:
+ * + *)* = l+ix-h A* 8 + ^5**.
In each of the examples 21-26, (i) prove the given equality ; (ii) by expanding
the right-hand side to four terms, deduce an approximate value of the given
surd ; (iii) find an upper limit to the numerical value of the error.
21.
^1001 = 10(1+0-001)3.
22.
V2 =-J(l -0-02) "i
-f(l+ 0-024) "i
24.
#5 =(1+0-08)*.
26.
#4=f(l
23. 4/4
25.
*/3=i(l-0-01696)*.
27. If
is
nearly equal to
b,
show that
~
^
and that
if
a>6,
the error
is
in defect
and
is less
3
tt -! /a-6\
"12^ V~T/
than
[Assume the result of Art.

28.
10*.
3/10*.
Show
that
/543
9,
2709
^^ = 2706
^TTO
^ 54
5
'
'
and put x = (a - b)/b.]

'
nearly, the error being in defect
and
less
than
SUMMATION OF SERIES
29. If a -b=^h,
whore h
ft"
1
2
(iii)
6~a
2 ft~8
1
A2
4 ft" 8
small,
is
I h'1
7i
+
"
Hence show that
show that
5
I
3
T6
ft~
&3
16
ft"
h*
~T28 b**
1
&*
"
ft"
351
'*
""
"
""32 6*
nearly equal to 6, then

I a +b
=
+
nearly
b a+b
4~'b'-'
if
is
Va
'
the error being approximately equal to (a-ft) /128ft

4
Application of the Binomial
10.
4
.
Theorem
Sum-
to the
mation of Series.
(1) Many series may
be summed by expanding some function of x as

a convergent power series in two different
ways and equating coefficients.
Ex.
1.*
If
prove that
It will be easily seen that
w2 -|?.(g + l),
wl
therefore
and
+i/ 2 o;
+ w3a;2 -f-...
/
-f
wn _!a;n<" 2 + ... =
%--f v
Hence
if
is
the
sum
of the series in question,

of n 2 in (1
[g=coefft.
=coefft. of
(2)
|g (1
Theorem.
where k
// f(x)
-a
-f
xn ~* in
-*)-(-).
(1
(1 -a:)-<
a^ + a2x2 -f a3 x2 +
. . .
+ a nxn +
positive number, then a + aj-f a 2

the coefficient of x n in the expansion
of f(x)/(l -x).
For
is
any
-f ...
. . .
+a n
for
is
x <k,
\
equal
to
convergent for sufficiently small values of
x.
fix)
z=
and the
series are absolutely

* This
equality
is
required in the Theory of Probabilities.
SUMMATION OF SERIES
352
In what follows, we suppose that x <1 except when n

tive integer, so that all the series which occur are convergent.
(3)
We
shall write
,,
then,
(1
+ x) n = c
/i
,n- *
,
1 H- ;r)
(
4-
4-
c^x
c 2x 2
a posi-
is
c3x
4-
-h
-f
. . .
c rx r
-f
. . .
n(n-l)^ x ~n(n-l)(w~2)
--~~----- x2a +
= w -f -^r
4-
. . .
= c x 4- 2c 2x
-f
3c 3 ,r 2
-f
+ rc^ r
. . .
'1
-f
. . .
and, by a succession of similar steps,*
=l
and so
+2
2c 2
3r3 :r
... -f
r(r
where u r
is
on, as far as required.
Hence we can sum
*_ Q u r c r x
the series
a polynomial in
For, dividing u r and successive quotients by r, r-1,

we can find constants A Q A L A 2 A 3 ... such that
order
Z^û
then,
Ex.
r r
Find
2.
x r Ât(l+jc) n +
Z*^
(r
Denoting the sum by
+1
*V
3
)
xr
S=-(l+x)
= (1 +
(4)
-f
n -8
a;)
nx(l +x)
n ~l
+ A 2 n(n- })x 2 (l +x) n
'2
and proceeding as above, we find that

+7/' + 6r(r - 1) +r(r - l)(r -2)
1nx(l +ar)
}l -f (7
in this
...
3
(r + l) -a
.'.
r-2,
r.
n -1
+ 6n(w-
l)x~(l +x)
~2
+ n(n-l)(n
4 3) a: -f (6/& 2 + 8w + 3) x 2 4 (w + 1)V}.
Again, by expanding
+x)
(1
1
(Ijfx^^^
" "
"V"
n+1
?i + l
^
w+1
^n^
we can show
GI
'
*^
that
i. ..i" _c, -i~X
l
"r~
r-fl
and, by similar steps,

"
(n
l)(n
+ 2)
(M
l)(
+ 2)'n +
n 3
(l+x) +
"
^,2
-,
Jv
~~~^,
(r
1
^.3
__
1.2.3
on.
and so
1.2
l)(r
+ 2)'
_
X+
?r
'
2(n +
,v.r+3
l)
,
"
These results can also be obtained by integration,
* Tlirse results
can also bo obtained by differentiating with regard to
process has not been justified in ease of an infinite series.
x,
although so far the
SPECIAL TYPES OF SERIES

Hence, if u r
is
a polynomial in
we can sum
r,
353
the series
r
r
and
For, dividing u r
we
in this order,
successive quotients by r -f k, r
can find an equation of the form
ur
r
where
vr
is
^4^, -4fc_!,
...
Al
~~~
"*.
":;
+1
A%
\
^rr
(r + l)(r + 2)
'
..
The value
z r~~
'"
1,
. . .
+ 2,
sum
-f
Ak
(r +
l)(r + 2)
...
and
of the series is
r+1
r+2
Zv r c r x r
of
i~
+k-
are the remainders in the successive divisions
the final quotient, and then the
zvx
rr +
'
is
found by
(3),
and the other sums are given by
the above equations.
Further, we can
sum
the series
k are unequal positive integers of which k is the greatest.

can be reduced to the preceding by multiplying numerator
and denominator of the fraction by such factors as will convert the
where
a, b,
For
...
this
denominator into
Find
Ex.
2.
We
have
hence,
S = 2^1
-
(r -f 1 ) (r
+ 2) (r + 3)
. . .
(r 4- k) .
f
-s
<V
+3
*"-**
(MMT,
(7TIj(iFT2MF?S,
z2
n -Hi
n
(i+x) +*-i
v.
d+*) n+l
a;
n-fl
MULTINOMIAL THEOREM
354
yiOO
^rÔ 7+3
Wo
tr
""
'
~ =r -
have
r
and
4-
+3
27(r
where
f,
If 6, c,
...
i are any
f(x)
(i)
2.
numbers, n
= (1
&#
4-
and
is real,
4 ex 2 4-
fcc
... 4-
n
)
/(x) can be expanded in the form

1
4 ux + u 2x* 4-
where the series terminates if n
is
urx r 4-
... 4-
a positive
. . .
The
u r of x r
coefficient
n(n -
1)
is the
sum
and in
other cases is
x.
of all terms of the form
+ 1)
H--2) .^(a
integer,
absolutely convergent for sufficiently small values of

(ii)
the same as in Ex.
Multinomial Theorem for any Real Index.
11.
then
is
, /B
""
'
B'Ty/'-E
where
/?,
. . .
K:
Aave any positive integral or zero values such that
and the corresponding values of a are given by a-f/3-fy-f-...-f/c =

w then
For let y = 6x + ex 2 -f
4- fcr
by the Binomial theorem
. . .
*
provided that |y|<l, and by Ch. XVII, 3,
number p such that |y|<l when |x|<p.
By
substituting bx
+ cx 2 +
...
for
(1),
we can
find a positive
y in (A) and expanding the terms, we
obtain an expansion of /(x) in powers of x which is convergent if x\<p.

In order that the terms of this series may be arranged in ascending
powers of x, it is sufficient that the series is convergent when all the terms
|
are
made
where
positive.
x', b', c', ...
stand for \x\, |fej,

this is the case if
if
c
|
number a such that
|,
+ k'x' m <l,
+ c'x 2 4and we can find a positive
b'x'
...
. . .
x <a.
\
This concludes the proof of the statement (i).

r
Again, s being any positive integer, by Ch. Ill, 16, the coefficient of x
2
s
m
in
is the sum of all terms of the form
(bx + ex + ... 4 kx )
EXPANSIONS
where
. . .
y,
j8,
ic
have any positive integral or zero values such that

jS
and
+ 2y + ...+w/c = r,
K
y-K..+
/?+
from (A) that the coefficient

the sum of all terms of the form
It follows
is
n(n-l)...(n-* +
T-7f
where the values of

of s
by
Ex.
1.
Here
j8,
y,
JPt'nrf f/ie coefficient
n~
--J,
j8,
y, 8
x r in the expansion of f(x)
of
l)
fl
c/
A;
. . .
of X* in the expansion of (\
^4, and the
(
v
~i)(
-i--l)(
v -i ~2)
I
_JLI
*_
-_ _z
coefficient is the
...
(a
sum
1
2#(
terms of the form
- 4) v ( - 2) 6 ,
have positive integral or zero values such that
and the corresponding values of a are given by
~~
+ 2x - 4# 2 -
of all
+ 1)
where
(B)
S ............................... (C)
c;
i
..............................
are given by (B) and the corresponding values

= n-s.
(ii) follows on writing a
...
The statement
(C).
355
/J
+ 2y + 33 -4,
a+/?+y + 8=~-|-.
The possible values of a, /S, y, 8 are shown in the margin.

The term corresponding to the first set of values is
ft
2>
>
-3i,
2,
1,
-4,
4,
0,
-2j,
0,
2,
'
Similarly it will be found that the other terms are

^, 6, so that the required coefficient is
15,
-3 + 15+4f + 6=22-|.
EXERCISE XXXV
1.
By
n
considering the expansion of (1 -a:)~
A ~r H H
n(n +
n(n +
1)
show that
r^,:
L
2.
Show
that, if
= ~^, and
x+y
2
|
<1, then
n-f2);
3. If n, r are positive integers (including zero), show that

n
f| - 1
2
.
t he expansion of (1
2r)2
x) /(l -a;) is (n
n+r-i
n
- 2
[Expand {2 - ( 1 x)} l ( 1 a;) .]
4. If w is a positive integer and
(1
show that
+ c*i + a, +
+x) n
.
+ an_! = $n (n 4- 2) (n + 7) 2n
-4
.
the coefficient of
COMPARISON OF COEFFICIENTS
356
5. If
is
3.4n(n-l)
= coefficient of z n
6.
If n
Prove that
Show
if
!?L
8.
{1
in
{2
(1
n
x)} l(l
(n
+ l)(n + 2)
- x)*=(n z + In 4- 8)2W ~ 3
"~~
""
1)
"
-# (2 -x)}~ 1 = (I -x)~ 2 .]
'
JL??_
that, for all values of
p 4-^ = 1 and
n(tt-l)(n~2)
+" ~
'
m and n
coefficient of
x r in the expansion of
n, r are positive integers (n>r),
put 1 q for p, and show that the

hand side when expanded is
(1
+x)
n~m
show that
coefficient of q k
^coefficient of z fc in (1 +3;) n x (1 +a?)-<n

...
where
In Exx. 10-13, if (1 -fx) n = 004-^0:4- c.2 x 2 4- ...
+0^+
value, find the
sum
2 r==Q mc x
of the series,
IL^J;
14. If
<f>
'
[Divide by
any
a positive integer,
is
n n
= the
9. If
5 n(n - l)(n -2)
is
[From the expansion of

7.
12.
r
9
when
on the
left-
- r - fc+1
>.]
n may have
m is
,-,!-=,;
13.
ur =Ao + A lr + A s r(r-I) + ...+A h r(r-l)...(r-h + l) and

~
h~1
h
4- A l nx
+ A 2n(n- l)xh 2 -f + A h n(n ~I) ...(n-h + l),
(x)-A Qx
. . .
prove that
15.
Prove that
CfCfJlJI
[Consider the product

16.
Show
(1
+ Cf^Cfilf H-(7J +1 C;Si; + ...

T +^
x (1 - X )~^- T \]
-x)~(
that
3 2n + a
to 40 terms -6' JJ.
-3
2714-3*
the summation being taken for

n.
9 r such that p + q + r
[Consider the expansion of
all
positive integral values, including zero, of
p q
y
(a 4-6
+c)
2n+3
- (6
*
-f
-a)
2n + 3
- (c 4-a - ^>) 2n+3 - (a 4-6 -c) 2n + 3 .]
Check the answer by putting
nl.
CHAPTER XXII
RATIONAL FRACTIONS
RECURRING SERIES AND DIFFERENCE
(2),
EQUATIONS
1.
Expansion of a Rational Fraction.
fraction in x,
Any
rational proper
whose denominator does not contain # as a
factor,
may
be
written in the form
+a _
- - -+p
+ a 1 a; + a 2z2 + ...
2
l+piX+p^x + ...
a
_
mx
rx
Various ways of expanding such a fraction in a series of the form
Zu n x n
are given below.
can be shown that the
obtained by any process is convergent

for all values of x in any interval including zero, then by Ch. XX, 20, any
other method of expansion yields identically the same series.
If it
2.
Theorem
The
series
rational fraction
P/Q can
be
expanded in a convergent
series of the form
U + u l x + u 2x2 +
if
and only
if
For, by the
x
\
<
A
|
method
of several terms of the
|,
where A
+u n xn + ...
...
is the root
of partial fractions,
of
$=
with the least modulus.
expressed as the sum

a constant, r a positive
P/Q can be
form A(x-a,)~- r where

,
is
integer and a is any root, real or imaginary, of the equation Q Q.

All of these terms can be expanded in a convergent series of ascending
powers of x if, and only

the least modulus.
When
this
the various
Ex.
1.
is
if,
x
|
<
A
|
|,
where A
the case, the expansion of
is
the root of
the fraction
be expanded in a series of ascending powers of x?

Equating the denominator to zero, the roots are
-iV2
and t(i
and their moduli are -s/2il, >/5, ^5.

Hence the expansion is possible if and only
with
P/Q can be obtained by adding
series.
For what values of x can
$=
if
|
x \<*J~ -
1.
RECURRING SERIES
358
Methods of Expansion.
3.
where the
Art.
1.
(1)
Suppose that
assumed to be convergent and P,
series is
are as described in
Multiplying by Q,
Expanding the right-hand side and equating

uQi u v u2 ... are determined by the equations
coefficients, tjie values of
Hence, after a certain stage, any r successive coefficients are connected by

a linear relation. A series having this property is called a Recurring Series.
(2)
The process
equivalent to synthetic division carried

Ch.
Ill, 3.)
(See
just described
out as in the next example.

Ex.
Show
1.
that,
The reckoning
is
for sufficiently small values of x 9
+ X + X 2 + X3
is
as follows.
-3
(2
4-
4)
1+1+1+1
+ 4 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 32
-3-9-12-12-24
+ 2+6 + 8+8 + 16
1+3 + 4 + 4+ 8 + 20
The
first
term
diagonally in
(c),
in the quotient (d)
(a);
(6),
+ 1-3,
is
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2, -3, +4
3(2-3+4)^6-9 + 12;
1(2-3 + 4)^2-3+4; put
the next term in
(d)
- 9, + 12
6 - 3 + 1 =4, the next term in (d).
diagonally in (c), (6), (a)
do this example by the method in Art. 3, (1), he will see that the
reckoning is essentially the same as that just described.
put
6,
If the reader will
(3)
The method of Partial Fractions.
Ex.2. If
We have
where
Hence
Now
hence
a,
j8
1/(1
-2ar+5x 2 )=w
a;
are the roots of

i
+w1 + ...+Mwarn + ...
x*
find the value of un
= _1 /__?_ _ _J
)~a-8 \1 -a* 1 -j
-j8*)~a-j8
- 2x + 5 =0, so that we
may
take a = 1 + 2*,
l
a=v/5(cos0 + isin0), 0=V5(cos0 -tsin0), where 0=tann +1
n ^ 1 =5*(n + 1
/. a
).2tsin(n + l)0;
-/3
w n =i.5*(n fl )sin
(n
+ l)0, where 0=tan"-
2.
2,
ft
= 1 - 2i.
HOMOGENEOUS PRODUCTS
(4)
fraction can also
expanded by the Multinomial

method and that -of Partial Fractions and equating
rational
Theorem.
359
Using this
we can obtain
be
many important
coefficients,
results, as in
the following
exercise.
EXERCISE XXXVI
Use synthetic division to expand
1.
w (l-a;)
'
1
(l-2*)'
as far as the terms containing a; 6 Find also the
.
Show
2.
that, if
p and
coefficient of xn in
each expansion.
2
q are real numbers, the condition that 1/(1 4- px + qx )
series of ascending powers of a; is as follows
can be expanded in a convergent

2
p >4#, then
(i) if
<
- Vp 2
(p'
*q)/2q
where p'-\p\\
|,
(ii)ifp*<4q, then \x\<lf*Jq.
x lies between a and

show that the fraction l/(x - <x)(x - 0)
3. If
|,
can be expanded in the form ... 4- b 2 x~* + b vx~ l + a + a^x + a&* +
where the
series extends to oo on the right and left.
|
. . .
[Let
If
The
|a|<l)B|.
= (a- ]8){l/(a;- a) -!/(*- J8)}.
fraction
|a|<||<|j8|, prove that
and
[Hn
i.e.
is
sum
of the homogeneous products of n dimensions which can

show that
dn +*(b-c) + b n +*(c-a)+cn +*(a-b)=-Hn (b--c)(c-a)(a--b).
the coefficient of x n in the product
4. If
n is the
be formed with a,
6, c,
The
in the expansion of 1/(1 -ax)(l -bx)(l -ex).

fractions.]
result
obtained by the
is
method of partial
5.
Prove that, for
sufficiently small values of x,

1
a n =p n
where
-(n-
""
-px + qx*~~
l)p ~*q
-p
~*q*
. . .
the (r+ l)th term being

6.
l)
C^- p
n - zr r
q
use the identity
If a-f/?=jp, aj9=5 ,
f
to prove that
an + p" =pn - pr
n~2
j3
Li
the (r + l)th term being
[Expand both
sides,
I)f
- <x.x
__ *>\
,
f-
w~ 4
fix
. . .
-px + qx*
!j_
^~>-l)^-^-2) - (n-2r + l) yn _ ifgr
equate coefficients and use Ex.
5.]
SCALES OF RELATION
360
7.
+ p=p, 4=9,
If a
to prove that
the (r + l)th term being
[Expand both
8. If
is
sides
(-1?
^n
*~ r "
and use Ex.
~^
(r
(ii)
+ 1) th term
552*
sin
-*V-- y
5.]
n
0)
~ (2 cos B) n ~
Li
the
"' (n
2 cos nB = (2 cos
(i)
use the identity
being
(2 cos
0r- -
the (r+ l)th term being
n n~r~
^
n
(2 cos 0)
~4 -
...
l)
^r~
(2 cos
(n
*) "' (*>-
~ T ~ l)(n
(2 CO8
"- 3
4)
y-
"'
(2 cos *)
12
~*~ 2)
)n -sr.
"~ 2r)
1)'
(2 cos
...
0)-->.
7"
[In Exx. 6, 7 put a

9.
(ii)
Show
The
that
(i)
= 2, p = z~
where
z~ cos
0-fi sin
0.]
the coefficient of x m in the expansion of -~
coefficient of x* n in the
expansion of
-- -
--
(1
-x)(\
-x
)(l
- x4
)
+#
is
(n f
2
Recurring Series. (1) Let u Q + u 1 x + u 2x + ... be a series
which any r + 1 successive coefficients are connected by the equation
4.
u n +PiU n -i+P2U n _ 2 +...+p r u n _ r =

where r
is
a fixed number and
p l9 p 2
...
pr
is
-,
''
1 )
2
.
in
.................... (A)
are constants.
Such a
series is
called a Recurring Series of the r-ih order.
Some authors
equation (A) the Scale of Relation of the series

1 +p 1 x+p 2 x 2 + ... + p r x r
others use this term to denote the polynomial
We shall take it to mean either of these things.
call
u l9
u r _^ are known, the subsequent coefficients

can be found in succession by equation (A). Thus a recurring series of
the rth order depends on 2r constants.
Hence if the first 2r coefficients are given, in general the series can be
continued as a recurring series of the rth order, and in one way only. Also
If the coefficients
it
...
can be continued as a recurring series of the (r + l)th order in a doubly

number of ways. For to do this we can give ur and ur+l any values.
infinite
2r terms belong to a recurring series of

necessary that this may be so, and then
the series can be continued as a recurring series of the (r - l)th order.
may happen that the first

order r-1. Two conditions are
It
CONVERGENCE OF RECURRING SERIES

Ex.
361
Discuss the question of continuing 2un x n as a recurring series when the
1.
first
six terms are known.
un +pu n _ l + qu n _ 2 + run _ 3
Let the scale of relation be
Then
are given
q, r
p,
u3 4- pu2
4-
qu
0.
by
4- r u
w4 4- pu9 4- #1*2 4- r^j
0,
Now Sunx n
can be continued as a recurring

definite values and rrÔ. This will be the case
w e 4- pw 4 4- g?/ 3
0,
4-
ru 2
order
series of the third
if
0.
have
p, q, r
if
and
(A)
"3
In case either determinant

then
is
zero,
suppose that the scale
u & +pu^ 4- gw 3 =0.
That these equations may be
one of the
u n ^-pu n _ l
W 4 4-^ 3 4- <?t*2 =0,
first
+ p W2
4-
^ Wj = 0,
consistent, each of the determinants in (A)
vanish, so that two conditions are necessary that

the second order.
If it is
is
u2 4- p^ + qu = 0,
order, the scale being
Eun xn may
must
be a recurring series of
un +pu n ^ 1 =0, then
Ut+pUQ Q,
+pu 1 = 0, ... uB +pu4 0,
2
conditions u l -uû 2 = Q u 2 2 -u u 3 =0 w 3 2 -w 2 w 4
u2
so that the four
must be
(2)
u4 z
0,
-u 3 u5 =Q
satisfied.
Any
u n xn
recurring series
is
convergent for sufficiently small values
of x.
For
let
the scale be
u n +p l u n _ l +p 2 u n __ 2 +...+p r u n _ r = 0,
and let U Q
Then by (A),
|,
|,
...
|
pl
|,
p2
|,
be denoted by UQ ',
...
u,
p, p%',
...
(A)
....
'
the greater of the numbers Pi +p% +

+p r an d 1, and un ^
the
same way
the greatest of the set
u'
...
In
__
n 2
l9
UQ.
where #
is
u
|
..................
is
u^
where
w^
is
the greatest of u^_ s _ l) u'n _ 8 _ 2
Continuing thus, by multiplication
where
is
the greatest of Wn-i> Wn-2>
Thus
|
...
u$.
we can show that

|
...
2u n x n
u \
u nx n \^\gx\ n .A,
n
convergent if x |<l/y> for then w nx
(w4-l)th term of a convergent series of positive terms.
and
un
is less
is
than the
GENERATING FUNCTION
362
when convergent,
of any recurring series Zu n x
a rational proper fraction, which is called the generating function of
The sum
(3)
is
to infinity
the series.
Let the scale be
U n +PlU>n-l+P2U n _ 2 +...+pr Un __ r = Q,
and
..................
(A)
let
S
= w + w 1 x + w 2 x2 -f ...
to QO ......................... (B)
p^, p2^>
p rxr and adding, we find that
+ p& 4- p 2x2 4 4 p rx?) = a 4- djX 4 a 2x2 4 + a r _ 1 xr - 1
Multiplying (B) by
s(1
where
. . .
=w
al
=w
. . .
4r
......
(C)
a 2 = t/ 2 4 jo^
^WG,
the coefficients of powers of x higher than x r
~l
vanishing on account
of equation (A).
Thus
s is
It follows
ti;Aer6
equal to a rational fraction, of which the denominator
from Art. 2 that
// w n
(4)
a recurring
is
Q=
iA6 root of
To prove
of which the scale
is
(1
-x)
n of
r+l
is
r,
then
Zun xn
. . .
Let
,
so that v n is a polynomial in
r steps of this kind,
where &
degree
n
2
- x) = w 4
v^ 4 1 2^ 4 ... 4 v nx 4
s (1
where vn = u n -u n _ l
|,
we can proceed as in Ch. VIII, 7.

s = u 4 ux 4 u%x 2 -f
4 u nx n
. . .
then
if\x\<\ A
wjAicA Aas $Ae Zeas^ modulus.
positive integral function of
series
this,
2Ae recurring series is convergent
is
we
. . .
n of degree r-1.
By
find that
independent of
x,
and therefore
s(I-x)
r+ l
~u +(k-u Q )x,
which proves the theorem,

Ex.
2.
Find
the
sum
l
This
by
is
to infinity
2
of
42 2*43 2a: 2 44V4..., when |*|<1.
a convergent recurring
series,
and the
scale
is
(1 -a;)
8,
=
=
-3
l*x
-3
2 2 *2 - 3
3.
and
S--
8
.
Denoting the
sum
FINITE DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

The sum
(5)
n terms of a recurring
to
similar to that in
Ex.
Find
3.
the
to
can be found by a process
or in the last example.
(3),
sum
series
363
n terms
+ u^x 4- u 2x2
of w
. . .
where u n
+pu n _ t + qu n , z =
n>l.
for
=u + u lx+ u2 x 2 + ... + u n _ xn ~
2
+ pu n _ 2 xn - + pu n _^xn
pas n =
2?tt # -f >Wi# +
Let
6n
then
. . .
Since w r +7>w r _ 1
+ ^w r _ 2 =0
for
::
*n (1
+ JP^ +
2
)
r>l, by addition,
~ uo + w i +P ?/o) x ~ u n xn
(
which determines the value of sn unless a; is a root a of the equation 1

In this case the sum may be deduced from the general result by supposing that #,
Given the
(6)
uv
w n -i-^ 1 w n _ 1 +
scale
ur _ v we can
...
find the value of
4-j? r w n _ r
= 0, and
the values of w
u n by
(i) finding the generating function

(ii) expressing this as the sum of partial fractions of the form
~
~
m where a is a root of xr
A(l-ocx)"
+p 1 x r l + p 2xr 2 + ... -f 7? r = 0; and
n
(iii) expanding the partial fractions and collecting the coefficients of x
...
Examples
Examples of Finite Difference Equations.
5.
any
are given in the next article.
+1
consecutive terms of the sequence (u n )
u n +PiU n ~i+P2U n _ 2 +
equation
where p l9 p2 ...pr are constants.

,
is
From
...
Suppose that
are connected by the
+;p r w n _ r = 0,
................. (A)
this point of view, equation (A)
called a Linear Finite Difference Equation with constant coefficients.

So far as equation (A) is concerned, the first r terms of the sequence
may have any
values whatever, that
is
to say they are arbitrary constants.
Thus the process described in the last section enables us to find

the general value of u n which satisfies equation (A), and shows that this
value involves r arbitrary constants. The general value of u n is called the
general solution, and the process of finding it is called solving the equation.
The process leads to the following results.
The general
(i)
(A
-f
wJ5)a
where a,
u n + pu n _ l + qu n _ 2 ^=Q is wn = ^4a n -f J3/?" or

are the roots of x 2 +px + q = Q and A, B are arbitrary
solution of
j8
constants, the first or second form being taken according as

(ii)
The general
where a,
j3,
solution of
//a^^y,
then
2
+px + qx + r = Q and A,
no two of
the roots are equal.

n
a n -f
u n = (A+ nB)
u n = (A+nB + n*C)oL n
If a = P 7^ y, the solution
2A
u n +pu n ^ l + qu n _ 2 + ru n _3 = Q
are the roots of x 3
constants, provided that
a^/?
is
Cy
B,
or
a = j8.
is
are arbitrary
B C A
-
GENERAL SOLUTIONS
364
For any
(iii)
other value of r the general solution of equation (A) has
similar form.
We
If
give the proof of
(ii).
%, u 2 have any values, then
+ u 2*x2* +
+ u^x
l
UQ
where
a, 6, c
where
a,
j3,
. . .
+ u n xn +
are functions of ^
y are the roots
. . .
-a + bx + cx2
u v w2
~
2
==
J
7: (say),
Also
of
# 3 + px* 4- qx 4- r = 0.
If
(i)
no two of
where A, B,
a,
j8,
are equal,
are arbitrary constants.

the
fractions on the right and equating coefficients,
Expanding
(ii)
If
a = /? 9^ y, then
P/4
(iii)
If
JJ
u n = (4
and
f^
JD
^L
-f
nfi)a
+ Cy w
a = j3 = y, then
P__A__
~
+
T - ocx
(^
(lâxp
(1-a;
u n = ^4o
and
where
JB',
C' are arbitrary constants.
The first term of a sequence is 1, the second is 2,

of the two preceding tertrw. Find the n-th term.
j&r. 1.
sum
Denoting the sequence by u l9 w 2 , ... we have

u -u
and
n -2^Q
Hence
Eliminating A,
B from these
(a
equations,
-a
we
0K = (2 - )3)a" -'
Now a+0 = l, a/3=-l and

2
1,
other term is the
U 2 ^2.
2-Ao^ + B^, l=.4a + ^, where
UnÂoP+Bp
^=
n~i-u
and every
a,
j8
are the roots of
find that
(2
- )"-'.
a>/8, a- 8=v'5,
Therefore
-1=0), and similarly 2-a=/?
hence 2-y8
if
-d
= l+a=a 2
(for
GENERAL TERMS
Ex.
Find
2.
a recurring
the n-th term of
which
series of
Find also the sum of the first n terms when x ~ 1

and
Denote the series by w -f u^x + u 2 x 2 +
. . .
365
the first
let
the scale be
7+2p+# = and 20 + 7^4-2^=0, giving p= -2,

un -2u n ^ l -3u n _ z -Q.
The roots of x*-2x-3^Q are 3, - 1, and therefore
Then
is
un =A.3n + B(-l) n
A+B^\,
where
Thus the nth
-^2.
3.4
term-wâ;"- -i-[3 + ( 3
.*.
sum to n terms = -
l-3#
---h
--
Now
the
sum
to
Ex.
3.
The
solution
n terms
The values
of a,
ft
Hence the values
~iin
a,
==
...
n-1 + u n _ 2 =0 ^w a rea/ /orm.

are the roots of x*-x + \
and
j8
Changing the constants,
this
^3
.77
may
(7,
be written
are
an
of
,,!..
solution
-w
scale
n ~l
-2 + 7- 20 +
of un
+ />^3n where
and the
v\n
of the series
Can
un
]x
1+s
J'iwrf the general solution

is
l)
!-(-*)"
_
and the
-3,
iZL-^^ limLJL
lim
q=
B=^\.
n ~l
--
l-3w z n
/.
A-%
Hence
1
four terms are
j3
n are cos
sin
-^~,
o
AA
un
is
7T
r
+ B am
-
cos
u
and so
~u
EXERCISE XXXVII
1.
Find the wth term and the sum to n terms of the recurring
(i) 1
2.
is
Show
+2+5+
Show
vergent
1+2 + 5 + 12 +
(ii)
x
|
<
sum
to infinity
..
series
is 7J-.
un -2un _ 1 + 4un _ 2 -3un _ 3 = Q
that, if
if
infinity is
+ ..
that the recurring series
convergent, and that the

3.
14
and
if
the
first
the series
three terras are
2unxn
+ 2x + 3#
2
,
**
(
i
^
~\
_1_
1*2î
~^~ fjjL,
//Ix
; i
f?l*
4Utfe
n^
4.'/*^
xC/
<
^f*^
O*<
3
2
[The moduli of the roots of x -2# + 4x-3=0 are
1, 1/^/3, l/>/3.]
the
is
con-
sum
to
EXAMPLES OF RECURRING SERIES
366
3un -lun_ l -{-5un _ 2 -~u n _ 3 =0 and
4. If
%=
u 3 = 17,
u 2 = 8,
!,
the
find
un and u l
values of
5.
Find the nth term of the recurring
6.
If u n
series
l-f2-f34-54-74-94-...
the nth term of the recurring series 14-24-34-84-134- 30 4-... ,

find the sum to infinity of the
is
show that un ={(3n-4)( -l) n -f 2n + 2 }, and

8eries
u
If w n
7.
-^~w _
n
un ain6~u 2 q
+ gw n _ 2 =:0, where ^ 2 <4g, and -^7r<6<^rr show
?L:J
sin (n
- 1)0
-u^
sin
tan#=
where
(n- 2)0,
that
\/(4</-7>
2
)
.
Zu n x n Er n xn
If
8.
and
+p'x + q'x
then
are recurring series of which the scales are 1+px + qx 2

2(un + vn )xn is a recurring series whose scale is
(
ZW n ZV n
9. If
1 -\-px 4-
2
flo:
) (
1 4- 2>'z 4- q'x*)-
are recurring series of which the scales are

and vn + p'u n 4- q'u n__ 2 = 0,
un + pu n _^ 4- qu n _i ^
7^ 4^', then Sun vn is a recurring series whose

^ 4<^ and
un ~PP' un-i + (PV +P' 2<1 - 2^0^-2 -pp'OU'lln-z + <f<l' 2Un__i =0.
2
2
[If a, ^8 and a', j8 are the roots of # 4-^r + </~0 and # -h^>'^4-g ~0
n
n
/n
n
/n
n
"
n
then
tively,
4- ^?a /3
4- 6V
+ Dai' p
Un r n Âoc
where ^4, B, C, I) are constants. Hence the scale of, Zun vn xn is
1 - OLOL'X) ( 1 - *P'X) 1 - affix) I ~ OL'fi'x).]
(
where
>'
^>
r/
scale
is
respec-
'
10. If
1
2un
- 2kx 4- A: 2x 2
xn
Evn
are recurring series whose scales are

then Eun r n xn is a recurring series whose scale
,
Hence show that Ununxn
Eun
xn
xn
is
a recurring
series
whose
scale
l+px + qx 2 and
is
is
(1
a recurring series whose scale is 1+px + qx 2

whose scale is [1 - (p 2 ~ 2q)x 4- g 2 # 2 ] ( 1 - qx).
are
the
roots of z 2 4-pz4-?=-0, then u n * = A(ot*) n
[If a, fi
where A, B, C are constants. Hence the scale of Eu n 2 x n is
11. If
is
a recurring
12. If
is
l+px + qx
13.
then
Uun
xn
series
+ B(fi*) n + Cq n
(l-a 2^)(l-^)(l-^).]
,
2
= ^r
u xn
n==0 n
Prove that each of the

COS a
sin
use Ex. 11 to show that
series
4- X COS
oc + x
sin
(0
4-
a)
4-
X 2 COS (20 4- a)
4- ...
(04-a)+# sin (204-a)4-...

2
being 1 2x cos 4- x in each
,
Show
also
and that the sum to n terms of the second series may be obtained from
expression by changing cos to sin in the numerator.
this
a recurring series, the scale

that the sum to n terms of the
is
case.
first series is
cos a - x cos (a - 0) - x n cos (a -f nO) + xn + l cos (a

_____._____
+n -
Id)
9
FORMATION OF DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

Finite Difference
6.
367
Let (u n )
be a sequence in
u n ^ r are connected by
Equations.
all of the terms u n u n __ v u n _%, ...

an equation which holds for all values of n^r, where r is a fixed number.
Such an equation is called a Finite Difference Equation.
which some or
An
important class of these equations has been considered in Art.
5.
Here we give methods which apply to various cases which occur in ordinary
algebra. The general theory belongs to the Calculus of Finite Differences.
To solve a difference equation is to express u n as a function of n in the
most general form.
The result is called the general
in Art. 5
it is
clear that this
and from what has been said

solution must involve one or more arbitrary
solution,
constants.
particular solution
obtained by giving these constants special
is
values.
un
a given function of n containing one or more arbitrary constants,

a difference equation may be obtained as in the following examples.
If
Ex.
is
// u n
1.
~-Gn-2
where
an arbitrary
is
constant, obtain the corresponding
difference equation.
The required equation
is
found by eliminating
un ~Cn-"l
- l)w
(n
n
giving
C'
from
^n-\~ V(n -
and
1)
-2,
-nw n- 1 = 2.
.
n
n where
A, B are arbitrary constants and
// un ~AoL +Bf$
numbers
neither
which
is zero, prove that
unequal
of
u - (* + $)u
-=0.
fl _
Ex.
2.
The
result is
n _i +aj8t*
found by eliminating A
Solution of
7.
a,
ft
are given
B from
some Elementary Types.
n
// u n = au n _ l9 then u n = Ca where C is an arbitrary constant.
For w n /w n _ 1 ==M n _. 1 /w w ._ 2 ==... =w 2 /w 1 = a, and u v may have any value.
(1)
// u n = a n u n-i where a n
(2)
where
is
For
*or
an
Wi/a i
n> then
arbitrary constant.
Un ~ l
~Un
un-\ u n-Z
*
un =
therefore
and
a given function of
is
mav have any
value
...
al
we
^-aa
--a na n -i
ul
a^
. . .
choose.
a ny
<*2i
w n = Ca xa2
...
an
SOLUTION OF ELEMENTARY TYPES
368
(3)
= bn
// u n a n u n _i
where a n and b n are given functions of n, the
general solution is
where
is
an
arbitrary constant.
Let vn = a 1 a 2 ...a n
The
result
and divide each
side of the given equation
by v n
is
Un/Vn~Un-lK-I = b n/ v n'
In
this,
writing n
Whence by
n~
1,
2 in succession for w,
...
we have
addition,
wK This
2,
the
gives
^1/^1
= &iM + 6 2 /v 2 +
fe
the value of
question, for
in
revsult
+ & nK - iKu l lv l -bl jv l
is
arbitrary.
In examples of this type, it is better to apply the

rather than to use the actual result.
-l)u n - nu n _ 1 ~2.
we
have
Dividing by n(n-l),
u n \n - u n ^l(n - 1) =2/
Ex.
1.
1,
nn
-2,
...
2 in succession for
U.2
Hence un ~ Cn-2 where

C.
(See Art. 6, Ex. 1.)
Ex.
2.
Find
(4)
we
2.3
C~ 2 + u v
the general solution of
(n
1).
n and adding,
(n-l)n)
and
since u t
u n - nu n _ { =
is
an arbitrary constant, so
also
M.
and proceeding
the equation becomes un
j\n--u n _ l l\n-\ l,
find that wn
+ (7) where C is an arbitrary constant.
Dividing by
as before,
just described
Solve the equation (n
Writing n
is
method
n,
The general
~[n(n
solution of
â n + c
according as a and
?/
~aw n _ 1 = cjSn
+Y03--a)
is
or
are unequal or equal.
j3
For dividing by an we have

,
Writing n-1,
n-2,
...
2 in succession for n and adding,
LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS

u n = coc n
Therefore
=u
where B(
Hence,
gn
r
if
+ -^2 +
[a a
-
369
+ r-n \
a
an arbitrary constant.
is
/ot-cft/oi)
(B
_ an
/3-a
which-
may
be written
where A(^B-cft/(ft~oc))
If a = ]8, then i/ n = cna n
The general
(5)
is
an arbitrary constant.
w n ~(a-f j3)w n _ 1
solution of
n
u n ÂoL + Bft
according as a and
/?
-faj3w n _ 2
u n ^(A + nB)oc.
or
are unequal or equal, where A,
n
,
B are arbitrary constants.
For the equation may be written
^-atV-i^K^-aô).
Hence by
where C
is
u n ~ocu n
(1),
^^C^
an arbitrary constant, and therefore, by (4),

w n ==â w + Cj8 n+1 /()8-a) or (4+Cw)a n
,
according as a 7^)8 or
Cft/ (ft -of)
is
a = /J.
This establishes the result in question, for

an arbitrary constant if a^/3. (See also Art. 5.)
Linear Difference Equations.
8.
au n + bu n _ l + cu n __<>+
is
With regard
(i)
it
An
equation of the form
ku n , r = l
r is a fixed
n or constants.
to equation (A),
The general
... 4-
Here
called a linear difference equation.
k, I are given functions of

are of this type.
(1)
.....................
number, and
(A)
a, 6,
...
All the equations in Art. 7
should be noticed that
u r+l9 wr4 2 >---
solution involves r arbitrary constants, for
can be found in succession in terms of u l9 u^
...
u r) which
may
have any
values.
(ii)
// v n
is (he
general solution of
au n -f 6w n _ x -f cw n _ 2 +
and
wn
is
solution
any particular
For it
of (A).
. .
+ ku n , r = 0,
solution of equation (A), then v n

is obviously a solution, also
+ wn
it
is
is the
general
the general
solution, because v n involves r arbitrary constants.

(iii)
The method
of dealing with such equations as
au n -f bu n ^
where
a,
fc,
...
k, r
-f
. . .
are constants and
trated in the next example.
-f
ln
ku n _ r = /,
is
a given function of n,
is illus-
GENERAL TERM OF A SEQUENCE
370
Ex.
-Su^j-f 6w n _ 2 =n
Solve the equation u n
1.
The general
-5%^-f 6w n _ 2 =0
un
solution of
*^tl
Next search
Assume
w n =a + fru + en 2
a + bn+cn -5{a + b(n-l)+c(n-l)
powers of
coefficients of
-J-,
+ 2n
is
J,
-^
n,
we
then for
all
values of n,
+ 6{a
find that
2a
26-14c=0,
2c^l,
c
5n
+/J.O
giving
-f
for a particular solution of
as a trial solution
Equating
~ n d so a solution
is
15) ...................................... (B)
Again, take the equation
and assume as a
a(5
Thus a solution
a 5n
un
trial solution
-5.5n " 1
then
+6.5n - a
)=5
n
,
?
giving a = 6^.
is
tS.
Finally, take the equation
Since 2
un
is
a root of x 2
an. 2 n ,
-5x + 6=0,
it is clear
we have
a{n
- 2.
giving a =
2n
-5(w -
Thus a solution
l)2
n -x
that a
2W
is
not a solution.
+ 6(n -2)2n ~ 2 } =2n
Trying
is
u n = -n.2n + l .......................................... (D)
The general
solution of the given equation
sides of equations (A)-(D),
and
is
obtained by adding the right-hand
is
EXERCISE XXXVIII
The first term of a sequence is 1, and every other term
the preceding terms. Find the nth term.
1.
2.
If
3.
The
2ttn
-tt n _ 1
first
the arithmetic
is
the
sum
of
all
=na, show that
is a, the second is 6, and every other term

of the two preceding terms. Show that the nth terra is
term of a sequence
mean
thus proving that the nth term tends to J (a
+ 26)
as a limit as
n ->
oo
is
4. The first term of a sequence is 1, the second is a, and every other term
the geometric mean of the two preceding terms.
~
Show that the nth term is ax where x î:{2 + ( - i) n 2 }.
is
DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
371
5. If ww = />_!
gw n _ a and un tends to a limit other than zero as w-> oo
are 1 and -~q; also show
show that |g|<l, and the roots of x z -px-q
-f-
î
6.
i-
Show
+ qui
Ui
hm unn
that
1+q
that the equation
un - (a 4 ft + y) U n _i 4 (fty
4-
ya 4 aj8)
tt n _2
Hence prove that
Un-oMn-i^Bp + Cy"
fi^y or j9 y, where J5, C
OT

according as
as
of
the
in
Art. 5, (ii).
solution
equation
given
general
7.
If
un
nu n _ l + (-l) n and w ~l, show that un j\n-*e~* as ^->oo.
K/|n_= Wn_ /ln_-J-K-D

1
8.
If un = ?i(u n _ l
+ un _ 2
[Write the equation

9.
If
wn
(^
t*
)y
/[n..]
un
find
- (w 4-
in terms of
w and ^, and show that
u n _ l ~ - (^n-i ~ nu n-2)-]
1)
- l)(^ n ~i + ^n-2) an(i
V
3
M2 = l
= 0,
"
"
prove that
1)n
1
li
/'
L?
[Write the equation in the form
un - nun ^ = - [u^.! - (n 10.
Obtain a particular solution of
by assuming un =an + b.
Hence find the general solution of the equation.
Find the general solution of un -5u n _ l -i-Qu n _ 2
n
[Assume un ~a .l as a trial solution.]
11.
12.
Find the general solution of
[Take as a trial solution

13.
wn -wW -i-Wn_2=ft 2
un ~ an 2 + bn + c.]
Find a particular solution of
un + u n-i sinna
by assuming un a cos no, -f b sin noc.
Hence show that the general solution is
~~
2(1
14. If
Deduce the
u n un _i
=-
[nu n = (n l)?/n_ 2
un
in terms of
-f
cos
find
noê that there are two forms.}
u^
ln
GENERAL SOLUTIONS
372
15.
Show
that the general solution of the equation
Vn-l + aun + bun-l + C =

where
an arbitrary constant and a, /3 are the roots of

2
- ab =0
a: - (a - b)x 4- c
is
unless
a.
fi,
in
which case
[Write the equation as ^(^ n _i4-a)4-&w n _ 1 4-c^0.

v
The equation then reduces to
so that u n 4 a
/
v n-l
vn
unless vn _j
16. If
4-
(6
- a)v n _ 1
4- (c
- ab)v n _ 2
= 0.]
Vn-i + 3ww - 4
w_ 1
-2=0, prove
that
>l.2 n 4-5 n
^
/I
17. If
<
wn w w _ 1
4- 5itw 4-
WTJ_I 4-
0,
2w
_,,
""
4-5 n
~1
<
then
2
18. If
tt
n+1
=-~
-'
2n-wn
and w l = a, prove that
a4-w(l-a)
and
[Put
wn ^nvw .]
0,
Put
CHAPTER XXIII
THE OPERATORS
1.
The Operator
variable n,
(i)
J, E, D.
INTERPOLATION
Let u n be a function of the positive integral
A.
and consider the sequence u v u 2 u3

,
The meaning
symbol A
of the
is
...,
un
...
defined by
^n^tVrt-f^,
and A
regarded as denoting the operation which when applied to u n

the
Here n may have any value, so that
difference u n+l - u n
produces
is
Jw 1 = w2 -^^ 1
Au 2 = u3 -u 2
etc.
Au n = v n *Aen Vj + Va + Va + .-.+Vn^Wn^-ti!.
= w a - tij,
= v n = w w+1 - ti w
Vj
*?_! w n !*__!, ...
(ii)//
For
whence the
(iii)
result follows
by
addition.
d(u n + v n )=Au n + dv n
A (u n + v n ) = (w w+1 + v w+1 ) - (u n + w n )
~ *n) + (V i - V n =A<U n + Av n
= W
// u w v n are functions of n, then
For
In this connection
then As n
is
it
n-fl
w+
not equal to
should be noted that
if
Au v +Au% + ...+Au n
unless
w 1 = 0, for
and
Following the index notation of Algebra, the symbol

that the operation A is to be repeated, and we write
(iv)
and so on
thus
J2
denotes
TABLE OF DIFFERENCES
374
This process may be continued to any extent and, from the way in which
the successive differences are formed, it is obvious that the numerical
3
coefficients in the expressions for J 2w n , J w n ... are the same as those
,
in the expansions of (1
-x)
2
,
(1
-x)
3
,
Hence we conclude that
....
4 ru n = u n+r -Clun+r _ 1 + C'2 un+r
(A)
2 -...+(-I)nu n
in
Art.
4.
more
concisely
proved
For the sequence uQ u l9 w2 ... a table of differences is conveniently
a result which
is
written thus:
UQ
u2
Ul
2
Thus, for the sequence O ,
I2,
2 2 , 32 ,
Au
...
W3
A*u
A*u
(v) If 'u x is
_.
where u n
9
222
a function of any variable
n2 we write
,
16...
...
x, the
meaning
A applied to u x is defined by Aux û x ^-u x

All that has been said about the symbol A still
of the'operation
successive differences of
II
u
x>
I/
holds, for in finding the
u x we are merely concerned with the sequence
07
x+V ux+2>
Illustrations,
(i)
u n = n(n~ l)(n-2), then
If
J rw n -0
and
(ii)
If
w n = n3
2. Special
since
for
r>3.
w 3 = n(n~l)(w-2)-f 3w(w-l)-hw, by the preceding,
Cases,
(i)
The following notation
xr =x(x-l)(x-2)...(a;-r-f 1) and 3_ r =
If
that
is
is
variable
and J
is
often used
-^-^-
x(x + l)(x-f 2)
...
we
write
applies to x, then
Jx r = rx r _
........................................
(A)
THE OPERATOR &

Similarly
we can show that Ax^ r
ra( f +D,
375
...........................
(B)
being assumed that no denominator vanisJies.

These formulae may be compared with
it
x r = rx r
-r--
ax
Ex.
Shaw
1.
~l
and
-_-
ax
x~ r = - rx~ (r + 1 \
that
n(-l) + (n-l)(n-2) + ...+2.1

w(7i-l)(/i-2) + (n-l)(n-2)(n-3) + ... +3
=(/t + l)?i(n
l=(n + l)n(w
1),
and so on.
If
and
is
sum
the
of the
Jn3 = 3wa by
since
>
first series,
Art.
1, (ii),
S=^ (n + 1) 3 +
vhere
is
a constant.
Putting n =2, we find that (7 = 0. Hence the result. Similarly for the second
Of course, the rule in Ch. VIII, 3, might have been applied.
(ii)
by
Polynomial.
a?
x,
dent of
1,
#,
a? -2, ...
such that
a polynomial in x of degree r, dividing

in succession, we can find a
a^ ... ar indepenIf
ux
is
ux = ao + a iî + a 2 x2 +
J w^ = a l + 2a2 x x + 3a 3#2 -f
and then
and so
on.
series.
Finally
A ru x = a r
+ a rx r
. . .
J r ^wx = 0.
and
. . .
2.
?x.
For
//
A mu
w<r, ên J^WQ ~ \m a m

m.a m + terms containing x
.
as a factor.
The Operator
3.
when applied
to w n ,
is
E.
The
the operation denoted by E

by unity. Thus for all values of n,
effect of
to increase
Eu n û n+l
a+
a constant, the following equations define the meaning of

E, Ea and a$, regarded as operators.
If
is
(E + a) u n = w n ^! + a?/ n = (a + J0) w n
Further,
and so on
we
write
thus,
if
r is
a positive integer,
E + a,
LAWS OF OPERATIONS
376
Hence,
p, q are positive integers,
if
E*E*u n = E* (Eu n ) = Eu n ^ =
E*E*u n = E*>+<Ju n = E*E*u n
so that
Again,
a, 6 are constants,
if
(E + a)(E + b)u n = (E + a) (u n+l + bu n )
+ abu n
Thus, so far as addition (subtraction) and multiplication are concerned, the
operator E combines with itself and with constants according to the laws of
Algebra.
The same
for A, for
is true
4* n = ti w+1 -w n = (^-l)ti n
More
defined
4.
generally,
if
ux
is
a function of any variable
x,
the operation
is
by
and
r is
a positive
// u x
is
a function of the variable
integer, then
(i)ûx ûx+r -C[ux+r ^^C 2 ux+r ^-...+(-lYu X) ......... (A)

= ux + C[Aux + ClA 2 ux +...+A r u x ....................... (B)
(ii) ux+r
r
The first theorem

Proofs.
on writing x for n.
More easily thus
follows from the reasoning in Art.
1, (iv),
(i)
J'.-(-l)X
= {Er - CJ^- 1 + Cj'- -...+(- l) r}ux
Again,
(iii)
(ii)
If u x
u x+r =Eru x = (l +A) ru x and therefore

,
is
a polynomial in x of degree
For the left-hand

(iv)
//
s n is the
side
sum
=4^ =
to
n(n-l)
l,
then
(Art. 2,(ii)).
n terms of the
A
series
n(n-l)(n-2)
'
-f
u 2 -f u3 -h
. . .
then
METHOD OF DIFFERENCES
For w
l+^) ~X>
377
therefore
Similarly
Adding and using the

Ex.
3,
Find a
1.
results of Art. 2,
n which has
cubic function of
Ex.
the result follows at once.
1,
the values
-3, -
1,
1,
13 when n
= \,
2,
respectively.
Denoting the function by u n
and A r un =
we have
for.r>3, since u n
Also
tt
is
a cubic function.
= ^ w -X =
+6
j&a;.
Sum
2.
the series
2.3+3.6 + 4.
Here un ~ (n + l)(^ 2 +2).
Writing down the
as
on the
first
right,
This
four terms,
that
is
ll
+ ...+(
a cubic function of
we
un
find,
^=6, 4^ = 1
?i,
A r un
for
44
18
Aun
A 2u
AûÛ, J 3 u 1 = 6.
so that
26
12
n>3.
90
46
20
14
6
Hence by
(iv),
i9
12
Ex.
3.
//
positive integers,
For
by Art.
if
2,
(Cf.
Ch. VIII,
5 = *n -C7J(a: + l
= (-l) n \n
then 8
if r>n and S
applies
(ii).
,n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)
1A
14
to
x,
S=^(l
4,
Ex.
1.)*
r,
if r
- E) rxn ^(-l) r A rx n f
are
= n.
and
the
result
follows
BERNOULLI'S NUMBERS
378
Ex. 4.*
(Bernoulli's Numbers.)
For nr =tf n O r =(l+J)n O r and
If
Br
is
defined as in Ch. VIII, 8, (5), then
-l+$-...
+ (-ir
<d0r =0
m>r;
if
}r
1)
...
......................... (A)
...
Li
II.
#r = l f + 2r + ... +nr we have

f(n + l)n
(n + l)n(*-l)
Hence
if
l)n(n-
(n-f
(*~r +
'
*'~\
LT+JL
[3
[2_
Now, by
definition,
Br
coefficient of
in
Sr
hence
Again, equating the coefficients of w in (B),

A3
J
"T +
{AZ
Hence
~- +( ~ 1)f "
Ar^
^ =i
and (-l) rJ5r =J5r

Hence equation (A) holds for r>0.
5.
5.
J0r =l,
Apply equation
in
Operators
'
'
following
"
r>l,
if
Moreover,
Ex.
r=
r}
proof
(A) of
for
r>l
Ex. 4 to show that B^
a Fractional Form.
of the
theorem in Art.
4, (iv)
(Ch. VIII, 8,
(5)).
^.
Many
writers give the
En -l
n(n-l)
n(n-l)(n-2)
Here the operator is written in a fractional form in order to transform

a polynomial in E into a polynomial in J.
This result was obtained
his collected works).
by Cayley by a much more
difficult process (Vol.
IX, pp. 259-262 of
LAGRANGE'S INTERPOLATION FORMULA

The
when
result,
obtained, can be verified by multiplication
379
and addition ;
this fact justifies the process.
But
Thus the
at every stage the operator must be regarded as a whole.
E -l
n
equation
Sn
(E -
does not imply that
In fact the last statement
is
~~E^T Ul
1) s n
= (En - 1) %.
not true, for
(E-l)s n = s n+1 -s n = u n+l
(E -l)u l ûn ^ l -u l
n
and
We
conclude that, in such transformations, the operator can be put in the

form /(J)/^(J), where f (A) and <f>(d) are polynomials in J, provided that
f(A)
is divisible
6.
by <(J), andf(A),
<f>(d)
are not regardedas separate operators.
Suppose that y
Interpolation.
a function of x whose value
is
has been determined by experiment, or otherwise, for x = a,
The problem
of interpolation
intermediate values of x.
The graphical method is to plot the points

draw a smooth curve through the points.
(x, y) for
We
'
6, c, ...
to find approximate values of y for
is
x = a,
6, c, ...
assume that
and
this curve
represents as nearly as possible the graph of the function y.

Let us suppose that the equation to the curve so drawn is y=f(x). It is
natural to take for f(x) the simplest function of x which satisfies the
conditions.
If
is
known
for
n values
we assume that
of x,
where the n constants p p^ ... are to be determined by making the

curve go through the n points.
If only two values of y are known, the curve is the straight line joining
,
the corresponding points, and we have the rule of proportional parts as

used in working with tables of logarithms and trigonometric functions.
7.
ively,
Lagrange's Formula.
we assume that
b)(x
(x
y=syi
For y
is
when x = a,
Similarly
c)
(a-b)(a-c)
If
+y*
(x
y=y
y2 y$ for x=a,
-a)(x
6, c
l9
(x
c)
(b-a)(b-c)*
y3
a)(x
respect-
b)
*
(c-a)(c-6)
a quadratic function of x of which the values are yl9 y& y3

6, c.
if
y = j/1
y2
y s- y
>
^3
when x = a,
-^4
(x-b)(x-c)(x-d)
\
'
_L^
'
b,
+ three
c,
.
d we take
..
similar terms
*(a-b)(a-c)(a-~d)
with similar formulae when more than four values of y are given.
B.O.A.
2B
INTERPOLATION
380
If
the values of y are
known
of applying Lagrange's formulae,
we
For example, suppose that y
Assume that y
is
a positive integer,
at equal intervals, instead
use the operators
y&
y\,
a cubic function of x
is
for values of
y%,
then
for
j/3
J ry =
and A.
x v x2
XQ
for
r^4, and
x$.
if
= (l+A) n y0)
y n ^f! y
therefore
Hence the equation
represents a cubic curve which passes through the four points (# ?/ )

(x l9 T/J), ... and gives an approximate value of y corresponding to any value
,
of x within the specified range.

Ex.
1.
Given
tJiat
sin 45 =0-7071,
sin 50 =0-7660,
in 55 =0-8192,
A-rn
60 =0-8660,
n62.
Let
1*3
= 10 4 sin (45+5x).
Construct a table of differences as below.
Au
A 2u
A*u
589
-57
Mj-7660
532
"
-64
468
J^ = 589,
/.
Assuming that
J w
J 2 w = - 57,
-=
A92
7.
M
x(x-l)(x-2)
_j
x = 1-4 and
so that
=7071
D
= 1-4x589
MA
824-6
- 0-7 x 0-4 x 57
ILl-JpZJ
A 3 u Q ^ 1 -4
x 0-4 x 0-7
0-392
7895-992
15-96
u x = 7880-032
.'.
The
r>3, approximate values of wâre given by
for
x(x-l)
-L_J
52=45 + 5z,
J 3w
sin 52 =: 0-7880 to four places.
correct seven-place value
is
0-7880108.
- 15-96
BESSEL'S INTERPOLATION
If
wo only
FORMULA
381
use the values of sin 50 and sin 55, the rule of proportional parts would
give
sin 52
=0-7660+f
x 0-0532 =0-7873.
If UQ and several other terms of the sequence U Q u v u%, ... are known
and approximate values of the missing terms are required, we may proceed
,
as follows.
= 4-7046, w 3 = 5-6713, w 5 = 7-1154, find approximate

w = 4-3315,
and w 4
Four points on the graph of u x are known. We therefore assume that it can be
4
represented by a cubic function of x. This is the same as assuming that J wa = 0.
Ex.
2.
//
values of u
Hence we have approximately

0,
/.
+ î) ^11-4619.
=
w 4 6-3199 (approx.).
w 2 ^5-1420,
NOTE. In this example w ~tan77, w 1 -tan78, w 3 tan 80, W 5 ~tan82,

we have found that tan 79 ^5-1420, tan 81 ^6-3199 (approx.).
The correct values are 5-1446 and 6-3138.
It should be noticed that the
approximations just found are
given by
)
9.
=5-1879,
much
closer
so
than those
w 4 = \ (u 3 + u 5 )= 6-3933.
Bessel's Formula.
second differences
In using Mathematical Tables, the effect of

be easily and accurately allowed for by using a
may
formula due to Bessel.
Let u_ l9 u
u lt u
be four consecutive values of a function u XJ as
and suppose that values

and 1.
given in the tables,

of
x between
of
u x are required for values

u -i
Denoting
ences by a
on the
first
6, c
and second differand d e, as shown
right, Bessel's
formula
u*
is
f
e
x(x-l) d + e
which
is the
same as
a) ............................ (B)
The values
little
labour
is
of
uQ9
a, 6, c
can be taken from the tables, so that very
required in using the formula.
THE DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR
382
if
To show that this gives a good approximation, and to estimate the error,
we neglect differences of the fourth and higher orders, we have
Now
e-d^f; and
w -w_;i=a, b-a=^d,
x(x-l).
+ l)x(x-l),
(x
'
e-d\
x(x~l) fd + e
so that
if
?'
x is
Hence the
(x
+ l)x(x-
1)
the approximation given by (A),
error
C/5^ to6/65
Ifo. 1.
therefore
is
approximately izx(x- l)(2x~
of square roots
to
I)/.
find
Using Barlow's tables, we take
045020= a
-:
11 1-085553
045001=6
M1
= N /12350 = ...............
044983 -c.
^2-^/12360 = ................
(The differences
a, 6, c are
z^-4,
given in the tables,)
For >/12344, we have
c-a-^ -
-000037.
-J*(3?-l)=--06,
w = 111-085553
Ja?(a?
(c
6=
a) -
-0180004
-00000224
N /12344=!ll-1035o7>
The
result is correct to the last figure.
10.
The Operator D.
du
the symbol
-r-
is
When we
d
dn
write
u/ d
regarded as an operator, which
is
sometimes denoted by
118
If
a+
is
a constant, the following equations define the meaning of
A Da and aD, regarded as operators.
D + a,
THEOREM
LEIBNIZ'
Hence
(D + a) (D + 6) u =
a, b are constants,
if
383
-I-
(Z)
a) (Dw
-f
6w),
= Z)2 w -f 6Z)w -f aDw -f afrw = {D2 + (a + b)D + ab}u.

(/) 4- a) (D -f 6) u
and
Thus, so far as addition, subtraction and multiplication are concerned,

the operator D combines with itself and with constants according to the
laws of Algebra.
The n-th Derivative of a Product.
11.
du
dv
dx
dx
dx'
of
D D
Let the symbols
l9
If w, v are functions
denote differentiation with regard to
x,
suppose that
only operates on u and its differential coefficients,
that 2 operates only on v and its differential coefficients, so that
and
and
Dn
As
(uv)
ax
and
addition and
/ ^
&u
dv
D 2 (uv) = u jr\
v,
ax
\dz/^
that
WV '"~'
is,
-j
1+
*'
(uv)
=^
This result
Ex.
is
1+11 -
uv >~\
known
If ij~u
+v
and
(uv)
n -f D
n
= (D
l
2
uv.
where u m
=x + (xz - ^)
vm
=x -
-f
uv n
x.
- k) ",
/^
W = 0,
1, 2, ...
we have
Differentiating with regard to x,
_ i +x
Wi
'
)>
often written in the
is
2)( u
with regard to
tn-i
. . .
suffixes indicate differentiation
ww
ax
21
as Leibniz' Theorem,
1.
~=
are independent of each other, they obey the laws of

multiplication, therefore
form
where the
n
\
and hence
_ jt)"^ = tt w (a; 2 - Jt)""

(x
z
hence (# a - k)û l =u/m.
Differentiating again,
.'.
Similarly
~*
*-
(x
(#
k)
wa
-f-
arM!
k) v^-^-xvl
= (x* - kf*
- w/m 2
0.
- v/m?
0,
ujm*
- y/m 2 =0.
whence by addition,
k) y 2 -f ar^
(x
Differentiating w times by Leibniz' theorem,
7
2 ^-i
(*
k) yn +* + n.2x. t/w+1 +
2
This example leads to a remarkable theorem on cubic equations, given
in
Ch.
XXIX.
USK OF OPERATOR A
384
EXERCISE XXXIX
1.
Find the polynomial of the third degree in n which has the values
when w = l, 2, 3, 4 respectively. (Use Art. 4.)
2, 11,
32, 71,
2.
Use the method of Art.
P+3 +5 +
3
(i)
u n = xn and A
3.
If
4.
Show
(ii) I
apph'es to
/-l, 2 or
S be
=
u r (* n/) r
the
(ii)Lct
show that
0,
according as n
of the series
.
~y)
n~2
or ?z->2.
n(n +
l),
I,
sum
n~ 3
if
n>2
of the series.
S=
then
',
?/
;t,
[In each case let
Also J
+ 22
(w-l) C?4-(n-3) r^ + (w-5) Ct4-...^2
(iii)
r?
xn -C'i(x-y) n
Let
22
that
(i)
(i)
sum to n terms
3 2 + 3 a 4 2 + ...
Ex. 2 to find the
4,
...
- E) n ii
1 )
nJ w
etc.
n,
|
w r = (a:-r)(y-r), then S = ( -
l)
nA n
Also
u^.
w
if n>2
Aut = (x-l)(y-\)-xy=-x-y+\ J M = 2, J w r =
n
w
= r then S = i-{(^+ l) ~(E I) )w
(iii) Let w r
n
n
Also w = 0, Jw = l, ^ w = 2, and JX = 0if
/. S-=l-{(2 + A) -A }u 9
8
5.
^x(x-l)(x~2)...(xr + l), show that

- 1 )a:r_ 2 -h
(x -h n) r = a- r + ( ?rar r _ l + CJr (r
If x r
the last term being r(r-
Verify that,
6.
If
if
1)
...
(r
3 and r
xr = x r -f o^^!
-}-
~n-\- l)x r _ n if
. . .
a^l-r(r-l),
[Equate to
7.
Show
if
prove that
6=A-(r-l)(r-2)(3r-5).
the coefficients of x r
JV+^fc+JrJ'rj-JL
(ii)
8.
~1
"
and x r 2 on the
right.]
that
(i)
[Use Ex.
the identity becomes
2,
6a:r _2 -f
r>n and C^jr
J rx r + 2 =
[x
-f 7-a:
4-
^r (3r -f 1)]
.
|
rjh
2.
6.]
Prove that
xn -Ci(x+l) n + Cl(x + 2) n -...+(-\Y(x\-r) n
+\
= - Yl {& + r-r + iV(3r -f 1)}
and
[Use Ex.
7.1
when
n~r-\
when n = r 4- 2.
r+_2
1,
EXAMPLES OF IDENTITIES
9. If
385
none of the denominators vanish, prove that

1
(-ir\n
= __
Deduce that
4- C? ^-fC? ^-"'+
1
1)n
1
-
n(n-l)
(x+l)(x + 2)
n(n-l)(n-2)
3
10.
Prove that
2
1
*
~r 71
r-
22
1.2
m+2
m-f-1
n.2.3 n ~ l
^3
m(w-f-l)
11. If u n
2W
yt(n-l)
T
nt/^x/.^-.um(m + l)(m + 2)
'
i\n.
m(m-f 1)
...
(m-fn)
~\l(an + b), show that
(i)
A ru ~( -
l)
111
(an
+ b)(a .n
1
n ' n(n-l)
a
'
n(n-l)(n~2)
"
a2
'
"3
= l/a;(a: + l)(a; + 2)...(a: + r-l), show that

+ n)_ T = a?_ r -6 ?ra- r+1) +(7?r(r+l)a;_(r +8)-...
12. If a:_ r
n+ 1
to
13. If n is a positive integer

vanishes, prove that
l
n n ~l)
(
and y
is
any number such that no denominator
n(n-l)(n-2)
n. ^n(n-l)
terms.
y+
n(n-l)(n-2)
/.x
(in)
each
series being
continued to n 4-
[These results follow
terms.
from Ex. 12 by putting successively
= l, x=
-(t/4
1)
USE OF THE OPERATOR J
386
14.
Show
tfcat
ln +
:
+ 2)...
1
,*//*.
I\/,M
* //
o\
IW/-M
-...to n +
-.
15. If
>
...
'
16. If
(a-n-f
a(a-
a-b a~6-fl
a-6-fr-l
tti=7
^2=7-77
6(6
^ rWn=
1)
...
(a-n-f 1)
a(a-
...
1)
(a-n-f
1)
e tc., as in Ex. 15, prove that
1)
a-6 a-6-fl a-6-f2

^
T
6^1
6^2~
[Putting n = l in Ex. 15, find
17.
T;>
+2
prove that
66-16
ln
'
1)
a-6 a-6 + 1
'
o\
..
___
__a~b
~~ a(a- 1)
U==
terms=
--...-
^^
~w
o\/ M
Au 0t A*u
a-6-fr-l
*
6-r-fl
etc., in
succession from the equations
Prove that
fI
_?
)
__
"*
M
n
a
6
)(1
6/\
...
?L
6
Ti-
n(n - l)(n-2) a(a- l)(a-2)
n(n-l)a(a-l)
JT~
(1
6-2/"\
1/\
6(6-1)
6(6-l)(6-2)"
[3
to n-fl terms.
[Using Ex. 16, the left-hand side = (

18.
Show
that the
sum
n J nw
n
=(l -E) u
.]
of the products two together of
x
is
l)
JL JL
x + l'
x+2
equal to
n(n-l)
n-2
"--
~+ (n-2)(n-3)
"-
[2
[Equate the
coefficients of a* in
Ex. 17 and put
#=
-6.]
to
n ~ 1 term8
INTERPOLATIONS
19.
In Art.
4,
Ex.
387
has been shown that
4, it
Prove also that
and use each of these formulae to show that B^ =

[Equation (D) of Ex. 4 can be written
and
^12500 = 1 1 1-803399,
^12510 = 111-848111,
^12520 = 111-892806,
20. Given that
^12530= 111-937483,
^12516 = 111-874929.
show that
21. Given that
show that
sec 89
4'
sec 89
5'
= 61-3911,
= 62-5072,
sec 89
6'
=63-6646,
sec 89
7'
= 64-8657,
Bessel's formula gives
sec 89
22. If
Sn = l n +
on
on
*
+rz+.-+
^
1
i
2 fl .l f
3n
40" = 63-2741.
5'
i
\n
to oo
971
.2
4 .3
+
WJ^^ +--+_
,.,
IJL
J"5. = F-i +
or-i
+
LL
(iu)
(iv)
(v)
and
. . .
= 5, _,.
Use
(iii)
(iv),
S19 SZ9
or (iv) to find
2,
4,
3,
S19
showing that for
6,
-T
+-
L_
(iii)
5,
Qn
rn = l n -"r? + r5-- + ('" I m
(u)
...
7,
^n /e=2, 5, 15, 52, 203, 877, 4140.

we have SW =(J + l) n
and Sn ^ = (E - l)n S
on
23. If
L_
Sn = -Sn_ 1
SB = 5 ^ 1
n = l,
[(iii)
....
or~i
(ii)
prove that
= Tn.!
Using
(ii),
show that
for
n=l,
rn .e=0,
2,
3, 4, 5,
-1, -1,
2, 9.
to
.]
<, prove that
CHAPTER XXIV
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
1
Definitions.
Any
(1)

.................................
i-:
called a continued fraction,
is
The
and
Oj
may be supposed to be attached

fraction may be expressed in the form
- Ui ~
F-a
+
JU
where the
and
a's
ai
^2/a 2
by
stopping at
,
b n /a n
.,
6's
...
&3
&2
"
is
convergents are
av +
is
.............. (B)
and so any
6's,
........... .......
called a convergent.
flu
. . .
..
........
(C)
VI
\
be positive or negative numbers. The quantities

are called the elements of jF, and the fraction obtained
second, third,
may
any particular stage
bn
"...
--
to the
signs
continued
It
written
is
obvious that the fraction
is
6<>
"
a:
6<>6q----
. . .
#2
unaltered
Thus the
first,
2^~ ^3
if
6n
an
b n+l
(u
= 2,
3, ...)
by any number k or if the signs of 6 n a n and 6n fl are

Thus any continued fraction may be written in the form
are all multiplied

all
(C)
changed.
where a 2 a 3
,
Ex.
1.
Prove
are
...
that, if
all positive.
JLJLA
2.
fraction
on the
left is
elements,
1
.
4+ 4+
4-f
The
each fraction contains
2+ 4+
to s
equal
^
4+
2-h
1122
---- -
2+4+4+44-
Formation of Convergents.
(1)
...
""
=x
1111
-
x
^
2+4+2+4
+
Let u n denote the nth con-
vergent of the continued fraction,

_.
62
60
a 2 + a3
We
shall write
bn
w=^) 1 /
a,
an +
1,
so that
w=^22
fi,=r
1
1
where
J
a2
a2
THE RECURRENCE FORMULAE

Observing that u3
389
be obtained from w 2 by changing a 2 into
may
a2 4- 63/03, we have
u3 =
and so u$ = psjq& where y3 - a3j> 2 4- 63^ and

Proceeding thus we can show that, if p n and
values of n by the equations
? =
?-! + &nPn-*
Vn
?3
==
q n are defined for successive
= anqn -i + b n qn _ 2t
.................
(A)
the nth convergent of jP.

p n/q n
Equations (A) are called the recurrence formulae. It will be found convenient to write
= 0, .............................
i
and
then
is
yo==
and
it
will
Pz^^Pi^^Po an d
be seen that
important to state
For
Definition.
#Ae quantities
?2 ==a 29 i
r
rather more precisely
all this
with the initial values
If
F.
convergent of
pQ = l 9
p n and
qo
Pi
= î>
q\
q n are defined in this way, then
,. .
.1
II
'
J.
I JL
............... (A)
=1
Assume that this holds for the values 2, 3,

Proof.
the nth convergent by u n , then
Now p
so
the continued fraction
p n and q n are defined by the equations

= a n?n-l + 6wyn _2
Pn = ttfiPn-l + ^n-2
?n
Theorem.
+ ^25 o>
r
n^2.
equations (A) hold for

(2) It is
(B)
?0
...
p n /qn
r of n,
is the n-th
and denote
f,
also u r may
q r _ z are independent of a r and b r
be transformed into u r+1 by writing ar + br+1 / a r+i for ar therefore
r
_v
gv_
j,
pr _z
.
Ur+1
Hence
br+l
^
\
w^
Thus the theorem holds

therefore for
w = 3,
4, 5,
TPr ~ Z
P '~ l+
...
_ 5î (rî
r +-'
for
n = r-fl;
in succession.
but
it
holds for
n = 2,
and
INFINITE CONTINUED FRACTIONS
390
(3)
For the fraction
p n and
q n arc defined
by equations
Again, the fraction
b2
ft
is
bn
(A) with the initial values
b3
obtained from the fraction in
by changing the
(2)
signs of the 6's, so
that the recurrence formulae are
Pn = fln^n-l
~ &nPn-2>
?n
= a n?n-l - 6 n?n-2'
In the following articles we shall call the reader's attention to certain

types of continued fractions which will be considered in detail later.
Ex.1.
Prove that (I-
x)-^l+~ |j 3^ y
Calculating the convergents of the continued fraction,
we have
2.1-3&.1
6-8o;~
which provea the statement in question.
Notice that no fractions are reduced
to
lower
terms, until the final stage.
3.
Infinite
Continued Fractions.
,_
If
JL'
/I
t*i
T"
694
"
With regard
__6q?_
to the fraction
6n
)
if
the
number
of elements is finite,
is
called a terminating continued
fraction.
We
may, however, suppose the b's and a's to be determined by a rule

In this case F stands for an
is no last element.
of such a kind that there

infinite
continued fraction, which
regarded as defining the sequence of
is to be
convergents
Pl/<ll>
?2/?2>
>
Pn/<ln>
>
and we say that
the continued fraction is convergent, divergent or oscillatory

this
as
according
sequence converges, diverges or oscillates.
is defined as
If the sequence converges, the value of the fraction
lim Pn/q n
and we write
jF
= a 1! +
--
a2 +a3 +
...
SIMPLE CONTINUED FRACTIONS

Let x stand for ^
2
Illustrations.
after the first is
Again,
meaningless.
may
x=lJ2i,
leading to
where every element
be treated as a number,
a result which
is
clearly
x stands for
if
333
t000
2T2T2T"*
and we assume that x
to oo
...
-=
^
2
// we assume that x
-3/2.
we have # = 3/(2-x)
333
391
is
we have
a definite number,
x = 3/(2+se);
z2 + 2z-3 = 0;
/.
We
have thus proved that

unity, but we have not shown
.'.
that
a value
z=*l
or
has a value,
the fraction
if
'
its
-3.
value must be
exists.
In neither of these examples can the first step be justified without

knowing that the continued fraction is convergent.
4.
An
Simple Continued Fractions.
a i T^___
i
_ _
1
a 2 + a3
..."
>
an +
where every a is a positive integer, except that a l

a simple continued fraction.
may
be zero,
is
called
Theorem. Any rational number can be expressed as a simple terminating

continued fraction which can be arranged so as to have either an odd or an
even number of quotients.
Let
A/B
be the number,
of finding the G.C.M. of

r2 ,
...
and B being positive integers. In the process

and 5, let a v a2t ... be the quotients and rl9
the remainders, so that
Aâ^B + r^
and therefore
IB
A=
#1 +
B l ^prrBr
-^
JS==r 1a 2
Again,
if
>!, we can
r1
=flo"f
-
This process terminates, and
A
B
+ r2
g,^
if
an
r,
7-
rr
is
111
-^
write
1
=O+ r
3
etc.,
7-, etC.
the last quotient,
a n ~an -l+
andifa n
= r2a3 + r3
RECURRING CONTINUED FRACTIONS
392
Thus matters can always be arranged so that the continued

either an odd, or an even, number of quotients, as required.
Ex. 1. Express ^g$- as a simple continued fraction with
add number of quotients.
al
157
i.e.
(i)
fraction has
an even and
an
JL
=2 +
(ii)
-gg-
a4 =5
number of quotients can be made odd or even as required

For instance, the penultimate convergents to 157/68 in the two forms
above are 30/13 and 127/55; and it will be found that (127, 55) and (30, 13) are
The
NOTE.
is
fact that the
of importance.
the least solutions in positive integers of
68* - 157y = +
(See Art. 9
respectively.
Ex.
Use
2.
The
z
-x)~ as a continued fraction.
is
giving
- x) 2
(1
^
l/2a?
1+
"^4/3+"
1/3
^9/2*+
1/3
2x
2s 3*
-3/2
1- 2+ -9/2* + l/3
x 2x
2x 3x
~ 1+
last three steps, the
+ - 4/3 + -9/2* +
??.
""
In the
3.)
the H.C.F. process to express (1
H.C.F. process
68* - 157y = -
and
and Ch. XXV,
ri2 + 3^T*
statement at the end of Art.
has been used.
Recurring Continued Fractions. If after a certain stage, the

elements recur in the same order, we have a recurring continued fraction.
5.
'
The recurring elements form the

the non-recurring elements,
'
'
recurring period
such exist, form the
if
or the
cycle,
'
acyclic part
and
of the
fraction.
The
cycle is usually denoted
last of the recurring elements,

_____
_____
_
_ ~~~
_
.-
_____
_
-.
~.
1+2+3+4+3+4+
A
by putting
asterisks
under the
* . .
1Q
AD
/l
ATir'I'f'.Afl
VA.\3JLlv Uv7vA
MY
J
r4"\7
._,....
_.
1+2+3+4
*
Here 3-f
4+
is
first
thus
and
the cycle
J
1+2s
ê acyclic
part.
J
*
and
SPECIAL TYPES
Ex.
is
1.
equal
to
(a
n+1
are the roots of x* -00;
ft
-^n+l )l(<xn - (P
Hence show
(ii)
is the
// a,
(i)
(l
+ l/n)a
- ax + 6
of x
2
according as ot^fi or a=j5.
a 2 ^ 46, and that
value
Here pn and qn are given by
together with
p = l, p^â, qQ
where A, B, A',
= aq<n-i - ^n-2
4n
^ = 1.
0,
a^jS, then by Ch. XXII,
First suppose that
(i),
Bâ=a+^
=A +B
gvng
5,
Therefore
are constants.
p 1 =Aoc +
=1,
^l/=
yw =
thus
leading to the
Next
let
n+1
-]8
w+1
and
)/(-]8)
fc
n
(
n
-)8
)/(-^
=
a=)S, so that a 2oc and 6=^2, then by Ch. XXII,
A~B~\
If
first result.
Proceeding as before, we find that

n -1
n
yn = na
;>n -(n + l)a
a 2 >46, then
a,
j3
>
^n /gn = (l + l/n)a.
l-W
5, (i),
A' = Q, B' = l/a., hence
Let |a|>|/?|, then
are real.
qn
j8
/a
n ->0 as n->oo and
'
a
46, then a~/? and pn /qn
(l+I/n)a-+oc.
Hence, in both cases, the continued fraction is convergent and
If
Ex.
2.
//
pn lqn
is the
11
prove that
and
is
its
value
is
a.
n-th convergent of the recurring fraction

1
aT 6TaT
If
its
= 0.
Pn = <*<Pn-i ~ l>Pn-
(ii)
prove that the n-th convergent of
that the continued fraction is convergent if
numerically greater root
(i)
or
+ 6=0,
393
even, the recurrence
'"
'
6-f
p n - (ab + 2)p n _ 2
qn -(ab + 2) qn
formulae give
Pn
=t>Pn
Pn-2 = pn
whence eliminating p n -i and pn -3> we have

n
+2)pn -2
(ab
+Pn-t =0.
If n is odd, we have the same equations as before, except that a and b are interchanged, leading to the same result. And so for the g's.
BROUNCKER'S FRACTION
394
Ex.
3.
//
pn lqn
n4h
ta the
convergent of
3a
52
1+ 2+ 2+
2+
(2w-3)
1)
<
Hence show
this holds
and
that the fraction is convergent
If vn denotes either
if
Replacing the
we
n-
write
ft
1,
- 2,
-(2- lK_i=(- l)
t;'s
by
p's
n ~1
'
2 ^Ti
that its value is w/4.
we have
or qn ,
pn
"
2+
Pn l3n = l ~ 3+5-- + ~
prove that
and
"
2 in succession for
...
n -1
(2-3)(2n-5)
and observing that
jt)
...
and
n, therefore
^=
!(,-,).
1, we have
^n-i
2n-l'
"
where
^4 is
"" 4
independent of
Next, replacing the
v'a
n.
by
find that qn
Again, the series

fraction converges
and
=1
1/3
its
n~ 1, we find
and observing that

?n
whence we
Putting
g's
1/5
value
A =0.
that
an(^ 5 i
(fo
we
== l
-(2n- l)7n-i-0,
.3.5... (2n -f-
""'"" ,/.
"*
1.3. ..(2-l)""
- ...
is
1),
leading to the
convergent and
its
first result.
sum
is Tr/4
therefore the
is Tr/4,
EXERCISE XL
1.
Find the
first
four convergent (unreduced) of
w JLJLJL*
2+3+4+5
r\
2.
W JLAJL!
l-2-3-4'
/-\
Without calculating the convergent^, prove that

2
2+ 3T
5_ 1 1 23
T 5^1+ 2T 3T 4
'
3. Express fff as a simple continued fraction having

odd number of quotients.
4.
The reckoning on the

85
5.
3- 4-
52
57
5
an
85
104
19
this.
Express
(ii)
20
5*
in the
form a l
greater than unity.

6. Express (2a -a- l)/(2a*-3a)
calculating the convergents.
2
by
an even and
right shows that
1_J_1
52""
Explain
(i)
a * ~ a*
in the
...
where the
"""
form
1+^
/i + /a +
a's are integers
...
and verify
INFINITE CONTINUED FRACTIONS

Show
7.
that the nth convergent of
JL_1__!
2-2-2- -
2
1
is
+ l)/n, and
(n
8.
Show
395
that the value of the infinite fraction
is
unity.
that the nth convergent of

1
rr^r^r^r
is
n,
and that the
9.
infinite fraction is divergent.
There being (n +
1)
elements in
2~2- 210. If
show that
all,
'"
2^"
l_(n + l)a?-n
nx-n + T
a?""
a z >46, the numerically smaller root of x 2 -ax + 6=0
A JL J A
a
[This follows from Art. 5, Ex.

11.
For the fraction
is
equal to
1.]
a+ a+ a+
"
"
'
pn = - a
-)/(- 0), gn -( n+1 - j3n+1 )/(a - ]3) where a, ^ are
-a# -6-~-0. Hence show that if a, 6 are positive, the fraction is
convergent and equal to the positive root of x~bj(a + x).
prove that
an
the roots of # 2
12. If
p n jqn
IL
the (unreduced) nth convergent of
and the number of terms

tively,
then u n \vn
is
in
>
n,
qn
respectively are denoted
by un
v n respec-
the nth convergent of
Hence show that
13.
Prove that
fi\
v
14.
_z_ z = _
1
_o/JLJL-i-
1^4^1-4^'
\2~2^2-"V"
Hence show the nth convergent of the
first
fraction reduces to 2n/(n
+ 1).
Prove that
1
showing that the

2o
9fy.
Prove that, each fraction containing n elements,
J_ J_ JL JL
15.
1- 1+ 1- 3+ 2-
I2
infinite
22
J3_
(^-1]
_1
continued fraction
is
11
divergent.
B.C.A.
SIMPLE CONTINUED FRACTIONS
396
Prove that
16.
' ' '
2a + 2n -I+5=
k n a (a + 1) (a + 2)
(a + n)
......
'
2a
if
showing incidentally that,
Use
show that the
this to
fraction in Ex. 15
Putting
a~ -m,
where
in Ex. 16,
m
J-itJli
iftl
m is
~~
ju'tTl
~~
then
divergent.
l)<fa_ 2 }.]

2
~~
(w--2)
jw-l)
i.
is
!){?! -(a 4- w -
[Here gn -(a + H)g n _ 1 ^=(a + n17.
. .
<L)
Also prove this result by induction.

18.
For the fraction
Hence show that the

n
...
prove that
r
n+
^1_1_
fraction
12
is
13
~
convergent and equal to l/(e
1).
a positive integer, prove
is
by induction that
2
11 ~ n 1
""
?T-~ "2+
w+~2
2"+ 1 + 2
n - -2
w"+ w - 1*+
-t-
'
For the fraction

I
22
1_
r+
7)
prove that
1+1+
1"*-
3a
11
+ -
fraction
is
. . .
where the
...
...
3/3
>
2.
l
*
'
~j
except that a x
then x2) ^3
"1 1
-
are called the (partial) quotients
X2 = <X 2 + ~ 7 ~
a3 + a 4 +
'
are of the form
+ ~~"~" r~T
a's are positive integers,
Here a l9 a 2
71
I)
""
convergent and equal to log
at
r+
+ -
Simple Continued Fractions

xl
(?i-l)
"*
t>
Hence show that the

6.
...
\n-i I
20.
?n
^j
J>n_
in -hi
19. If
~^- _
2+ 3
Gt
a4
be zero.
may
and
if
11
~
--
+ a5 +
are called the complete quotients.
Thus we have
Xl
that
is
"~
JL
ai f
"
a2
_L_JL.
+ *"a n ^+ x n
to say, the continued fraction x l
is
obtained
its
from
by substituting the complete quotient x n for the quotient a n
n-th convergent
FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES
397
PROPERTIES OF THE CONVERGENTS
As
7.
with the
in Art. 2,
initial
p n and
values
mi
!,
U/
be seen that q n
a2 ... an _ x
by the equations
p = a 1?
and so
the
*'or
the case of
an
From
9.
and
a n as p n ^
...
etc.,
is
We have p2 >p v and if n>3, p n ~ pn ^ = (a n -
8.
.
,
-4-
#o#3
same function of a 2 a3
is the
a2
=1
g^
aâ.,
~*--3 ~f-o\ -ha,
-
aô-fl
-2--
0i1
,
= 0,
</
/1\
--
The convergents are
of
=1
jo
it will
q n are defined
since
y's,
thus
q^q^,
)p n
-f
pn - 2
and
j) w a/?d g n increase with n,

.
infinite continued fraction, they tend
to infinity
in
with n.
we have
the recurrence formulae (A)
Pn ln-l -Pn-dn^fanPn-l +#n -2)^-1 ~ Pn-l (n?n-l + <ln

f
=
This holds
if
we
write n
therefore
Again,
(B)
-(Pn-i9'n-2-? n-27n-l)-
1,
n-
2,
Pnfr-1-.Pn
..2
in succession for n, also
-i7n
= (-1) w ............................ (B)
we have
P1n-z-Pn-&n =
therefore
From
and
(C)
^} n " ^n ........................ (0)

l
we obtain the formulae
10. ûer?/ convergent
pjq n
is
in
its
lowest terms, also
Pn-\ and q n to q n _ v
For if the numbers belonging to any
(q
7n-i)
have a
would divide
1 1
3)
>
From
common
pn
,
the recurrence formulae (A),

-
prime
to
of the pairs (p n q n ), (p n p n ^)
factor g, then on account of equation (B), g
,
1.
Pn-l
is
- --
Pn-l/Pn-2
we have
and
?n-l
The first of these holds if we write n - ] n ~ 2,

The second of these holds if we write n - 1, n - 2,
,
---;
<In-J<ln-2
...
...
2 for n.
3 for
n.
ODD AND EVEN CONVERGENTS
398
1111
and
Also PI/PQ^Î
therefore
JaAh^^J
/n
-,
(E)
(F)
11,
It follows that if
pr/qr pr '/([r
,
a*2
are respectively the r-th convergent of
and
an
-r
an +
i*
11
'
a-,
n-l +
a,l
where in the second the quotients occur in the reverse order, then
p n '/q n ~p n lpn -i and pn ^ 1/?n-1 = ? n/?n-i

'
For by the preceding,
by
and
Art. 10 these fractions are in their lowest terms.
12. It has been shown that
if
p'q', p/q are consecutive convergents
of a simple continued fraction, then pq' ~-p'q =
1.
where q'^q, and suppose that p/q is

Conversely, let
as
a
fraction
continued
with an even or an odd number
expressed
simple
pq-p'q=l
of quotients according as the arbitrary sign
that p'jq'
For
is the
p" jq"
if
is
-f
or
We
can prove
convergent immediately preceding p/q.
is
the last convergent but one,
by hypothesis and equation
(B) of Art. 9,
f
pq
-p q = pq" -p"q, and

f
therefore
p(q
-q")q(p' -p")>
.
Now p
else
is
prime to
q,
for
pq -p'q=
1,
therefore q divides
q'
-q"
or
= q"q'
Also
5'<<7
sequently
13.
and q"^q, therefore q cannot divide q'-q", and con-
= q" and p'=p", which

q'
proves the theorem.
Sequences of Odd and Even Convergents. Let w n
then, from equations (D)
of Art. 9, it follows that
Wn-w-i
and
u n -u n _ 2
Therefore u n lies between w n _rl and w n _2

between the two preceding convergents.
say, every convergent
are of opposite sign.
>
that
is
to
lies
Now W!<w2 and

and so
consequently W1
on, therefore
Thus
the
odd convergents form an increasing sequence, the even convergents
form a decreasing sequence, and every odd convergent

convergent.
is less
than any even
CLOSENESS OF APPROXIMATION
399
Consequently, as n tends to infinity, both w 2n _! and u2n tend to

limits, and these limits are the same, for by equation (D) of Art. 9,
finite
W2 n 7 U*n-l == l/?2n?2n-l-> 0.
Hence un tends to a
limit x such that for every n,
In other words,
and
(ii) its
continued fraction is convergent,

(i) every infinite simple
value is greater than any odd convergent and (iii) less than any
even convergent.
4. Each convergent is a closer approximation

fraction than the preceding.
1
For
let
so that
z'
is
the (n + l)th complete quotient, then
= a n+lPn + ^n-l)/( a n+l?n + ?n-i)

z = (z'p n +p n -.i)/(z q n + ?n-])
Consequently
2;'
and
(zg^
and
>? n _i
- j> n ) = "
'
and therefore
gn
and 2'=a
...
Pn+l/<ln+l
Now
value of the continued
= %-{-
to the
(2;<7
- y n _!)
n _1
2;'^!, therefore
z-that
is
to say,
is
nearer to
ân to
p n/<In
pn -\l<ln-r
5. ulwy convergent p/q of a simple continued fraction is a closer approxito the value of the fraction than any rational fraction r/s with a
denominator less than q.
1
mation
For
let
al
preceding p/j.
to z than p'/q'.
lies
-\
--
By
...
and
Art. 14,
if
let
Moreover,
between y/g and p'jq', and
that
ry'
nearer to z than ^/j, it is also nearer

between p/q and p'/gr' therefore r/s
;
P'i
r_
Therefore
be the convergent immediately
r/s is
z lies
\~8
p'jq'
i.e.
q'
- ^jp' <^
|
9'
and, since
ry'
- sp'
is
an integer>
it
follows
16. If
is the
numerical value of the error, in representing the value z
of the continued fraction, by
and within wider

For
then
limits
u n =p n /q n
if
p n/q n
then by Art. 13,
w n>
is
ERROR
LIMITS OF
400
U n+l9
^>
^n+2>
an increasing or a decreasing sequence, therefore

~
~
t*n
Un+2 <\ W n * <Ki l# n+
I
Also by equations (D),

I
W n - W n +2
whence we have the
=nW?n7nf2 and
w n ~ w n-h
inequalities (H).
Again, g n + a = a n +29Wi
+ ?n>
therefore
^
?n +2/a n+2
Also qn+l >q nJ and therefore l/9 n ?n
Hence the inequalities (I) follow from (H).
17.
fraction,
Let
then
and
al
l/z 2
that in only
a3
is
Z2
<l
one way.
+ -- where a l
and
Z2
where a 2
can be expressed as a simple continued
positive irrational z
Any
...
Z3
-a 3 -fl/Z4
z a >l,
it
Zn
...
be zero),
let
r,
...
11
may
l,
follows in succession that a 2 a 3
and we have
(which
= <*n+l/Zn+l>
are integers such that, for every
a r <2 r <a r +
since
z 2 '>l.
= a 2 4-l/03
the integral part of
The process can be continued indefinitely, and leads to the infinite continued fraction
]
j
=O I + --
0-2
Again, we have a 2 <2 2
# 3 <z 3
an
etc.,
j
and
al
a2
>z,
11
-f --------
a + a3
therefore
1
1
!
----- ...
...
a2
+-">2 2
a3
~
1
<z,
a 2* +
a3
H-
etc.,
a4
<2o,
-
etc,
EXPRESSION FOR A SURD

Continuing thus,
F, then
Now
it
can be shown that
ur
if
401
the rth convergent of
is
n tends to infinity, u 2n _ l and u 2n tend to the same limit,

which must therefore be equal to z. That is to say, the fraction F converges to z as a limit, and we write
as
JL '" JL
It remains to
show that
a 2 -h
this
an
mode
of expression is unique.
Suppose
that
_JLJ_
The
_A
1,1
integral parts of these continued fractions are equal, therefore
j
and
=
11
a,
6,
------
a2
a3
= 62 + T
Hence, by similar reasoning,

1
a 2 -62
and
...
,
and so on
When
Thus the continued
indefinitely.
z is
=6t 3 + r
1
>
v:
C/4 -r
C&4 -r
fractions are identical.
expressed in this way, any convergent of the continued
fraction will be called a convergent to
18. The value of any

number.
infinite
z.
simple continued fraction
For any rational number can be expressed as a
finite
is
an
irrational
simple continued
fraction.
Ex.'l.
The
Express (/v/37+8)/9 a* a simple continued fraction.
integral part of this surd
N/37+8
9
"~ -- ~ 1
1 -f ^37-l_,
iT
"9"
and
is 1,
7m
~\
s/37
s/37-4
^2+
\/37~3
~'
7
1
~
"f*
V37+3'
4
N/37~5_ o -r
-- + 4 ___ud H--H -7=^
3
3
V37+5
-i
"
1 H
A
4
------
>
^37-3
=2+-,
4
--
\/37
-7=
V37+4
V37+5
+1
N/37
,
+r
tj
=l+eto.
v/37+3
The complete quotient (s/37+3)/7 has occurred
before,
and the subsequent work
consists of repetitions of the last three steps, thus, with the notation, of Art. 5
is/37+8
9
IH-
>
J_ JL_
1+ 3+
x-
the continued fraction being a recurring fraction.
2'
-ti-
INTERMEDIATE CONVERGENTS
402
a given number x is expressed as a

which pr/qr is the rth convergent, then
pn/q n is an approximate value of x in defect or excess, according as n is
odd or even, and the error is numerically less than I/qn q n +v an(i a fortiori
19.
Approximations.
If
(1)
simple continued fraction of
less
is
than l/q n 2
Now
2n+i
= 0n+i7n + ?n-i>
hence if a n+1
is large,
p n/qn
a specially good approximation.
Or again, if we require an approximation with an error numerically less

than a given fraction I/a, we calculate the convergents until we find one
p n/q n such that q n q n+ i â. This is the required approximation. Of
course, the conditions are satisfied
if
q n ^*Ja.
Ex. 1. It is required to find good approximations to the value of

vulgar fractions, given that
77
The convergents
_q
TF
in the form of
JL _JL _L _JL. L JL
7+ 15+ 1+ 292+ 1+ 1+""
are
22
333
356
103993
I*
T*
Toe*
m'
33ioT'""
The denominators 106, 33102 are large compared with the preceding ones, therefore
22/7 and 355/113 are specially good approximations, and they are both in excess.
For 355/113, the error is less than
113x33102
3740000
20. The problem may be of such a kind that no suitable approximation

can be found among the convergents (as in Art 22, Ex. 2).
We may then proceed as follows Choose two convergents p/q, p'/q,
:
one an odd and the other an even convergent.

integers, the fraction
mq + m'q'
and p'/q'. Also x lies between these convergents,

a
closer approximation than p/q, and perhaps also than
P/Q
and it may be possible to choose m, m' to suit the conditions of
between
therefore
p'/q'
m, m( are positive
p mp + m'p'
Q
lies
If
p/q
is
the problem in question.
21. The most important fractions of this kind are the so-called
Let p n/q n be the nth convergent of
mediate convergents.
Consider the sequence
Pn
Pn+Pn+l
the (r-hl)th term being
PrjQ r
where
Pf
inter-
APPROXIMATIONS
The terms
of this sequence (excluding the first
p n /q n and
intermediate convergents between
possesses the following properties

(i)
It
or even,
(ii)
(iii)
and
last) are called
Every
Any
PT jQr
fraction
fraction
which
is
the
The sequence
;p n +a/?n+a-
is an increasing or a decreasing sequence according as n

and the denominators form an increasing sequence.
is-
odd
in its lowest terms.
lies
denominator greater than either

(iv)
403
Pr/Qr
between
Qr
and
Pr+1 /$r+1
has a
Pr/Q
as the
or Qr +v
Limits to the numerical value of the error in taking
value of x are given by
For we have
P r+l Q
whence the statements
- PrQ
(i)-(iii)
PrIQr>
is
either
r+l
=pn+l q n -p n q n+ - ~ l) w+1
i
follow
Pn+2/q n +2>
Now
2W]/?n+1>
>
an increasing or a decreasing sequence, therefore
r<a n ^ 2
Qr
(iii)
all
by writing down the odd cqnvergents
the intermediate convergents, then
an increasing sequence of fractions in their lowest terms, and

a closer approximation in defect to x than the preceding.
The denominators form an increasing sequence.
This
is
each fraction
(ii)
this proves the statement.
consider the sequence formed
and inserting
(i)
and because
Qr
Since
If
is
P/Q, P'/Q' are successive terms, any fraction which

greater than Q or Q
lies
between
them has a denominator
Again, the sequence
formed by the even convergents and their intermediates, has the same
properties as the preceding, except that it is a decreasing sequence in which
each term is a closer approximation in excess to x than the preceding.
22.
Problem
denominators
less
It is required to find the fraction which, of all those with

than a given number a, is the closest approximation (in
.
defect or in excess) to
a given number
x.
APPLICATION TO CALENDAR
404
To do
we
express x as a simple continued fraction, and calculate

the convergents p^q^, pdq&
until we find p n/qn such that
this
q n ~a, then
If
If
we
q n <.a,
is the required fraction.

consider approximations in defect.
p n/qn
first
Taking the
sequence (A) formed by the odd convergents and their intermediates,

then P/Q
P/Q, P'jQ' such that Qâ<Q'
find successive terms
the closest approximation in defect of

less
than
all
we
is
fractions with denominators
a.
For if h/k is nearer to x than P/Q, then h/k must coincide with a
term to the right of P/Q in the sequence, or else it must lie between two
and
suc.h terms,
in either case
k^Q'>a.
In the same way, by considering the sequence (B) formed by the even
convergents and their intermediates, we can find the fraction with denominator
two
Ex.
As
less
than a which
fractions, the
Find
1.
Art
in
18,
the,
is
the closest approximation in excess. Of these

is nearer to x is the number required.
one which
fraction with denominator less than 500 which is nearest to s/14.
Ex.
1,
we can show that
N /14
=3 +
--
- -
1+24-1+6
and we
<,
P!
find that
~ 333
q7
89
p B - 449
,
'
q8
120
p-9 = 3027
-
qg
*
.
809
For the approximation in defect, we insert intermediate convergents between

p 1 lq1 and p 9 /q9 These are of the form Pr /Qr -= (333 + 449r)/ (89 + ] 20r).
.
The conditions $ r ^500<(> rfl give
r---3, and 2\IQ 9 -- 1680/449.

For the approximation in excess, we consider the convergents 8 /<? 8 ?>io/<?io- Since
a 10 = l, there are no intermediate (jonvorgents and the approximation in excess is
>
?/& =449/120.
-
Finally, we can show that 14

(1680/449) <(449/120)
so that the required approximation is 1680/449.
Ex.
2.
The mean tropical year
convenient method of correcting
We have
is
the,
14,
It is required to find a practically

calendar, the year being taken as 365 days.
365-2422642 days.
<
'
'
and the convergents are

1
1*
4'
29*
j*
33'
39
j47
f
161"
194'
321
1325""
Take 1/4 as a first approximation. This, amounts to adding 1 day every 4 years,
and is an over -correction.
The fraction 7/29 is inconvenient but 8/33 suggests an addition of 24 days in every
99 years, i.e. make every fourth year a leap-year, except at the end of a century.
This is also an over-correction.
;
CHARACTER OF APPROXIMATION
'
405
None of the other convergents give convenient approximations ; and the same is
therefore proceed
true for the intermediate convergents in the first few intervals.
choose the convergents 1/4 and 39/161, the first an oven and the
as in Art. 20.
We
We
second an odd convergent
if
then,
m,
m. l4-m
.39
39
ra.4 + m'. 161
161
'
The values
m'^2
??i~19,
give the approximation
19.1+2.39
97
*
+ 2. Tel "400
19. 4
This gives one more day to be added in 400 years than the fraction 8/33 i.e. it makes
every fourth year a leap-year, except those at the end of a century, with the further
;
correction that every fourth century is to be counted as a leap-year.

The fact that this approximation, 97/400, can be obtained from the convergents
1/4 and 47/194, which are both in excess, shows that this also is an over-correction.
The
error
is less
than a day in 4000 years.
MISCELLANEOUS THEOREMS
23 Let p/q be a fraction in its lowest terms, which is an approximate value

some quantity z. It may be important to know under what circumstances
.
of
p/q
is
a convergent
The answer to
to z.
this is contained in the following
Let p/q be expressed as a simple continued fraction with
number of quotients according as p/q
~g
and
z,
an even
or
an odd
let
/q' be the last convergent
but one.
!
If
J
~P
<
q\
then p/q is
------
q(q + q)
a convergent
For suppose that
to z.
11
p=
a l + ---
...
an
#2+
even or odd according as p/q
is
or a fortiori if
J
where n
P
-
"7
â-i
z,
and
let z'
be determined by
prove that z'>l, for then z' can be expressed as a

simple continued fraction in which the first quotient is not zero. We have
It is sufficient .to
*=&
+q
andthcrefore
Now
pq -p'qÎ
q(qz
4- q')
is
positive
or
1,
according as p/q
qz'
q(qz
L
+q)
therefore in both cases
and
____
q(qz'+q')
Hence
'-*-&-:**
q
qz
\q
+ q'>q + q' and z'>l, which proves the theorem.
SYMMETRIC FRACTIONS
406
24. If
pr/<lr
which the value
For
if
is
Therefore
is th6
r~th convergent of the simple continued fraction of
then z 2
is z,
+ Pn-l? ~PnPn-l (*? + ?-l) 2 ^

left is
25. // p/q is an even convergent, and

continued fraction whose value is z, then
according as p/q precedes or follows
X/Y.
ately precedes
than p/q or
else
X/Y
is
even or odd, for
let
X'
p~
p'/q'
precedes p/q.
with
or
coincides
else
X/Y
is
it,
pX
be the convergent which immediately

it occurs later than
let p'/q'
// p/q follows X/Y,
an odd convergent, and

therefore
x _/
7
since p/q is
in the sequence of convergents.
an odd convergent immediately preceded by X'/Y',
Then
|<*<f:
an even convergent immediately preceded by
p'/q',
and
z*>
qY
qq
26.
is
Then X'/Y'
XX'
and
X/Y an odd convergent, of a simple
X/Y
(ii)
0.
X'/Y' be the convergent which immediis an even convergent, and it occurs

coincides with it, therefore
// p/q precedes X/Y,
since
even or odd.
and qn >qn -i, which proves the theorem.
Pn>p n -i,
and
is
equal to
this is positive or negative according as
later
according as
z^^n-i/g^n-i*
The expression on the
(i)
according as
the complete (n-f l)th quotient,
Jrfn-l ( kPn
and
5 PnPn-il^n-v
Symmetric Continued Fractions.
simple finite continued
which the quotients equidistant from the beginning and end

are equal, is said to be symmetric. For instance, the fractions,
fraction, in
77
.^:
4+l-h4+3'
<i
132
are symmetric, the former having an odd

latter
an even number.
_L__
4+1+IT4T3'
number
of quotients,
and the
SUM OF TWO SQUARES

The
is
following
407
an important property of a fraction of
with
this kind
an even number of quotients.

/n Let
r , P
- = #!
(1)
j
and
...
^=
ar + a r + a r _ +
q
the fractions
P/Q
p/q,
being in their lowest terms,
the convergents immediately preceding p/q
P=p*+p'2,
For by Art.
11,
therefore
P/P'=P/Q,
let
p'/q
P'lQ' be
and P/Q, then
= q* + q'* and
Q'
and
ax
Q* +
P ~Q,
l=
also
therefore
pq+p'z"
/
ar + q
X=p* + p' 2
If
therefore
and
Y^pq+p'q',
any common factor
to one another, therefore
therefore
##.
1.
X/Y
,
PQ -P Q = (~l) 2r
/
//
pr /qr
is the r-th
<f
+ q'
we have
X and Y divides p and p', which are prime
of
is
P = X and Q = Y and
Moreover,
= pq+pq2
in its lowest terms.
ff
Q~
consequently
and
P/==Q,
therefore
1111
_____
"
._
at+'" ar + ar +'" a^
prove that the remainders in the process of finding the G.C.M. of Q,
P=p 2r
is
convergent of the continued fraction
For
So also
P are
Q=p* r -i
with sinaikr equations, the last being p 2 =a jp l + l.

Hence the G.C.M. process is that shown on the right.
&r.
2.
Given that 218 2 -f
=25
1901, express 1901 ow fe
The reckoning shows that

1901
+ _LJL_L J_ JL J_I
1+ 2+ 1+ 1+2+ 1+ 8*
218
Hence,
if
1901
p r /qr
=â
is
the rth convergent,
+z> 4
= 26 a + 35 2
(See Ex. 1
and Art.
26.)
*ww
of two squares.
P/Q,
SUM OF TWO SQUARES
408
27. Application to the
any factor of
positive integer,
Theory of Numbers. // Q
Q 2 + 1 can be expressed as the sum
is
any
of two
squares.
For
let
Q 2 + l=PR
P>R,
where
p
-=
Therefore
P>Q
is
P'fQ'
divisor of
p P=
a 2r 4
Consequently
^
J 7;=
P
a 2r _ 1 = a 2
/A*
(A)
the convergent immediately preceding P/Q,
P(R-Q') = Q(Q-P')
Q-P' or else Q = P'.
.1
...
and P>P', therefore
..............................
and
0,+ ----
Q
if
is
P>Q
Let
prime to Q.
then
then obviously
and, since
The
-1
a 2r _ t
...
11
--a 2 4- a l
4-
and the continued fraction
is
is
it
impossible, for
R = Q'.
and
Q==P'
prime to Q,
is
alternative
first
therefore
and1*1.*
a 2r = a l9
is
symmetric.
Denoting the mth convergent of (A) by p m /qm we have, by Art. 26,
,
etc.,
28. Conversely
integer
--
if
x2 + y~ where x
can be found so that Q*
z
1
T
Let - = a r 4
a
y
r-1
then,
if
pml^m
is
1
.
the
ax
-h
and
+1
X = a,
--
4-
a r-1
ax
4-
=p
Using Art. 28, we have
= 46 2 4- 39 2
o9
therefore
an(j
4-
i
^
^
3
54-14-14-
4-"
1027
-
is
LA
1 -f 1 4-
3637
-
we have 3637
x 200 - 1027 2 =
1,
10/27
(1027, 290).
the last two convergents of 3
290
and writing down the continued
<<J90
and the required solution therefore
^=^2^.
find a solution in positive integers of the equation
= l4-r
of which the last two convergents are
= Pq^r-v
JL _ X -1 JL _L 1
1 4- 1
5+ 1 4- 1 + 5T
ar
fraction
Or thus
4-
to the last continued fraction,
Given Âa^ 3637
----
ar
mth convergent
Also ^L^r-i ~ Qpzr~\ == 1
111
. . .
a2 +
1.
by P.
4------
y and x>y, then an
to
prime
is divisible
Z=y 4-^ i==a;2_h2/

Ex.
is
+ 1-
--
are TT ancl
and x = >/(3637 290- 1)=:

.
Therefore
RECURRING CONTINUED FRACTIONS
409
29. If x is prime to y, any factor of x* + y* is the sum of two squares.

For we can find an integer Q such that x2 -f y 2 is a factor of Q2 + 1 and
every factor of
Q2
-f-
is
the
sum
two squares.
of
30. Simple Recurring Continued Fractions.

grouped as follows
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
These
may
be
Fractions which have no acyclic part.
Those with an acyclic part consisting of a single quotient.

Those with an acyclic part consisting of more than one quotient.
The reasons
for this classification will
and we proceed
of fundamental importance,
later.
appear
The conclusions are
to consider these types in
order.
31.
No Acyclic
iT
Part.
U-t
(X>
T~ 7
1111
.
7~~~
&2+ b3+
................
b n+
&1+
&2
the fraction having no acyclic part, then a

with integral coefficients.
Moreover, if
j8
(**)
a root of a quadratic equation
is
second root of the equation ,
is the
then
where the order of the quotients
is reversed,
whence
it
follows that
-1<JB<0.
Denoting the rth convergents of the
Pr/y.r
respectively, we have
OC
l/i
T" 7
'"
62
therefore
and
in the
is
~"
-fractions (A), (B)
by p r/q r and
'
b n +oc
the positive root of
same way the
fraction (B)
is
Jn'zMK-CJ*-^--!^
which by Art. 11
is
'
the same equation as
Now
equation (D) can be transformed into equation (C) by writing

Therefore - l/j3 is the positive root of (D), and is conIfx for x.
sequently equal to the fraction (B).
'Also, from (B),
/?
is
negative,
and
-^>1
from which
it
follows that
STANDARD TYPES
410
32.
single Acyclic Quotient.

l
<?
siw/Ze quotient
a l does not recur, then a
equation whose second root cannot
and -
between
1,
11
11
then x-a^Î/y, and
lie
a root of a quadratic
is
if
pr/gv
is
the rth convergent of the second fraction,
as in Art. 31,
^-(Pn-ffn-Jy-Pn-l-O,
Denoting the
a'^ + l/a,
The root
a'
(B)
pn -i(x-<*i) + (Pn-q n -i)(x-<*i) -?n = ................. c )

roots of (B) by a, j3 where a is positive, and the correspondby a', /?', we have
2
and therefore
ing roots of (C)
........................
is
'
= 04 + 1/0.
the value of the fraction (A), and by Art. 31
where /is a positive proper fraction.

Now a l and b n are unequal, for
if
we have
a l = 6 n then a a would belong to
the cycle, whiqh is contrary to the hypothesis. Consequently /?' = /--/

or -I -f where 7 is a positive integer, and therefore /J' cannot lie between
Oand -1.
1111111
More than one Quotient
33.
//
XI
OC
_
-n
Uf-l
"1
Acyclic.
in which at least two quotients do not recur > then a is a root of a quadratic
equation with rational coefficients whose second root is positive.
- -111
+6 +6
,,11-
Let x = a t +a2 +
and
Pr/Q r
let
...
am
>
...
and
t/
y
= 0i +-
62
and p r/q r be the rth convergents
...
bn
of the first
...
and second
fractions respectively, then
and
?n!/
If a,
/J
are the roots of

!
A ___
_ t'lii
/.
__
11
_____
i
-(F-?-i)!/-yn-i =
......................... (C)
a being positive, then by Art. 31,
(C),
O
Tlfi
<*l-l.vl
1
-.
A)
t/
n
"
~
i
. .
_11_
,
...
I II l
...IJL/I
v
'
SUMMARY OF RESULTS
411
eliminate y from equations (B), (C) we obtain a quadratic in

x with rational coefficients, whose roots a', /?' are found by substituting
Thus a' is equal to the fraction (A) and
a, ft respectively for y in (B).
Also
if
From
we
equation (D)
it
+ l/p=a m -bn -f, where / is a

not equal to b n for if a m = bn
follows that a m
Now a m is
positive proper fraction.
then aw would belong to the cycle, which
It follows that
am + l/j8-/-/
where I
is
_
1
and
since a /m __ l
fore also
/?',
is
is
or
contrary to the hypothesis.
-/-/,
Thus
a positive integer.
Um - i+
is
__
ft
m - i+
I
1
fYf
or
________
ft
-1
a positive integer, the expression on the
NOTE. The argument depends on the existence of a m _ l9 and

than one quotient in the acyclic part.
34.
left,
and
there-
positive in all cases.
Summary.
It has
fails if
there
is
not more
been proved that any simple recurring con-
tinued fraction is a root of a quadratic equation with rational coefficients.

Also the second root (3 of the equation is restricted as follows :
(i)
If there
is
no acyclic part, then
</?<0.
(ii)
If the acyclic part consists of
a single
(iii)
If the acyclic part contains at
least
Ex.
1.
Find
the value of 1
JL
~
o
+~f~
JL
~f"
quotient, then
/?<
or j8>0.
two quotients, then j3>0.
~}~
Denoting the value of the fraction by xy we have
^l + _.
i
where
^ = 1+
^
and
y = (s/37
giving
+ 3)/7
and
__..
1
y=
*=
EXERCISE XLI
1.
provided that
2
---
For the fraction
<|
...
- a + </a 2 + 4).
prove that
(See Ch.
pn
XXII,
q n -i and
2.)
B.C.A.
COMPARISON OF PHYSICAL UNITS
412
----
For the fraction
2.
(ii)
3.
l>n?n-4
-S /iJPn-4 =
w
l)
...
-JT4-1)^ CL
'
prove that
~Mnn-ian.-2
2+
2a
+ 2+
...
.111
/-T\<2(<Zk
'
Prove that
/
,~
2a -f 2a
va 2 ~-2
5.
Prove that
Deduce the following
4.
... ------
2a -f
-f
a-
Prove that
(i)
(n)
6.
Ex.
Show
a -f
1111
r~
*T
&4-c-f6+2a
that 449/120 differs from
//
A/
V\
1\/
+7
6/\
^14 by
less
+ r~"7i
6c-{-2/
than 1/90,000.
(See Art. 22,
1.)
7.
straight ruler is graduated in inches and centimetres, the ratio of an
inch to a centimetre being N. If
is expressed as a simple continued fraction
and p/q is any convergent, show that the distance between the graduations
p centimetres and q inches is less than the distance between any two preceding graduations corresponding to a convergent of the fraction.
'
'
'
8. Find the fractions which, of all those with denominators less than 500, are
the closest approximations (i) in defect and (ii) in excess to 0-2422642. (See
Art. 22, Ex. 2.)

9. Given that 1 metre
3 -2809 ft., obtain the two approximations, 8 kilometres 5 miles, 103 kilometres 64 miles
and find an upper limit of error in
each case.
;
Given that 1 kilogramme = 2 '2046 pounds, show that 44 kilogrammes

slightly greater than 97 pounds, the error being less than half a grain.
Obtain also the usual approximation, 7 grammes 108 grains.
10,
11. If p/q,
p'lq',
is
p"lq" are consecutive convergent^ to a simple continued

F lies between *Jpp'/qq' and *Jp'p"Iq'q"-
fraction F, prove that
SPECIAL TYPES
F=
For the fraction
12.
Also
-.
------
...
-i
a+ b+ a+
2
p are the roots of x - (ab 4- 2)x -f
if a,
ap 2n = bq 2n __ l ~abd n /d l
(iii)
eâ& + 2, and
(v) if
cc
(iv)
< |(
that
prove
r
413
and dn = a n - /_*", then
^ 2 n4i = _/2n
:r::
(^n-|.i
-dn )/d
-c-f \ 7c 2 h4), then
l+frr-o: _
- CX 2 -f iC 4
1 -f fix
[If w n
stands for
un =-p 2n
If
or for
y; 2n
we have
- ^2
.4 n-
>
2 n-i>
then, by Art. 5, Ex. 2,
B~ p ~ 0,
Ay.\Bfi~p 2 ~b,
-4~ -B=6/c/ lf
giving
w~^? 2 n-i> since câ-f-^, then Ja
If
^=(l--i)/^,
giving
Finally,
it is
and then the

13. If
p^n^d^d^
/.
B~-(l-fi-*)ld l9
results in (v)
# n /gn
is
can be obtained by equating
the ?ith convergent to ------
the numerator of the (n~5)th convergent to
rt
that
the
fraction
----a- a-
then
...
Prove
coefficients.]
--->
-f
Pw-i^s-i-gn-iPs-i
14.
1,
d fi-i)/ d ij) 2w -i-=(^n-
:.
easy to show that
is
Aa. ZjrBfP~p z -=c-
1,
\~lJf3=pi
+ a n-l +
----
a- x
n_2
....
which a
in
is
equal
- 1
and is repeated any number of times, must have one of three values,
to
and that if x satisfies the equation 2# 3 -f 3# 2 - 3# - 2 ~ 0, the fraction satisfies
this equation.
15. If n L
--a2
. . .
-f
terms, prove that
---#r-i
$2 -
. .
a r + a r-i
is
divisible
by P.
+ a
P, Q, R are positive integers such that

16. If
P __
_
Q
and
if
Verify
pm jq m
is
1
i
^,
a,+
'*'
111
_
__________
a r_t
=~
V
and P/Q
Q~-l=FR
...
+ a r + a r _ t -f
'"
11_
_.'
the rath convergent, then
^ =Pr (Pr +Pr-i)> G =.Prfr-i +Pr-i<lTby taking P = 33, Q=23.
R = V2r = 3r-JL
in its lowest
and JP>JR, then
_______
cu-f
is
CHAPTER XXV
INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST DEGREE
In
this chapter a,
6,
stand for positive integers.
c, ...
Underthis heading we
consider integral solutions, and more particularly positive integral solutions, of a single linear equation in two or
more variables or of a system of
linear equations in n variables (m<n).
1.
2.
that
A Single Equation of the Form

we need only consider the forms
ax
If either of
any common
by
by
have a
a,
division.
prime
to
common
Hence
and we
b,
(i)
To find a
by
c.
integral values of #,
Hence
if a, b have
t/,
then
a common
no solution in integers exists.

divisor which divides c, this can be removed
no
assume
of generality in supposing that
loss
is
this to be the case.
The Equation ax~by = 1
3.
obvious
c,
there is
shall
It is
ax -f by = c.
and
these equations is satisfied

divisor of a, b must divide
divisor which does not divide

If
=c
axby=c.
(a prime to b).
solution in positive integers, express
as a simple
a/6
continued fraction with an even number of quotients (Ch. XXIV, 4).

The last convergent is a/6. Let p/q be the convergent immediately
preceding
(Ch.
a/6.
XXIV,
9),
Then since
and therefore
is
a/6
(q,
p)
is
an even convergent,
(ii) To find the general solution in integers, suppose that

solution in integers, then
ax - by =
Therefore
since a
where
prime to
is
a(x~~q)
is
This
is
6,
x-
Hence a(x-q)
must be divisible by
zero.
y~p + at
is
(x, y)
any
=aq - bp.
= b(y-p).
an integer or
x = q + bt,
aq-bp~l
a solution.
is
6.
divisible
by
Consequently
Hence
where
= 0,
called the general solution in integers.
1,
6,
2,
etc.
and
GENERAL SOLUTIONS
Since
(iii)
that (q,p)
We
a convergent which precedes a/6, it follows that

and from the form of the general solution we conclude
is
p/q
and q<b,
p<a
only solution in positive integers such that

least
solution in positive integers.
is the
shall call this the
Since
(iv)
integers of
'
p<a
and q<b.
'
a(b-q)-b(a~-p)= 1, the
ax -by = -1 is (b-q,a-p).
The Equation ax-by = c
4.
415
'
'
solution in positive
least
(a prime to b).
(i) To find a solution in positive integers, express a/b as a simple continued fraction with an even number of quotients, and let p/q be the
convergent immediately preceding
aq-bp = l
Hence
(ii)
(qc,
pc)
To find
is
Then
a/b.
aqc~bpc = c.
and
a solution.
The equation may be written

prime to 6, x-qc must be divisible
the general solution in integers.
a(x-qc) = b(y-pc) and
since
is
Therefore (x qc)/b = (y-pc)/a

by
Hence the general solution is
b.
x = qc + bt,
Let
where
t,
y = pc + at
= 0,
is
an integer or
zero.
2, ...).
1,
be the integral part of the smaller of pc/a, qc/b 9 then the

in positive integers is (a, /8) where a qc- 6m, ft =pc - am,
the general solution in positive integers is
(iii)
least solution
and
x=oc + bt,
Thus
Ex.
1.
the equation has infinitely
Find
(i)
We
y~p + at
many
(J
= 0,
1, 2, ...)
positive integral solutions.
the general solution in positive integers of
13.r~l7y = 5:
(ii)
13z-17y= -5
(iii)
13*-172/=996.
find that
lô+J--^^*-!---^-!-!
17
1+3+4
1+3+3+1*
The convergents
of the continued fractions are
13
i'
I'
13.4-17.3 = 1,
and
Hence for
the first equation
* = 20 +
The
P P
a solution
17*,
10
13
4'
Is'
IT
13.13-17.10=-!.
is
The. general solution in integers is
(20, 15).
y = 15 + 13*
(*=0,
1,
2, ...).
solution in positive integers is x = 3 -f 17$,

Similarly for the second equation a solution
1) is (3, 2), and the general

by
y = 2 + 13* (t 0, 1, 2,
).
is given by # = 13. 5 = 65, y = 10.5=50,
and the general
is
least solution in positive integers (given
solution in positive integers
. . .
NUMBER OF SOLUTIONS
416
In case of
the third equation, the
be shortened thus
may
reckoning
Dividing 996
by 13 (the smaller of the coefficients), we find that 996 = 13 76 + 8 = 13 77 5.

Hence the equation may be written 13 (# 77) ~\ly -5, and by the preceding
the least positive integral solution is given by x - 77 = 14, y 11.
.
Therefore the general solution in positive integers
s = 91+17*
is
y = ll + 13* (=0,
1,2,
...).
c can be made to depend on that

NOTE. In this way the solution of ax - by
of an equation of the same form in which c is less than or equal to the smaller of $a, \ b.
The Equation ax + by = c
5.
Let
General solution in integers.
(i)
prime to
(a
continued fraction with an even number

last
Then aq-bp =
convergent but one.
b).
be expressed as a simple
of quotients, and let pfq be the
a/b
and the equation may be
written
ax + by = c(aq -bp)
a
Since
prime to
is
a(cq-x) = b(y + cp).
or
cq-x must be
6,
t is an
integer or zero.
Hence the general solution in
divisible
by
6,
and therefore
where
x = qc-bt
(ii)
integers
yât-pc
(2
is
= 0,
The values
Positive integral solutions.
2, etc.).
1,
of
(if
such exist) for which
x and y are positive are given by the conditions, pc/a<t<qc/b.

Let m, n have positive integral or zero values such that
pc/a =
then
x,
Hence
m+f,
qc/b~n+g,
be positive integers if
...
n.
is the number of solutions in
positive integers,
will
if
Now
0</<1 and
t^m + l, m + 2,
where
-1
</ - g < 1
ab
and therefore
ao
-..
ab
not divisible by ab, the number (N) of solutions in

one of the integers next to c/ab 9 and is greater than or
positive integers
than
less
c/ab according as f^,g.
Hence, if
is
is
If
is divisible
by ab
/=0,
then pc/a and qc/b are integers
= 1 and N--.-L
ao
therefore
THREE UNKNOWNS
Ex.
Find
1.
13*
and the
+ 17^3000(13.
4 - 17
-17.
Moreover,
= 1, and
may be written
=
13(12000 -*) 17 (y + 9000)
or
3)
the equation
x~ 12000 - lit, y~l3t- 9000.
by
9000
15
_. c
=706
^,
3000
13
any
also
15
/=Yo
LO
^"i^
Li
-693 +
13,
^ nat
so
= 093,
by
694,
...
These
705.
hence the number of
/<#
this result agrees with the preceding.
Equations with Three Unknowns.
may
exist,
1.
<14;
Since 705
13.
The general
(1)
Ex.
is
Two
6.
XO.JLV
solutions
if
<~'--
^692 ^
therefore the positive integral solutions are given

solutions are (15, 165),
(32, 152), ... (219, 9).
Now,
3000.
that there are 13 such solutions.
integral solutions are given
HT
+ 17/
13#
the positive integral solutions of
Use the rule just given, to show

As in Art. 4, Ex. 1, we have 13
417
Find
solution in integers, and all the positive integral solutions,

be found as in the next example.
all the positive integral solutions of the
2x -
= 7,
Zij + 3z
pair of equations,
- 4# + ly + 3z = 1 9.
4 ; and tho general

Eliminating one of the unknowns (z), we have 2x 3y =
solution in integers of this equation is #~3w-2,
1,
2...).
y--2m, (in~0,
Substituting these values of x, y in one of the given equations, say in the first, we
find that
2m + 35 = 11 and the general solution in integers of this equation is

z = l+2, and therefore a;^=3/-2 = 10-9,
y~2w = 8-6*.
;
M = 4-3t,
Hence the general solution in integers is x 10 - 9J, y = 8 - 6^, 2 1+2^.

and 1, therefore the only
The only values of t for which x, y, z are positive are
positive integral solutions are (10, 8, 1) and (1, 2, 3).
(2)
//
(a,
j3,
y)
is
a solution in integers of the two equation
ax -f by + cz = d,
it is
required
(i)
to
a'x
4-
b'y
the three
(be'),
the equations are equivalent to
(ab
(ca') y
is
common
be integers for
factor of
(ca') 9
all integral
(ab
by Oh. X,
6,
...............................
(bc') t
zero,
(4),
(aV)
Denote each member of (A) by t/f where

and / is an integer to be chosen later, then
will
is
-=
(te'P(ca')
x, y, z
',
find the general solution in integers.
// none of
Thus
+ c'z = d'
).
may
be any integer or zero
values of
if
and only
if
SINGLE EQUATIONS
418
Now
hence
common
every
and
is the
where g
any
The
only
G.C.M. of
is the
Ex.
(ab
(ca'),
and
= 0,
easily seen that the general solution in integers
(ca'),
2,...
1,
exist)
Find
1.
are
...
a, 6, c,
may
all
is
(ab').
Form ax + b
Single Equation of the
(1) If
(if
(be'),
If (6c')=0, the equations are equivalent to
it is
7.
G.C.M. of
a factor of their G.C.M.,
(ca')
1
where g
is
are given by
all integral solutions
(be')
(ii)
numbers
factor of these
then
positive,
be found as follows
the positive integral solutions
all
lx + 1 1?/ 4- 26z = 123.

+ 11 +2(>2< 123, hence z<4.
the positive integral solutions of
greatest coefficient is
2(>,
and
Therefore the
possibilities are
2
+ \\y~ 97,
+ llr/=:71,
7z + ll?/ = 45,
7# + !!?/:= 19,
lx
1,
2-2,
= 3,
=
2
4,
2
Thus there are two solutions

Ex.
Find
2.
Here
Il:r4
~(3-f 4
+ 7),
possibilities,
are 28 solutions in
(2) If
(a,
namely
(0, 5),
(7,2),
no
therefore
x3 = 4,
one solution
one
no
all the positive integral solutions of
^67
is
in positive integers,
~ 2,
The other
of which there
7.r
3arj,
a:
x^
1,
(6, 5, 1)
and
3^ + 4x 2 -f 7# 3 + 1 1.r4
= 6,
may
no solution.
be treated in the same way.
^ y)
There
all.
is
an integral solution of ax + by + cz = d (where
xa + bw-cv,v,
07.
no solution,
are positive or negative integers), other solutions are given by
where u,
(7, 2, 2).
<5, and we may have
+ 4#2 = 9,
^xl + 4
namely
y = /3 + cu-aw
have any integral or zero values.
a, 6, c
GENERAL SOLUTIONS
This
obviously true.
is
a, 6, c are
For
prime
rr-a,
if
we can show that
Further,
each other, then every integral solution can be so expressed.

y~fi, z-y are denoted by X, Y, Z respectively, the
a-Y
Let a be prime to
6,
Z may
+ ftY + cZ-O ................................. (A)
then integers
u, v
and
X, 7,
then,
since a
where
is
is
can be found so that, whatever
have,
av-bu
If,
if any two of the three
to
equation becomes
integral value
419
Z.
are integers which satisfy (A),
we must have
X + cv == biv, Y - cu = - aw,
prime to
6,
some integer or
This proves the statement in question.
zero.
EXERCISE XLII
Find the least solution
1.
in positive integers of
=l
(ii)
68s
In Exx. 2-7, find the general solution in integers and the least positive integral
values of
2.
5.
3.
27a:-8y = 125.
4.
17a;-41y^l.
6.
12a?-7y = 211.
7.
Find
8.
11.
x, y.
8z--27?/:--125.
all
7* +
1.
the positive integral solutions of equations 8-10.

8//
= 50.
9.
lLr + 7y = 151.
10.
Express 68/77 as the sum of two proper fractions whose denominators
and
are 7
29* - 130 =
11.
12. Show that I/ (13x17) can be expressed in two ways as the difference
between two proper fractions whose denominators are 13 and 17 ; and express
the given fraction in these ways.
AB
AB
CD
are two rods, each one foot in length.

is scaled off into
and
13.
13 equal parts, and CD into 17 equal parts. If the two rods are placed side by
side, with the scales in contact, and the ends of the rods in alignment, show that
and one of CD can never be less
the distance between one scale division of
than I/ (13 x 17) of a foot, and that there are two cases in which the distance
has this value. Which are the pairs of divisions in these cases ?
AB
The sum of two positive integers is 100. If one is divided by 7 the remainder
and if the other is divided by 9 the remainder is 7. Find the numbers.
14.
is 1,
15. If c is increased
ax + by=c
is
by
kab, then the
increased by k.
[For c/ab
number
is
of positive integral solutions of

increased by k and/, g are unaltered.]
SOLUTIONS IN POSITIVE INTEGERS
420
16.
The
least value of c for
which the equation ax + by
[This follows from Ex. 15, coupled with the fact that a
of c for which the equation has one solution.]
17.
has
+b
is
N solutions
is
câ + b + (N -l)ab.
given by
Find the
least positive integer, a, for
the least value
which the equation 3x + y
a has
six positive integral solutions.

18. Find the least value of c in order that the equation l%x + Yty
have 13 solutions in positive integers, showing that the required value
Verify by finding the number of solutions for c-2682, 2681.
19.
The number of
the integral part of
Find
all
20.
x + 3*/-4z-
solutions in positive integers of the equation
may
2682.
x + by~c
is
c/b.
the positive integral solutions of equations 20-23.
Ix + lly + 133 = 201,
21.
S,\
7z
22.
9x+I6y + 25z = IQ9.
24.
Find the
remainders
c
is
23.
number which when divided by
least
1, 5, 9,
= 209.
respectively.
7,
11,
Find also the general form of
all
20,
leaves the
such numbers.
a collector has
25. A certain set of stamps is made up of four different sorts
one of each sort and some duplicates. The values of the stamps are 2d., 3d.,
and the lot are worth 3s. 9d. Find all the different ways
9d., Is., respectively
in which the batch could have been made up.
:
man has in his pocket three half-crowns, seven other silver coins which
26.
are either shillings or sixpences, and eightpence in coppers he paid a bill of 9s. 7d.
Find the possible number of different ways of doing so.
;
27. Find the sum of money which is expressed in farthings by the same digits
written in the same order as those which are required to express it in pounds,
shillings
and pence.
How many
solutions are there to this problem
28. If (p l9 2h> P& P*) i g an integral solution of ax l

that other solutions are given by
+ bw -cv du',
x 2 =p 2 + cu - dv' - aw,
~
#3 ~p3 + dw' + av bu,
XIPI + an' + bv' - cw'
+ bx z ^-cx^ + dx^
e9
show
x i ~P\
where u
29. If
v,
w, u' 9 v' 9 w'
ax + by + c~Q, a'x + b'y + c'
integer, unless both b
[For a(bc')
have any integral or zero values.
and
b'
Q and x
are divisible
+ b(ca') + c(ab') = Q
and
by
a'(
an integer, prove that y

- a'b.
is
ab'
is
an
CHAPTER XXVI
THEORY OF NUMBERS
1
Congruence.
(1)
Let n be any positive whole number, which we

any numbers, positive or negative, such
shall call the modulus.
If a, b are
that a
by
~~
is
divisible
respect to the modulus n,
This
is
expressed
(2)
then a and b are said to be congruent with

and each is said to be a residue of the other.
n,
=
by writing a ^b (mod n) or a 6
an abbreviation for is congruent with.''
(mod
n),
When no
where the symbol
doubt exists as to the modulus in question, we simply write a E=&. Any
statement of this kind is called a congruence.
'
==
Every residue
is
a to the modulus n
of
is
form a -f qn, where q
of the
may be positive or negative. If r is the remainder when a

a = r (mod n) and 0^r<w
we have
is
divided by n,
thus
r is the least positive residue of a.
Again, a
= - (n - r) (mod n), and either r or n - r^.^n. Hence we can

and |/|<^n, where r' may be
r so that a = r'(modw)
== r
always find
This
For example,
if
is
number
the modulus, 34
least residues are

(2)
(i)
and
^6 + 6'.
(ii)
s - 1 and - 34 = -4 = 1. Thus
are 4
and
and the absolute
1,
1 respectively.
a -fa'
==
-34
the least positive residues of 34 and
called the absolute least residue of a.
r' is
a^b(modn) and a ^b'(modn),
//
a -&==#' -6'.
(iii)
then
aa'^bb', and in particular uc^bc.
d, a number prime to n, then a/d = b/d.

For by hypothesis a b and a' - b' are divisible by n, hence
- (b + b') and (a - a') -(b-b ) are divisible
(a + a)
by n.
= (a - 6)a' 4- (a' - 6') 6,
aa' (iv)
// a and b are divisible by
Again,
therefore aa' -66'
divisible
by
- =
Lastly, a 6 qn, where q
is
is
by d, so also is qn. Now

number, and since a/d-b/d = q/d
divisible
n.
This proves the theorems (i)-(iii).
a whole number, then since a and 6 are
d is prime to n, therefore q/d is a whole
.
n>
it
follows that a/d = b/d (mod
ri).
In particular, if a == 6 (mod p) wAere p is a prime and if d is any common

divisor of a and b, then afdz=b/d(modp), except when d^Q(modp).
Thus a close analogy

and equalities/
*
exists
between
'
congruences to a prime modulus
'
TEST OF DIVISIBILITY
422
The following
(3)
(i)
ab
...
then
(2)
same modulus
to the
(ii)
and
are immediate consequences of the theorems in
If
any modulus as=a', 6 = 6',... k~k
&==a'6' ... &', and in particular a m z=a' m
to
// f(x\ y, 2, ...) is a polynomial in x, y, z, ... with integral coefficients

x = x', y^-y', z^z, ... to any modulus, then to the same modulus
f(x,y,z, ...)=f(x,y',z,
Ex.
1.
Give a
test
as
...).
to the divisibility
number by
of a
N may be written in the form

N=a +a + a. + +an n where
11 or 13.
7,
Any number
...
f^lOOO
0â r <t.
and
s-a -a 1 + 2 -... + (-l) n an then we have + l =1001 =7

t~ -1 and r =(-l) r with regard to each of the moduli
Let
rt
N~s
Consequently
(mod
7,
11
13;
11
7,
hence
and
13.
11 or 13).
Thus if 2V = 12345671, then 5 = 671-345 + 12 = 338. Now 338 is divisible by 13

but not by 7 or 11 therefore 12345671 is divisible by 13 but not by 7 or 11.
;
The Numbers
2.
less
than a Given Number and prime to
n is any number greater than 1, the number of positive integers

than n and prime to it is denoted by <p(n)
moreover, we define the
If
it.
less
value of <>(1) as 1. Here, it should be noted that 1 is to be regarded as

prime to every other number. Thus the numbers less than 12 and prime
to
it
(1)
are
and
1, 5, 7, 11,
If a
is
prime
For
if
to
n, so also
is <p(ri).
by
in a certain order (Ch.

its
is
remainder.
gression are prime to
If
number of terms of the arithmetical progression

x + 2a, ... x + (n-l)a
x-i-a,
these numbers are divided
w-1, taken
(2)
= 4.
to n, the
x,
which are prime
gp(12)
I,
n, the remainders are 0, 1, 2,

10),
Consequently, as
n as there are numbers
m is prime to n,
and
then cp(mri)
(p(m)
less
if
number
many
...
prime to
terms in the prois
than n and prime to
it.
(f>(n).
To enumerate the numbers less than mn and prime to it, we arrange the
numbers 1, 2, 3, ... mn in n rows and m columns as below
:
...
w-hl
2m-fl
...
...
(n-l)w-t-l
m-f2
2m + 2
...
...
...
m+k
...
...
2m + k
(n-l)w-f2...
....
(n-l)m+k...
m
2m
3m
nm.
is prime to n, the numbers in

question are those which are
to
both
and
n.
Now
member
of the &th column is or is not
prime
every
prime to m, according as k is or is not prime to m.
Since
VALUES OF
423
p(n)
Thus the numbers in question, being prime to w, are members

columns headed by numbers prime to m.
99 (w)
ft,
of the
Moreover, every column contains cp(n) numbers which are also prime to
for the numbers in each column form an arithmetical progression of
n terms with a common
It follows that there are
m and n,
to both
(3)
//
that
m v m w3
cp
(m)
cp(ri)
are prime
prime to n.
numbers less than
is
and so cp(mn) = <p(m)
to mn,
is
...
2,
m which
difference
mn and
<p(n).
one another, then
to
cp^m^m^ ... w r = 9?(%) <p(m2 <p(m z ... <p(m r ).

For by (2), (p(m l m 2 = (p(m l <p(m 2 ). Also m3 is prime to
.
w2
therefore
and so on,
(4)
If p
for
is
it is
m m2
prime to
any number
and
prime
both m^
Hence
of steps.
a prime, then q>(pr )
(l-l/p).
when r = l,
The proposition is true

If r>l, since p is a prime,
for cp(p)=p-I.
numbers 1, 2, 3, ... p r those which
~
are not prime to p r are p, 2p, 3p, ... p r and their number is p r l
~
r l
which
All the rest are prime to p r and their number is p r -p
of the
proves the theorem.

(5)
If
n=pa
<f
...
where p,
p/\
For pa (f,
(3) and (4).
,
Find
Ex.
1.
We
have
q/
are prime to one another,
...
the
are the prime factors of n, then
...
q, r,
number of
integers less than
and the
n and prime
to
result follows
it,
from
when
w = 1024,1025, 1026.
1024=2 10
1025 = 5*. 41
1026
= 2.
= 1024 (1 -|) =512.

and 9? (1025) = 1025(1 -J)(l -^-)=800.
19 and <p( 1026) = 1026(1 --|)(1 - J)(l -j^)=324.
hence
33
(p (1024)
This illustrates the irregularity in the variation of the function
Ex.
2.
This
is
prime to
//
n^2,
the
sum of the
when n
obviously true
it,
so also
is
Hence the numbers

each pair has a
sum
integers less than

2.
If
n>2
q>(ri).
n and prime to it is \nq>(n).

is any number less than n and
and x
n - x.
less
than n and prime to
it
can be arranged in pairs such that
n.
Thus <p(n) must be even, the number of

numbers in question is
pairs is
fyp(ri)
and the sum of the
FERMATS THEOREM
424
(6)
Theorem.
number
// ^(
= 1),
d3
2,
dr (=-n)
...
n^p^r
+ y(d2 + 93(^3) +
)
where p,
...
l)
then every divisor of n
0<z<c,
...
form p x qVr z
of the
is
and
let
<p(d r ),
where
...
Q^xâ, Q^y^b,
so that
etc.,
S = Zcp(p*qyr*
have
...
x, y, z,
= 27{y(p*)
...)
99(7")
<p(r*) ...},
Hence
values subject to the above conditions.
all
equal to the product
is
Now
+ (jp(p) +
cp(p
-f
4-
a
(jp(p
= l+(p-l) + (p a -ji) + ...+(ând
any
= n.
(p(d r )
are primes
r, ...
...
S = <p(d + y(d 2 +
where
are the divisors of
n, then
<p(dj
Let
rf
similarly for the other series in the brackets.
S-=p
For instance, the divisors
~l
to p, then a p
For
is divisible
)=
Therefore
.r ...=n.
.q*>
//
-1
of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24
Fermat's Theorem.
3.
fl
-
is
a prime and a
is
and
any number prime
by p.
l)a are divided by p, the

a
1
in
taken
certain
order.
p
Also the product of the numbers a, 2a, 3a, ... is congruent (mod p)
~
with the product of the remainders, therefore a p l \p-I = \p-I; and
since
is
prime to p,
if
a, 2a, 3a,
remainders are
1, 2, 3, ...
since
prime to p, therefore
\p
is
...
(p
a^^
^mod^), which
proves the
theorem.
Corollary 1.
is divisible
If p
is
a prime and a
is
p
any number whatever, then a -a
by p.
""
~~
For a p -a = a(a p 1 -l), and if a is prime to p, a p l - 1 is divisible
p - a is divisible
by p which is a prime number. Hence in all cases a
by p.
y
Corollary 2.
If p
an odd prime and a
is
a i (11-1)52
For a
therefore
number.
p -1
is
prime
is
a divisor of
I>
a^^~ 1^
p, then
l(modp).
-l = (a*<i- )-l)(a*^ + l), and

1
to
or of
a"- 1 -!
a^/>-i)
+1
is
divisible
since
is
by
p,
a prime
THEOREM
WILSON'S
Ex.
The fifth power of any number N has

is divisible
by 5 and by 2.
1.
For A75
-N
Ex.
The ninth power of any number
If
2.
prime to 19, since
is
\r(19
425
same right-hand
the
N is of one of the forms

Cor. 2
-1)=9, by
19w, 19m
Euler's Extension of Fermat's Theorem.

and a is prime to n, then afW ^ 1 (morf n).
^( =
a2
1),
a3
than n and prime to
...
19).
If n
a<p( n )
divided
is
any num-
be the numbers, in ascending order, less
and consider the products
it,
aa l9
If these are
1.
N ^l(mod
we have
4.
Let
N.
N = 19m.
Otherwise we must have
ber
digit as
by
aa 2
aa^
n, the
...
aa9(n}
remainders are
(A)
all different.
For
if
we
suppose that two products as aa r aas (r>s) give the same remainder, then
a(a r -as ) would be divisible by n. This is impossible, for a is prime to n
and a r a s <in.
,
Also the remainders are
all
prime to
n, for the factors of
any product
are both prime to n.
Hence the remainders are the numbers a v a 2 ... a 9 n taken in some

Now the product of the numbers in the set (A) is con,
order or other.
gruent (mod n) with the product of the remainders, therefore

a*( n >
and dividing by a x a 2
a xa 2
...
...
a<p( n ),
a<p (w)
â^
which
is
...
a9(n) (mod
prime to n,
n),
we have the
result in
question.
Wilson's Theorem.
5.
divisible
1,
is
is
by p.
a is any one of the numbers
a prime number, then
\p-l +1
is
p 1, and if the products

the
remainders
are the numbers
a, 2a, 3a,
(p-l)a
by p,
>~1, taken in some order or other. Hence, for every a, there
2, 3, ...
one number a' and one only, such that aa' =zl(modp).
For
1
If p
if
If
1, 2, 3, ...
are divided
...
2
a'=a, then a -!
must be
divisible
by
p,
and
since
is
a prime
\p
or a -1=0.
and a<p, it follows that either a +
Thus 1 and p - 1 are the only values of a for which a' can be equal to a.
If then a is any one of the p - 3 numbers 2, 3, ... p - 2, then a' is not
Consequently, these numbers can be arranged in i(p-3)
equal to a.
pairs,
such that the product of each pair is congruent with 1.

2 3 ... (p~2)~l (mod p)
and \p- 1 ==j?- 1 (mod^).
Therefore
Hence
NOTE.
the other.
\p
+ 1 ^0 (mod p), which
The numbers
(Euler.)
a, a'
is
the result in question.
are called associated residues, each being the associate of
LAGRANGE'S THEOREM
426
Conversely, if
p-1
is divisible
4- 1
p would have
For otherwise
by
then
is t3
prime number.
a factor q which would divide
and
[p-1
[p-1 + 1.
28 4-233
Ex.
1.
We
have 899 = 29.31,
Prove that
by 899.
is divisible
233-1 (mod 29) and 233= 10 (mod 31).

By Wilson's theorem, 28 + 1-0 (mod 29), therefore |j|8 + 233=0 (mod 29).
30 + 1 = 0, therefore 30.29. 28 4- 1 = 0,
Again, to the modulus 31, we have
also
and
so
1)(
28 4-32=0.
2)
Since 2
prime to
is
31, it follows that
[28
and therefore
[28
Hence 128 4-233
4-233=0.
is
divisible
by 29 and
31,
4-
16=0,
and therefore
by 899.
6.
than
Lagrange's Theorem. If p
p-I, the sum of the products of
a prime and r is any number less

numbers 1,2, 3, ..., p-1 taken
is
tJie
r together is divisible by p.
Let f(x)
= (x 4~ 1
products of
(x
4-
...
1, 2, 3,
2)
p - 1)
then
4-
taken r together,
a r denotes the sum of the
if
(x
= tf>- +a l x*- 2 + a&*-* + ...+a P _ l ................... (A)

= (x + I)f(x + l), that is,
identity (x+p)f(x)
l
f(x)
Also
we have
the
(B)
Equating
~
the coefficients of x p 2 ,
etc., are all

all divisible
...
x,
we
find that
~2
a prime, Cf is divisible by p, for r
by
which
p,
is
the theorem in question.
For another proof,
see Art. 11, (6).
We
NOTE.
(i)
and
is
can immediately deduce the theorems of Wilson and Fermat, thus
Equating the terms independent of
since
divisible
av a2
...
by p which
t
re
a p _ 2 are divisible by
is Wilson's theorem.
so also
is
a^^ + 1,
that
is
any number prime to p one of the numbers x 4-1, x 4- 2, ...

by p, hence f(x)=0 (mod p).
~
~
Also /(#)= x p l 4-ap^ x p l - 1 (mod p) therefore x3*- 1 -1=0 (mod p)
(ii)
If
must be
is
in the identity (B),
\p
-1
4-1
x+p - 1
divisible
Format's theorem.
which
is
EXAMPLES OF DIVISIBILITY
Ex.
If p
1.
is
greater than 3, prove that
awrime,
'1
+ '"
^2
in the identity (A),
If,
(p
and
N6w,
since
divisible
Hence,
is
(2p
...
1)
a prime greater than
a 3) _ 2
divisible
is
If p
divisible
is
a prime, greater than
by p
~\
3,
mp
~l,
2, 3,
since 3
divisible
*s
prove
we have
-f ...
7>
and, by Lagrange's theorem,
prime to p,
is
by p
that,
I
it
follows that
2
.
for all integral values of m,
p\m
~
Substituting rp for x in the identity (A),
where
2
.
subtraction,
a/p-s exists
3,
by p*\ and,
is
P+^-s
ap^ 2
j)~i-f
in succession,
by p.
3_p
2.
p and - 2p
+ l)~2>_i ~%_2 2;
are identical, we have by
a^_ 2
Ex.
to
(p
since the left-hand sides
it is
p~-}
we put x equal
+ l)(p + 2)
(2p -l)(2p -2)
427
...
m - 1,
Hence,
(r
and, by giving r the values
and p
-f-
1)
1, 2, ...
hence,
is
mp -
as in Ex.
prime and greater than
rp
/;)
m - 1,
we have,
ra(|
~r+1
it
(mod
1,
3.
3
)
jt?
follows that
p\ m =0 (mod
m +s
).
EXERCISE XLIII
1.
If
ao
+ a t + a 2 t* +
l
...+a n t n
... -f (
I)
n tn
Qâ r <t,
where Z~ 10000 and
SâQ-^â^ -
and
prove that J\ ~/S(mod 73 or 137). Hence state

a rule for the divisibility of a number by 73 or 137. Apply it to 30414 and 81103.
2. If
and
is
a prime and x l9 x 2 , X Q
in particular (ax) p ~ax p
Prove that,
4.
Prove that,
if
if
is
...
xa are any numbers, show that
(mod p), where x is any number.

and if a is not divisible by p, a p~~ 1 == I (mod p)
p
Consequently, a ^= a (mod p)
which is Fermat's theorem.
3.
a prime greater than
is
then n 6 -
7,
is
a prime greater than 13, then n 12 -
divisible
1
is
by
504.
divisible
by
65520.
5.
If
p and
6.
If
is
q are different primes, then
a prime of the form
pq
~l
4m + 1, show
-f
p~ l
that
is
%(p -
+ 1 = (mod p).
2ms (4m) (4m -1) (4m -2)
1.2.3
divisible
1)
is
by pq.
a solution of
the congruence, x 2
[Show.that
2 E
...
(2m -f l)(mod^).j
B.C.A,
ROOTS OF A CONGRUENCE
428
4m -
7. If p is a prime of the form

the congruence, x 2 - 1 = (mod p).
the congruence,
8. If
(i)
9.
\p
Show
10. If
11. If
1 =
that
l)fc
118
a'
+1
=s
p ~^
is
divisible
-3 + 1
(modp), has no
and
show that
1,
(ii)
by
a prime, 2 \p
is
any odd number, show that
divisible
\n-\\ I+S + QT--- + 11

I
12.
Ad
Arrange the numbers

aa ~\ (mod 17).
...
2, 3, 4,
1)
is
a solution of
show that
of the form 4m -
solution,
is
1.
437.
is
is
that
\(p
by
p,
T h=0(inod7i).
l_j
15 in pairs, a and
a',
such that for each
pair,
13.
Let
n~a pb Qc r
...
where
a, 6, c,
...
and consider the
are different primes,
groups
a, 2a, 3a,
...
7i/a
6, 26, 36,
...
n/6
a&, 2a6, 3a6,

.
6c, 26c, 36c,
...
n/ab
...
n/bc
a6
be
1
f
together with groups (C), (D), etc., formed in a similar way from the combinations
of a, 6, c, ... taken 3, 4, ... together. If s l9 s 2 5 3>
denote the sums of the rth
powers of the numbers in the groups (A), (B), (C), ... respectively, show that the
sum of the rth powers of the numbers not greater than n and not prime to it is
,
14. If
less
# 2 is
the
sum
of the squares, and

it, show that
$ 3 the sum
of the cubes, of the numbers
than n and prime to
where
a, 6, c, ... are the different prime factors of n.

[Use the last example to show that the sum of the squares of the numbers not
greater than n and not prime to it is
U
3
7.
a~
ab
+ n +
+
'")
Roots of a Congruence.
degree in x,
condition
with integral
f(x)=Q(modn)
6^
a~
a+ ~->-l
is a polynomial of the rth

value
of x which satisfies the
any
called a solution or root of the congruence
If f(x)
coefficients,
is
f(x) =0, which is said to be of the rth degree.

If xQ is a root of the congruence f(x) ^0(mod n), so also
congruent with x to the modulus n.
is
any number
Two roots will be regarded as distinct only when they are incongruent
with respect to the modulus, and when we say that a congruence has r
roots we mean that it has r distinct roots.
THE LINEAR CONGRUENCE

Ex.
from Format's theorem that,

(modp) are 1, 2, 3, ... p 1.
It follows
1.
1 congruence x^"
if
is
429
a prime,
the roots of the
E\rery square number is of the form 5n. or 5wl> thus no square can be
z
congruent with 2 to the modulus 5. In other words, the congruence x ==2(mod5)
Ex.
2-.
has no solution.
NOTE.
It
13x=
congruence
z=
obvious that, in dealing with the congruence /(#)=0 (mod n), we may
by any number congruent with it to the modulus n. Thus the
is
coefficient
any
replace
(mod
17
(mod
5)
is
3#=2
identical with
or with
3a;=
-3
or
with
5).
8. The Linear Congruence.

(1) If a is prime to n, the congruence
ax H= b(mod n) has just one distinct root.
For if the terms of the arithmetical progression 0, a, 2a, ... (n - 1) a are
is prime to n, the remainders are the numbers 0, 1,
some
or other. Hence there is just one value of x
order
2,
n-1,
such that ax^b(modn) and 0^x<n.
To solve ax = b(mod n) when a is prime to n, let afn be expressed as a
simple continued fraction with an even number of quotients, and let y /xg
divided by n, since a
in
...
be the last convergent but one.
Then ax - nyQ = 1
and since a is prime to
,
If
so that
n,
x^=bxQ
axQ ==
,
(mod
which
is
n).
the required solution.
small, or the product of small primes,
is
ax E= 6 = abxQ
Therefore
it is
generally easier to
proceed as in Exx. 1-3 below.

(2)
// a
is
not prime to n,
and g
is the greatest
numbers, there are g incongruent solutions of

is divisible
by
common
ax^b(mod
n),
divisor of these
provided that b
If b is not divisible by g, there is no solution.
g.
a~ga' n=gri, so that a' is prime to ri. We require values of

x such that ga'x - b is divisible by gn'. No such value exists unless 6 is
divisible by g.
If this condition is satisfied and b=gb', then a'x-b' is
divisible by n' and the given congruence is equivalent to a'xs-fe'fmod n').
Since a' is prime to ri, the last congruence has one solution a<n', and
(/solutions <w, namely, oc, a-t-n', a + 2n', ... a + ((7
l)n', which are
the g distinct roots of a# = 6(mod n).
For
(3)
let
The expression 6/a(mod
n)
is
used to denote any solution of
ax = 6 (mod
If
n).
common divisor which does not divide 6, then 6/a(mod n)

no meaning in every other case it has infinitely many values. If a
a and n have a
has
if a is not prime to
congruent (mod n)
is
the
where
congruent (mod n/g)
g
greatest common divisor
is
prime to
n, these values are all
n,
they are
all
of a
and
n.
>
SIMULTANEOUS CONGRUENCES
430
Such expressions possess many of the properties of ordinary

and it is easy to prove the following
fractions,
a = #'
If
(i)
and
a7&'(modn)
ak/bk(mod
(iii)
Ex.
(i)
(ii)
equivalent to a/6 (mod n).

equivalent to a/b (mod n), if k
am/bm(mod mn)
(ii)
and
a/6 (mod n)
is
is
n)
the expressions
bz=b'(modn),
are equivalent.
is
1.
Solve (i) 5ar=2 (wod 7)
(ii) ISzssG (mod 21).
Hero 6#==2-7== -5 (mod 7), therefore #~ - l==6(mod
prime to
n.
Since 3
is
a divisor of
so that
z==6(mod
Ex.
2.
Solve
We
have
and x~G,
7)
3.
We
have
?=
12*==
Sotoe
-)-
20 (mod
13,
7z=
~ 2 4-
=43
- 50,
^|?==
o
11
(mod
-
2 - 17
5~
7).
equivalent to
as -Hf?=
therefore
5#=2(mod
7),
IA
^s ~
O
==
22 (mod 157).
43).
and the third convergent

- 17
5(mod
Simultaneous Congruences,
have x = a +ocy where y
is
a + ocy = 6 (mod
and
43)
(i)
is
5/2, thus
&(mod 43 )~
~5
'
55= 31 (mod 43).

find x so that
It is required to
and
x-a(moda)
We
is
21).
x= -\^- (mod 43)~ -
Therefore
(4)
the congruence
36* = 7 (tnod 157).

O
Ex.
15, 6, 21,
x==b(mod
/?).
given by
j8)
or
a2/
= fe~a(mod j8).
Let ^ be the greatest common divisor of a and j8. If 6 - a is not divisible

by g there is no solution. Otherwise, there is just one value y l of y less
than /?/</, which satisfies the last congruence, and the general value of y is
given by y = y l
+ f}/g
t,
so that the general solution is
x = x l + afilg
x t = a + at/j.
where
and only if, 6 - a

is divisible by g, the
greatest common divisor of a, j8, and then the conare
gruences
equivalent to the single congruence x = x (mod I), where I is
the L.C.M. of a and j8.
Thus a solution
of the given congruences exists
It should be observed that solutions

(ii)
To find x
so as to satisfy
xz=a(mod<x.),
always exist when a
a number of
x = b(mod
if,
j8),
relations of
tJie
x^c(mody),
is
prime to
/?.
form
...
replace the first two by x = x 1 (modi!) as in the last section.

this with the third, the first three congruences are equivalent to
we
Taking
x = x2 (mod m),
where x2
is
any
solution (found as before)
and
is
the L.C.M. of
and
y,
THEOREM ON FRACTIONS
and
therefore of a,
congruences are together equivalent
and L
if
is the L.C.M.
<*>
Ex.
We
35x^4 (mod
Driven that
1.
x=~
have
oo
Hence
Thus y = l+4t and
a;
and
9),
~ (mod 12) - 1-- 2 (mod 12).
x=-
&o
= 5 4- 9 (1 + 4$)
+ 362, which
14
solution
any
12), find the general value of x.
12) =s--
y^-Wmod
y
giving
12),
is
the given
Moreover, a solution always exists
and 55x=2(mod
5 (mod
(mod 9)==-^r==
1
= 5 + 9ys 2 (mod
a;
9)
where
xz==g(mod L)
of a, /?, y,
are prime to one another.
...
y,
to
...
be seen that
will
it
Continuing thus,
y.
j8,
431
is
(mod
4)
si (mod 4).
the general solution.
We
can apply these methods to solve a linear congruence when the

modulus is a composite number, as in the next example.
(5)
Ex.
2.
Solve
19*== 1 (mod 140).
and
have 140 4 .5.7, and therefore 19#==1 for the moduli 4, 5 and 7
since these numbers are prime to one another, any value of x which satisfies these
conditions is a solution. Thus we have
We
#==
17
(mod 4)==
- l(mod
x=
5),
7)
= -=-4 (mod 7).
- l(mod 5), so that y = 5z.

- 4 (mod 7)
z=
and
-f 202=
+4t/==
x= -
Therefore
(mod
z==y-(mod
Hence
:==-- (mod 5)= 1

t/
and
4),
7)= 3 (mod
20 (mod
-^r-
Thus
7).
and x = 59
In
this case the solution
_. = 7 + 2
1<7
Therefore
2*
~\r
4"
-f 140J, which is the general solution.

can be found more easily by the method of
The fourth convergent
is
~
o
and
59
(3),
Ex.
19 - 140
3,
thus
8
= 1.
x~ ~ (mod 140) == 59 (mod 140).

19
A Theorem
9.
on Fractions.
If n
is the
one another, and

Z,
m/n can be expressed uniquely in the form
c 9 d,
which are prime
...
to
m = a- B y
A
+ y + + ...+ 7
n
where a,
Let
a'
)8,
...
A,
is
product of factors a,
prime
6,
to n, the fraction
...
..............................
fc,
A)'
k are positive integers and a<a, jS<6,
etc.
and therefore integers x, x' can

prime to a', for any common
these two would divide m, which is prime to a'. Thus we have
bed
then a
... I,
be found so that a'x

factor of
is
prime to
a',
+ ax' = m. Moreover,
m _x
aa
'
.
-I
x' is
OUJ.VA
w_x
n
:i
bed ...I
THE GENERAL CONGRUENCE
432
Proceeding in this way, we can obtain a relation of the form
m-x
._
n
where
u
I
_. . .
z
L
~___
J
__ _i-
w are integers, and then mfn

xâ +
y^/3 + kJ), etc.,
x, y, z,
by writing
frjcr,
can be put in the required form

where a, 'j8, ... are the least
with regard to the moduli a, 6, ... respectively.

we multiply each side of the equality (A) by n, it will be seen
positive residues of x,
Again, if
that a he
...
?/,
...
Z^m(moda),
ac
j8
= w(mod
...
6),
etc.
Since
6c...
i!
is
a has just one positive value less than a. Similarly j8 has just one
value less than 6, and so on. Hence the expression found for m/n is unique.
prime to a,
Ex.
Express
^ e form
Yr~~7\
- + -+- + - + A%
4
J.
the fraction* being positive
proper
fractions and k an integer.

Here x, y, z, u are determined by
5.7. liars
4.7.
101
(mod
= 101 (mod
ly
4),
5),
4.5 Ilz=sl01(mod7),
With
a?
= l,
lu
~ 101 (mod
y = 2, = 1,
it
1)
= 1,
== 1
= 1 (mod
a?
-4,
4);
y^2(mod5);
ZEE! (mod 7);
s 1= 12,
mod
== 3(
i + f +y+^r = l^^;
find that
The General Congruence.
10.
4?t
11),
= 3, we
- l)x
1)(
(-3)(-2) .4^-3,
In this article
11).
so that jfe=-l.
/(re), 97(3),
...
will
denote polynomials with integral coefficients.

(1) If
every coefficient of a polynomial /(x)
is divisible
by n
for all values of x,
gruent with zero to the modulus n.
/(x)
<p(x)
r=
divisible
by
n,
then /(x)
and we say that f(x) is identically

This is expressed by writing
con-
said to be identically congruent with (p(x)(modri)

0(mod n), which is also written as /(x) H^ 99 (x) (mod n).
Again, /(x)
is
is
if
If /(x) is divided by <p(x), a polynomial of

(2) Division (mod n).
lower degree than /(x), we obtain an identical relation of the form
whore the remainder R'(x)
is of lower
degree than <p(x).
that
coefficient
which
occurs
in the division is replaced by
Suppose
any
number
any
congruent with it (mod n). The process modified in this way
is called division
(mod
n),
f(x)
where R(x)
If
72 (x)
is
and leads
= Q(x)
of lower degree
^0 (mod w),
to
an
identical congruence of the
form
(p(x)+R(x)(modn),
than
then f(x)
is
<p(x).
said to be divisible (mod n)
by
(p(x).
CONGRUENCES
said
is
Ex.
divisible
is
// f(x)
have r roots equal
to
(mod
shown on the
the congruence
7)
right.
f(x)==Q(modn)
to a.
2
2, 4,
-6 by + 1. In
and
G are roots of 5x* + 3# - \x - 2===0(mod

- 2 and x 4 in succession is
x
by
In the third line 13 is replaced by
Prove that
1.
Division
(mod n) by (#-a)
433
the last line 19
is
replaced
0. The reckoning shows that

+ 3z2 - 4x - 2~ 5(x -2)(x -4) (x + l)(mod
by 5
7).
12
5+342
\ __4
5-1+1 + Q
10-2+2
and 21 by
or*
when x ~2, 4
so that the congruence holds
or
20 + 9
7),
6.
Congruences to a Prime Modulus.
The analogy between

a step further by the following
11.
congruences and equalities is carried

theorems, in which the modulus p is a prime.
or
is
N ^Q(mod p).
For since
MN
is
= Q(modp),
a prime, then either
or N
divisible by the prime p, either
is
so divisible.
If a
a root of f(x)z=Q(modp), then f(x) is divisible (mod p) by

For by di vision (mod p) we have f(x) ^Q(x) (x a) -f R, where
(2)
x-a.
where p
MN-O(modp)
//
(1)
is
is
of
independent
therefore /(.r)
then
it
of x
- a and x
(mod
p)
divisible (mod p)
divisible (mod p)
is
/?
is
x=oc
Putting
divisible
is
is
Iff(x)
(3)
x.
x-oc.
by
and by (x-fly where a

For any common divisor
which is independent of x.
by
(x~a)
by (x <y.)
a divisor of a -
we have 72=
- ft)*
(x
/?
(4) If f(r) is a polynomial of degree n, the congruence f(x)^Q(rnod p)

cannot have more than n roots, any root which occurs r times being counted
as r distinct
This follows at once from the preceding theorems.
roots.
// f(x)'^Q(modp) is a congruence of the n-th degree with n roots and

a factor of'f(x) of degree r, then the congruence (p(x)^0(mod p) has
<p(x)
This is an immediate consequence of (4).
r roots.
(5)
is
(6)
//
is
a prime,
p
congruence x
Hence
it
if
~l ~
(Art. 6)
Ex.
1.
it
follows
ar
a^"-
^0(mody)
also
sum
-a
from Fermafs theorem that the roots of

1, 2, 3, ...
p - 1, and therefore
are
^0(mod p)
a r denotes the
follows that
Hence
of the products r together of
p -3
ar
for
4- ... 4-
a p _,
r<p-]
=0(mod
p),
the
x2
which
which
is
1 -f
1}
2, 3,
...
p-
1,
^ 0(mod p).
Lagrange's theorem
Wilson's theorem.
is
Solve
Here 4z 2 4-43;-f4==0, or (2^-fl) 2 ^
-3s 4;
and2.r-f IE=
2.
Hence x~ 2 or 4 (mod
7).
ROOTS OF CONGRUENCES
434
In treatises on the Theory of Numbers the notion of congruence is

extended to complex numbers, thus completing the analogy referred to at
the head of this
article.
Let /(a;)^0(mod p) be a connth degree to a prime modulus p. Let the roots of the
congruence be oc v 2 ... a r where some of these may be multiple roots.
By a modified H.C.F. process we can find a congruence R(x) ^0(mod p) of
12.
Reduction of a Congruence.
gruence of the
degree r of which the roots are ot v <x 2 ... a r

For the roots of x**- 1 - 1 =0(mod p) are
.
1, 2, 3, ...
~
xp l
-I ==0(modjp).
/(#)=EO(mod^) is a solution of
~
Let the H.C.F. process be carried out for the functions f(x) and x p l - 1
with the modification that any coefficient may be replaced by any number
congruent with it (mod p) then the last divisor R(x) is the highest common
solution of
p - 1, hence every
di visor ( mod p)
and x p ~ l -l.
of f(x)
The truth of this statement depends on the following. Let u, v be any

two consecutive remainders in the process. If w is the next remainder,
w au + bv where neither a nor 6 is divisible by p. Hence the common
divisors (mod p) of u and v are the same as those of v and w.
It follows that
Ex.
1.
SJunv that the congruence
distinct root
is
R(x)^0(modp)
and
solve
is
the congruence referred to above.
3# 4 -2x* ~4x 2 -x-l==Q(inod
7)
has only one
it.
6
Carrying out the modified H.C.F. process for the left-hand side and re -!, it
the
x
2
is
the
distinct
found that
last divisor is
root.
+ 2, showing that
only
we find that 3z4 - 2#3 - 4z2 - x - 1 == 3 + 2 x~ division
(mod 7)
By
Now afe3{mod7)
(x
-2
has no solution, hence
is
2)
3) (mod 7).
the only distinct root.
EXERCISE XLIV
1.
Find the form of x,

(i)
29x=
if
(mod
13)
(ii)
2:c==3
(mod
7)
and 3*^5 (mod
2.
(iii) 8z= 1 (mod 7), 3z=4 (mod 11), and 7z~3 (mod
Solve (i) 78z= 1 (mod 179)
(ii) 78a;= 13 (mod 179).
3.
Solve
16 ^^ 31
(mod 1217)
(iii) 15*= 28 (mod 1009)
#= a (mod 22) and x =: b (mod
(H)
4. If
20).
If
x~a (mod
16)
40),
(mod 5)==c (mod
30#=~31 (mod 1861)
If x==a
(mod
7)== 6
z==
(iv) 26#=35 (mod 1901).

show that a -b is even and
11),
prove that
x- 385a + 1766 - 560c (mod 880).

6.
(i)
5.
11)
(mod 11) c (mod 13), prove that

- 286a + 3646 - 77c (mod 1001).
BICYCLE-GEAR PROBLEM
7.
If x = a
8.
Express
integers
9.
and
Express
integers
435
(mod 3)^6 (mod 5)=== c (mod 7), prove that

x== - 35 4- 216 4- 15c (mod 105).
--
form
in the
OU
< 32,
?/
< 5,
< 11
k,
where
x, y, z,
k are positive
k,
where
x, y, z,
k are positive
11
form
in the
1001
and #<7,
4-
11
2<13.
2/
10. Find tfie form of numbers, of which the first, second and third powers are
of the forms 3^4-1, 4^4-1 and 5>i4-l respectively.
2
-2
divisible
11. If
?i
12. If
# 2 4-4oH-2
is
13. If
n 2 and
is
(n
by
divisible
2
l)
and n 2 ~ 3
7,
is
divisible
23, find the
by
are of the forms
11, find the
by
form of
form of
n.
x.
llm 4- 4 and 12m, 4- 4,
find the
form
of n.
14.
Find four consecutive numbers
divisible
15. 'Prove that the congruence 3# - 4s - a;

incongruent solutions, and find them.
3
by
4-
5, 7, 9, 11 respectively.
3# - 4^
(mod
16. Prove that the congruence

incongruent solutions, and find them.
17.
7)
(mod
~0 (mod 29)
Prove that the congruence

and find it.
has only two
11)
has
four
has only one distinct
solution,
18. Bicycle gear as
a revolution
counter.
bicycle with no free wheel has
,,-
19 teeth in the back chain- wheel,

62 teeth in the front chain- wheel,
121 links in the chain,
and the circumference of the back

wheel of the bicycle is known to be
almost exactly 7 feet.
Prove the following rule to find
p IG>
the number of revolutions (R) of

the back wheel (and so the distance travelled) in any journey of not more than
10 miles.
Mark a tooth .4 in the back chain- wheel, a tooth in the front chain- wheel,
and a link C in the chain. At the start count the teeth or links from A to B
and from A to C in the direction of turning. At the finish count these again.
Take the increase from A to B or 62 minus the decrease, and denote it by a.
Take the increase from A to (7 or 121 minus the decrease, and denote it by 6.
Then the number E is the remainder in the division (3025a 4- 21086) 7502.
[If x is the number of revolutions of the back wheel,
19z=a(mod
Hence show that
and therefore
62)
#==49a(mod
and
62)
u;= 3025a
-f
19#==&(mod 121).
and #=51&(mod 121),
21086(mod
7502).J
CHAPTER XXVII
RESIDUES OF POWERS OF A NUMBER, RECURRING DECIMALS
Residues of Powers of a Number.
1
// a and g are prime
to
any modulus
n, the least positive residues
successive terms of the geometrical progression
number of terms in
is the
t^cp(n) and
the recurring period,
and
recur ,
...
a, ag, ag~,
is
of
if
independent
of a.
Denote the residues by r r l9 r2 etc. Each of these is one of the <p(ri)

numbers <n and prime to it, for since a and g are prime to n, so is every
residue.
Hence, of the numbers r r v r 2 ... r^ n ^ at least two, say rs
and rs+t are equal. Therefore ag s âg* +t (mod n)
and, since a is
,
prime to n, hence
ag
i+2
~ag
2
,
etc.,
Moreover,
e
<7
~l(mod
the
= l(modn).
^*
and so r rQ r t+l r^ f^^^*

number of terms in the period is
rM
If
/A==v(mod
~a
t+l
âg,
where t^<p(n).
least index for which
ag
ag
e ^ c ->
the
n).
in
(i) No two residues
=
and
0(modJ),
conversely,
/z

(ii)
that
It follows
= l,
J),
then
and conversely,
(iv)
Thus for
the
(modn) with
modulus
~gr,
-g
0,1,2,3,
Residue.
1,2,4,8,16,13,7,14,9,18,17,15,11,
7,8,
= /v,
rM
then
n-l occurs
w-r3 etc.; for
etc.
1
2
2, 2 2
Index.
5,6,
If
(v) If
n-rv n-r2
~g
19, the residues of
4,
(iii)
^^^^(mod n).
as a residue, the subsequent residues are
they are congruent
the period are equal,
...
are
9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18....
3,
6,12,
5,10,
...
Having found r4 = 16, we have r 5 = 16 x 2 = 13 (mod 19).

Again,
r = 18 = 19 - 1, and the sul>sequent residues are 19-2, 19-4, etc.
Here J = 18 = <p(19), and every number not divisible by 19 is congruent
(mod 19) with some power of 2.
9
For
the
modulus
13, the residues of
1
2
5, 5 5
Index.
0,1,
Residue.
1,5,12,8,1,5,12,8,1,5,12,
Here
2,3,4,5,
= 4, which
is
6,7,8,9,10,11,12.
8,
a divisor of 99(13)
1.
12.
...
are
RESIDUES OF POWERS
2. // g
is
g ^\(modn}
to
prime
then
For #o (n = l(mod
)
If
ceding t^(p(n).
n and
t =
(p(ri)
t<y(n),
<p(w)=a
for
for
b<t.
Hence,
=g mod
is
not the case, for r-s<t.
denote the set of numbers
the numbers in
b of the set
the residues of bg, bg l bg 2

,
if
included in the
"l
9
&A
than n and prime to

where s<r<t, then
r~5
=1
than n and prime to

t
it.
it.
If the set
q>(n).
does not occur in the set (A), consider
bg
,
less
then
S
t
...
and
n)
less
a r ~as
if
Let
some number
numbers
q>(ri)
which
all
= 0,
These are
q>(n).
of these is one of the
all
+ &, where 0<6<Z, then
and consequently
Also no two of them are equal
If
be equal to q>(n), and by the pre-
may
let
Let the least positive residues of g^ g l g 2 ... g*~ l be

a t-i ............................... ( A )
a i> a 2>
o>
Second proof.
(A) includes
index other than zero for which
or is a divisor of <p(n).
n), so that
Therefore g b ^l(modn)
t<cp(ri), it is a divisor of
Each
is the least
437
denoting them by
62 ,
set S, for
bt
...
is
^ ............................... (B)
prime to
n.
Also they are different
from one another and from those of the set (A).

For if br = bs where s<r<t, then bg r zzbg s and since b is prime to n,
r ~s
~l which contradicts the hypothesis that t is the least number such
g
that g*~l.
r
s
s ~r
or
Again, if b r = a 8 (r<t,s<t) then bg ^g 9 and therefore b^g
r s
r.
In both cases b would belong to the set (A),
6~<jr*-(
according as s
,
which
is
contrary to supposition.
and (B) include all the numbers in
If the sets (A)
/S,
then
2t
= <p(ri).
>
Otherwise 2t<(p(n)> and then some number c of the set S does not occur
We then consider the residues of cg cgl cg 2 ... cgr*-1 ,
in (A) or (B).
denoting them by
As
be'fore,
CQ>
we can show that
^^
...
these
numbers are
................................ (C)
all
included in
S and
9
that they are different from one another and from those in the sets (A)
and (B).
Thus 3t^<p(n)i and, if 3t<(p(n), the process can be continued until
the numbers in S have been arranged in groups of t numbers. Hence t is
a divisor of
(p(n).
Incidentally, this proof establishes the truth of Euler's generalisation of
FermatVtheorem.
PRIMITIVE ROOTS
438
An Odd Prime Modulus:
3.
prime, g any
s 1 (mod p),
number not
then g
is
Primitive Roots. Let p be an odd
divisible
by
p,
and
the least index for which
said to belong to the index
t.
Since cp(p) = p-l, t is equal to or is a divisor of p-1. If tp-l, so

that the period of residues includes every number less than p, the period
is
said to be complete
is
a divisor of
and g
is
called a primitive root of the
the period
p-1,
is
modulus p.
incomplete and g may be
It
called a sub-
ordinate root.
Hence if g is a primitive root of p, every number prime to

with some power of g.
p is
congruent
proved that, for any odd prime modulus, primitive roots exist
for the present we assume this to be the case. When one has been found,
It can be
the others can be found as in the following illustration.

Illustration.
In the margin, for the modulus 13 the least positive

U are written down round
... 2
residues of 2, 2 l 2 2
,
the circumference of a
Every number
circle.
than 13 occurs, and so 2
loss
is
primitive root of 13.

Hence, without further reckoning, we can write
down the residues (mod 13) of powers of any number.
5
6 2 s2 10 etc.,
powers of 6, since 6-2
1
2
the residues of 6, 6 6 ... are found by starting
with 1 and taking eveiyffth number. The residues are
Thus
for
1,
6,
10, 8, 9, 2, 12, 7, 3, 5, 4,
11.
Every number less than 13 appears, the reason being that 5 is prime to 12.
Hence 6 is a primitive root; and, in the same way, if is any number
less than 12 and prime to it, 2 M is congruent (mod 13) with a primitive
JJL
root.
Since
with
<p(] 2)
1
,
5
,
= 4,
27
there are four primitive roots of 13; they are congruent

and are equal to 2, 6, 11, 7, the first, fifth,
2 11
seventh and eleventh
from
numbers
in
order
round the
counting
circle,
1.
9
and the residues of 5, 5 1 5 2 ... are obtained
Again, we have 5 = 2
by counting every ninth number, or every third number in the reverse
,
order.
Since 3
is
four counts
Thus 5
is
the greatest
common
divisor of 9
we reach the number,

a subordinate root
is 1, 5, 12, 8.
5,
it
and 12 and 12 = 3
from which we
4,
after
started.
belongs to the index 4, and the period
RECURRING DECIMALS
439
an odd prime, g any number >1 and not divisible by p, t the

r v r^ ... the least positive
least index for which #' == 1 (mod y) and r
residues of g, g l g 2 ...
then
4. If
is
fl ,
that
sum
to say, the
is
Thus
= 13 and
jo
if
of the residues which form the period is divisibk by p.

= 5, then 2 = 4 and
</
Again, suppose that e
with any residue
rm
and
= ef. Starting
(not t itself) and
taking every eih residue, we have the sequence
is
a factor of
^m>
^m+e*
^m+2e>
These residues recur, and they form a sub-period containing f residues

for g x ^l{modp) if x = ef, and for no smaller value of x. Also
^ + W.+W2
-.-+W(/-i)=^
Hence the sum of the residues forming

Thus if p = 19 and # = 2 (See Art. 1,
5.
(1)
Recurring Decimals.
If n
is
t
period of
prime
to 10,
figures, where
m/n
t
Let
is
is
equal
the sub-period is divisible by p.

(v)),
m<n
to
the least
then
= 18 and
and prime to
n, .then
a pure recurring decimal with a

index other than zero for which
10* =
1 (mod n) ; so that
t=*(p(n) or is a divisor of cp(n).
For the remainders rv r 2 3 ... in the process of expressing m/n as a
2
decimal, are the least positive residues (mod n) of m, 10m, 10 m, ....
Hence, by Arts. 1 and 2, the remainders recur, with a period of t figures.
,
Also
all
m/n = O-a^
if
...
/*
dt) then
the fractions m/n, rjn, r^n,

(i)
If
If
groups of
...
r8 /n = 0'ds+l as+2
...
a ta l
have the same period.
...
as
so that
It follows that
= y(n) and m is any number <n and prime to it, all the fractions
m/n have the same

(ii)
(jp(n)=et
t
period.
where e>l, the fractions m/n can be arranged in e

such that the periods are the same for fraction in
fractions,
the same group and different for those in different groups.

This follows from the reasoning in the last part of Art. 2.
DECIMAL PERIODS
440
np
If
any prime except 2 or
according as 10 is or
p-l,
r ~l
np,
//
(iii)
then
<p(n)p
The case
(p-l).
is
t=p-I,
or
not a primitive root of p.*

1) and t is equal to or
(p
n=p
a divisor of
is
r ~l
which
in
5, then
is
a divisor of
deserves further consideration.
5, and l/p has a period of t figures, then

If p
t
l/p has a period of or pt figures.
For let T be the number of figures in the period of l/p 2 and let
a prime, not 2 or
is
(iv)
2
Then F(t)^0(mod p),
lO'sl(mod^), and therefore
for
Hence T is pt, or a divisor

where r is t, or a divisor of t.
r<, we
If
for 10
+ 10 + 102T +
...
+ lO(*-V* = (lQ(p-Ur _
a prime,
T=t
or pr,
Consequently r
1)/(10
1)
E=0(mod
p),
Hence F(T) = 10<*-V = l(modp).

10 PT - 1 - (10 T - l)F(r),
and therefore 10* T -1
JJL,
is
isnot si.
is
is
not Ô(modj) 2 ).
T=
not <t and
The only known
NOTE.
have
Now
p =3
of pt, and, since
cases in which
or pt.
Ijp
has a period of
figures are
when
or 487.
(2)
//
v,
then
.F
iyy\
<1, where
is
For 10*F
is
m is prime to
10,
and k
is the greater
of the two
a terminating decimal with k figures.

an integer with not more than k digits, the last of which
is
not zero.
(3)
is
//
m/
F=
<1, where m, n and 10
a mixed recurring decimal, with a period of t figures, where
of figures in the period of l/n.

For let k be the greater of the
prime
n and
to
integer of not
period of
(4)
//
than
more than k
jit,
v,
is the
then IOkF = m'/n, where m'
Therefore IQ kF = I+f, where /
10*.
digits
is
is
an
and /is a pure recurring decimal with a
where p,
q, r, ...
are different primes other than 2
prime to p, q, r, ... , then if t, t', t" ... are the

a
figures in the periods of the decimal equivalents of F, l/p ,
respectively,
*
number
figures.
F = -~j~
and 5 and
less
two
are prime to one another, then
The primes
is
is the
less
L.C.M. oft', t",
than 100 of which 10
is
numbers of
b
l/q
etc.,
t'", etc.
a primitive root are
7, 17, 19, 23, 29, 47, 59, 61, 97.
USEFUL THEOREM
For
n = p a (f
let
and, since
t'
Therefore
similarly,
is
then
s 1 (mod n),
10*
a multiple of t",
is
common multiple of
any common multiple
t' ,
Again, if r is
each of the moduli p*, f,
It follows that
the
is
...
least
and
since
common
10 e s
t
(mod p )
must be a
t'" 9 etc.
t", etc.
of f,
therefore
10*' = 1 (mod p a ),
the least index such that
is
$'
multiple of
. . .
441
a
,
(f,
...
we have 10 T ^1
...
",
for
are prime to one another,
multiple of
t"', etc.
t',
Given a table showing the periods of decimals equivalent to fractions

1/n, where n is a prime or a power of a prime, we can easily express any
fraction as a decimal by using the theorem of Ch. XXVI, 9.
5. In practice, the following theorem is useful.
Let m/n=0' aâ^
where n is prime to 10 and
. . .
r steps of division,
9-a
decimal are
For
let
m,
9-a 2 9-a3
x,
m m2
ly
...
n-m
remainder
tfie
a r+l
is
is
-m
-m2
l9
etc.,
etc.
a r+l = 7(10-0^ +/)
...
are congruent with

,
the greatest integer in
hence
where
the period contains 2r figures.
m (mod n)
n- m =
Hence the subsequent residues

and are equal to n m l9 n w2
Moreover,
and
//, after
be the least positive residues of m, 10m, 10 2 w,
then
...
m prime to n.
occurs, the subsequent figures of the
10(n-m)/n;
= 9 - %,
Similarly a r+2
a positive proper fraction.
= 9-a 2
etc.
Ex. 1. To express 1/73 as a decimal, the division need not be carried beyond
the stage shown in the reckoning, for since the remainder
g \ ÂQ / .9136
72(=73-l) occurs, the subsequent remainders are 73-10,
73-27, etc., the corresponding

9-0, 9-1, etc. Thus
figures in the decimal being
270
~510
-^Q
1/73-0-01369863.
Again, the number of figures in the period is 8 and (p (73) 72. Hence for values
m less than 73, the fractions ??f/73 can be arranged in 72/8=9 groups such that
the period is the same for those in the same group. By the preceding, the complete
of
set of remainders for
1/73
1,
is
10,
27,
51,
72,
63,
46,
22, .......................... (A)
and one group is obtained by giving m these values. To get a second group, choose
any number loss than 73 not included in the set (A), say 2. The remainders for 2/73
are congruent (mod 73) with 2x1, 2 x 10, 2 x 27, etc., and are therefore
2,
20,
54,
29,
second group is obtained by giving

in the same way by choosing a number
(B)
and
so on.
71,
53,
19,
less
44 .......................... (B)
third group can be found

than 73 and not included in the sets (A),
these values.
RESIDUES
442
EXERCISE XLV
The prime
NOTE.
the following table
/(4)-3
/(7)-3
11
/(8) = 3
4649,
= 10*-1
for
= 1,
2, 3,
...
are given in
3
/(6)-3 .7.
2
/(5)-3 .41 .271,
101,
239
factors of /(0
2
.
11
73
101
/(9)^3
137,
4
.
37
11
.
13.37,
333667.
1
2
etc.
given the least positive residues of 2, 2 2
2
2
1
1
are
etc.
What
7
7
of
and
write
down
those
10
10
7,
10,
,
etc.,
(Art. 1),
the primitive roots of 19?
1.
For the modulus
19,
2.
For the modulus
are the primitive roots of 17

3.
If
is
the least positive residues of 3, 3 1 3 2 , etc.
17, find
(ii)
an odd prime, g belongs to the index
pccurs as a residue
vô
rt
...
_^
when #^13, g^2,

(iii)
If g
and only
if,
t,
and
r l9 r 29 etc., are
the
even.
is
if, t
according as
even or odd.
is
Verify
3, 5.
a primitive root of p, show that theorem
is
prove that
+1 (modp)
or
What
least positive residues of </, g 1 , g 2 , etc.,

(i)
(ii)
becomes Wilson's
theorem.
[(i)
(ii)
If
is
even, g
...
/wr.,
rt_ l
!2
(mod p).
^g (modp)
where
= + I +2 + ... +(t -
1).]
RECURRING DECIMALS
Here n
is
(modn
etc.
4.
O-a^
etc.,
...
...
at
aA
a
**./
...
l/n= O'(iia 2
= 0'a 1aotf 3
a2
at
...
and
in the division,
...
^/(lO*
7^-1
r is
then
where
1)
. . .
a 1 a 2 ...a t
is
the
.]
= 0-6i6
....
+ ---^ +
and
r ...
...
aâ^
8uchthat
j.
6 rf
2 ...
...
y,
prove that
j.
the remainder immediately preceding the
and a t are the
least positive integers
x y
9
lte-ny = l
and
where the
5, t is the number of figures in the

are the least positive residues of 10, 10 1 10 2 ,
digits are a l9
= a& 2
---O-atGU
V)
n
If
a prime not 2 or
Prove that
remainder
is
r 19 r 29
or p), and we write - or ~

*
[The decimal
6.
number of which the
5. If
to 10,
prime
period of l/n or l/p
a^z
...
a's are digits of the
the figures in the period
[l/ftÔ-a^
to be carried
...
a^!
when a l
may
...
is
at x
aâ^
. . .
a^_ l9
numbers
indicated.
be found as in Ex. 8.
rln
Q-a t a l
multiplied by
...
r.]
a^
...
Having found
explain
why no
and a t9
all
figure has
RECURRING DECIMALS
7. If
is
a prime and 1/p
a^
. . .
and give an example to show that such

number.
8.
(i)
arar+l
. . .
relations
a 2r
443
,
prove that
do not hold
if
is
a composite
=
Express -^ as a decimal by using the equality 10 x 4 13 x 3 1.
Put down 3 (the last figure of the period) and multiply by 4 as follows
076923
4
If the process
4x3
=12,
4x2 + 1= 9,
4x9
=36,
put 2 to the
left
put 9 to the
left
put 6 to the
left
4 x 6 + 3 =27,
4 x 7 + 2 = 30,
put 7 to the
left
is
put
of 3 and carry
of 2.
1.
of 9 and carry
of 6 and carry
3.
2.
to the left of 7.
continued, the figures recur and tV=0'076923.
in Ex.
(ii) Or thus
Hence the following
a taâ z ... a^_i/r=a 1a 2 ... a t

Put down 3 and divide by 4 as below
7,
:
"076923.
which is the first figure of the period.

and 2 over. Put 7 to the right of 0.
4 into 27 is 6 and 3 over. Put 6 to the right of 7.
4 into 36 is 9.
Put 9 to the right of 6.
4 into 9 is 2 and 1 over. Put 2 to the right of 9.
4 into 12 is 3.
Put 3 to the right of 2.
4 into 3 is 0, and the figures recur.
4 into
4 into 30
is 0,
is
9. Cases in which l/p can be quickly expressed as a decimal by the methods

of Ex. 8 are p = 17, 19, 23, 29, 43, 59, 79, 89.
10. Justify the following
If
C=
~0
9408
then
tV = -0588235294
where jB=4J, (7=4J5,
etc.
. . .
[The division shows that 10* =588 x 17 + 4
11.
By
the
method of Ex. 10 show that

j& =0-032258064516129.
[After 6 steps of division, the remainder 2 occurs.]

2F
B.C.A.
BINOMIAL CONGRUENCES
444
12. Show that for values of m<41 the fractions r/i/41 can be arranged in
8 groups such that all the fractions in any group have the same period. What
for the group to which 2/41 belongs ?
are the values of
13. Prove that gVÔ-0 12345670, and show that the values of
m/81 has this period are given by m 1 (mod 9).
14. If n is any number prime to 10, prove that a
that every digit in the product nn' is 1.
Find n' when n~ 41 and when n~123.
~ or ~- as a decimal,
according as n
[Express
fit
is
for
which
number n can be found such
or
not prime to
is
3.]
\jTt
15. If n is a prime or a power of a prime, prove that the values of n for which
the decimal equivalent of 1/n has a period of t figures are as follows
:
3,9
27,37
101
41,271
7,
13
239, 4649
73, 137
333667
[The values of n for which 1/n has a period of t figures are included among
the divisors of 10* - 1. See note at the head of this Exercise.]
Show that the only prime p for which the decimal equivalent of l/p has
a period of 10 figures is 9091, and (ii) a period of 12 figures is 9901.
Also express 1/9091 and 1/9901 as decimals, explaining why only 5 and 6
16.
(i)
steps of division respectively are necessary.
Primitive Roots (continued). Theprocessof finding a primitive

one of trial. The orthodox methods of shortening the reckoning
given in another volume but in the example below we give a method,
6.
root
are
is
founded on the assumption of Art.
3,
which
is
convenience in solving the congruences in Ex.

least primitive root,
= 2,
= 3,
0-5,
Ex.
Find
1.
g,for any prime modulus, p,
j0-3,
5,
usually successful. For

we here give the
XL VI,
less
than 100.
11, 13, 19, 29, 37, 53, 59, 61, 67,
p = 7, 17, 31, 43, 79, 89;

= 6,
y = 23, 47, 73, 79;
p=
= 7,
83;
p = ll.
the primitive roots of 67.
converted into a decimal fraction, the reckoning shows that 10 is a subordinate root of modulus 67, with a period of 33 figures. Art. 3 suggests that this
If 1/67
is
period consists of every alternate figure of the period of some primitive root, g
2
10(mod 67) will lead to a primitive root.
consequently, that g
and,
\Ve find that a value of g is il2

and, converting 12/67 into a decimal fraction,
obtain, as remainders in the process, the residues of the odd powers of 12. When
;
we
these are interpolated between the remainders in the reckoning for 1/67, we find that
the numbers less than 67 are included ; thus 12 is a primitive root, and its period is
all
1,
From
12, 10, 53, 33, 61, 62, 7, 17, 3, 36, 30, 25, 32, 49,
this, as in Art. 3, all
U,
21, etc.
the other primitive roots can be immediately written

down, together with their periods thus we find that other primitive roots are 61, 7,
32, 51, 41, 13, 2, etc., these being the residues of 12 fc where k is prime to 66.
;
OF PRIMITIVE ROOTS
tFSE
The Congruence x n â(mod
7.
It is
p).
445
supposed that
an
is
odd prime.
Ifn
(1)
if
For,
is prime to p- I, there
xn z=a, then x nA = aA
is
3, a single
value of
A has this value, xnX = x (x v

which is the only solution.
If
~l
Ex.
x* ~ 21* (mod 23)

z:EE21
// n
(2)
A, less
prime to j>-l, there

than p-l, such that
= x (mod p
is
and
is,
x s= ax (mod
thus,
p),
Solve the congruence, x 13 == 21 (mod 23).
1.
Here
and, since n
by Chap. XXV,
a single solution.
is
17
and 13
17 E=
17
~(~2) ~(-2)
not prime to
(256)
(mod
22)
= (-2)
hence we have
2
(3)
s5(mod
23).
there are several solutions, or there is
p-l,
no
solution.
common
Let d be the highest
n and p - 1
divisor of
and- let g be a
Then, since the period of g contains all the
primitive root of p.
numbers
than y, we can find r, such that g z=a(modp).

s
r
x^g (mod p); then g ns = a^g (mod p), and therefore
less
Let
ns^r(mod p-l) ................................ (A)

The congruence
solutions, or
no
and therefore
(A),
also the congruence
solution, according as r
is,
or
is
a factor of
is
by d
not, divisible
n and p 1 (Chap. XXVI, 8).

n
# E=a(mod p) are given by x^gs (modp), where
xn â, has d
;
for
Also, the solutions of

5
has any value which
satisfies (A).
Ex.
Solve the congruence, # 15 =31(wod 37).
2.
primitive root of 37
2 15S ==2 9 ,
is
and 15$~9(mod
and we
2;
36)
z^2 3
2 15
2 27
2 =;31. Hence,
27 (mod 36), and
find that
hence 5=3,
,
15,
i.e.
8,
if
x=2 s
then
23, 6.
EXERCISE XLVI
Solve the congruences in Exx. 1-6
1.
z 3 =l(mod
11
19).
= 5 (mod 31).
2.
x 5 =2(mo&
5.
^=31(mod41).
17).
3.
*7 ==8(mod
6.
a:
21
a;
7.
Find the general solution
8.
Find three solutions in integers of # 8 = 73t/4-3.
9.
Show, without calculation, that a primitive root of 237
in integers of
least of the congruences, <7== 10, g a
= 10,
13).
= 2 (mod 31).
4.
# 2 = 19z/-f-5.
s 10.
will satisfy
one at
CHAPTER XXVIII
NUMERICAL SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS
1
The Problem
mate values of
under consideration
the real roots of
is to
witli
find the actual or approxinumerical coefficients.
any equation
This question is quite distinct from that of finding an algebraical soluIn fact, no algebraical solution of the general equation of the fifth
tion.
or higher degree has been discovered.
If any rational or multiple roots exist they can be found and removed
from the equation (Ch. XVIII, 1, and VI, 14). It may be convenient not
to
is
remove the multiple roots.

Thus we are only concerned with
as follows
We
(i)
irrational roots.
The usual procedure
find
an interval which contains
all
the roots.
Ways
of doing
have been given in Ch. VI, 12. A method due to Newton which
involves more calculation, but which yields closer limits, is given in the
this
next
article.
We
separate the roots, that is to say

a
contains
single root or a multiple root.
(ii)
we
Taking any interval which contains a
(iii)
find intervals each of
which
by a process of
which contain the
single root,
approximation, we find smaller and smaller intervals

root.
Newton's Method of finding an Upper Limit to the
2.
This depends on the following theorem

a number such that f(x) and all its derivatives are positive when
then h is an upper limit to the roots of f(x) =0.
Roots.
// h
x = h,
For
is
if
Hence
that
is
NOTE.
power
of
is
if
the degree of f(x), then
f(h), f'(h),
to say
/(x)>0
...
for
fM (h)
are all positive, f(x + A)>0, for

which
x^h,
proves the theorem.
In applying this theorem, we suppose that the

x inf(x) is positive, so that
coefficient of the highest
SEPARATION OF ROOTS
We then
^ such that
find the least integer
of x does not
make
Continuing thus,
n
f^
~^(x)>0
we can
we
find
by
f^
xh^
"^(x)>0 when
trial
find the least integer
447
If this value
a greater integer h2 such that
h which makes f(x) and
all its
derivatives
positive.
It should be observed that if
are
all positive,
above theorem,
Ex.
1.
Find
we have found a number h r such that

This follows from the
positive for x>h r
n
(r+l)
are
(z), .../ -^(), f^(x).
/
f^(x)
then these functions are

for the derivatives of
all
the integral part of the greatest root of
f(x)=x*-10x*-Ilx -100 = 0.
Here
The
2
f'(x) -3rr
-20*-
11,
least integral values of x for
(Cf.
Ex.
1, p.
91.)
/"(a) =2 (3s -10),
/'"(z)=6.
whieh
and
f"(x), /'(a*)
f(x)
are positive are
respectively 4, 8 and 12. Thus 12 is the least integer which exceeds the greatest
root, the integral part of which is therefore 1 1
.
EXERCISE XLVII
In Exx. 1-5 find an upper limit to the roots by Newton's method.
3
2
2. z 3 ~2z 2 -51z- 110=0.
1. z -20z - Six + 1609^0.
3.
* 4 -4x3 -3* + 23-0.
4.
5.
Separation of the Roots. Rules for this purpose were given

and by Sturm. Fourier's rule, though often convenient, is
Fourier
by
incomplete, while that of Sturm definitely separates the roots, but its
application may be very laborious. We require the following theorems.
3.
Subsidiary Theorems.
(1) If
is
a root of /(x)=0, as the variable x
increases through the value a, the functions /(x) and/'(#) have opposite
signs just before x=<x and the same signs just after x=a.
For
since
/(a)=0, we have
7>2
/(a + A)-A/'(a) +
7,r
/"(a)
a)
+ ... +
/W(a) + ...,
+ ...+
1
/0(a) +
........... (A)
................. (B)
Suppose that /^(a) is the first term of the sequence /'(a), /"(a), ...
which is not zero. For sufficiently small values of h, the signs of /(a -h h)
and /'(a + A) are respectively the signs of the first terms in (A) and (B)
r r)
they are therefore the same as the signs of A /* (a)
and h f^((x). Hence /(a + h) and /'(a -f h) have the same or opposite
0, which proves the theorem.
signs according as h
which do not vanish
r ^l
STURM'S FUNCTIONS
448
If
(2)
an
is
a.
r-multiple root of
then, as the variable
f(x)=Q,
x increases
through the value a, the signs of the functions

/(*),
/"(*), .../
/'(*).
- 1)*,
(1
/'>(*)
(C)
x = a, and all
- and
the functions
+ and -, or
-f, just before
have the same sign just after X QL.
For, when z = a, all the terms of the sequence (C) except the last vanish,
and the result follows by applying theorem (1) to every two consecutive
It follows that as x increases through the value a, r changes of
terms.
are alternately
in the sequence (C).

important to observe that since
sign are
It is
lost
#=a,
at
is
continuous
just before and just after X
derivative.
Let f(x) be a polynomial and fi(x) its

Let the operation of finding the H.C.F. of f(x) and fi(x)
be performed with this alteration
The sign of each remainder

the sign of the last
remainder
is to be
changed before
is also to be
it is
used as a divisor
known
changed.
then
Denote the modified remainders by /2 (z), /3 (#), ... fr ( x )
fi( x )> fz( x )> "-fr( x ) are called Sturm's functions and f^x), f2 (x), ...
are
OL.
Sturm's Functions.
4.
first
/^(aJÔ and f^(x)
same sign
this function has the
/(#),
fr (x)
as the auxiliary functions.
In the ordinary H.C.F. process we can multiply (or divide) any remainder
by any constant. In the modified process it is essential that such multipliers
should be positive.
Sturm's functions are connected
by the equations
.(A)
where q v q2
are the quotients in the process just described, these

quotients being functions of x.
It is important to notice that the relation between f(x) and fi(x) is
,
...
essentially different
from that connecting f^x) and/2 (x)
fz(x),f3 (x)
etc.
5. Sturm's Theorem.
Iff(x) is a polynomial and a, b are any real
numbers (a<6), the number of distinct roots of f(x) =
which lie between
a and b (any multiple root which may exist being counted once only) is equal
to the
excess of the
number of changes of sign in
the sequence of
Sturm's
functions
/<*),
when
x=a
over the
A(*),
MX),...
fr (x),
the sequence
(S)
when x~b.
STURM'S THEOREM
449
which f(x)^0 has no repeated

Equations (A) lead to the following conclusions.
the case in
Proof for
(i)
factor,
(ii)
Since /(x)
has no repeated root,/(z)
(iii)
If
any term
and follow
it
if
this
happened,
Thus
if
have opposite
signs.
if
(x)
(S)
have no
common
can vanish for the
the subsequent terms including
is
remark applies
similar
all
of (S) except the first
/.-i (a)
and/
and consequently fr (x) is independent of x.

No two consecutive terms of the sequence
same value of x, for,

fr (x) would vanish.
root.
terms which precede

/s (^)==0, then
zero, the
=-/,+i (a).
one of the
y's is zero.
Thus
if
<7 S
= 0,
then
/s-i(*H -/mfc).
Suppose now that x increases continuously from x a to x b. As x
varies, no one of Sturm's functions can change its sign unless x passes
through a value which makes that function vanish, for these functions are
polynomials.
Suppose that x passes through a value a which makes just one
of Sturm's
functions vanish.
(i)
If
a root of /(x)
is
= 0, one change
of sign is lost in the
sequence
For f(x) and f^x) have opposite signs just before x=a, and they
have the same signs just after x=a.
(S).
(ii)
is
If
a root of fm (x) where
is
gained or
lost.
For
m = l,
/rn (a)=0, and
2,
...
or
therefore
r-1, no change
of sign
fm -i(oc)=-- -/w+iM-
= l, /
Moreover, fm ^(x) and fm+ i(x) are

(a) stands for /(a).
continuous at x=a, so that each of these is of invariable sign near #=a.
If
ra
Hence, just before and also just after #=a, the signs of /m _i(^),/m (x),
- or +
or
h-f or
1-, showing that
fm+i( x ) are either -f -f
no change
of sign is lost or gained.
If x passes through a value a which makes more than one of Sturm's

functions vanish, no two of them can be consecutive functions.
If f(x) is
one of them, then by the preceding, one change of sign
is
lost
and/1 (a?), and no change is gained or lost in the sequence

...
/1 (x),/2 (x), fr (x). Thus one change is lost in the sequence (S).
If f(x) is not one of them, no change of sign is gained or lost.
between f(x)
Thus, as ar increases, a change of sign in the sequence (S) is lost whenever

x passes through a root of f(x)=0, and under no other circumstance is ;i
change gained or lost. This proves the theorem.
ESSENTIAL PROPERTIES
450
Remarks.
In applying Sturm's theorem, labour
be saved by the
may
following considerations.
If there is
(i)
of
x and
its
no repeated
sign only
is
root, the last function
the last three functions are
then
a'"
and from
(ii) If,
any
stage,
fr -i(x) =
a'x 2
then
+ b'x + c',
we
fr (x)=
a!'x
= - (a' -^ - V
\
this the sign of a'"
at
is
independent
required.
Let x have a value such that

if
fr (x)
+ 6",
Thus,
-fr-zfa)a'",
may often be found
without
much
calculation.
arrive at a function fs (x) such that all the roots
/s (.r)=0 are imaginary, the H.C.F. process need not be continued, and
we can use /(x), /j(x), ... fs (x), instead of the complete set of functions.
of
For the
essential property of the last function
of invariable sign for all real values of x,
then, in counting the
a\
number
that
and fs (x) has
Suppose that one of Sturm's functions as
(iii)
is
it
this property.
fm (x)
may regard the sign of/rn (a) as either +

/TO (a) = 0, then/TO-1 (a) and /m+1 (a) have opposite signs.
Ex*
1.
Find
the
number and
when
vanishes
of changes of sign in the sequence
/(),/i (), .../r (^)> we

if
should remain
position, relative to
numbers on
or
For
the scale of integers,
of the real roots of
Here fl (x)
4x* - 9# 2
-4z + 7, and
the modified H.C.F. process
is
as follows
43
-99
2237
/(*) =
Thus /2 (aO-43a;2 -72:r-69, fs (x) = S3x-191, /4 (*)= +48074.

The sign off^x) is found more easily by Remark (i). If /3 (#) =0, then/4 (s) = -
When x=-^> /2 (x)
is
negative.
Thetefore /4 (x)
is
positive.
MODEL SOLUTIONS
The number
values of x are
of changes of sign in the sequence of Sturm's functions for various
shown below.
x
-oo
-2
-1
-f
4-
/i(*)
Number
,
o*
}
changes of signj
451
Hence the equation f(x)=0 has one root between

1 and
and two between 2 and 3.
Ex.
(i)
Find
2.
the
number and position of
Taking f(x) ~x* - x -
Also,
1,
For various values of
x,
-f
-f
-2 and
-1,
one between
the real roots of
we have f^x)
5**-l
when /2 ()=0, fs (x)^
oo
2200
-f
5x* -
and the modified H.C.F. process is
1,
-fi(x), therefore
the signs of Sturm's functions are
-oo
oo
/(*)
Number
/>(*)
of
"
'
changes of sign/
showing that there
is
one real root between
and
and that the other roots are
2,
imaginary.
x.
The
roots of
/2 () =0
are imaginary, Jfor 15 2 <4
24,
and we need not proceed
further.
Thus there
is
one real root between
other roots being imaginary.
- 2 and -
1,
another between
and
2,
the
ALL ROOTS REAL
452
Sturm's Theorem (Multiple Roots).
6.
the case in
which the equation f(x) =

/(*)
where p,
and
a,
are
...
y,
/?,
Suppose that
= (*-)"(* -W*-y) r
...
q, r,
It remains to consider
has repeated roots.
all different (real
or imaginary), then
u = (x-a)*- l (x-p)*- l (x-y) r - 1 ...
where
Hence u
is
the H.C.F. of f(x) and /^z), and

/(*)>
are divisible
u.
by
all of
Sturm's functions,
.......................... (S)
/a(*),-/r(*),
fl(*)>
Denote the quotients by
so that
<f>(x)
= (x-<x)(x~l3)(x-'y)
...
Also for any value of x, the number of

and r (x)
changes of sign in the sequence (S) is the same as that in the sequence (S').
Dividing equations (A) of Art. 4 by u, we have the identities
is
tfj
independent of x.
</>(x)
=q
l i/J l
(x)-ifj 2 (x),
tl*i(x)
= q.j/i2 (x)-fa(x),
etc.
no change of sign is gained or lost as x

a
value
makes
which
one of the set ^(x), $%(x}, ...iff r (x)
passes through
Whence, as
in Art. 5, it follows that
vanish.
^ (a) =p(oc - /3)(a - y)
Again,
...
-^(a),
have the same sign when x = oc, and since these

functions are continuous, they have the same signs for values of x near
therefore
x=oc.
^(x) and
<f>
L (jr)
Hence, by Art.
change of sign
is
5,
as x increases through
lost in the
It follows that the
sequence
number
any root a
of
<f>(x)
(S').
of real roots of
(f>(x)^0
in the interval
number of changes of sign

a<b
(a, fc),
=
in the sequence (S') when x
a over the number of changes of sign when
x = 6. That is, the number of distinct roots of f(x) in the interval (a, 6)
is equal to the excess of the number of changes of sign in the sequence (S)
when x~a over the number of changes of sign when x = 6.
where
is
equal to the excess of the
Conditions for the Reality of all the Roots. Let/(x) be a polynomial

n with its leading coefficient positive. In general, the number of
Sturm's functions is n -f 1.
of degree
The necessary and sufficient conditions that the roots of f(x) = Q may be
and different are : (i) the number of Sturm' s functions must be n -f 1.
all real
and
(ii)
the leading coefficients of all these functions
For, as x passes from - oo to

sequence of Sturm's functions if
+ oo n changes
,
and only
if
must be
positive.
of sign will be lost in the
both of these conditions hold.
THE BIQUADRATIC
7.
where
Application of Sturm's Theorem.
K=a2 I-3H
(Ch. XII, 9; 10
(6)),
453
For the biquadratic,
Sturm's functions are /() and
2
fz (z)=-3Hz ~3Gz-K,
f3 (z)=-(2HI-3aJ)z-GI,
In proving this
we
require the identity (Ch. XII, 10, (6))

2
Sturm's process
+ 4#3 = a2 (#/-aJ) ............................ (A)
is
-Hz
G
Again,
if
f3 (z)=-Lz-GI where L = 2HI-3aJ.

/3 (z) = 0, then /4 (z)= -/2 (z), therefore
= 3H(GI) 2 - 3G(GI)L + KL2
)
= (a2/ - 3H2 (3aJ - 2HI) 2 + 3G2I (3aJ - HI)

= 9a4 /J2 - 12a 3HI*J + a2H2 (U 3 - 27J2
)
+ 3I(G2 + 4:H3 )(3aJ-HI)*

= a2 H2 (4/ 3 - 27 J2 ) - 3a2#2/3
Disregarding square factors,
we may
therefore take
3
2
/4 (z)=/ -27/
Hence if A is positive and both H and 2HI - 3a J
.
are real
If A
is positive
and
are negative, all the roots
at least one of the two,
H and
2HI - 3aJ,
is
are imaginary.
- oo to -f oo , in the first case four changes of sign
as
x
from
For,
passes
are lost in the sequence of Sturm's functions, and in the second case no
positive, all the roots
change of sign
If A
is lost.
two roots are real and two imaginary.

All this has been proved more easily in Ch. XII.
is negative,
The
identity (A)
is
used in these steps.
FOURIER'S THEOREM
454
Fourier's Theorem.
8.
Let f(x) be a polynomial of the n-th degree
and let fi(x), /2 (x), ... fn ( x ) be its successive derivatives. Let R be the
number of real roots of f(x)~0 which lie between a and b, where a, b are
any real numbers, of which a is less than 6, and an r-multiple root is
counted r times. Let N, N respectively denote the number of changes of sign
f
in the sequence
AW,
/(*),
when x
and when x = 6,
/.(*),../(*)>
........................
(?)
then
N^N
R^N-N'i
and
(N - N') - R is an even number or zero.

In particular if N - N' = 1 there is just one
= no real root lies between a and b.
if N N'
also
real root in the interval,
In this connection /(x) and
its
and
derivatives are called Fourier's functions.
Let x increase continuously from x = a to x = b. As x varies,

no change of sign can he gained or lost in the sequence (F) unless x passes
through a value which makes one of its terms vanish.
Proof.
(1)
(i)
Suppose that x passes through a root a of /(x) = 0.

If a is an unrepeated root, a change of sign is lost between /(x) and
This has been proved in Art. 3.
fi(x).
(ii)
If
an r-multiple
is
f(x),fi(*)..:fr(*)-
changes of sign are lost in the sequence
Suppose that x passes through a value
(2)
of the functions /j(x),

(i)
root, r
(See Art. 3.)
If
/m (a') = 0,
/2 (x),
a'
which makes one or more
.../n (x) vanish.
but neither
fm -i(<x.')
nor
fm +i(a)
is
zero, there is
no
gain or loss of changes of sign when /m _i(a') and fm+ i(at') have opposite
but if these have the same sign, two changes are lost.
signs
:
For fm (x) and fm+ i(x) have opposite signs just before x=a', and
they have the same sign just after x=a'.
(ii)
all
Suppose that when x=a' the
vanish, but neither
Then
as
is
if
fm -i(x)
/m + r (x)
is
zero,
r-
odd there is a loss of

1 or r + 1 changes of sign according
and fm + r (&) have opposite signs or the same sign, while if r
r is
/m -i(a')
nor
r functions
even there
is
a loss of r changes of sign in either case.
Thus, under this heading, no change of sign

are lost, their
number is
even.
is
ever gained, and
if
any
DISADVANTAGES
Ex.
Apply Fourier's method
1.
to
455
separate the roots of
2
~
f(x) =2^ + Ix* 4Qx* 23* + 38* 4 -0.
3
2
/x (x) = 2 (5^ -f 14* - 60* - 23z + 19),
2 120*
+42*
ft (x) =2(20**
-23),
Here
/4 (a?) =8 (30* + 21),
/6 (*) = 240.
By Newton's method we find that
all
the roots
lie
in the interval
7, 4).
For
various values of x the signs of Fourier's functions are as below.
These results show that there is one root in each of the intervals ( - 7, - 6), ( - 2, - 1 ),
(3, 4), and either two roots or none at all in the interval (0, 1).
Subdividing the last interval, we find that when x =0-5, f(x) is positive. Hence
there
a root in each of the intervals
is
for it lias
(0, 0-5)
and
we need not find the
(0-5, 1).
signs
oifl (x), /2 (#), e te when re =0-5,

and 1.
all, lie between
been shown that either two roots, or none at
Remarks.
In applying Fourier's theorem, as stated above, the

what sign is to be attached to one of Fourier's functions
(1)
question arises as to
which
may happen
number
roots
vanish when
x=a
or
b.
met by observing that, for sufficiently small values of A,

between a and b (a<b) is the same as the number of
between a + h and b - h. We may therefore put a + h instead of a
This difficulty
the
to
is
of roots
and b -h instead
of
where A->0.
6,
Disadvantage of Fourier's Method. Suppose that (as in the last

example) all the roots of an equation are accounted for except two, which,
(2)
if
real,
must
it
may
require a large
lie
in a certain interval (a,
number
this the possibilities are

(i)
The
roots
separated by
it
may
further
6).
If these roots are nearly equal,
of trials to separate them.
we
may
to do
be very nearly equal, in which case they can be

for equal roots
The roots may be imaginary, and no matter how many
made, we
fail
trials.
if we begin by testing
(ii) The roots may be equal, and
would be better to use Sturm's process.
(iii)
If
not be able to discover whether this
is
or
is
trials
are
not the case.
NEWTON'S METHOD
456
(3) If
so that
is the
the roots of f(x) are diminished
is the
by
the transformed equation
a,
is
Similarly N'
this equation.
number of changes of sign in the equation obtained by diminishing the

7
f(x)=0 by b. If N and A arc defined in this way, we obtain
'
roots of
Sudan's statement of Fourier's theorem.
from -
oo to 4- oo n changes of sign
If it is known that a
are lost in the sequence of Fourier's functions.
=
no
of
root
certain interval contains
f(x) 0, and that, as x increases through
Imaginary Roots.
the interval,
than n - s
As x
increases
changes are
real roots,
lost,
then the equation cannot have more
and must therefore have at
least s
imaginary roots.
EXERCISE XLVIII
1.
From
Fourier's theorem deduce (i) Descartes' rule of signs

of finding an upper limit to the roots.
method
In Exx. 2-11, find intervals
(a, b)
where
a, b are
(ii)
Newton's
consecutive integers which
contain the real roots of the following equations.
In Exx. 2-4 use Fourier's method; and in Exx. 5-11 use Sturm's method.
2.
a^-3a; J -4a:-f 11=0.
3.
z3 -20z 2 - 3 Ix +1609 = 0.
4.
2z3 + llz 2 - 10z + l=0.
5.
s3 + 2z 2 -51z + 110=0.
6.
2z 3 -15z 2 -8a; + 166=0.
7. a;*
8.
3z 4 -10z 2 -6a;+16=0.
9.
10.
12.
z - 3z - 24z
5
+ 95s - 46* - 101 =0.

8
11.
~4* 3 - 3x-f-23=0.
x*~x*-4x* + 4z + l=0.
x 5 + 3x4 + 2s3 - 3x a - 2x - 2 =0.
Use Sturm's theorem to show that the equation xz + 3Hx + G=Q has
and distinct roots if and only if G* + 4# 8 <0.
three real
13. If
real
e<0-55,
4
8
2
prove that the equation # -f 4# -f 6x
and two imaginary
9.
roots.
[/ = e
-4x + e=0 has two
+ 7, J = - 4.]
Newton's Method of approximating to a Root.
Suppose
equation f(x)~Q has a single unrepeated root in a small

interval (a, jS), so that f'(x)^Q within the interval. Let a 4- h be the
that
the
by the second mean value theorem,

/(a + h) =/(a) + hf (a) + &*/" (a + 0h) - 6,
actual value of the root, then
where
0<0<1.
Hence
FOURIER'S RULE
It follows, that
if
the greatest value of f"(x) in the interval, and
is
=a -/()//'(),
the value of the root
is
457
ocj -f
where
Thus, if /? - a is a small number of the first order, the error in taking o^

as the value of the root is of the second order of smallness, unless k/f'(<x)
approximation can be carried to any
By repeating the
process, the
of
accuracy.
required degree
is
large.
NOTE.
In the preceding, f(x) may be any function of

are
continuous
in the interval (a, jS).
/"(a?)
i
x such that
f(x), f'(x)
and
Find an approximate value of a, such that a A/a = 3.

Put a = x*; then f(x)=x 2x -3=0; and f'(x)-x zx (2 + 2 log e x).
Also /(ar)=-2 when z = l, and f(x)- +0-375 when 3 = 1-5.
Starting with a - 1 5, the work proceeds as follows.
Ex.
I.
/(a) =0-375, /'(a) =9-487, /(a)//' (a) =0-04,

/( ai ) =0-0193, /'( ai )
/(,)= 0-000255,
/'(a a )
hence, the value of a required
This method
is
often
is
and
ai
= l-46;
and
/(a 1 )// (a 1 )--0-0023,
<x 2
= l-4577;
=8-262, f(*jlf '(**)= 0-000031, and a 3 = l-457669;

(1-457669)*
employed
= 2-12480.
in cases
where the interval
very small,
important to know under
is a closer
approximation to the root than a.
and then
11
= 8-324,
(a,
is
jS)
not
what circumstances a t
it is
We shall assume that neither f'(x) nor f"(x) is zero

in
value
x
the interval (a, /?), so that each of these functions reof
any
tains the same sign for all values of x with which we are concerned. Now
Fourier's Rule.
for
where
0<0 <1,
1
so that
*=-/()//'( +
Hence
Now
if
oq
is
-/(a)//'(a), it follows that t has the

certainly a better approximation than
and a + A, and
since
This condition
a1
=a +
/,
this is the case
1
|
7 '
is
if
same sign as h.
a if o^ lies between a
satisfied if /(a)
and/
(a)
1<| h
|,
that
have the same
increases with x or decreases as x increases according as
is if
sign.
.For
/"()0,
f(x)
and h 2^0 according as /(a) and /'(a) have different signs or the same sign.
Thus we have Fourier's rule, which is as follows // neither f (x) nor
f"(x) is zero near the point a, and /(a) and f"(a) have the same siyn, then
:
ax
is
better
approximation than
a.
VARIOUS CASES
458
The various cases which can arise are illustrated in Fig. 66, (i)-(iv). It is
to be noted that the tangent to the graph of f(x) at the point where #=a
cuts the x-axis at the point a x
.
In the figures on the left, /(a) and /"(<*) have the same sign; in those
on the right they have opposite signs and Fourier's rule does not apply.
+./(*)-
a
a
a
cn+h
FIQ. 66.
We
now show
shall
that a a
is
a better approximation than a, provided
that the interval is sufficiently small.
The true value
of the root
approximation than a
JLA2
if
= a 4- h =! +
|J<|A|,
/f"(\
that
or
and therefore
/" (x) ^t
such that
1
1
If neither
is
in the interval (a,
\<.\f"(<x
f (x)
better
+ 0h)
\,
nor f"(x)
^3),
is
a better
is if
if
|
If
<x
<2
we can
find a positive
number
and we draw the following conclusion

is zero
in the interval (a,
approximation than
a.
/J)
and
EVALUATION OF ERROR
This
is
certainly the case
if
.|
j3
-a
|
<
'
459
'
Moreover, in cases where Fourier's rule does not apply,
at
a closer approximation than a
is
that
h \<\
t\,
and
if
is, if
Z|/(a)|<2{/'(a)}
............. (C)
In this case, by (A),
J5te.
2.
Let
Find
/(x)r,x -2a;-5,
Since /(2)<0</(3),
/"(2)
Xs = 2x + 5
the real root of
to
nine significant figures.
th-n
f'(x)=3x* -2, /"() -60:.

/
the root lies between 2 and 3. Also /(2)= -1, / (2)=:10,
= 12.
Taking a
2 and applying Newton's method,
ai
=2
-=^-=
2-1.
Here /(2) and /"(2) have opposite signs, and Fourier's rule does not apply.
/i<0-l, ;and the least value of |/"(#)| in the interval (2,3) is 12. Hence
But
and
KI is a better approximation than aMoreover, /"(#) increases with a:, and therefore
/"(a
,.,.
Next, taking a -2-1,*
we have
Hence
ai ---2-l
/(2-1) =0-061,
-Pl
-^?
/'(2-1) -11-23,
//
/ (2-l)-12-6.
=2-094569
....
in the first
approximation, so that
J jL'2ij
Also the value of h
is
equal to that of
h
|
and consequently
<~
< 0-007,
(0-007
)2^|~|<
0-00003.
Moreover, e is negative, and so the root lies between 2-09457 and 2-09453.
the error in taking 2-09455 as the root is numerically less than 0-00002.
Again, taking a
find that
Also
c is negative,
2o
we
/(a)- -0-000016557... and /'(a) = 11-1 1607,

ai =a -/(a)//' (a) =2-094551483 ...
giving
Moreover,
2-09455148,
2-09455,
Hence
\<lZ (0-00002)
n
^<10~
11
and BO the value
24.
of the root to nine significant figures
This approximation might have been obtained graphically.

B.C. A.
is
NEARLY EQUAL ROOTS
460
Ex. 3. A donkey is tethered to a point A in the circumference of a circular field of radius a

by a rope of length L Find the value of I in order that he may be able to graze over exactly
half of the field.
In Fig. 67
AB
Thus
2a'
is
LAOB=x, LOAB^x'
the stretched rope,
+ *= w
measured
in radians.
Area donkey can graze over

segment A BB' + segment CBB'
= a 2 (x - \ sin 2x) + l*(x' - \

is
JaV,
to
will
Equating
this
given by
f(x)~x- tan x -f r.
Hence,
/' (x)
it
( I
be found that x
sec
x-
f/
f (x)~
} ,
\ **
and
0.
1)
x - tan x
- sec
tan x
sin 2x').
sec x(\
+ 2 tan 2 x)-2 tan x sec
a:.
In a question of this kind it is important to start with a really good approximation,

to be found graphically or otherwise.
draw the figure so that the shaded areas
are nearly equal, and then by measurement
We
Z_Ô# = 71^l-239
Taking a 1-239, we find
and the next approximation
^=
If
x increases from
positive.
radians (nearly).
that, approximately,
/(a) ^0-018,
-/(a)// (a)
= 1-239
--
0-003
-=
1-236.
therefore /"(a) is
f"(x) increases from ?r/2 to oo
have the same sign and, by Fourier's rule, a z is a closer
to ir/2,
Hence /(a) and /
"
(a.)
approximation than a. Further, we can show that /"(a)<34

if x<ac.
Hence, if a x + is the true value of x, by Art. 9 (B),
c
|
Thus the following
therefore / '(x)<34
radians
Hence
|<J(0-003) -^<0-00004.
results are correct to the last figure
L AGE = 1-236
/'(a) ^-5-578,
is
- 70 50
X
,
and
/7a/6, very
Ifa ^2
sin 35
25'
= 1-16.
nearly.
10. Nearly equal Roots. Suppose that the equation /(z) =

has
two nearly equal roots within the small interval (a, j8), and let oc + h be
the true value of one of them, then
where
a=/(a),
6=/'(a),
(?-/"(),
etc,
Neglecting squares of /?, we have a + 6A==0, giving Newton's rule. But

the roots are separated by a root of /' (x) ~ 0, so that /' (x) is zero for some
2
Consequently /'(a) is small, and the term ch
cannot be neglected in comparison with bh, so that Newton's rule does not
2
apply. Neglecting cubes of h, we have a + 6A + cA = 0.
value of x in the interval.
HORNER'S METHOD
This equation has nearly equal roots, and
same as
(a
+ |6A)
= 0.
This result
is
therefore approximately the
is
Hence we have
2a
T = "2c
value of
461
"
fcPP 1
*-)'
used in Homer's method (Art. 11, Ex. 3) to suggest a
when
trial
2a/b and
b/2c are nearly equal.

only applicable
Jn the same way, if the equation has three nearly equal roots in the
interval (a, j8), the value of one of them being a-fA, neglecting A 4
h.
It
is
we have a -f bh -f ch 2 + dh 3
Hence,
1 1
3a
which
is
nearly the same as

c
--y---- -35
(nearly).
Homer's Method. The
Horner,
is
process described in this article, due to

the most convenient way of finding approximate values of the
Any
rational roots
which
may
where f(x) is a polyexist can also be found in the same
irrational roots of equations of the type /(z)
nomial.
(a
+ |M) 3 = 0.
way. One great merit of the method is the very concise and orderly way
in which the reckoning can be arranged. The root is evolved as a decimal,
the figures of which are obtained in succession.
In what follows, we are only concerned with positive roots. To find the
negative roots of f(x) = 0, we find the positive roots of /( x) =0.
Consider the equation
and suppose that
f(x)
= a x n -f a^~
this has a single root
4-
a n ^x
-h
in the interval
-f
(p
an
y
(A)
0,
),
where
a positive integer. (The case of two nearly equal roots will be conp
sidered later.)
Let (x^p-qrs ... where q, r, s ... are the figures in the
decimal part of the root
then p can be found as in Ch. XXVIII, 2,
is
or preferably figure by figure as in Ex. 2 below.

Decrease the roots of (A) by p, and let the transformed equation be
n
n -l
+ ...+b n _ l x + b n =
a<p + b l x
(B)
This has a single root between

and 1, namely 0-qrs .... In finding the
value of q, we avoid the use of decimals by multiplying the roots of (B)
by
10, obtaining the
equation
= aQx n + lOV?
<f>(x)
71
-1
* ...+I0 n - l b x +
1
bn
=Q
(C)
This has a single root between

and 10, namely q-rs .... Moreover,
is
the
number
that
such
the
roots of (C) are decreased by q the
greatest
q
if
sign of the last term of the transformed equation is the same as that of th>e last
y
term of
q and
and
(C).
q+
This follows from the fact that
l, and there is no root between

have the same signs.
<f>(q + I)
<(#)
and
has a root between

q,
so that
<(0),
<f>(q)
HORNER'S METHOD FOR CUBE ROOT
462
In practice the value of q

given by Newton's method.
For, regarding
0-qrs
p
...
is suggested
and, after a certain stage,
as an approximate value of a,
-&/&_!
-f(p)!f'(p}
Having found the correct value of
is definitely
we have
(approximately).
we
decrease the roots of (0) by q,

multiply the roots of the resulting equation by 10, so obtaining an equation
of which r-s ... is a root.
y,
Continuing as above, we can find as

decimal representation of a.
When
a certain
number
many
we choose
figures as
have been found, about as
of figures
in the
many more
can be found by a contracted process explained in the next example.

Ex.
I.
Find
to ten significant figures the real root
/(*)=
of
- 111=0
(A)
The work is arranged below in a form suitable for explanation. In practice

be arranged as in Ex. 2. The explanation is given on the opposite page.
1
0+ 0-111(4
4
47.
48
it
would
(a)
+ 16- 47
8+48
_ uO .Qy
12
(6)
120+4800-47000(8
128 + 5824408
136 + 6912
144
1440
+691200
408000(0
14400 +69120000 -408000000(5

14405 +69192025 - 62039875
(c)
(d)
14410 +69264075
14415
11=0-8,
144,15
+ 6926407,5- 62039875(8
6927560
()
6619395
6928713
1,44
+ 692871,3
692884
6619395
9
(
(/)
383439
692897
69289,7
6928,9
692,8
69,2
6,9
383439 (5
36990 5
(j
2345
267
3
(
3
(
59
8
(
Hence the required root
is
4-8058955338, with possibly an error in the last figure.
EXPLANATION OF PROCESS
NOTE.
Denoting the root by
Also that for the values

f(x)
4-80<a<4-81,
4-8<a<4-9,
4-805
4-8,
4,
-47,
the successive steps show that
a,
4<a<5,
463
-0-408,
4-8058955338 of
...
-0-062
...
...
etc,
x,
-0-000000004
....
EXPLANATION OF THE SUCCESSIVE STEPS

(a)
Decreasing the roots by
4,
is
(B)
If
(b)
by Newton's method
a4-fA,
Multiplying the roots of (B) by 10, the resulting equation

(f)
ô;
(a?)
is
+ 120a; +4800* -47000-0 ............................ (C)

2
Taking 9 as a trial figure, we find that this is too large, for decreasing the roots of (C)
this shows that <f> (0) and <^ (9) have opposite
by 9 changes the sign of the last term
;
dgns,
and thus a root of
Trying
8,
we
(f>
(x) lies
find that this
resulting equation
is
and
between
9.
the correct figure, and decreasing the roots by
the
8,
is
s3
+ 144s 2 + 6912&- 408 .=
Denoting the root of (C) by 8
-f k,
................................. (D)
we have
Hence we may expect that the next two
and
figures of the root are
5,
and
this
proves to be correct.
(c) Here the roots of (D) are multiplied by 10, and those of the resulting equation
iecreasod by
if they were decreased by 1, the sign of the last term would be changed,
is the next figure of the root.
30
:
(d)
is
The
roots of the equation obtained in
(c)
are multiplied by 10,
and we
find that 5
the next figure.

(e)
The equation found

ar
and the next
in (d)
is
+ 1441 5.T 2 + 69264075z - 62039875 = 0,
figure of the root is 8.
We
...
..................... (E)
have to multiply the roots
decrease those of the resulting equation by
of (E)
by 10 and
8.
In doing this the important figures will retain the same relative position if, instead of
introducing O's, we write down the last term of (E) as it stands, cut off one figure from, the
3
2
coefficient of x, two figures from, tJiat of x , and neglect the coefficient of a:
.
In
an equation of higher
x3 and so on.
the case of
coefficient of
NOTE.
In
degree,
we should
cut off three figures
from
the
the multiplication allowance should be
(f)
This step
(g)
Only the
is
similar to
last
mod J
1
r the figures cut off.
(e).
two terms remain, and the process
is
simply contracted division.
TWO NEARLY EQUAL ROOTS
464
Ex.
Find
2.
to
nine significant figures the real root of
It is easily seen that the root lies
the roots by 10.
x*
- x* - x - 2000 =0.
between 10 and 20, and the
In practice, the work
is
arranged thus
first
step
is
to decrease
|f =0-7.
The required
NOTE.
which
3.
lie
is
12-9686724, to nine significant figures.
It will be seen that
figure until
Ex.
root
we come
Find approximate
is
more than the correct
values of the two roots of
3s4
- 61X3 + 127z2 + 220*
as follows,
and the explanation
between 2 and
The reckoning
Newton's approximation gives
to the 8.
-520-0
3.
3-61
-55
-49
-43
-37
is
+127
+220-520 (2
+ 254+ 92
17
- 81
-167
3-370 -16700
-364 -17428
-358 -18144
-352 -18848
-346
on the opposite page.

(a)
12
+92000
+57144
+20856
- 120000
- 5712
2
(
3-3460-1884800 + 20856000-57120000 (5
+ 1 1345875 -3430-1919175 + 1750000

- 3445 - 1902025
,.(6)
(c)
390625
-3415-1936250
-3400
-3,4
-19362,5 + 175000 -390625(4

-19376 + 97496 641
- 19390
-19404
19930
.(d)
SEPARATION OF ROOTS
For the smaller root
For the greater root
-194,04 + 1993,6-641 (0
-641
199,3
193
- 62
18,7
- 62
+
+ 187
465
(e)
(/)
(3
-149,9 +1582 (9
- 167
79
f
-1,9'
1,8
(3
(g)
6(3
...... (h)
-194,0 + 1993,6- 641(9

+ 247
+1582
-1499
-18,4
79
-1,8
Thus the
case
is
and 2-2549942..., where the
roots are 2-2540333...
(4
(')
....(/')
....(
5(2
last figure in
each
not to be relied upon.
EXPLANATION OF THE SUCCESSIVE STEPS

(a)
Decreasing the roots by
2,
3a^ - 37z - 167z

3
is
+ 92z -
By
the question, this has two roots between
(6)
Suspecting two nearly equal roots,
12 =0.
and
we apply
is
1.
the rule of Art. 10, and the figure 2
suggested by
...
Decreasing the roots by 2, the sign of the last term of the resulting equation is
If the roots are decreased by 3, it will be found that again the sign of the last term
.
So far, then, we have no assurance that 2 is the proper figure.

But when the roots arc decreased by 2, the signs of the terms are + - - + so that two changes
and when they are decreased by 3, the signs are
of sign are lost.
Hence, by Art. 8, the two roots lie between 2-2 and 2-3.
is
+----,
(c)
and
(d).
Similar remarks apply to these steps.
2(-5712)
Thus the
(e)
and
matter of
roots
f
(e
).
trial.
of the terms are
lie
__
20856--'
figure 5 in
20856
and
The
(c) is
suggested by
nr5 -'
2rT8848T
between 2-254 and 2-255.
Here the
rule of Art. 10 fails,
If at (e)
+--
and the separation of the roots
is
we
decrease the roots by 1 (instead of by 0), the signs

+, one change of sign being lost. The same is true if,
we
decrease the roots by 9. Thus one root lies between 2-2540 and 2-2541,
(e'),
and the other between 2-2549 and 2-255 ; and the roots are separated.
as at
Immediately after the roots have been separated,

is suggested by Newton's rule.
(/'), the proper figure
i.e.
beginning at the stages
(/),
APPROXIMATION TO ROOTS
466
EXERCISE XLIX
Find by Newton's method to five significant figures
1.
The two
2.
The
positive roots of x*
3
positive root of 2x
- Ix -f 7 ^0.
- 3x - 6 =0.
Find the roots indicated below correct to seven places of decimals by Horner's
method.
3
+ 29* - 97 = 0.
3.
The
4.
The cube root of 4129,
5.
The three
6.
The two roots of 2* + ll# - 10z-f
real root of
a;
real roots of x*
- 3z 4-
1 =- 0.
1=0
7.
The two roots of # -2(Xr - 3 1#+ 1609 =
8.
The two
9.
The
roots of 2x* -
greatest and
in the interval
Wx
(0,1).
in the interval
- Sx + 166 =0
in the interval
(13,15).
(5, 6).
least roots of
3s 4 - 6Lr 3 + 127* 2 -f 220* - 520 = 0.
The two
roots of 3z 4 - 10z 2 ~ 6x
+ 16 =
in the interval (1,2).
11.
The two
roots of 3x4 - 2x* - 34x + 40 =
12.
The two
roots of Ix* - llx 2 -32x-f -40 =
13.
The two roots of x* - 2x 3 - 13s 2
14.
The two
roots of
15.
The two
roots of 2z 4
16.
The two roots of
17.
The two
10.
3a;
x*
-4^ 3 ~
+ 4z
18.
The
positive root of 2z
19.
The
greatest root of the following

(i)
(ii)
(in)
-f 5a;
2
-f-
(4,5).
in the interval
f2, 3).
3x = 8002.
x + 4# - 2o;3 4- 10* 2 - 2x rr 962.

x 5 + toe* - 10r3 - 1 12x 2 - 207* x5
in the interval
-27z 3 + 25z 2 -j-179:r-275---0

3
(3, 4).
12^ + 9^0 in the interval (1,2).
12o; -f
-16z 3 -17a a + 392- 782 =
(1,2).
llx + 133 --0 in the interval
+ 5$x*-388x + 511=0
roots of 2* 4
in the interval
4-
12z 4
4-
1 10,
59z 3 + 150* 2 -f 201* = 207.
x
20. If f(x) = e - 1 - 2#, show that the equation
than
other
zero, the solution being a? =1-260 ....
1-260.
Show also that f(x)<0 if
f(x)-Q has
just one solution
0<x<
21. If
f(x)~e
-e~ A
positive solution given
-4x, show that the equation ,/(x)=0 has just one

by x = 2- 177 ... and that/(z)<0 if 0<o?<2-177.
,
Find an approximate solution of

(nearly), where the last figure is not to be
22.
of x, x*
a:*
=10,
relied on.
showing that
x -2-50616
Verify that for this value
9-9995 (approx.).
l
is given by f(x)~x~ ~log, ;r--0.
By drawing the curves y~xr l and
Five applit/=log 10#, it will be found that x 2-5 is a good approximation.
cations of Newton's process give x 2-50616.1
-=
[Here x
CHAPTER XXIX
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS, CURVE TRACING
1.
Implicit Functions.
If
an equation represented by /(#,
y)
two variables x and y are connected by

=0, we say that y is an implicit/unction
of x.
In particular,
is
called
is
f(x, y}
an algebraic function
Taking
this gives
But
if
a polynomial in x, y
and
/(x,
y)=0, then y
of x.
as a simple case the equation
y=x
j(1i
a;
2
),
and so defines
?/
as a two-valued function of x.
we
are unable to express y explicitly in

if,
terms of x, we are not justified in assuming without further enquiry that y
is really a function of x in the sense hitherto understood.
as generally happens,
The general question involves
difficult analysis,
and cannot be con-
Some exercise in tracing curves from their equations will,

convince
the student that, at any rate in a large number of
however,
does define y as a single- or multiple-valued
cases, the equation f(x, y) =
sidered here.
function of
x.
The general form
of a curve represented by an algebraic equation can

be
found
by pure algebra, and affords excellent practice in finding
generally
approximate values.
2.
Rule for Approximations.
The following process
is
of
great practical use.
Suppose that
J/
= ^ + ^/(?/)
*~
x2 </>(y) +x?i/j(y)
...
small and/(y), <(?/), etc., do not involve

approximate to the value of y, in ascending powers of x.
where x
Let
is
f(y + h)
f(y)
A/, (y)
.................... (A)
x.
It is required to
................................................. J
The first approximation
is
obtained by putting x=0, giving
y-
....................................... (0)
INVERSION OF SERIES
468
For the second approximation,

y = a + xf(a+<x,) +
y = a-fa where a
let
+ ...
<(a-fa)
= a-f x {/(a) -fa/! (a) +
+ x2 {</>(a) +
...}
0(x),* then
is
and neglecting small quantities of the second

2
etc., the second approximation is
XOL, x
order,
...}
...
terms containing
i.e.
y = a + xf(a),
so that
Next
oc
xf(a).
let
y = a-ha-fj8 where
j8
y = a + xf(a -fa -f j3) +
and neglecting small quantities
is
2
0(x
2
),
...................................
then
<(a -ha + ]8)
<Ac iAird! approximation,
Similarly,
we
if
is
0(x
3
),
. . .
<f>
(a) ,
...........................
(E )
namely
2
jS-x {/(a) ./x (a) +
Thus
4-
of the third order,
2
y==a + xf(a + a) + x
which gives
(D)
^(a)}.
neglecting small quantities of the fourth order,
shall find that

,
which gives
the fourth
.................
(F)
approximation.
Hence the following Rule
Having found
r successive
approximations
to the value of y, to find the equation giving the next approximation, in

equation (A) substitute the result of
the rth
approximation in xf(y),
the (r-l)th approximation in x 2 <f>(y),

the (r-2)th approximation in x 3 ifj(y)
the
first
r
approximation in the term containing x
and neglect terms containing powers

Ex.
1.
Newton used the expansion of

sin~ l
x=x-
sin
?/,
of
x higher than x r
2
(1 ~a; )~i
Putting x
1.3
-f
to prove that
z
-
(A)
he deduced that
1^,U'* This
means
'
of the
same order
as
<B,
a;.'
(Ch. II, 7.)
ROOTS OF A CUBIC
To do
469
write equation (A) in the form
this,
If
is
small, so
is
sin y,
and the
first
2/- ......................... (C)
is
approximation
Substituting y for sin y in the second term of (C) and neglecting higher terms, the
second approximation is
y-%y* ........................................... (E)

Following the rule, the third approximation
is
given by
siny^y-^^
and neglecting the powers of y higher than
(F)
The fourth approximation
is
given by
Expanding and neglecting powers
than y7 ,
of y higher
this gives
and so on.
Ex.
2.
If
is
fj,
If fj,
is
small, so
small, find approximate values of
is
y(y
- l)(y + 1), therefore y
y which
satisfy the equation
nearly equal to
is
or
1.
Write the
equation
(A)
(i)
If y is small, the first approximation is 2/ = /x.

For the second, substitute p? for y3 in (A), giving
For the
third,
y = /x -f (p, + /r )
1
3
,
^+
For the fourth, y =fi + (p. 4-
giving
6 3
3/z
) ,
y=
//,
4-
2/=/
p? + 3/A
y -p +
giving
^ + 3^
+ 12/z 7
Further approximations can be found in the same way.
(ii)
If
The
y-
first
is
approximation
The second
For the
small, put
then equation (A)
is
Y = - ^/LI.
(
F=
-J/i-|( -i/x-f/x
1
(iii)
is,
Similarly
a 2
)
that
if
y+
is
zero.
3
,
small, then approximately
This result also follows from the preceding, for the

is
-^
2/
we can show
be written
-i(-^)
y^-iM-lf*
= 1 - i^ - f M 2 - ift8
giving
that
may
y = - J/i -f - Jft)= - J/t -f /x 2
is
third,
Y ~y - 1,
sum
of the roots of equation (A)
ROOTS OF A CUBIC
470
Cubic Equation with Three Real Roots. If all the

ax -h 36x2 -f 3cx + d Q are real, the equation can be reduced to
3.
roots of
y -t/+/x =
3
by a transformation
(Ch. XII, 5,
Ex.
1).
last
/x
x=p + qy,
form
of the
The
where
//
/^
'"
the roots of
<4/27,
....................... (A)
where p, q are
real
numbers
example suggests the possibility of expressing
the roots of equation (A) as power series in
Theorem.
<4/27
//,.
-y+^ =
are
where
V2
\n
y*-y = 2x,
Write the equation in the form
where
x=
-/z/2
..............................
of y can be expressed as power series in

values
these
are given by
theorem,
Taylor's
Assuming that the values
and ^)o
(î)o
x,
by
xn
x2
where y n = 'r:
ax
(A)
and x2 <l/27.
are the values of y, y l9
(^2)0*
j/ 2 ,
...
when cc = 0. (Of course, x is to be made zero after differentiation.)

The assumption will be justified if the series is convergent.
Let y = u + v, then y 3 - 3uvy = u* + v 3
with (A) if
w3 + v 3 = 2x and
w = x + (x2 - fc)i,
8
Thus we may take

un =
Writing
dn u
-=-^
vn
dnv
-7-^
and
This equation will be identical
3uv v
1.
= - (a; 2 - &)*, where

a?
& = 1/27.
differentiating with regard to x,
we have
therefore
(x
= u/ 3
- fc)
2
giving
(x
jfc)
Since
y
*
An
u + v,
- &)% = - v/3.
- ^)^w +
2
xu^x* k)~% = Wj/3,
=
w2 4- xî = (x2 - &)i
2
(x
(x
it
(x
similarly
we have
Similarly,
and
i) v 2
follows that
alternative proof of this result
(x
is
^/S
w/9.
+ xt;j = v/9.
-k)y2 + xyl ~y/
.................... (C)*
indicated in Ex. 6 of the next Exercise.
EXPRESSION AS POWER SERIES

Differentiating
n times by Leibniz' theorem (Oh. XXIII,
471
11),
(^-k)y n+2 + (2n + l)xy n ^ + (n^^)yn Ô ................. (D)
#=0
Putting
The
possible values of (y)
(i)J/ (yJo
885
Hence from
and
= 1/27, we have for n = 0, 1, 2, ...

= 3(3w + l)(3M -l)(yn ) ........................ (E)
(yn +2 )o
and
1*
are 0,
yi* 2
since
/^
where
4.6
(n
,
3
such values of x as make the
Denoting the series
Hence the
convergent
//
u 2n
series
series convergent.
u z + u3 +
=l, then
(y)o
Since the
is
Putting
we have
consequently also
un
(y 1 )
=l-
sum
Hence the numerical value of (y n Q is

+ or - according as n is odd or even.
)
-F(-x).
of the roots of (A) is zero, the root corresponding to
y = F(-x)-F(x).
-/x/2, we have the results stated above.
given by
x=
more general theorem, which includes
given in Ex. L,
this, is
7.
EXERCISE L
Having given that
x = tan x - J tan3 x + -| tan 6 a: - ^ tan 7 as +
tan x - x + fx3 + ^-a; 5 4- ^^x 7 +
prove that
x + ayn where x, y are both small, prove that approximately
2. If y
~
y=x + ax n + na 2x m l + f n (3n - 1 ) asa: 3n 2
1.
. . .
. . .
3.
If
are
x <l/27.
ss
. . .
Eu 2n+v and
+ l)(n + 3)...(3n-3)
^
if
(y)
by
4-
the same as before, the sign being

Therefore
=l
(iii)
we have (yô^l.
1)
(E) in succession,
y=-l+F(x)
,
(ii)
if
Thus
for
1.
2
are both small, then .approximately

y=x + ay* + by* and
= x + a* 2 + (6 + 2a )x3 + 5a (b + a 2 z4
a;, ?/
?/
APPROXIMATIONS AS POWER SERIES
472
y=l+xav
4. If
and x
small, then approximately
is
z 2
3
2
y = 1 -f xa -f x a log a + faâ (log a)
5.
If
are positive integers (>s>
8, t
and A
t)
is
small, the equation
y*-y* + (-OA =
has a root nearly equal to
l-X-(-l+8 + t)-(-l+2s + t)(-l+s + 2t).

ii
y*-y=2x, show
If
6.
(ii)y,=
where y1 ~-~,
7.
yt =
y=u + v
If
li
that
-l) = (32/ ~l)

2
24*,
12 (t/-
Deduce that
~.
v m ~x-*/(x 2 -k),
um =x + ^(x 2 -k),
where
being
positive integer, then

(i)
x and y are connected by the equation

'
~m
'
li
(ii)
vhere
If
a;
(t/)
is
sufficiently small,
is
a value of y obtained by putting

dii
d 2y
are the corresponding values of

(iii)
Using Ch. XXIII,
11,
u>x
Ex.
1,
-^~
dx
m is odd,
one value of
. . .
in (A),
and (y^,
(t/ 2 )
...
show that
Hence prove that equation (B) holds

(iv) If
#=0
if
(y) Q is 0,
x 2 <k.
and then
L* + ?3 VP Mn-^16'F
"^^
L- 'H
(v) If
m=5
and
A;
=^, equation (A) becomes

6
y -
and the values of (y) Q are
Thus
all
0,
A/f g
the roots are real, and they can be expressed as power series in x
!
&'
(
vi) If
m=7
and
Ff = |,
the equation
is
- y 5 -f fi/ 3 - î/ = 2x.
if
DOUBLE POINTS
Tangents and Asymptotes.
4.
a point on
of the secant
of
Q
If
is
a point on the curve and

defined as the limiting position
is
near P, the tangent at P is

PQ as Q moves up to P. Thus as
it
from the tangent at
curve
If
473
Q moves to
P, the distance
P the
becomes indefinitely small, so that near
indefinitely close to the tangent.
moves to an
the tangent at
infinite distance
along a branch of the curve, and
P tends to a limiting position,
this limiting position is called
an asymptote to the curve. It may happen that an infinite branch has

no asymptote. We then find the simplest equation which nearly
and say that this is the equation to a

represents the branch at oo
curvilinear asymptote.
In the examples which follow, tangents and asymptotes are found by a
,
process of approximation.
Intersections of a Straight Line and Curve.

equation to a curve of the nth degree and y =/*# -f v that
5.
line,
-+
the abscissae of the points of intersection are given

...-fa n
= 0,
w=0
If
is
the
of
any straight
by an equation of
.....................
(A)
obtained by substituting px + v for y in u = 0.
(i) If this equation has two equal roots, the line meets the curve in
two coincident points and, except in special cases (see (iii)), touches the
'
three roots are equal, the line meets the

coincident points. Except in special cases (see (iii)), the
curve.
If
curve in three
point of contact is a point of inflexion (Ch. XVII, 20).

At such a point, the curve crosses the tangent.
If
= 0,
If
(ii)
and the
line
one root of equation (A)

meets the curve in one point at
and
^ = 0,
is infinite,
'
infinity.
68
the line meets the curve in
two points at infinity and, except in special cases (see
where a curve crosses
(iv)), is
an asymptote,
a double point,
or node. At such a point there are two tangents, each meeting the curve in
three consecutive points. Any other straight line through
(iii)
Any
point- (D)
D meets the curve in two consecutive points.

If
(Fig. 69.)
the double point is at infinity, the
parallel straight lines.
two
itself is called
tangents are
So in this case the curve has
parallel asymptotes, each
meeting the curve in
three points at infinity. Any straight line parallel to

the* asymptotes meets the curve in two points at infinity.
FIG. 69.
CURVE TRACING
474
tangents at a double point coincide, the point

There are two kinds of cusp, as shown in Fig. 70.
If the
called $ cusp.
is
FIG. 71.
In tracing a curve, it is important to be able to account for all the n

points in which any straight line meets the curve, remembering that
imaginary points occur in pairs.
(iv) Fig. 71, (i), is
a sketch of the curve whose equation
is
= (x-a)*(x-b).
y*
The
axis of x meets the curve in
A (a, 0)
and B(b,
(x
a)
The equation
0).
to
any
AP through A is y = m(x - a) and, on eliminating y we have

~m =
hence, AP meets the curve in two coincident points
(x -b
straight line
at a point P, given by x = 6 -f m 2
Therefore, A is the only point
on the curve to the left of the line y = b and thus
may be regarded as
a double point- at which the tangents are imaginary.
at
A and
A point on a curve,
in its
such as A,
is
immediate neighbourhood
is
The conjugate point at A, in Fig.

form, when a a', of the oval in
curve whose equation is
Curve Tracing.
6.
To
called a conjugate point, if
no other point
on the curve.
71,
(i),
may be considered as the limiting
Fig. 71,
(ii),
which
is
a sketch of the
find the general shape of a curve represented
by a given equation, proceed as follows, (i) Consider any symmetry which

the curve may possess, e.g. symmetry with regard to either axis, or in
(ii) Mark any points on the curve which can be
opposite quadrants,
found easily, e.g. the points (if any) where it cuts the axes, (iii) Find the
approximate form of the curve near some of these points.
Near (0, 0) (if on the curve) x, y are small, but not necessarily of the same
order. To find the form near any other point, move the origin to that point.
The quickest way of finding the tangent at any point is to find the value
of T-
But, without further different!
of the tangent the curve
may
possess.
lies,
or discover
So, for a/etu points,
mation, as in Ex.
1.
ition,
it is
any
we cannot say on which

peculiarities
side
which the point
better to use a process of approxi-
APPROXIMATIONS TO FORM
(iv\
Find any regions
Find the form
(v)
which there
in
is
no part
of the curve near infinity,
475
of the curve.
i.e.
(Exx.
1, 2.)
where one or both of
x and y are large, but not necessarily of the same order.

In doing this, we find the (linear) asymptotes (if there are any), and the
approximate form of any parabolic branches.
'
'
The reader should be able to draw the 'parabolas' represented by

m and n are positive integers. For example,
m
n
where
y =x
,
y
x
y-
y
FIG. 72.
By
(vi)
are parallel to the axes.
(vii) It
or again,
We
considering the value of
may be
dx
find the tangents
(if
any
exist)
which
70
JS)
d y
dx 2
Notice that, at a point of inflexion,
''
possible to find y explicitly in terms of x or x in terms of y

able to express x and y as functions of some variable /.
;
we may be
can then find any number of points on the curve and the gradients at
'
these points.*
Examples on Curve Tracing.
7.
Ex.
1.
Trace the curve
The equation
is
The points
is
= (x2 - 4) x
~x,
~y
1),
(A)
Hence there
for x, y.
(2,
0),
(2,
is
are
symmetry
in
on the curve.
(A)
y~4=x.
the equation to the tangent at
2nd approx.,
1)
- x3 - y + x
x and y are small and of the same order.
1st approx.,
This
1 )y
(0, 0), (0,

3
Write the equation

(0, 0),
unaltered by writing
opposite quadrants.
Near
if
~
3
y 4x + 63^
(0, 0).
obtained by putting (4#) 3 for y3 in (A), showing that the

curve is above the tangent in the first quadrant and below
it
in the third quadrant.
Thus
(0, 0} is
a point of inflexion.
FIG. 73.
* The
examples given in Art. 7 and in Exercise LI have been chosen so that one of these methods
can be used. Thus in each case the curve can be plotted to any degree of accuracy required
so that the student can verify the conclusions arrived at by the methods just described, and gain
confidence in using them.
However, when only the characteristic form of the curve is
required, the advantages of the above method over the method of plotting, even when the latter
can be done, will be obvious. [See Ex. 22 of Exercise LI.]
'
'
B.C. A.
APPROXIMATE FORM AT INFINITY
476
Near
(0, 1
2 J = - 4x
1st approx.,
which
is
Y = y - 1,
putting
),
y=I
or
27
equation (A) becomes
- 2x,
the equation to the tangent at
+ 3 Y 2 + 7 s = (x* - 4) x.
(0, 1).
2 7 3 - 2#) 2 - - 4z,
2nd approx.,
giving
- 2# - 6# 2 which shows that the curve is
below the tangent.
-f-
y=1
Near (2,0), putting X=x-2 we find that

= - 8z - Gz 2 (approx.), showing that the
t/
-S(x -2) and that the curve
equation to the tangent is y
FIG. 74.
Again,
dyjdx
(3x
gradient of the tangent
and the tangent
is
2 - 4)/
(3?/
parallel to Oy,
3
2/
From
is
it.
1 ), the
Therefore, at each of the points ( 2,
is parallel to Ox where x=2/\/3=l-16;
).
where
y~
large
-a^~0,
dil/s/3-
and
of the
giving
0-58.
same order
and approximately
y~-x~Q.
y - x=
(A),
This shows that, as :r~>
which
below
The tangent
is 4.
Near (00,00), x and y are both
2nd approx.
is
oo
the curve becomes indefinitely close to the line y - x
0,
therefore an asymptote.
Again, on the curve

that the curve
is
Thus the curve
y~x--
(approx.),
and on the asymptote y = x; showing
below the asymptote on the right and above

is
as given in
-Fig.
it
on the
left.
75.
Putting y ~tx in equation (A), it will bo seen that any number of points on the curve
can be found by giving any values to t in the equations y = tx, x 2 = (4 - *)/(! - 13 ).
If
l</<4,
in the space
the corresponding point is imaginary, thus no part of the curve lies

from the position y = x to the
swept out by a line turning round
position y = 4x.
ASYMPTOTES PARALLEL TO AXES

Ex.
z
2
(x-l)(x~2)y = 2x
Trace the curve
2.
477
-y
(A)
henco the curve

for y
symmetrical
The equation is unaltered by writing
hence no part of the curve lies
with regard to Ox. Also y is imaginary if 1 <x<2
between the lines x = l, x 2. Write the equation in the form
is
* 2 )=0
N ear
the curve
(0, 0),
by
-x 2 =
is
(A)
approximately given
y~x.
or
Taking y =x as a first approximation, from (A)

2 (y - x) = (3*2/ 2 - re
j(y 4- x)
giving as a second approximation
showing that y -x
Similarly y + x~Q
Near
(1, GO
),
is
x-
3z 3
2x
FIG. 76.
is a tangent at (0, 0) and that the curve

a tangent at (0, 0) which is a double point.
2^2
1
-..
êar
(2, oo
),
9^2
"
r-2{i
.-,
(#-")?/
1} y3
~r~
-2)#
(1
92
~-
showing that x 1 =0 and x 2 =~0 are asymptotes,

the curve approaching the first from the left and the
second from the right.
x 2 (y z -
Again, writing equation (A) in the form
near
We
'"
(oo
>s/2),
above the tangent.
I2
2
"
is
and near
(oo,
2)
FIG. 77.
-^2),
- 2y 2
it
+ N/2 ^ -
will be seen
that
can now sketch the curve, as in Fig. 78.
parallel to Ox can be found by equating to zero the coefficient of the

power of y in (A) similarly for those parallel to Oy. Also, for all values of k
1, the line y - k meets the curve in two finite points and in two points at oo
except
The same is true for the line a; /, where /<! or >2.
NOTE. The asymptotes
highest
FOLIUM OF DESCARTES
478
8. In the next example we consider the possibility of finding the approximate form of a curve near the origin, or near infinity, by retaining only
certain terms in its equation.
Ex.1.
Trace the curve
+ y*-3axy-Q
x*
(a>0) .............................. (A)
3
term, we have y -3axy=0.
the
we
the equation
factor
consider
y,
Disregarding
Omitting the
If
is
first
small, x
is
small and 0(y 2 )
so that r*
t/
- Sax =
),
and can
2
6
is
0(?/
................... (B)
therefric be neglected in comparison with the other terms in (A).

Hence (B) approximately represents the curve or part of the
curve near
(0, 0).
by omitting the second term, we find that part

x 2 - Say = 0.
(0, 0) is represented by
3
3
0.
Omitting the third term, we get a; -)-?/
Similarly,
of
the curve near
FIG. 79.
This represents the curve near (oo oo ) ; for if y is O(x), then
2
Saxy is O(x ), and can be neglected in comparison with the other terms of (A).
Thus near ( oo, oo), as a first approximation ?/-ha: = 0.
,
For a second approximation,
third approximation
is
-f
3a
(the last step being obtained
-a
a3
4-
approaches
it
- x - a for
y,
~x(x-\-a)
by long
division).
showing that y -f x = - a
is
/V.2
3o -^-^
obtained by substituting
xy
~
y+x
SAJ
Hence the
- a.
thus
"2
third approximation
is
an asymptote, and that the curve
from above at both ends.
-a \
\
\
-a
FIG. 80.
The curve
is symmetrical with regard to the line y

x, for its equation is unaltered
x and?/ are interchanged.
Further, if y tx, then s = 3a//(l -f J 8 ), so that any
number of points can be found by giving different values to t e.g. < = 1,
= 3a/2.
if
xy
ORDER OF MAGNITUDE OF TERMS

Newton's Parallelogram.
9.
t/ =
where u
is
a polynomial in
479
Consider the curve represented by
x, y.
Let v be the expression obtained by retaining only certain terms of u.

rule which goes by the name of Newton's Parallelogram enables us to
*
'
choose these terms so that v =
may
near the origin or near infinity,
when such
represent the curve,
or,
part of
it,
parts exist.
axyn
Let
cx r y s
bx^tf
...
be any terms
of u. Represent these by points A, J5, C, ...

whose coordinates referred to any axes are
(m, n), (p,
The
q),
(r, s), ...
formed
figure so
H
is
m n
Suppose that ax y
'Newton's Diagram.'
bxVy* are small or
K
Fio. 81.
~m
0(x p ), and therefore y
is O^te-wO/fr-fl)).
Join AB, cutting Ox in H, and let the angle xHA=0;
~
ie
and axmy n is 0(xm ncoie ). MHO, w-ncot0 = 0#;
then y is 0(x)
therefore the terms represented by A, B are 0(x H ).
Draw CK parallel to AB to meet Ox in K then, for similar reasons,
Thus the term C is of an
the term cx r tj s represented by C is 0(xos ).
order lower or higher than the terms A, B according as C is on the same
side of AB as 0, or on the opposite side.
Hence the following rule.
large
numbers
of the
same order
then yn
~~
(l
is
Rule. Mark on Newton's diagram points A, B, C, ... representing all

the terms of the polynomial u. Choose any two of these, say A, B.
Let v be the expression whose terms are those represented by A, B and
any points which may happen to

then v =
lie
on the
line
AB.
AB
remote from the origin 0,

= (or part of it) near
approximately represents the curve u
If all the other points lie
on the side of
on the curve).
(if
v=
AB as 0, then
the other points lie on the same side of

sents the curve u Q (or part of it) near infinity.
If all
NOTE. If the straight line AB passes through 0, the rule

terms cannot be of the same order.
In the following examples the points representing the
the equation are marked 1, 2, 3, ... in the diagram.
Ex.
fails
1st,
repre-
for the corresponding
2nd, 3rd,
...
terms of
1.
The terms
1,
3 and
2,
3 give the form of the curve near
the origin.
The terms
Art.
8.)
1,
2 give the form near infinity.
(See Ex.
1,
Fio. 82.
EXAMPLES OF CURVE TRACING
480
Ex.
2.
- by)
(ax
= ax 2
ij
-f
4.
Write the equation in the form,

a 2 x 2 - 2abxy + b 2 y 2 - ax 2 y -y*^0.
The form near the
by terms
origin is given
1, 4 and 4, 5.
by the terms
infinity
Thus near (0, 0), (ax - 6//) 2 =0.

Near infinity, a z x 2 ~ax z
v-a=0 and
yQ
ax 2 y-l-y*
and
and near
1, 2, 3,
~^
giving
0,
EXERCISE LI
Trace the curves represented by the following equations and work out the
accompanying details. (For hints for plotting, see Ex. 22.)
1.
y*-y + x=Q.
Near
(GO
2
?/
3.
a;
4.
a;
Near
5.
(i).]
Near
oo
),
The tangent
2.
[Fig. 84,
y ^x + x
y~ -x* -
Ne,ar (0, 0),
[Fig. 84,
1).
+ 2/ 3 â 2 x.
+ 1/ 3 - 3ax 2
3
(0,0),
t/
[Fig. 84,
= 3aa; 2
(a, oo
passes through
Near
(ii)].
(0,0),
Near
(iii)].
(a;
no
),
8.
x(y-x)
Near
Near
(a, oo
2nd approx.,
near
) ;
z
y*=a x;
a),
closer
Ox where
Near
oo
2
,
?/
â; 3 .
near (00,00),
y=x*Jax + a.
dy
-~
on the curve, but the curve
0,
(0, 0),
a
(
is
conjugate point.'
-,
2-a(>/5
x*â*y.
approximations being
[Fig. 84, (viii)].
y=
consequently
If
[Fig. 84, (vii)].
x = a-{
-1.
),
!#
(0,0),
is
[Fig. 84, (vi)].
y~xa,
=;aij
(a; -f
(0, 0),
near (oo,
+ a).
Tangents are parallel to

2
y=
real point near
2
2
x(y-x) =a y.
Near (00,00),
near (00,00),
Near (00,00), y
7.
- \x - |z 2
at the points
[Fig. 84, (v)].
y (# ~a)~tf
Ox
y
6.
y ==
),
[Fig. 84, (iv)].
(x-a)y*=a*x.
near
3~.
perpendicular to
is
â; 2 (2;-f
$jc~
(0,
+ 1)
Near
I'D approx.
(0, oo
),
x=?*
y
y=
3x.
Near
Near (00,00),
(0, 0),
a3
1st approx.,
la*
(A).
3rd approx., y
V^T"
This shows that the curve becomes indefinitely close to that represented by (A),
to the parabola (y-x-a) 2 ~ax. This is therefore a parabolic asymptote.
i.e.
EXAMPLES OF CURVE TRACING
482
x*
9.
Near
- 3*y 2 + 2y* = 0.
a;
(0,0),
-3i/
Near (00,00),
[Fig. 85,
^0
and
(i).]
t/^fz-fz
1st approx.,
# 4 -f2i/ 3
2nd approx.,
y-^
2
.
i.e.
0,
r ..................... (A)
2^
y3
T + &- ..................................... ( B )
03
-----
in the diagram ; it gives the general

Equation (A) is represented by
trend of the curve, but (B) shows that it is not a parabolic asymptote.
If y
tx
then x = t*(3-2t). Mark points on the curve corresponding to
< = 1,2, -A
-1.
%
10.
2
ax(y-x) = y*.
[Fig. 85,
Near
(ii).]
and
y-x=Q
(0, 0),
ax^y*.
3'
With y = #
as 1st approx., the
2nd
x
is
?/
z
.
Near (00,00), ax*-y*
0.
a2
a2
11.
x'A
x'-a'sy-iyÔ.
-a zy=0.
powers of
x,
[Fig 85,
Near (00,00), by solving

show that approximately
The equations y =
(0,0) (0,
2nd approx.,
y~^2
beuig 3x 2?/
0,
Near (oo,3),
2nd approx.,
?/
and
-^
in descending
by -------
in the diagram.
...................................... (A)
[Fig. 85, (iv).]
are on the curve.
Near
O
-
3x~2y^0.
(0,0),
xJ, showing that the point
is
a cusp, the tangent
2*^/2
12
-
The asymptote
2/
viz.
- f, -
3 cuts the curve again at
3x 2 + y*~Q (represented by
-----
-J).
-f
3).
................... (B)
y~ -3 s X s -
3# 2 ~
I)
(y
If 3z 2 + ?/ 3 ^0, then
- f - f ).
the
(
3
-f
y and expanding
which meets the curve at one other point,
Near (00,00),
that
2)
for
a*x
are represented
(3x~2y)*-3x*y-y*^0.
The points
x3
y=-r$--i
D
(0,0),
tt
x2
12.
Near
(iii).]
-4
I,
showing that the curve (A) is below (B) and
a parabolic asymptote.
2
(3.r -2*/) -0, showing that the curves (A), (B) touch at
is
point
solving for x, show that
,
By
lines
y=
and y
Fig. 85, (v), (vi),

16.
y< - 1 or
4 touch the curve.
(vii), (viii),
else
0<t/<4.
Also show that the
are curves whose equations are given in Exx. 13-
These are of the form xy*-2ky~px* + qx* + rx + $* (See Exx.

2
- I2y = x- 15x 2 4- MX - 85.
14. xy*
15. zz/ a
3
2
-242/^:c -10:r ~5a:+150.
16.
13. xt/
17, 18.)
- IQy^x* - 14z a + 60x -
104.
a
8
8
a^ -8y = x -8a; -3aJ-8.
17. Show that every curve whose equation is xy z - 2ky = px* -f- qx 2 -f rx + s
has three asymptotes, or only one, according as p is positive or negative.
* Curves
having an equation of this form belong to the first of four classes into which
divided cubic curves (Enumeratio Linearum tertii ordinis, 1706).
Newton
FIG, 85*
(viii)
POINTS OF INFLEXION
484
18.
Show
(i)
that, if
of x other than zero, y
xy
2
2ky px* + qx + rx + s, where p^Q, then, for values
given by an equation of the form
is
(xy
k)
=p (x -a)(x- b) (x -c)(x~d).
(ii) In Exx. 13-16 employ the methods of the previous examples to find first
and second approximations to the curve at infinity and, by the help of the points,
A, J5, C, Z>, which correspond to x=a, b, c, d, and of the points where the curves
;
cut the asymptotes, trace the curves.
NOTE. Diagrams (v) and (vi) show that a cusp ia of a higher order of singularity
than a node ; while (vii) and (viii) show the change of partners that generally
'
occurs when two of the points, A, B, C t D, approach one another, coincide, and then
separate again, owing to a change in the coefficients, p, q r, s.
t
Points of Inflexion
19.
Show
that the points of inflexion of the cubic curve

z
y(a'x
lie
on the straight
line
f
%y(<i'c
[From
(i),
by
+ 2b'x + c') = ax* + 3bx z + 3cx + d
whose equation is
- 6"2
- 2bb' + ca') x + (be' (ac'
-:=
2cb'
....................... (A)
+ da').
differentiation,
(B)
and putting
d 2 )/
~0, we have
ct>x
(C)
The coordinates of a point of
inflexion satisfy equations (A), (B),
and
(C).
Multiplying equations (A), (B), (C) respectively by

a',
the result
is
-2(a'x + b')
a'x 2
+ 2b'x + c',
obtained by addition.
20. Show that the curve (p. 475), whose equation is (y*-l)y~(x 2 -4:)x 9 has
three points of inflexion which very nearly lie on the line x 64y.
2 =
6
4
6
[If p=dy/dx 9 show that, at a point of inflexion, #
(4p -p )/(^ -l), and
y* = (4p*-l)/(p*-l); so that
21. Prove that the points of inflexion on the curve y*~x z (x 2 + 2ax + b) are
determined by the equation 2x*-'+ Qax 2 + 3 (a 2 -f b)x + 2ab =0.
[At a point of inflexion
22. Plot
For
For
For
For
+ 3ax 2 + bx, and

y~-~2x*
dx
some of the curves
in
Examples
-^
(
)
\flte/
1-12, as follows
= 6z + 6o# -f 6.1
2
Ex. 1, plot x~ -t/ 3 , and # = ?/, and add corresponding abscissae.

Exx. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, express y in terms of x.
Exx. 3, 4, 9, 10, use y=te, or x=ty.
Ex. 12, express x in terms of y.
CHAPTER XXX
INFINITE PRODUCTS
a v a2
1. If
product a x a2
an
...
...
an
is
...
will
a sequence of numbers, real or complex, the
be denoted by
Pn
or
by IIîa r
.
Definition.
n-> oo
a 1 a 2 a3
we
Pn
If
tends to a
except when a factor of
...
is
convergent and
Pn
Thus we write
limit P, different
finite
is
an
from
zero, as
we say that the infinite product
zero,
that its value is P, or that it converges to
P, and
write
P=a
Pn-> oo
If
infinite
If
Pn
or
product
is
oscillates,
a 2 a3
oo
...
to oo
or
= /7"~5a n
Pn->0
if
or simply
when no
factor
Uan
of P n
is
zero, the
said to diverge or to be divergent.
the infinite product
is
said to oscillate.
The reader may ask why we say that the product diverges (to zero)
when Pw ->0. The reason is as follows. According to the definition, if
a a2> ... are real and positive, the infinite product Ua n and the infinite
>
series
2 log a n
both converge, both diverge or both
For logPn^logaj-f log a 2 +
...
-flog
oo
an
and
or oscillates according as log

, to zero
oo or oscillates.
to
to oo
If
Pn->
finite limit,
then
Pn
..
Pn
Pn
oscillate.
tends to a
tends to a
~> the same
limit,
and
finite limit,
finite limit, to
this limit is
if
not zero a n = Pn/Pfl _ 1~>l. Thus if Ua n is convergent, then a n->l.

It is generally convenient to write an infinite product in the form
A necessary (but not sufficient)
condition for convergence
that w n->0,
is
and so, after a certain stage, un |<1.

The character of P, as regards convergence, will not be affected by removConseing any number of factors from the beginning of the product.
quently there will be no loss of generality in supposing that u n |<1 for
|
every
n.
The simplest and at the same time the most important case
the us have the same sign.
is
when
all
CONVERGENCE
486
2.
Theorem.
// u l9 u2 w3
,
and
are positive
...
than unity, each
less
of the infinite products
is
convergent or divergent according as the series
The
Proof.
series
Suppose that
found so that
Zu n
2u n
is
is
convergent or divergent.
convergent and that
um + u m+l + um+2 +
Also the omission of the
its
first
m-l
sn
quently
By
Ch.
is
<s<l
XIV,
1,
no
then
can be
factors of a product does not affect
Also
Pn
increases
)(l-fw 2 )...(l+w w )<
-U,)(l
-,)
...
Q n >0.
3.
T1
-<,
(!-)>
By
Ch.
XIV,
-*.
u n ) diverges to
to
any
so that 77(1
+u n
zero.
is
convergence of the
Corresponding
1,
and Q n ->0,
complex, none of which
sufficient condition for the
as follows
>
Pn->oo
Therefore
and 77(1
real or
1~6
6n
General Condition for Convergence.
numbers,
conse-
and Q n decreases as n increases. Therefore P n and

and both of the products 77(1 -f w n )
and 77(1 ~u n ) are convergent.

Next suppose that Zu n is divergent.
diverges to oo
s<l and
for every n.
tend to positive limits as n->oo
Moreover,
assuming that
we have
g n = (l
is
is s
<1.
to oo
...
loss of generality in
Pn = (l+u
of
sum
its
convergency.
Hence there
Qn
Eu n is convergent or divergent.
positive
Let
zero.
infinite
number
(a n )
be a sequence
The necessary and

product
6,
however small, an
integer m must exist such that for all values of p
that is to say,
Proof.
which
is
First suppose that
<
P
is
for
^ = 1,2,3,
convergent.
not zero, and consequently a positive
(A)
Then P n tends to a limit

number k exists such that
for every n.
ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE
by Ch. XV,
Also,
6,
we can
find
m such that
y = l,2,3,....
for
_rn+p
Therefore
487
fa
~i
so that condition (A) holds.
condition (A) holds, then
if
Conversely,
l-
and
Taking e<l, we have
fixed positive
~~
XV,
so that
|,
|P n |>some
IP m\
*
fc
is positive and as small as we choose.

is convergent.
zero and the product
6.)
Absolute Convergence.
numbers whose absolute

is
convergent.
Hence the product
is
u l9 u 2 w3
,
...
are real or complex
by w/, u 2 ', u3 ',
...
P = (l +*!)(! +^(1 +113)...
said to be absolutely convergent
Zu n
If
values, or moduli, are denoted
is
the series
IP
*
f m \<
^
m+p -IP
Pm+p Pm \<ie', where c

P n-> a limit different from
(See Ch.
Pm
Consequently Pn cannot tend to zero.

Pm+p and Pm have the same sign, and therefore
IP
L m
*
m+p -P
Hence
Hence
-e)
................ (B)
number when n>m.
Also by (B),
4.
Pm+J) |>(1
<p<l +
77(1
+u n
when
is
the product
if,
and only
if,
absolutely convergent.
Theorem. An absolutely convergent infinite product (P) is convergent.

Let P and P' be defined as above and suppose that P' is convergent.
Then, by Art. 3, we can find m so that
|(l+t4+i)(l+t4+a)-..(l+t4+p)-l|<6
Now
for
^ = 1,2,3,....
(1
This follows on expanding each side and remembering that for any
numbers
a, 6, c,
...
Therefore
|(l+t/m+1 )(l+wm ^2 )...(l+wm+P )-l|<
Hence, by Art.
3,
P is convergent.
for
2>
= 1,2,3,....
EXPANSION OF PRODUCT
488
We
Derangement of Factors.
6.
shall
prove that if the factors
of an absolutely convergent infinite product (P) are rearranged in any way,

remains absolutely convergent and its value is unaltered.
the product
Consider the infinite products
where
P is absolutely convergent and Q is formed by rearranging the factors
of P, so that every v
Since
is
a u and every u
is
v.
P is absolutely convergent, so is the series Su n

when
This series remains
Zv n
Therefore
terms are rearranged.
its
absolutely convergent, and consequently the product
is
is
absolutely
convergent.
For any
Pm =a
and
is
a2
...
w,
am
it is
q,
...
Pm
are
a p aa
all
>w.
follows
it
. . .
as -
Also, as
= 1 + vr
br
so that all the factors of
Q n = b^b2
the factors of
...
bn
a*
m tends to
oo
so does n,
and
since
from Art. 3 that
and therefore
1->0,
and Q n tend to the same
Expansion of an
6.
among
QJPm = a vaQ
convergent,
Thus
possible to find
are included
therefore
where p,
suffix
Let a r = 1 + u r
P = Q.
shown that
It remains to be
Qn /Pm -* 1
P = Q.
limit, that is to say,
Product as a Series.
Infinite
Consider
where ul3 w 2 w3
...
and x are any numbers, real or complex.
Let p r be the sum of the products of u ly u 2 ... u n taken r together, so
,
that
Pn = (l +xu
We
(ii)
)(l+xu%)
prove that if
shall
(i)
As n->oo
For
...
(1 -f
limit
so that j>/
Each
is
the
lr
+px + p2x* +
...
+pn xn
is absolutely convergent,
=
for r
l, 2,
...
then
n.
of x,
P = (l +zw 1 )(l -f xuz )(l +xiiz)

Let w/ = u r
x' = x
and
|
Eu n
the series
pf-> a finite
all values
xun )^l
...
to oo
= 1 + ^x +
x2
-f ...
to oo
sum
w2 ', ... w n ', taken r together.

r occurs in the expansion of
of the products of W/,
of these products multiplied
by
GENERAL COEFFICIENT
'
therefore
pr
Eu n
Since
occurs in the expansion, and
is
erefore
Also
If
pr '<s'
'
Zu^
absolutely convergent,
r->oo
then
s'
follows that
it
converges to a
sum
s',
and
j\r.
increases with n, therefore, as n->oo
pr
489
r->0, and consequently
#>/-> a limit
'
'->0, so that
such that
lr
is finite,
however great * may be.

Thus as n->oo p r becomes an infinite series, which is convergent
and pr becomes an absolutely convergent series. Hence pr -> a finite
limit l r) and we may write Z r = (l +e r )Pr where e r->0.
f
Let
where
Qn = l +
x+
x2 +
...
the greatest of
is
Q n -Pn ->0,
Therefore
+l n xn
and
l |,
then
c2
I?
e^c
Pn->P,
since
...
JE'ar.
1.
ê
^t'nc?
coefficient
In this identity put zx for
therefore
(1
+zx*)(l +zx?)
+zxn+l
2,
therefore
... (1
)(l -\-p l
+z*n + 1
z+p 2 z 2 + ...
-f-pn 2"
coefficients of z r ,
Equating the
-xn - r+1
^
Putting
~-
2,
...
2,
in succession for
n ~\-x
Whence by
multiplication
r,
follows that, for
to oo.
r
of z in the expansion of
Assume that
(1
it
all
values
LOGARITHMIC METHOD
490
Ex.
2.
//
x <1, show
that for all values of z,
...
where
= l+f
00
to
x 4- x 2 -f jr3
and
denoting
convergent,
The
where
series
its
pr and pr
lim
n *>
is
. . .
tend to zero as
absolutely convergent, therefore the infinite product

value by P, by the theorem just proved,
is
the same as in Ex.
therefore
?i->oo,
Another Method.
Also
1.
xn
xn ~\ ...xn
~r +l
is
all
has the value stated above.
When
the factors are real and positive, the

theory of infinite products can be made to depend on that of infinite
series by the use of logarithms.
Let
P w -(l + wi)(l +^)...(1 +u n ),
7.
where u l9
Art.
1,
t/
2 , ...
~I-l
+w2 + ... +log

)
1
~
um+l
x~
Putting
(1
ti^+i,
+w m+1 + log
)
w m 4.2>
...
ww
4.
(1
^w_,jn ^- r
L is
l+u n
(i)
the least and
_L 77
+ti ro+2 )
for x in (A),
2 "if
where
numbers
of the
H the
m>n
both
and
.........
(A)
1 -f x.
~ sm^
<%
... -f
log (1 +ti w )
by addition we
_ 4 m n ^-^ ?i5
2~L
>
+u n
7, (4),
1
m+I^m+2^~'^ U n
log
XIX,
in
).
27 log (1
r-<x-log(l 4-x)<-
a*
+uM+2 + ...+u n = rm n
4-7/2
7/2
Ch.
By
+w n
(1
and h the greater
Let
infinite series
oscillate.
and ^0, then
tV> smaller
(1
and the
product
converge, both diverge or both
...,
As explained
Then
r.
the last assumption involves no loss of generality.

log
where
for every
greatest of the
= Jmfn
find that
'
numbers
1 4-
uly
1 -f
w2
Suppose
that
u n2
convergence we can find
is convergent,
so that for
then by the general principle of

all
values of n,
5 m>n <2Lc,
and
therefore
c is positive and
Hence by the general
where
as small as
please.
principle of convergence,
diverges to 0, or oscillates, as
or oscillates.
we
un
P converges, diverges to oo
converges, diverges to oo
diverges to
oo
EXAMPLES OF INPINITE PRODUCTS

(ii)
it
Zu^
that
Suppose
then since
diverges,
491
r,n,n~^,n^**Vn
follows that, for sufficiently large values of n,
for
any
positive value of
however
(a)
If
u n converges or
oscillates
(b)
If
u n diverges
then
P may
Hence
between finite limits, then
or oscillates so that
o>
P diverges
upper limit
its
is
to 0.
-f-
GO
converge.
possible cases, and when the logarithm of a complex

has been defined and its properties investigated, the same method
This includes
number
to
great.
all
can be applied when the factors of
are complex numbers.
EXERCISE
LII
Obtain the results in Exx. 1-5 by considering the value of

1.
d+t)(H
2.
(i-
4.
<l-)(l+i)(l-i)(l+-J-)...-i.
5.
(l+i)(l
6.
Show
\P*ni =
Pn
in
each case.
and
that
.
Hence
if
|
(l+x)(l+x z )(l+x*)
7.
Show
x = 2n
sin
---
Remembering that Jim

0->o
~ cos
1,
that
Show
^v.
A
+ a:) (1 +-)( 1
V
2 /^
cos
...
cos
sin
a;
diverges to oo or to
4-^
3 /)...
according as
that the infinite products
are convergent for

~
(1
O.
9.
to oo
deduce that
xx
Show
...
that
sin
8.
< 1,
all
values of x.
B.C.A.
EXPANSION OP PRODUCTS
492
10. If
|a;|<l and \zx\<\, show that
_(*
a
? '~
where
CTe
[Proceed as in Art.
-*")(*
1.]
11. If n, r are positive integers,
exactly divisible by
is
12. If
(!-*)(! -*)...(l
Ex.
6,
~* +i - d
show that
- x) ( 1 - x 2 )
\x\<\ and \zx\<\, show

...
where
[Having explained
why
^zr/(l
~ xr ).
at
that
~ 1 + *iZ +
to oo
2
-x)(l -a: )
...
such an expansion
is
* 2Z
H-
tf
^
. . .
to 00
r
(1 -a; ).
possible,
put zx for
and show
that
(l-zz)(l+tl z + t 2z* +
Hence by equating the
...)
coefficients of z
= ! + tjzx +
t 2z
xz
-f
. .
r
,
(l-X^t^X.t^.]
13. If
(l+zx)(l+zx*)...(l+zx*
14. If
< 1,
show that
15. If
a;
|
<1
and
zx
|
< 1,
z,
)... ==1
--____
)^l+p z+p z*+...+pnzn show
for all values of
(l+zx)(l+zx*)(l+zx
where
n- l
x r\
show that
where
(ii)
where
- - --
3
(1 -sa;)(l -2o; )(l
-zx 5 )
...
to oo
=l+^2 +
=a; r /(l -a: 2 )(l -a; 4 )
^2
2 2 -}-...tO 00
.
...
(1
-x* r ).
that
CHAPTER XXXI
PERMUTATIONS, COMBINATIONS AND DISTRIBUTIONS
1.
Combinations with Repetitions. The number

n things r together, when each may be taken as
tions of
is
please,
denoted by
H,
and
number
the same as the
is
of
of combina-
often as
we
homogeneous
products of degree r which can be formed with n letters a, 6, c, ... k.

The sum of these products is the coefficient of x r in the expansion of
i
When
a, 6,
...
k are
all
equal to unity,
we obtain
the number of the
Thus
products.
therefore
#? = coefft.
of
x r in
(1
+x+
= coefft.
of
x r in
(1
-x)~
//
-f ...)
n
;
"^
Combinations and Permutations of n Things, not all

different. LetC be the number of combinations, and P the number of
2.
permutations, of n letters aa
(1)
is
equal
...
to the coefficient
bb
...
cc
is the
ofVs, r
the
taken k together, then
k
of x in the product
number of different letters, p

number ofc's, and so on.
where f
...
is the
number of cCs,
For the sum of the combinations in question
is
q the
number
the coefficient of x k in
the product
...
and
their
number
is
(1
+cx + c 2 z2 -h ... + c rx r )
unity.
-h#
+...
2
+*)(! +Z-fZ -f
obtained from the preceding by putting

Whence the result follows.
is
to/factors
the coefficient of x k in the expression
(l+X+X 2 + ... +X p )(l

which
...
... -f
a, b, c,
Xr)
...
equal to
DISTRIBUTIONS
494
(2)
k
\k times the coefficient of x in the product
is
x\ L
x2
For the number
x2
tf\
of permutations involving Aa's,
re's,
//,6's,
...
is
Hence
where the summation
is
to include every set of values of A,
(with repetitions) from 0,
1, 2, 3,
A
Therefore
Ex.
1.
We
+v+
. . .
= k.
xk in the above product.
number of combinations (C) and
the
the letters of the ivord parallel taken
four
chosen
such that
\k is the coefficient of
P/
Find
-f/z
...
...
/x, v,
number of permutations (P) of
the
together.
have by the preceding,
PI
whence we
3.
result
(i)
(ii)
coefficient of x* in (1
coefficient of x*
find that
C22, P
Distributions,
is
Some
286.
If
of the things
n things are divided into
called a distribution.
The
~x)~
may
A number
be
In the
first
of
classes, the
of different cases arise,
alike, or
they
order of the things in each class
considered.
r lots
may
may,
or
be
thus
all different,
may
case the classes are called groups
not, have to be
;
in the second,
they are called parcels.

(iii)
When a
distribution has been
made,
it
may, or may not, be necessary
to consider the order in which the classes stand.
In the
first
case the classes are said to be different (meaning that they

in the second case they are
have to be distinguished from one another)
said to be indifferent.
(iv)
Blank
may, or may not, be admissible, a blank
which contains none
Ex.
1.
How many
lot
'
being a
lot
of the things.
For example, consider what
three masts ?
'
'
lots
is
different signals
implied in the following questions.

can be made by flying
five flags a, 6, c,
on
ARRANGEMENT
Denoting the masts by
(A)
495
the following arrangements give different signals.
1, 2, 3,
123
123
123
d
IN GROUPS
<
<
{C ,
<B)
;
c
Because such arrangements as (A) and (B) are
different, it is a case of distribution
in groups.
(A), (C) are different, the groups are said to be different.
Because
Further blank
two masts.
lots
are admissible, for all the flags
(See Art. 4, Ex.
may
be flown on only one or only
1.)
Ex. 2. In how many ways can five books a, 6, <% rf, e be divided among three people
denoted by 1, 2, 3 ?
Such distributions as (A), (B) in Ex. 1 are identical, so it is a case of distribution
in parcels.
Also the distributions (A), (C) are different, and so the parcels are, said to
be different.
Further,
it is
Ex.
implied that each person gets at least one book, and so blank lots are
(See Art. 5, Ex.
not allowed.
1.)
In how many ways can jive books
be tied up in three bundles ?

Here the order of the books in a bundle does not matter, so the distribution is in
Also the bundles are not to bo distinguished from one another, and so the
parcels.
3.
parcels are indifferent.
4.
(See Art.
Arrangement
different things
in
5,
Ex.
2.)
Groups.
The number of ways in which n
can be arranged in r different groups

r(r
+ l)(r + 2)...(r + n-l)
or
is
|wC*l},
according as blank groups are or are not admissible.

Proof,
(i)
Let n
letters
k be written in
...
a, 6,
a,
row
in
any
All
order.
the arrangements of the letters in r groups, blank groups being admissible,

- 1 marks of
can be obtained thus
partition,
place among the letters r
:
and arrange the n + r-l things

possible orders.* Since
ferent arrangements is
\n-\- r
(consisting of letters
and marks)
of the things are alike, the
\r -1 =r(r + l)(r + 2)
...
in all
number of
(r + n- 1).
dif-
arrangements of the letters in r groups, none of the groups

can
be obtained as follows
(a) Arrange the letters in all
being blank,
possible orders. This can be done in In ways, (b) In every such arrange(ii)
All the
ment, place (r-1) marks of partition in (r-l) out of the (n-1) spaces
between the letters. This can be done in C"~\ ways.
Hence the required number

Ex.
1.
How many
n C^l*.
is
different signals
can be made by flying
five different flags
on
three masts ?
The required number = 3.4.5.6.7= 2520.

*
Thus one arrangement of
7 letters in 5 groups, the
second blank,
is
indicated by a
|j
bed \ef\g.
PARCELS OF UNLIKE THINGS
496
Distribution in Parcels.
5.
(1) The number of ways in which n different things can be distributed into
r different parcels, blank lots being admissible, is r n
For each of the n things can be assigned to any one of the r parcels.
.
(2)
r different parcels, there being
which
different things
no blank
can be distributed into
lots, is
In times the coefficient of xn in the expansion of (ex
is
In any distribution, denote the parcels by a r a 2

Proof.
consider the distributions in which blanks are allowed.
,
The total number of these is

The number in which a x is blank
number
Therefore the
not blank
Of these
in
which
rn
is
(r
the
last,
number
in
blank
Therefore
2>
i>
which
in
1 )
(r-1
a.*,}
n
> r
the
last,
,,
is
n
.
-(r-2".
is
1W|
-2ft/ r-l)
+ r-2
tt
blank
is
number
in
which]>
n
.
(T
Z(r
1)
4-
A)
o)
(r
the
number
k
blank
in
which^
is
J
it is
obvious that
number of distributions in which no one of x assigned parcels

r n _ (j*(r - l) n + Of (r - 2) n -... + (- l) x (r - x) n
is
When x = r,
is
a a are n
the
ft
This process can be continued as far as we like, and

the coefficients are formed as in a binomial expansion.
Hence
and
!
a 2 are not blank
a3
>
number
Therefore the
Of these
ar
...
o^ is]
which]
U11
blank is
is
is
a2
l)
this gives the result in question.
complete proof
is
as follows
Let ux denote the number of distributions in which no one of the parcels

a t a2 ... a x is blank. Of these, the number in which ax+1 is blank is
,
obtained by changing r into r -
number
is
changing
represented by
r into
in
ux (which
E~ ux where E~
l
a function of
is
blank
is
number of distributions in which no one of <x v

ux E~ l ux that is to say, ux+l = (1 - E~ l ) u x
Also we have
This
denotes the operation of
r-1.
Therefore the
is
r).
u { - r n - (r - l) n = (1 - E~ l )r n
PARCELS OF LIKE THINGS

w x = (l
Hence
-E~
l
)
xr n
~2 -
= (1 - Cf E- 1 + Cf
and when x = r,
Ex.
. . .
+ ( - 1 )*E- X
rn
this gives the result in question.
In how many ways can
1.
497
five different books be distributed
among
three persons,
if each person is to have at least one book ?
The required number ^3 5 - 3

Ex.
25
+3
In how many ways can five
2.
The required number ~

(3)
(3
= 150.
different books
- 3 2s + 3
--
5
)
be,
bundle
tied HJ> in three
= 2,~>.
v)
tributed into r different parcels is
same
things of the
can be dis-
sort
or CÎi, according as blank lots
C>i{~
are or are not admissible.
If there are no blank lots, any such distribution can be effected

as follows
place the n things in a row and put marks of partition in a
1 out of the n
l
This can be
selection of r
spaces between them.
which
is therefore the number of such distributions.
done in C n
ways,
Proof.
~~^
// blank
of
lots
are allowed, the
n + r things
of the
same
number
of distributions
sort into
parcels with
such a distribution can be effected thus
and
into each of the r parcels,

parcels, blank
/Tn-fr
O
r _i
lots
is
no blank
put one of the
Hence the number
lots.
h r
For
things
in
question
r
is
i
.
These theorems can also be proved as in Ex. 2 of the next

(4)
as that
n things into
distribute the remaining
being allowed.
same
the
The number of ways in which n things of the same
into r different parcels, where no parcel is to contain

there are
no blank
(x
lots, is
the coefficient of
+ x 2 + x* +
...x k ) r
or of
sort
section.
can be distributed
more than k things and
x n in the expansion of
(l-x
k+l
r
)
(l-x)-
r
.
r
For the product of r factors, each of which is x x 2 -f x 3 -f
4- x
may
x
v
A
v
x^x
where X x^, x ... are any terms selected
be denoted by 2x
from x, x2 ... x k the summation to include every such selection.
The coefficient of x n in the product is therefore the number of ways in
-f
. .
which
numbers
A,
/x, ...
can be chosen from
being allowed, such that their
sum may be
n,
1,
2, 3,
and
...
this
repetitions
the required
A:,
is
number.
Distributions of things of the
sidered in Art. 8.
same
sort into indifferent parcels are con-
DERANGEMENTS
498
Ex.
In hoiv many icays can
1.
total score
three persons, each throwing a single die once,
make a
1 1 ?
of
The required number
is
>3
2
11
equal to tho co. of x in (x + x + x f
^co. of x
11
-^)
in
u;
of x 8
in
(l-o:)- (l
^co. of* 8
in
(^*
^c',o.
(l
-a;)-
(1
..
+ a; 6
3
)
~*
)(l"3z
= 45 -18 -=27.
Ex.
2.
Apply
this
method
to
The number of distributions

r
or in
in (1 +x + x z -f ... to GO
prove the theorems of the la^t section.

of n like things into r parcels is the coefficient of x n
(x
-f
x2
-f a;
3
-|-
to oo
r
)
according as blank lots are or
are not allowed.
These expressions are respectively equal to
Derangements.
6.
(1
in
Any change
x)"
and x r (\ -x)~ r
etc.
the order of the things in a
group is called a derangement.

If n things are arranged in a row, the number of ways in which they can be
deranged so that, no one of them occupies its original place is
Denote the group of things by a j? a 2

arrangements is \n\ and of these
Proof.
of
The number
in
which
stands
a,l
first,]
I
in situ,
i.e. is
not in situ
Of these
.
is
last,
in
which a
number
1M-
is
In
1.
is
the
number
in
which a 2 l
\
in situ
total
is
number
Therefore the
The
a n-
>
is
\n~\-
!tt-2.
number
the
Therefore
neither a l nor a 2
Of these
is
last,
in situ
the
is
which]
I
in situ
|w-2 74-1 +|tt-2.
is
J
number in which
a3
*\
is
Therefore the
one
in
number
....which
or aj, a 2 , a 3 is
?,?i
in
no]
y
\n--3
^
w-1+3 ln-2,
in-
,si^/ is
This process can be continued as far as we like, and

formed as in a binomial expansion.
it is
obvious that the
coefficients are
Hence
inaitu
If
the
number of arrangements in which no one of x assigned
is
x = n, the
n-Cf JB-l+Cfjn -2 -...+(-!)*

last
term
is
|n
letters is
-a.
(-1)", and we obtain the result in question.
THEOREM OF WHITWORTH
A
499
complete proof is as follows

Let Vy denote the number of arrangements in which no one of a
...
ax
Of these, the number

into n - 1 in uj. (which
This
of
number
is
changing n into n
in situ
vx
is
which a x ^ l
in
a%,
obtained by changing n
is in situ is
a function of n).
is
l
represented by E~~ v x
where E~~ l denotes the operation
1.
number
-E~*v x
Therefore *he
is
in situ.
is
of arrangements in which
that
is
no one of a {9
fl
2,
...
ax
to say,
<WiÔ "-">.*
we have
Also, as in the preceding,
Hence
1
,
it
follows that
vx
=-
(\-E~iy\n
= (i c 'f A'- + <7/?- 2 -... + (- 1 yE-*) n
- j>i-Cf l'/&-l+0 |n--3-...+([)*~[n-.r.
1
If
NOTE,
by
n.
(ii)
??.,
(i)
It
is
the last term
is
Tho expression (A)

easily shown that
Tho values
of
for
||
-I)
is
77
,
and we obtain the
sometimes called
is
1,
2, 3,
^n(>factorial n,
the integer nearest to \n
result in question.
can be calculated thus
...
and
a.
-1^0,
denoted
Begin with
and multiply successively by 1, 2, 3, ... increasing any even product by

ing every odd product by 1 before the next multiplication. Thus
||
is
Ic.
and decreas-
2=0.2 + 1^-1,
3=3.
|
-1^2,
[[4^4.24
-9.
7.
General Theorem. In Arts. 5 and 6 we have instances of a
* as follows
theorem, stated by Whitworth
:
If there are
letter
N sets of letters and, if out of r assigned letters a,

N sets, each combination of two letters occurs in N
occurs in
each
sets,
each
6, c, ...
combination of three
letters
occurs in
N%
and
sets,
so
on; and finally
all the
N sets, then the number of sets free from all the letters is
N ~ C[N + CIN - GIN., + + - YNT
Or more generally * If there are N events and r possible conditions such
that every single condition is satisfied in N of the events, every two of the
conditions are simultaneously satisfied in N of the events,
and finally all
r letters occur in
...
the r conditions are simultaneously satisfied in
of the events, then the
number of events free from all the conditions is as stated above.

The proof is exactly similar to that in the last article.
*
Whitworth, Choice and Chance,
p. 73.
CONSTRUCTION OF PARTITION-TABLE
500
Numbers.
Partition of
8.
In this section we consider a num-
(1)
ber as formed by the addition of other numbers.

Any selection of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... (with repetitions), of which
if the selection contains p numbers,
the sura is n, is called a partition of n
;
it is
called a partition of
into
p parts
or, shortly,
Thus 7=34-2 + 1+1, and we say that 3211

Ex.
Siij}posing that all the partitions of
1.
explain how to find all the partitions of

Take first 6
then 5 followed by
;
a p-partition of n.
a 4-partition of 7.
2, 3, 4,
5 have been written down,
6.
1
then
4,
followed by
all
the partitions of 2
then 2,
followed by all the partitions of 3 (that is, 3, 21, 111)
followed by the partitions of 4 which contain no part greater than 2 (that is, 22,211,
1111); lastly, 111111. The complete set is
(that
11)
is, 2,
6,
(2)
//
Up
then
1,
is
3,
51, 42, 411, 33, 321, 3111, 222, 2211, 21111,

is
the
111111.
number of p-partitions of n* then
n$=n$-i + n$To make the p -partitions
of
is
..............................
to distribute n elements into
(A)
indifferent
parcels, blanks being inadmissible.

This can be done by placing one of the elements in each of the
and then distributing the remaining n
p parcels
or 2 or 3 ... or
Therefore
parcels.
Changing n into n
and p
TTH-I
n -p
llp^l^lll
whence the
p-1, we have
into
rjn-p
-Til*
-r
rjn-v +
11$
rjn-pij
+ 11
p
result (A) follows.
If P>ln> then
II%= n"1\.
For
p^np,
(3)
~p
elements into
in this case
and therefore 77^^
Construction of a table of values of 77^.

77? =
1,
77S
= i(w-l)
or
0.
We
have
\n,
according as n is odd or even. Also 77^ = 1, 77^-1 = 1.

In the table on page 501, denote the nth space of the mth row by (n, m)
call the set of spaces (n, 1), (n + 1, 2), (n + 2, 3), ... the n-th
diagonal.
We
can
mid using
up the first and second rows and the

(2), we have
fill
i
77r -77 1
f2
,
77?
Hence the numbers

three,
...
77? +77'2
in the (n
first
and second diagonals,
77^= 77? + 77^+ 77*,
+ l)th diagonal are the sums
terms of the nth column, starting from the top.

*
Hp
is
subsequently denoted by P(n, p,
*).
etc.
of one, two,
CLASSES OF PARTITIONS
1,
1,
The second column is 1, 1, 0,

2, 2, 2, .... The third column is
and so on to any
2, 3, 3, 3, ...
;
0,
...
1, 1, 1,
therefore the third diagonal is

and the fourth diagonal
0, 0,
. . .
extent.
TABLE OF ^-PARTITIONS OF n
Various classes of partitions of
(4)
501
(i.e.
VALUES OF P(n
n may
p, *))
be considered
the
num-
ber of those in any particular class is denoted by a symbol of the form

P(n, , ) where the number and the nature of the parts are respectively
indicated in the first and second spaces following n.
In
the
the first space,
that there are
parts
and
<y
means that
number
In
and
p means
the
<;<7
An
of parts does not exceed p.

second space, q means that the greatest of the parts
means that no part exceeds q.
asterisk
means that no
restriction
nature of the parts, as the case

If the parts are
P(n, p,
q) is
to
may
be unequal, then
the
number
of which
is
is
placed on the number or the
be.
is
used instead of P.
of partitions of
n into p
Thus
parts, the greatest
is q.
number of jo-partitions of n.
P(n, ^p, *) is the number of partitions of n into p or any smaller
number of parts.
number of partitions of n into unequal parts, none
the
is
Q(n, *, ^q)
P(n, p,
*) is the
of
which exceeds
q.
CONJUGATE PARTITIONS
502
The values
(5)
of
P(n, ^p,
For instance, the number

is
sum
the
the 4th
That
can be found from the table on
of partitions of 10 into
of the first four
number
*)
numbers
and
therefore
is
23.
<4,*HP(14,4,*),
we have
and, in general,
P(n, <p,*)
We
is
to say that
is
P(10,
(6)
not more than 4 parts
in the 10th column,
in the llth diagonal, that
p. 501.
= P(n+p,p,*) ......................... (C)
have the following relations
Q(n,p,q) = Q(n-q,p-l, <y) ........................ (D)
and
For consider any partition of n into p parts, of which the greatest is q.

l parts,
If we remove the part q, we have a partition of n
q into p
none of which exceeds q. Also from every partition of the latter kind we
can derive one of the former.
Consider a partition
(7) Conjugate Partitions.
which the greatest is 4, say 431.
This
may
be written as in the margin, and
columns instead of the rows, we have 3 2 2

into 4 parts of which 3 is the greatest.
Clearly
431
can be derived from 3 2 2
1,
if
of 8 into 3 parts of
we sum the
111
a partition of 8
by the same
process,
and these
are caljed conjugate partitions.
Thus
to
every partition of
into
parts of which the greatest
corresponds a partition of n into q parts of which the greatest
Consequently,
is q, there
is p.
we have
P(n,p,q)^P(n,q,p),
............................. (E)
P(n,p,*) = P(n,*,p),
P(n, <p,
g)
= P(n,
q,
<jj),
.......................... (F)
P(n,<y,*) = P(,*, <p) ........................... (G)

Thus by
5,
,*) ........................ (H)

(8)
Euler's use of Series in the Enumeration of Partitions.
(i)
For
Q(n,
*,
<y)
is the coefficient
this coefficient
adding a selection of
n
of x in the expansion of
number of ways in which n can be obtained by

the numbers 1, 2, 3, ... q.
is
the
EULER'S USE OF SERIES

P(n,
(ii)
*,
n
of x in the expansion of
is the coefficient
^q)
(1
503
- X )~ l (l -x*)- l (l -x 3 )- 1
...
(1
-a*)-
1
.
For consider the product
terms out of the
Any
by
ce,
x2/3 x3y
...
a,
j8,
a+
2/3
...
factors
</th
are
any
we have
...
n
is x ,
the product of these terms
If
second,
first,
x q& where
+ 3y 4-
. . .
-f
may
be represented
numbers
of the
0, 1, 2,
...
= tt.
qO
Hence the coefficient of x n in the product is the number of ways

which n can be made up by adding any selection of the numbers 1, 2,
...
Hence the result follows.
q, repetitions being allowed.
Q(n
(iii)
p,
is the coefficient
^q)
(1
and
For the
in
zpx
coefficient of
in
3,
p n in the
expansion of
of z x
3
+zx)(l +zx*)(l +Z3 )
...
(1
+z&),
n -iP(p-fi) in the
therefore the coefficient of
is
y.
in the first
expansion of
product
number
the
is
which n can be obtained by adding a selection of
of the
of ways
numbers
1, 2, 3, ...q.
The
rest follows
follows that
(iv) It
of
expansion
Hence by
(i
3,
...
P(n, p,
0(17,
total
4,
number
-x
)-
...
into
(1
i), *,
1),
p unequal
~x
~W+
>
in the
)~
<j>),
p, *)
parts can be found from the
*) in (3).
be
made up by adding four
of the
*)=P(17 -^4.3, 4,*)=P(11,

of
of forming 17
numbers
ways
4, *)--=ll.
by adding four of the numbers
this
number we must subtract the number
1,
2,
of partitions with a part greater
9.
These partitions are
Or
the coefficient of x n
is 11.
From
than
1.
havo
Thus the
is
Ex.
*)=P(n~^p(p-
In how many ways can 11
...
6,
- x )- l (l -x2 )~ l (l
Q(n,p,
(5),
table of values of
Wo
Q(n,p,*)
number of partitions of n
/Au^ Âe
Ex.
XXX,
Q(n,p, *)=P(n~l-p(p +
(ii),
whence by
1,2,3,
from Ch.
thus,
and similarly
10, 4, 2, 1
G(17,4,
11, 3, 2, 1
and
10) = C(7,3, <10)=0(7,
<2(17, 4, 11)
1.
their
3,
number
= P{4,
*)
Hence the required number
is 2.
3, *)
is
= !,
11-2 = 9.
EXAMPLES OF SELECTIONS
504
The reader should have no
(v)
-zx)-
(1
(I
-zx2 )~l
...
difficulty in verifying the following

(1
1
-2^)- = l + EP(n,
-Z)-
1~ZX~ \-ZX 2 )- 1
1
to oo
...
)~
...
tO 00
EXERCISE
=l
LIII
Find the number of ways of displaying 5 flags on 4 masts if

more of the masts need not be used
1.
are to be used, and (i) one or

masts are to be used.
Find the number of ways
2.
in
which n things, of which
all
;
the flags
the
(ii) all
r are alike,
can be
arranged in circular order.

3. Show that a selection of 10 balls can be made from an unlimited number
of red, white, blue and green balls in 286 different ways, and that 84 of these
contain balls of all four colours.
4. Show that the number of

made from five a's, four 6's, three
Show
5.
which n are
sort, in
which can be
different selections of 5 letters

c's,
two
and one
cf s
e is 71.
that a selection of (n - 1) things can be made from 3n things, of

n are alike of another sort and n are alike of a third
alike of one sort,

~
2 n 1 different
ways.
w where n is
In the expansion of (a x +a 2 +
+
any positive integer not
the
that
coefficient
than
ofany term in which none of the numbers
greater
p prove
a lf a 2 ... a v occurs more than once is In.
6.
1.
in
In how
m different
8.
many ways can a

bags, if one or
white
balls, 6
black balk and c red balls be put
more of the bags may remain empty
In an examination, the maximum mark for each of three papers is n

Prove that the number of ways in which a candidate
it is 2n.
for the fourth paper
can get 3n marks
is
i(w +
[Number = coefficient
9.
10.
of
z 3n in
8
+ 10n + 6).
- xn+l ) 3 1 - x 2n+1 )
l)(57i
(
- x)~ 4 .]
In how
many ways can 5 rings be worn on the 4 fingers of one hand ?

In how many ways can an examiner assign 30 marks to 8 questions,
giving not less than 2 marks to
any question ?
11. The number of ways hi which 2n things of one sort, 2n of another sort and
2n of a third sort can be divided between two persons so that each may have
3n things is 3n 2 + 3n+ 1.
[Number of selections of 3ft things = coefficient of x? in (1 -a;2n+1 (l -#)~ .]

12. The total number of permutations of n things taken 1, 2, 3, ... or n together
n
is
the integer nearest to e in [Total

L
number=e n I
L_
1.
/I
[
\n +
+
l
n + l.n + 2
-f ...
/*
1
J
EXAMPLES OF ARRANGEMENTS
505
13. There are 5 letters and 5 directed envelopes, (i) In how many ways can all
the letters be put into th wrong envelopes ? (ii) In how many ways can 2 letters
be rightly placed and 3 letters wrongly placed ?
The number of arrangements of the n terms a l9
14.
of r sequences
a^,
a ija r+i occurs
a 3>
<z 2 ,
...
an
in
which no one
is
r r
C
[n-CT [w-l + r:; \n-2-. + (-l) r \n-r.
number of arrangements is \n.
Any one of
..
[For the total

occurs in \n-l of these
Show
15.
that the
any two
number
none of the sequences
in
n-2
and so
the sequences
on.]
of arrangements of the letters abed which involve

Verify by writing down the arrange-
ab, be, cd is 11.
ments.
The number
16.
c,
d come together
Explain
this,
of arrangements of the letters abed in which neither a, b nor

is
= 8.
3 + Cl .2*
[4-CJ.2
[2
down the arrangements in question.
and write
party of 10 consists of 2 Englishmen, 2 Scotsmen, 2 Welshmen and

of other nationalities (all different). In how many ways can they stand
in a row so that no two men of the same nationality are next one another ?
In how many ways can they sit at a round table ?
17.
men
18.
n are
The number of combinations n together

~~
and the rest unlike is (n 4- 2) 2 n 1
of 3n letters of which n are a
[Number == coefficient of x
n in
(1
~x n ^)
= coefficient of xn in 2 n (l
(l
+ x) n (l ~x)~\
-x)~ -n
z
~
2n 1
(l
or in (2 - F"-a-) w (l
~x)~\
nm
Show
also that the
number
-x)~
etc.]
Show that if a l9 a 2 ... a m arc distinct prime numbers other than

number of solutions in integers (excluding unity) of the equation
19.
is
and
of solutions in which at least one x
unity, the
is
unity
is
[Solution follows from the general theorem of Art. 7.]

20. Given n pairs of gloves, in how many ways can each of n persons take a
right-handed and a left-handed glove without taking a pair ?
21. (i) If n things are arranged in circular order, the number of
ing three of the things no two of which are next each other is
ways of
select-
ira(n-4)(n-5).
(ii)
22.
n things are arranged in a row, the number of such sets of three is

-J(n-2)(n-3)(n-4).
Find the number of positive integral solutions of x + y -f-z-h w>~20 under
If the
the following conditions

(i)
(ii)
Zero values of
x, y, z,
are included.
Zero values are excluded.
(iii)
No
(iv)
Each
(v) x,
variable
may
variable
z,
is
exceed 10
zero values excluded.
an odd number.
have different values (zero excluded).
PARTITIONS
506
23. Prove that the
of the equation
number
of positive integral solutions (zero values excluded)
x 4- 2# + 3z~n
i(*--l)("
is
where c~--H
or
tt-9, 10.
[The required
24.
according as n
number
is co.
or
is
not a multiple of
is
3.
when
Verify
of xn in
The number of independent
solutions in unequal positive integers, zero
included, of
x
is
4-7/4-z \-u-
the integer nearest to -&$p*(Zp ~

25.
Show
that
TIlj'^S/*
2p
3).
2
.
26. A necklace is made up of 3 beads of one sort and tin of another, those of
each sort bein# similar. Show that the total number of possible arrangements of
the beads is 3n 2 -I 3/i -f 1.
[Having put on the three beads, the number of arrangements of the CM, beads
between the three (which are
in the spaces
27.
Find the values of
28.
In how
integers
29.
total
30.
/>(18, 5 *),
(ii)
P(12, <5,
ways can 20 be expressed as the
many
is
*),
sum
P(12,
(iii)
*, 4).
of four unequal positive
Show that the total number of

number of partitions of 10.
Show
Art. 8,
31.
(i)
indifferent)
that
7 (2ri-fr,
(3), to tind
P(25,
partitions of
+ r, *)=P(2n*
r?,
*).
is
Find the
P(2/i, n, *).
Hence
the table of
use
18, *).
Show that P(n, p, ^q)
is
cqiioi to the coefficient of
~
xn p in the expansion
of
Hence show that

Q(*,P,
32.
Show
that
EXERCISE LIV *
1. There arc n points in a
plane, no three being collinear except p of them,
which are collinear. How man}7 triangles can be drawn with their vertices at
three of the points
There are n points in a plane, no three being collinear.

number of n-sided polygons with their vertices at these points is
Show
2.
n-
-J
j
if
n=4.
*
The
results hi
Exx.
i>-12
were given by Dudeuey
~~
that the
1.
Verily
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS
507
points in a straight line are joined in all possible ways to n points in

line, then, excluding the (ra-f n) points, the number of points
of intersection is
If
3.
another straight
^mn(m- l)(n- 1).

n straight lines of indefinite length are drawn
being parallel and no three meeting in a point, then
4. If
(i)
the
number of points
(n) the plane

[(ii)
If
un
Show
5.
is
the
is
of intersection
+ n-f
divided into \ (/t 2
number
of parts,
that, in general,
show that
is
2)
in a plane,
^n(n
1)
no two of them
parts.
u n ~-u, _ l
<
n planes divide space into
4-
n.]
3
J-(?i
+ 5?j.
\-
0)
rerions.
What
are the exceptional cases ?

[If no three planes have a common line of intersection and no four meet in a
v n ~\ + u n-i where v n is the required number and u n is the same
point, then v n
as in Ex. 4.]
6.
lines
The number of squares formed on a piece of squared paper by

and n vertical lines (m<n) is
%m(m -
l)(3>i
-i(a
according as a
(ii)
is
+ l)(a-l)(a-3)
or
horizontal
l).
n are positive integers such that m^n and m + n

(i)
constant, prove that the greatest value of m(m ~ l)(3w- -m - 1) is
If M,
7.
where a
a,
is
ia(a-l)(a-2),
odd or even.
If a straight rods of indefinite length are placed so as to

number of squares, prove that this number is
form the greatest
possible
Ar(a
according as a
is
l)(a
-])(- 3)
or
Aa(a-l)(a-2),
odd or even.
8. Show that the number of ways in which three numbers in arithmetical

- I) 2 or \n(n - 2), according
progression can be selected from 1, 2, 3, ... n is i(n
as r? is odd or even.
The
9.
If c
sides of a triangle are a, b, c inches
is
given,
according as c
where
a, b, c
are integers and
show that the number of different triangles is J (c +

is odd or even.
1 )2
or
-Jc (c
+ 2),
10. Of the triangles in the last question, the number of those which are isosceles
or equilateral is i(3c - 1) if c is odd and -J-(3c - 2) if c is even.
Each
side of a triangle is an integral number of inches, no side exceeding

Prove that the number of different (i.e. non- congruent) triangles winch
can be so formed is
11.
c inches.
or
according as
c is
odd or even.
12. Of the triangles in the last question, the number of those which are isosceles
or equilateral is J(3c 2 -fl) or Jc 2 , according as c is odd or even.
2K
B.C.A.
CHAPTER XXXII
PROBABILITY
First Principles. In speaking of the probability of an event,
doubt is implied as to whether it will or will not happen. The degree of
1.
doubt depends on our knowledge of the controlling conditions.

knowledge
of these enables us to say that the event
or certain to
is
A complete
certain to
happen
fail.
Measurement of Probabilities. We are constantly forming rough

estimates of probabilities, saying that some event is unlikely, likely, very
This implies that (at any rate in certain
likely or certain to happen.
can
be
measured
and can be compared with certainty,
cases) probability
which must be regarded as a degree of probability. Thus there is nothing
to prevent us from choosing certainty as the unit of probability, and this is
always done.
In what follows the words probability and chance are synonymous, both
of them being used to denote measure of prol)ability.
Suppose that n balls A, B, ... K> all of the same sort, are placed in a
bag, and that one of them is drawn. There is nothing to favour the drawing
more than another,
of one ball
A, B,
...
Thus
say 5,
or
if
is
K will
is
the chance that
drawn
is
the chance that either
words
it
equally likely that
is
is
drawn, the chance that any other
ball,
also x.
Our notions with regard
so
in other
be drawn.
or
to probabilities therefore lead us to assert that
B is drawn is
2x,
and the chance that one
of the
drawn is nx. But it is certain that one ball will be drawn, and
nx = 1 and x = l/n. Thus the probability of drawing A is 1/n.
The following definition is a statement of Laplace's First Principle.
balls is
Definition,
If
an event can happen in a ways and
fail in b
ways, and
nothing to lead us to believe that one of these ways should occur

rather than another, that is to say, all the ways are equally likely, then
there
is
the chance that the event fails is
+ 6),
+
6/(a 6),
the odds in
the chance that the event
happens
is
favour of the event are as
the odds against the event are as
a/ (a
b,
a.
EXCLUSIVE EVENTS
If b = 0, the event
a = 0,
certain to
it is
is
fail,
If a = 6, the event is
there is an even chance of
509
certain to happen,
and
and the probability

as likely to happen
of its
its
as to
probability
happening
is
if
is 0.
and we say that
fail,
its
happening.
the respective chances of the happening and failing of an
If p, q are
event, then
Events
of a type to
which
this definition does not directly apply will be
considered later.
Examples,
(ii)
(iii)
(i)
// a coin
// a six-faced die
// a ball
is
is tossed,
the chance of
thrown, the chance that
drawn from a bag containing 3
is
'
heads
'
ace
It is easy to
Ex.
toss
1.
A man
i.e. all
heads or
is
J-.
turns up
is
ace of spades
is
the chance that the card
is
a spade
is i
is
an ace
a mistake as to the meaning of
much
of
-^>-
simultaneously,
is
an even
-J-.
the chance of
'
equally likely.'
practical experience in the laying of

it
is
balls,
2.
make
three pennies
'
and 2 black
white,
drawing white is J the odds against black are as 3

(iv) // a cord is drawn from a well-shuffled pack,
'
odds said
cha?ice that they
'
// you
will fall all alike,
all tails.
For they must fall all heads, or all tails, or 2 heads and a tail, or 2 tails and a head.
So they fall all alike in 2 out of 4 possible cases.'
As a matter of fact, the odds are 3 to 1 against their falling alike. For, if the pennies
are denoted by a, 6, c, then a can fall head or tail, and so for b and c. Hence there are
8 equally likely cases of which 2 are favourable.
Events are said to be mutually exclusive

2. Exclusive Events.
when the happening of any one of them precludes the happening of any
other.
In the case of mutually exclusive events,
the ctiance that one
sum of the chances of the separate events.

known as Laplace's second principle. It can
or
other of them occurs is the
This statement
is
also be
If an event can happen in several different ways, one only

of which can occur on the same occasion, the chance of its happening is the
stated as follows
sum
of the chances of its happening in the several different ways.

For consider n events of which the chances are ajg, a,2/<7,
. . .
a n /g respec-
denote integers. Out of g equally likely ways,

tively,
the events can happen in a ly a 2 ... a n ways respectively, and since the
events cannot concur, one or other of them can happen in a l + a 2 -f
-f a n
where the
letters
ways.
sum
The chance
of this
is
therefore
of the chances of the events.
(a4
-f
a2
-f
. . .
-f
a n )/g,
which
is
the
CALCULATION OF PROBABILITY
510
Ex.
(ii)
1.
In a
Any
face of either die
may
These are made up of the

thirty throws (1, 2), (2, 1), ...
We
count
what
single cast with two dice,
doublets, (ui) five-six (i.e. one die turns
(i)
two aces,
the other six) ?
turn up, so theie are 6x6 equally likely cases.

six throws (1, 1), (2, 2), ... (6, 6),
together with the
(5, 6), (6, 5).
as the
(5, 6), (6, 5)
chance of throwing
the
is
up five and
same throw, and
aces^g
the chance of throwing doublets

the chance of throwing
3%
five-six:
In a single cast with two dice,, what are

two numbers of which the sum is 7 ?
Thus
call it five-six.
the chance of throwing two
-3%.
Ex.
2.
Out
of 36 possible cases, those in favour of the event are

and the number of these is 6, therefore
odds against throwing
the
7, i.e.
against
(6, 1), (1, 6), (5, 2), (2, 5),
(4, 3), (3, 4),
the chance of throwing 7
and the odds against throwing

Ex.
(ii)
3.
eleven,
-/
J~,
1.
In a single cast with three dice, what is the chance of throwing

(iii) less than eleven, (iv) more, than ten ?
The number
(i)
7 are as 5
is
Among
of possible cases
is
63
3 times
(ii)
Let
of cases in which 11
is
-^
o
~Q^
t5u
thrown, then
s^coeflt. of x 11 in (x f x'2 +x*
+ :r 6 3 ^27
...
27
.*.
chance of throwing four-five -six
number
be the
four -five-six,
those four -jive-six occurs

.'.
(i)
chance of throwing 11
-.
is
These cases are

(iii) Let / be tho number of cases in which less than 11 is thrown.
those in which exactly 3, 4, 5, ... 10 are thrown. Therefore t is the sum of the coeffi4
10
cients of 3
x~
a;
in the expansion of
}
(x
+ x- + x*
t- coefficient
hence,
= coefficient
of x
of
+ #6
...
3
;
x 3 (l -o; 6 ) 3 (l -x)~*
in
x 1 in
(1
-z)~
^coefficient of x 7 in ( 4x
(l -3rc
+ -,
I
8
)
6V6
= 120-12^108;
chance of throwing
.'.
(iv)
are
The
total
number
thrown and those

.'.
(In the old
Ex.
4.
game
^4 parti/
in
of possible cases
which
less
less
is
made up
chance of throwing more than 10
of ten take, their seats at
B)
=-
is
^-
s>
of those in
than 11 are thrown
of passe-dix, a player stakes
specified ptrsons (A,
than 11
which more than 10
-J ==i.
on throwing more than
a round
table.
What
10.)
arc the odds against two
sitting together ?
A having taken his place, B has a choice of 9 places, 2 of which are next to A,
hence the odds against B sitting next to .4 are as 7 2.
:
INDEPENDENT EVENTS
511
Four cards are drawn from a pack of 52 cards. What is the chance that one of
drawn ?
Four cards can be selected from 52 in C% z ways and this is the number of possible
One of each suit can be selected in 1.3* ways and this is the number of
cases.
Ex.
5.
each suit
is
favourable eases
28561
1.3*
Ex.
is the
Five, balls are
6.
chance that 3
white.
drawn from a bag containing G white and 4 black

and 2 black balls are drawn ?
What
balls.
Five balls can be selected out of ten in CJ ways. This is the number of possible
Also three white balls and two black balls can bo selected in C\ C% ways,
cases.
which
the
is
number
of favourable cases, therefore
-iv
,i
the required chance
3.
^L
Events are said to be independent when
Independent Events.
the happening of any one of

the others.
- 10
= C ^*'t
^p ">T-
them does not
affect the
happening of any of
The probability of the concurrence of several

Laplace's third principle.
independent events is the product of their separate probabilities.
It is sufficient to consider
two independent events
A2
and
of
which
the probabilities are p l and p 2 respectively.

Suppose that A L can happen
in a L ways and fail in 6 t ways, all of which are equally likely. Also suppose
that A 2 can happen in a 2 ways and fail in 6 2 ways, all equally likely.
Then
Pi
= ai/(<*>i + b
^ 2 -=a 2/(a 2
1 ),
f 6 2 ),
and there are the following
possibilities
A and A 2 may both happen, and this may occur in aâ* ways.
A may happen and A 2 fail, and this may occur in a 6 2 ways.
A may happen and A fail, and this may occur in aj> ways.
A and A may both fail, and this may occur in 6 6 2 ways.
The total number of ways in which both A and A 2 are concerned
}
(a l
+b 1 )(a 2 -\-b.2), and
both
and
A2
occur
these are
is
all
equally likely.
is
Hence the chance that
# 1 a 2 /(a 1 + 6 1 )(a 2 4-6 2 )j which
is
equal to Pip%.
It should also be noticed that
A
that A 2
the chance that
the chance
happens and
happens and
the chance that both
Hence
and
also the chance that one
PiO -ft)
Also the chance that at
fail) is
Al
-(1
A2
A 2 fails is p (l -p 2
A fails is p 2 (l -pi)
t
fail is
(1
and only one
Pi)(l
2 ).
of the events
happens
is
+^ 2 (1 -PiH Pi +Pz- ZpiP*
least
one of the events happens
-^(l -pzl^
(i.e.
both do not
INTERDEPENDENT EVENTS
512
Ex.
What
I.
is the,
chance of throwing ace with a single die in two
trials ?
The chance
of not throwing ace in one trial is -|,

the chance of not throwing ace in two trials is () a
the chance of throwing at least one ace
.'.
Or
(^ )
= ^Q.
thus,
Chance
Chance
Chance
Chance
Ex.
of success in both trials
3^.
of success in the first trial and failure in the second
and success in the second

one success yg + 2 ^ f J^~.
of failure in the
of at least
2.
Referring
first
to the last
example, explain
The chance of throwing ace in the first

is J, therefore the chance of ace in two
why
-|.
the following reasoning is incorrect
^ and the chance of ace in the second trial
trial is
trials is
-|.
The throwing
of ace in the first trial does not exclude the possibility of throwing
ace in the second trial. Thus the events are not mutually exclusive and Art. 2 does
not apply. It should be noticed that, if the reasoning were correct, it would follow
that the chance of throwing ace in 6 trials would be -f i.e. that ace would certainly
occur in 6 trials which is obviously false.
,
Ex.
In how many throws with a
3.
single die will
it
be
an even chance
that ace turns
at least once ?
up
The chance against ace turning up in n throws is (|) n and the chance that
n
If then n is the required number, we have
up at least once is 1 - (|)
,
it
turns
l-() n =
/.
w
(f)
=4;
/.
n = 3-8
nearly.
Hence it is less than an even chance that aco turns up once

than an even chance that it turns up in 4 trials.
in 3 trials,
and more
Interdependent Events. If two events A v A 2 are such that p

the probability of A ly and p 2 is the probability of A 2 on the supposition
4.
is
that
is
p p2
has happened, then the probability that both
and
A2
happen
Also
p3
if
is
the probability of a third event
happened, then the probability that A v A 2 and

and so on for any number of dependent events.
For the reasoning

Ex.
One bag contains
1.
.and 3 black
chance that
If a bag
white ?
balls.
it
is
The chance that the

from
of the last article holds
it is
.".
first
3 white balls
is
A 3 after A l and A% have

A 3 will happen is Pip^p^
good under these conditions.
and 2 black
balls
chosen at random and a ball
bag
is
chosen
is
i,
is
another contains 5 white
drawn from
and the chance
of
it,
ivhat is the
drawing a white
the chance of choosing the
first
bag and drawing a white
Similarly the chance of choosing the second bag

.'.
is
\ \
and drawing a white is \

random is
the chance of drawing a white from a bag chosen at
f-
ball
FREQUENCY
NOTE.
its
Ex.
were put into one bag and a

is not the same as before.
If all the balls
being white
2,
person draws a card from a pack, replaces
at least three trials,
The chance of
(ii)
success at
any particular
second caw, he must
What
balls.
is the
First method.
chance
It
In
trial is \.
the first case,
he will have
at the
first
(J)
~-fij.
and second
2
required chance = (2)
trials
and succeed at the third
~~Q.
are drawn, one by one, from a bag containing 6 white and 4 black
Five balls
3.
the pack. He conhe will have to make
and shuffle
it,
is the chance, that
required chance
fail
.'.
Ex.
were drawn, the chance of
exactly three trials ?
.'.
the
What
a spade.
to fail at the first anct second trials
In
ball
-^, which
is
tinues doing this until he draivs

(i)
513
3 white
tliat
makes no
and 2 black
balls are
difference to the result
drawn
we suppose the
if
5 balls
drawn
Hence, as in Art. 2,
simultaneously.
the required chance -=C'*
Second method. Suppose the balls drawn

chance that this occurs is easily seen to be
-
_6_.
10
4
8
C*/C\ ~iy.
in the order indicated
by wwwbb.
The
3.
6-
Also the chance that 3 white and 2 black balls are
drawn
in
any other particular
obtained from the preceding by merely altering the order of the numerators.
The number of orders in which this can occur is the number of permutations of the
10
5 / 3 2
letters wwwbb, and is therefore
order
is
.*.
which
5.
is
the required chance
10
-^ f
-f
-f
'5,
equal to the result previously obtained.
Another
Way
of estimating Probabilities.
It
is
obvious
that the definition in Art. 1 only applies to events of a restricted type

in particular, to games of chance. There are other cases in which probability
;
is
estimated by considering the frequency with which the event occurs, or

believed to occur, in the long run/ For example
'
is
(i)
It
is
an observed fact that about 51 per cent, of the children born in

Hence we say that the probability that a child, about to
Europe are boys.

be born, will be a
boy
is
about 0-51.
'
According to tables of mortality,' such as are used by Insurance

Companies, out of 81,188 men 50 years old, 70,552 live to the age of 60.
We therefore say that the chance that a man of age 50 will live another
(ii)
10 years
is
70552/81188 = 0-869.
In general,
trials, where
an event has happened in pN trials out of a total of N

a large number, we say that p is the probability that
happen on a fresh trial.
if
the event will
is
EXPECTATION
514
This notion of probability
is
not at variance with that contained in
Laplace's first principle (Art. 1).

If a six-faced die is thrown a large
number
we expect one
of times,
face
up about as often as another, and this has been verified experimentally. Thus in a large number of throws we may expect ace to turn
up in about J of the total number of trials, and from this point of view we
to turn
say that the chance of throwing ace
is |.
Expectation. Suppose that a person (A) has a

a.
lottery which gives him a chance p of a prize of
6.
ticket in
is a large number, we may

the lottery were held
times, where
him
to
the
about
expect
get
pN times, receiving pNa. Thus we
prize
may say that on an average he receives pa for a single lottery, and this
If
is
called his expectation.
Next suppose that
him a chance p t
ticket gives
/1's
chance p 2 of receiving a 2 and so on.

If the lottery were held
times, where
of receiving
ap a
is
we may expect him
large,
pfl occasions, 2 on about p 2 N occasions, and so

on. Altogether he may be expected to get about
N(p a l -f p 2& 2 + )
f r a
Thus we may say that on an average he gets
)
(p l a l 4-jt) 2 tf 2 -f
his
from
sum
is
sum
of
This
the
the
single lottery.
expectations arising
a l on about
to receive
<2
chances of securing the separate sums, and
is
called his expectation.
The average value of a quantity P, subject to risk, is the

value
P assumes in the long run. This value is also called
which
average
the expected value of P or the expectation with regard to P.
Definitions.
If
that
a quantity
can assume the values P l9 P2 P3
it has these values are
respectively p v p 2 jo 3 ...
,
expected value of
This
is
merely a
^1^1+ j>2 P 2 + p 3 P3 ...

generalisation of what has been
is
...
and the chances

the average or the
-f-
said in the case of a
lottery.
It should be observed that every p denotes the chance that

corresponding value, so that events need not be independent.
has the
1.
A man's expectation of life, is usually taken to mean tho average number of
which
men of his age survive.
years
If p r is the ehanre that he will survive r years, dying before the end of the next year,
Ex.
his expectation of life
is
roughly
given in another volume.
Ex.
2.
pl
+ p2
+p 3
4-...
closer estimate will be
person draws 2 balls from a bag containing 3 white and 5 black balls. If he
for every white ball which he draws and Is. for every black ball, what is his
is to receive 10s.
expectation
The number
of
ways
in
which 2
balls
can be drawn
is
C\
28.
SUCCESSIVE EVENTS
Of these the number of ways in which
2 white balls can be drawn
1
white and
2 black balls can be
Hence
expectation
= (/g
Successive Events.
7.
drawn
his chances of receiving 20s., lls.

.*.
happening and of the
For the chance
Let
failing of
specified order is
of its
r
drawn
2s.
3,
= 15,
Cf = 10.
is
is
and
20 + |f
are respectively 3/28, 15/28, 10/28;
11
+ Jf
=88. 9d.
2)
chauces of the
p, q be the respective
an event at a single
The chance of its happening
(1)
C\
is
black ball can bo
515
exactly r times in
then
trials ix
times and failing
happening
trial,
n-
C"p
r
n ~r
times in a
n ~r
p q
Now the number of different orders in which these things can occur is
the number of different arrangements of r things of one sort and n - r
n
- r, which is
equal to C r
things of another sort. This number is n/ \r \n
.
:.
Thus the event in question can happen in C ways, which are mutually
r n ~r
exclusive, and the chance that it happens in any one of them is p q
;
therefore the required chance
We
(2)
exactly
have
times,
C^ = C^ r
Cp q
r
is
(n~l)
The greatest term
(3)
part of
that of
n-r
If
+ q) n =p n +
nq
is
exactly
is
and
of
C> ~V
(n
r failures
integer, then
])q.
Hence
where
r is
= nq and n
times,...
2)
are
which
the
r is
the integral
most probable case
is
the integral part of (n + 1) q.

= np, so that in the most
probable case the ratio of the number of successes

is
(n
...
in the expansion is that in
that
successes
an
times,
terms in the expansion

n~l
n
+
C^p
q 4-
respectively the first, second, third,
(p
therefore the chances that the event happens
exactly
n ~r
to the
number of failures
q.
may be useful to state an important theorem due to Bernoulli

chance of an event happening on a single trial is p and if a number
of independent trials are made, the probability that the ratio of the
number of successes to the number of trials differs from p by less than
(4) It
If the
any assigned number, however small, can be made as near to certainty as

we choose, by making the number of trials sufficiently great.
The proof of this is beyond our present scope, and requires a use of
approximate values of large factorials. For instance, we may use Stirling's
theorem, which states that
PROBLEM OF POINTS
516
If unfT
(5)
we
is the
chance that the event happens at least r times in n
trials,
shall prove that

(i)
u nt r = p n + C% p n ~ l
For if the event happens at least r times, then (i) it must happen exactly
n times, or exactly (n-1) times, or exactly (n - 2) times, ... or exactly r times,
and the chances that these things occur are the successive terms of the first
expression.
(ii) it
Or,
must happen exactly

(r + 2) trials, ...
or in just
trials,
times in just
or in just
r trials, or in just (r
Now
trials.
happen exactly r times in just (r + s) trials, it must happen

these and also in (r - 1) out of the preceding (r + s -I) trials.
r
1
1
of this is p C
and therefore
j;+*- ^r-igS^Cy+*~ ^ r/
that
it
+ 1)
may
in the last of
The chance
Un,r
-f + Vr-lP'q + îP^ +
+ Cr~l
P^f^
the second of the expressions in question. That these two expressions are equal may be proved as in Exercise XXXV, Ex. 9.
which
Ex.
is
// a die
1.
3 timej,
at least
(ii)
is
thrown 5 times, what
3 times
is the,
chance that ace turns
up
(i)
exactly
Let x and y be the required chances, then
and
or by the second formula,
46
fe. 2. A and B throw alternately with a single die, A having the first throw. The person
who first throws ace. is to receive 1. What are their expectations ?
The chances that the stake is won at the first, second, third, ... throws are
i
6'
6*6'
5 \4
Hence, the expectations of
/sy
!
*6'
..
A and 5
/r>y
\Qj
\Qj '6""
'
are
-ff
and
^B
r,,
^-
,65
=
chance==1 i
respectively.
The Problem of Points.' A and B play a scries of game* which cannot be

Jâ;. 3.
drawn, and p, q are their respective chances of winning a single game. What is the chance
that A wins m games before B wins n games ?
'
Here
must win at
least
games out
obtained by substituting these numbers for
of
r
m + w-1,
and n
and the required chance
in either of the formulae in (5).
is
CHANCE UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

(6)
So
Several Alternatives.
the event
alternatives
at each trial there have been
far,
succeed or
may
517
may
it
two
fail.
Consider the case of an experiment which at any trial must produce one
of three results denoted by A, B, C. Let the chances that A, B, C occur
at
be p,
trial
any
therefore
occurs
q,
One
r respectively.
p + q + r = l.
times and
of the three results has to occur,
Also the chance that in n trials

occurs y times (where a
occurs a times,
+ p -f y = n)
is
Jl
[*[(/
that
is
to say, the chance
For the chance that

in a specified order
is
the term containing
is
A may
a
qPr
happen a times,
q^r
y in
the expansion of
times and
j8
C y
times
Now the number of orders in which these things can
occur
is
the
number
arrangements of a things of one sort (A), j8 things of another sort

and y things of a third sort (C), placed in a row.
of
This
Ex.
this is
number
4.
card
In/ la
is
Hence the
\y.
j8
(J5),
result follows.
the card is replaced and the pack shuffled. If

chance that the cards drawn are 2 hearts, 2 diamonds and
drawn from a pack,
is
done six times, what
is the
2 black cards ?
At any
trial,
the chance that a heart or a diamond
chance that a black card
is
drawn
is
is drawn
Hence by the preceding,
^.
is
^=4
also the
512*
Ex.
5,
chance that
A
it
'
hand
'
of six cards
from a pack in the ordinary way.

diamonds and 2 black cards.
is dealt
consists of 2 hearts, 2
Find
the
The chance that the

card dealt
is
a heart
is
second card dealt
is
a heart
is -^-f ,
card dealt
is
a diamond
is
fourth card dealt
is
a diamond
is
^f
fifth
card dealt
is
a black
is
ff,
sixth
card dealt
is
a black
is
f-f .
first
third
Hence the chance that 2

in any specified order
hearts, 2
diamonds and 2 black cards are dealt in
this or
is
j^3
5~2~
is
^f
The required chance

therefore equal to
is
.
*
1,
5 1"
3,
50
.
*
12
40
26
48
,
*
25
4 7"
obtained by multiplying this number by [6/[2 [2
1_2
and
INVERSE PROBABILITY
518
Ex. 6. Find the. chance that in a game of whist the dealer (A) has exactly two honours.
The card turned up is, or is not, an honour and the chances of these possibilities are
;
respectively ^3
an d Y^.
In the first case A certainly has one honour. Of the remaining 51 cards, 12 belong to
and 39 to the other players.
Let p be the chance that, of the 3 remaining honours, 1 is among the 12 cards and 2
are
the 39, then
among
^_/T3
P
Î
In
the second case,
2 honours belong to
12.
51
39.
where the card turned up
A and
49-
not an honour,
we have
if
p'
is
the chance that
2 to the other players,

'
__
p4
U
12.
51
1 1
3j9
50
the required chance^
/.
is
3J.
50
49
38
48
>
-$p +-sp =
f
8. Probability of Causes.
(1) Suppose that an event has happened
which must have arisen from one of a certain number of causes C l9 C2 ...
,
What
This question
Ex.
bay
is
Each of three bags A, B,
1.
are as follows
a specified cause, C l9 actually led

said to be one of inverse probability.
is the probability that
is
C contains
v)hite
and black
to the event ?
balls, the
numbers of which
white
al
a2
as
black
bl
62
63
chosen at random, a ball
is
drawn from
It is required to find the probabilities
Q l9
it
and
is
found to be white.
came from A, B,
Q%, Q% that the ball
respec-
tively.
If
the numbers of the balls are altered as below, the probabilities in question remain
ABC
unchanged:
when
#,
?/,
are
white
atx
a^y
a3 z
black
bvx
b^y
b^z
any numbers whatever.

x(a l
Choose these so that
+ 6j) ^y(a 2
-t-
62 )
^ z(a 3 + 6 3
).
The three bags now contain the same number of balls, therefore any one of the
a^y + a 3 z) white balls is as likely to be drawn as another.
If the ball which was drawn came from A, then it belonged to the group a x x of
(a^
-|-
white
balls,
and so
for the other possibilities.
Therefore
Pi^ 1 /(a 1 + 6 1 ),
where
Now
Qi'.Q 2 :Q3
a white ball
is
It is to
a 3 z ^p l
'
'.p z
Ps>
P2 =
+ e 2 + <?3 = l
#2 Qv
p is
be noticed that
thai the ball
az y
drawn, therefore
Ci
= <*>&
and
the probability that, the event will occur
comes from A, and so for p^
pz
on
the supposition
PROBABILITY OF FUTURE EVENTS

Ex.
The same as
2.
a x white and
such as B, and
from an
m3
such as C, as in Ex.
B,
and as
is
1.
containing
Q lt Q2t Q3
bag respectively.
Then any one
Alter the numbers of the balls as in the preceding.
white balls
Also
the preceding, except that there are ra x bags such as
b t black balls,
are the chances that the ball came
one of the
519
of the
as likely to be drawn as another, and Q l is the chance that

balls, so also for (? 2 Q 3 , therefore
groups of
ax
Ql + Qz -f <?3 = 1,
Gi = îPil ("hPi + m *Pz +
before,
therefore
it
comes from
Q Qs
2,
3#j)
NOTE. If PI is the chance estimated before the event that an

and P2 P3 have similar meanings, we have
bag
will
be chosen
P2 PS^W! W 2 m3
l
Q x Q 2 Q3 =Pl p l P2P 2 PsPa
Qi^PiPiKP&i + PsP* + ?&*), etc.
P
and
Observe that
(2)
therefore
Pp
J
is
the chance that a white ball
drawn, and that from an
.4
bag.
Suppose that an event has occurred which
General Statement.
must have been due to one
is
of the causes,
Cl9 C 2
...
Cn
Pr
be the probability of the existence of the cause Cr estimated

the
event took place.
before
Let p r be the probability of the event on the assumption that the cause
Let
Cr
exists.
Then
the probability
Qr
of the existence of the cause
Cr
estimated after
the event has occurred, is given by
For an argument similar to that in the

Qi
and
last
two examples shows that
since the event has happened,
Gl + 02
whence the
NOTE.
result follows.
It is usual to call
the causes and
P P
19
2 , ...
Pn the
a priori probabilities of the existence of
Q l9 Q 2 ... Q n the a posteriori probabilities.

The product Prp r is the antecedent probability that the
,
event
will occur,
and that
from the rth cause.
The argument depends on the assumption
P2Pz>
(1)
that
Qlf $2 >"'
ar ^ proportional to
which is justified in (1)

PiPit
In particular, if an event is due to one of two causes, the odds in favour of its having
occurred from the first cause are as P1 p l P^Pf
The way in which these principles are applied to determine the Probability of Future
Events is illustrated in Ex. 4.
:
A POSTERIORI PROBABILITY
520
Ex.
1.
white.
white ball
bag contains 5
ball is
drawn and
and of
balls,
is
these
What
is the
only
1+2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 1
~5~~~" 2
g
/.
the required chance
2
5,
p2
73
may
= Ql
pl
---
// ut <Ae last example the ball which was drawn

will give a white ball ?
be
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
a notation similar to the
2.
5 are
1, 2, 3, 4,
chance that this
of white balls
C lt ... C5 and using

- u, p l _,i5
nm p Q ^n
ana
number
the
Denoting these possibilities by 6

_i
above, we have 2^
p ~~JJ _ _p
^
$#.
is the
There are 6 possible hypotheses
that
equally likdy that 0,
it is
to be white.
found
^5
_5..
5
>
is replaced,
what
is the
chance
a second drawing
~6.5 2X
Hence the required chance
Ex.
3.
the
pack of cards
Two
missing.
cards are
is
The
event
'
is
counted, face downwards, and

to be spades.
?
that two spades are drawn.

(Cj)
(C 2 )
is found that one card is

What are the odds against
it
drawn and are found
missing card being a spade

4
li-
The missing card

The missing card
There are two possible hypotheses

is
is
a spade.
not a spade.
The a priori probabilities P19 1\ of C19 C 2 are P l J, P z = %.

The chances p l9 p 2 of the event under the hypotheses C\, C 2 are
Mil
*
5TO>
1312
= 5~l
5~0
'
P'2.
The odds against the missing card being a spade
are as
balls which are either white or black, all possible numbers

Ex. 4. A bag contains
being equally likely. If p white and q black balls have been drawn in p + q successive
trials without replacement, the chance that another drawing will give a white ball is
The
possible hypotheses, all equally likely, are that the
m
Denote these by
If
pL p2
,
we have
. .
q,
C lf C 2
...
lf
...
Cm_q
m-g-rH-1,
If
is
r-r+l
p.
r(r
nq \-r-\\rm _/j
^ 7/ur,.vr>
'^q
l^p^q
+ l)(r + 2)
...
(r
independent of r.
... are the a posteriori probabilities of
Q19 Q&
where
...
of white balls are
_^ r
+ q- 1),
...
and
number
are the antecedent probabilities of the event under these hypotheses,
^
/?m
Pr'-^p
ur
where
Cr
...
aîrVr-i
\p \q
(n-r+p-l),
C C2
lt
...
then
Qr ur vT jS
\m-\-\
(by Ch.
XXI,
10.
Ex.
1.)
VALUE OF TESTIMONY
If
pr
'
is
the chance that, with hypothesis

,
f
n^
thus
pn
-.
<7
521
another drawing gives a white
r,
m-q-p-r+l
_ __ _ _. n-l -r
m-q-p*
m-q-p
*
__
=0, and the chance that another drawing gives a white
r~r*QrPr' = S'l(m-q-p)S, where S' = 2

/S" can be obtained from S by
writing n
r
r
r
Thus
T"T
ball,
^\(n-l ~r)(n-r)
-_
and
ball is
n and p
for
the chance
^-
for
...
(n-r +p).
and hence
9. Value of Testimony.
The theory of probability has been used
to estimate the value of the testimony of witnesses. Such an application is
open to adverse criticism. It rests on two assumptions which can hardly
be
namely (i) that to each witness there pertains a constant p

credibility], which measures the average frequency with which he speaks
justified,
(his
the truth; (ii) that the statements of witnesses are independent of one
another in the sense required in the theory of probability.
If
we are prepared to make these assumptions,
the procedure
as follows.
is
probability that a statement made by A is true and p has a similar

meaning for B, what are the odds in favour of the truth of a statement which A and concur
in making ?
Ex.
1.
If
is the
The
the agreement of A and

the statement is true
'
event
is
possibilities are
(i)
in
The
making a certain statement.

false.
(ii) it is
chance that they both say it is true is pp'.

the chance that they both say it is true is (1 -p)(l -p')>
Thus the antecedent probabilities of the event on the hypotheses (i), (ii) are
If it is true, the
If it is false,
pp' and (\-p)(\-p')

and the odds in favour of the truth of the statement are
t
as pp'
(1
-p)(l -p')
2.
A bag contains n balls, one of which is ivhite. The probabilities that
f
speak the truth are p, p respectively. A ball is drawn from the bag, and A and
assert tJiat it is white.
What are the odds in favour of its being white ?
Ex.
The
are
'
(i) it is
The a
If
'
event
is
true,
the agreement of
(ii) it is
and
P P
priori probabilities
2 , of (i), (ii) are
19
are the chances of the event under (i)
In the case of
(ii),
(n
The
and
both
possibilities
false.
pv p2
1)
balls
remain
1/n,
and
(ii),
in the bag,
(n-
P^
l)/n.
we have p ~pp'.
and one
of these
is
white.
The
should choose this ball and wrongly assert that it was drawn from the
(lp)(n-l). The chance that B should do the same thing is (1 p') (n- 1) ;
chance that
bag is
hence
B in making a statement.
A
B
and the odds
Pt =(l-p)(l-p')(n-l),
in favour of
a white
ball
having been drawn are as
RANDOM
POINTS TAKEN AT
522
axiomatic
that
If a
(i)
The following statements are
Geometrical Applications.
10.
taken at random on a given straight line AB, the chance

on a particular segment PQ of the line is PQ/AB.
point
it falls
is
Or we may say that the total number of cases

and the number of favourable cases by PQ.
(ii)
a point
If
the chance that the point
Ex.
Given that x +
and 2a are equally
AB
Let
likely,
on a
falls
y-2a
show
where a
that
a/S.
is
constant
and
an even chance
is
it
is
at
random
in
AB,
includes an area
that all values of
o-,
x between
that
and
be a diameter of a circle with centre
Take a point
radius a.
represented by
S which
taken at random on an area
is
is
AB.
AP = x, PB~y,
then x + y~2a, and all values

and 2a are equally likely.
Draw the ordinate PQ, then PQ 2 = AP PB^xy.
Let
of x
between
If A',
B' are the mid-points of OA, OB, the ordinates
at these points are equal to a
^f
O P
Hence PQ>cuJ% if, and only if, P lies in A'B'.

Hence the chance that z//>f a 2 is A'tt'/AB, that
Ex.
Two
2.
The points
We may
Q
PQ>b,
points P,
that the chance that
are taken at
random on a
where b<a,
are as likely to
is
(a-b)
is
therefore suppose that
is
\.
straight line
OA
of length a.
Show
z
.
ja
the order 0, P, Q,
fall in
B'
FIG. 86.
as in the order 0, Q, P, A.
to the right
of P.
Draw OA
'
at right angles to
OA and
equal to
it.
Complete the figure as in the diagram, where
OL-^PR^b.
If
8x
is
distance of
is in
PA,
is
small, the
P from
number
lies
of cases in
which the
between x and x + $x and
by the area
of
represented by
Sx.PA,
i.e.
the shaded rectangle.
Of these, the favourable cases are those in which

lies in EA, and their number is represented by the
upper part of the shaded rectangle cut off by LM.
Hence the
the total
total
number
number
of cases
.'.
represented by area of the triangle OAA', and

by the area of the trianglq LMA' ;
is
of favourable cases
FIG. 87.
the required chance
A OAA'
CALCULATION OF CHANCE
523
EXERCISE LV
1.
balls,
two balls are drawn from a bag containing 2 white, 4 red and 5 black
what is the chance that
If
they are both red ?

one is red and the other black
(i)
(ii)
white and n black balls. If p+q balls are drawn

bag
without replacement, the chance that these consist of p white and q black balls
a rim
finisim+n
is
C p .^/C
p+g
3. If four balls are drawn from a bag containing 3 white, 4 red and 5 black
balls, what is the chance that exactly two of them are black ? (i.e. two are black
and two are white or red.)
2.
contains ra
4. In the last question what

drawn from the bag are black ?
is
the chance that at least three of the four balls
5. Out of 20 consecutive numbers, two are chosen at random

chance that their sum is odd is yf
6.
alike,
In a throw with three dice what
two
(ii)
Explain
alike
the
why
and the third
sum
is
different,
prove that the
the chance that the dice

(iii) all
of these probabilities
is
different
unity,
fall
(i)
all
and
verify the truth of
this statement.
[(ii)
Any
there are 6
particular throw of this sort, as five-five-six, occurs in 3 cases,

5 throws of this kind.]
and
7.
What
8.
In a single cast with four dice what

(ii) exactly 12, (iii) less than ^2 ?
is
the chance of throwing 10 in a single cast with three dice

is
the chance of throwing
(i)
two
doublets,
9.
How many
times must a pair of dice be thrown that

may occur at least once ?
it
may
be at least an
even chance that double six

10. If four cards are
king, queen,
knave
A letter is
11.
out of
are ace,
'
'
chosen at random out of assinine and one is chosen at random

Show that the chance that the same letter is chosen on both
assassin.'
occasions
is |.
[The number
of possible cases
12. If the letters of
that
drawn from a pack, what is the chance that they

same or of different suits) ?
(of the
(i) all
the
'
'
attempt
are together,
/'s
is
(ii)
Of these 14
8.
are written
no two
's
are favourable.]
down
at random, find the chance

are together.
13. A party of n men of whom A, B are two, form single rank.

What is the
chance that (i) A B are next one another, (ii) that exactly m men are between
them, (iii) that not more than m men are between them ?
9
balls arc drawn simultaneously and

14. From a bag containing a balls,
then n balls are drawn. Show that the chance that exactly r balls
replaced
are common to the two drawings is
'C'^~/( '^. Prove also that this ex;
and n.
by interchanging
a
the
second
There
are C n possible cases. The favourable
[Consider
drawing.
cases consist of selections of r balls out of the
already drawn, with selections
n-r out of
not already drawn.]
pression
is
inialtered
a-m
B.C. A.
INDEPENDENT EVENTS
524
15. A squad of 4w men form fours.

are next one another in the same four.
(16.}
two squares are chosen at random on a chess board,

the chance that they have a side common is y\-
If
(i)
show that
the chance that they have contact at a corner
(ii)
[(i)
Find the chance that two specified men
Out of 64 x 63
possible cases, the
number
is
yj^.
of favourable cases
is
4.2 + 24.3 + 36.4.]

17. One bag contains a white balls and 6 black balls
another contains a'
white and b' black balls.
Let p be the chance of drawing a white ball from a bag chosen at random, and
let^/ be the chance of drawing a white ball from a bag containing (a + a') white
f
and (b + b ) black balls.
r
Find p, p', and show that p ~", p according as a-\-b ~a' ~b' and ab' a'b
;
have the same or opposite
signs.
18. If v4's chance of winning a single game against

winning (i) two games (at least) out of the first three
out of the first six.
f find /Ts chance of

four games (at least)
is
(ii)
the card is
19. A draws a card from a pack of n cards marked 1, 2, 3, ... n
replaced in the pack and then B draws a card. Find the chance that A draws
(i) the same card as B
(ii) a higher card than B
(iii) a lower card than B.
Verify that the sum of these chances is unity.
;
[For
n
112
+ - + ...+
chance
(ii),
{--
n ^n
1.1
} J
bag contains n cards marked 1, 2, 3, ... n. If A is to draw all the cards

and is to receive 1 shilling for every card which comes out in its
proper order, prove that his expectation is 1 shilling.
20.
in succession
[The expectation arising from each ball
~ of a
shilling, etc.
is
The
fact that
Ti
the probabilities, on which the several expectations depend, are not independent
does not affect the argument.]
21.
A bag contains n tickets numbered
at once, and
drawn.
22.
(ii)
to receive a
What
What
at least
[For
is
(ii),
is
is
his expectation
1, 2, 3, ... n.
A person draws two tickets
of shillings equal to the product of the
number
p3
pz<
(i)
numbers
the chance that a hand of five cards contains
two aces
23. If p l9
chance that
number
(i)
exactly two aces
of favourable cases
-C\ C
-\-C\
6*2
+48.]
pi are the probabilities of four independent events, find the

(ii) at least
two and not more than two of the events happen
two of the events happen.

24. Two persons each make a single throw with a pair of
chance that the throws are equal ?
[If
and
(x
+ x2 +
this is
. . .
+ x6 2 - a 2x 2 + ...+ a 12x 12
)
dice.
then the chance = Q A~2 ( a * 2 +
t>D
equal to
{coefficient of
a;
10
in
What
f\-
JL
X*
4
\
}/36
.]
is
the
+ an2
GAMES OF SKILL
525
25. The decimal part of the logarithms of two numbers taken at random are
found to seven places. What is the chance that the second can be subtracted
from the first without borrowing ?
'
'
26. In a game of whist, find the chance that each of the four players should
have an honour
:
(i) if
the card turned
(ii) if this
is
up
is
an honour
not an honour
before the last card
(iii)
27.
card
turned up.
is
In a game of whist, find the chance that each party has two honours
the card turned up is an honour
(ii) if this card is not an honour
(i) if
before the last card dealt
(iii)
g.
is
turned up.
Out of n persons
sitting at a round table, three, A, B, C, are chosen at

Prove that the chance that no two of these three are sitting next one
random.
another
(n-)(n ~
is
5)/(n ~l)(n-2).
For 2 of têm, C can
[Relative to A, 13 can sit in ri-~3 places.
for n - 5 of them, C can sit in n - 6 places,
Hence, Ibhe
places
favourable cases = 2(n - 5} + (n - 5) (n - 6).]
sit in
n-5
number
of
29. Three cards are drawn from a bag containing n cards marked 1, 2, 3, ... n.
Find the chance that (i) the three cards form a sequence
(ii) they contain a
(iii) they involve no sequence.
sequence of two
;
between A and 7J, the chance that the server wins a game
always p, the chance that he loses is q. The score is five all, they proceed to
play deuce and vantage games and A has the service. Denoting /Ts chance of
30. In a set of tennis
is
2
winning the set by x, show that x=pq + (p + q*)x, whence
and B have equal chances of winning the set.
31.
it
follows that
A and B
before
chance
is
play with two dice on the condition that A wins if he throws 6

throws 7 and B wins if he throws 7 before A throws 6. Show that A's
to J5's chance as 30 31.
(Huyghens.)
:
Three players A B, C of equal skill engage in a match consisting of a

games in which .-1 plays 13, 13 plays O, C plays A A plays B, and so on,
in rotation.
The player who first wins two consecutive games wins the match.
Prove that the chances which A B, C respectively have of winning the match
are as 12 20 17.
[First show that if ^4 loses the first game, his chance of winning the match is ^
if he wins the first game, his chance is JJ.]
^2
series of
33.
white.
(i)
(ii)
34.
bag contains 3
ball is
What
What
is
is
balls,
drawn and
and
is
it is
equally likely that
1,
2 or
all
of
them are
found to be white.
the chance that this
is the only white ball ?

the chance that another drawing will give a white ball
The same question
as the last, except that each ball
is as.
likely as
not to
be white.
[Proceeding as in Ex.
3
expansion of (i + i)
1,
p. 520,
The
we
see that
rest proceeds as in
P P P
,
Ex.
l9
^3 are ^ ne terms in the
2, p. 520.]
GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS
526
bag contains 5 balls, and it is not known how many of these are white.
balls are drawn, and these are white. What is the chance that all are white ?
35.
Two
36. The chances that A , B, C speak the truth are respectively p, p', p".
are the odds in favour of an event actually having happened which
(i) all
(ii)
A,
three assert to have happened ?

assert to have happened and C denies
What
Geometrical
The sides of a rectangle are chosen at random, each

than a given length a, all such lengths being equally
Show that the chance that the diagonal is less than
likely.
a is 7T/4.
[Draw a square, OACB, whose side is a and the arc AB.
If
is one of the rectangles, the favourable cases are
37.
less
ONPM
when
38.
P lies in the quadrant GAB.]

A floor is paved with rectangular
a and breadth
the
b.
Show
floor.
bricks, each of length

circular disc of diameter c is thrown on
that
the
chance
that
it
falls
entirely
on
one
brick
is
(a-c)(b-c)lab.
39. A point P is taken at random in a straight line AB. Show that the chance
that the greater of the parts AP, PB is at least k times the smaller is 2/(k+l).
40. If two points are taken at random on the circumference of a circle, the
chance that their distance apart is greater than the radius of the circle is -|.
[The unfavourable cases are represented by the thick arc in Fig. 89.]
FIG. 89.
random on the circumference of a

the chance that they do not lie on the same semicircle is J.
[Choose P. Choose Q on one semicircle on PP' E must lie on P'Q'. (Fig. 90.)
41. If three points, P, Q, R, are taken at

circle,
If
PQs,
number
of favourable cases-
total
number
ic
c,
etc.]
Jo
42.
On
AB of length a + b, two segments PQ P'Q', of lengths

measured at random, (i) If a>6, the chance that P'Q'
a straight line
a, 6 respectively, are
PQ is (a-b)la. (ii) If c is less than. a or

of
PQ, P'Q' is less than c is c*/a&.
part
Let AP==x.
If
[(ii)
<2=c, ^g=rz, and P'Q'
overlaps PQ towards B, P' must lie in LM. Hence,
lies
entirely within
the
common
the
number of favourable
cases
(c
- x)dx =-|c 2
b,
the chance that
kP
FIG. 91.
Jo
total
number
of favourable cases
2
.
Total
number
of cases
ab,
etc.]
CHAPTER XXXIII
CONTINUED FRACTIONS
(2)
EXPRESSION OP A QUADRATIC SURD AS A SIMPLE

CONTINUED FRACTION
Surds of the Form
1.
(JNb
)/r v
follows that
From
any simple recurring continued fraction

surd. In other words, its value is of the form
(JN
are positive integers, except that 6 t
may
is
Oh.
XXIV,
33, it
a quadratic
equal
b^)/r v where N, b l9 r }
to
be zero, and
is
not a perfect
square.
We
shall
prove that conversely any positive number of
UNb
)/r 1
can be expressed as a simple recurring continued fraction.

In considering this theorem, it is to be observed that
There
(i)
is
no
loss
the form.
of generality in assuming that
N - b^
is divisible
by r v
For
(JNb
1 )/r l
= (jNr
*b r
1 l )/r 1
and Nrf-farJ*
is
divisible
by
hence (^/N b 1 )/r 1 can always be replaced by an expression of the

r^
same form for which the above condition holds.
,
We
(ii)
For
if
need only consider surds which are greater than unity.

2
where r2 is a positive integer, then
^V-î
2
=^
It follows that every positive quadratic surd or its reciprocal is of

,four types considered in the next article.
2.
(i)
(ii)
(A)
Types of Quadratic Surds.

The surd in question
N ~b^
is divisible
The type
it is
assumed that
greater than unity.
is
by
In every case
one of
rv
(JN + bJ/Tt
where
b l *<N.
This
will
normal type, and is of special importance in the theory

forms \/AjB and JN.
be
it
called
the
includes the
SURDS OF NORMAL TYPE
528
To express
(^N + b^)/^
as a simple continued fraction,
we form
the
equations
-
where a a
is
-a
_n f
U-1
W"i
the integral part of (^/N -i-b l )/r
shall first
Since
is
show that
62
are positive integers.

+ b l )/r l
r2
and
li
2
r I r 2 = N-b^ ......................... (B)
kj^'Vi-fri*
We
the integral part of (*JN
&!?!<*/ N + bâf.L +
and therefore
b2
we suppose that
If
62
<JN
and consequently 6 1 <a1 r 1 This is contrary to the supposition that 6 2 < 0. Hence 6 2 is positive, and it is obviously an integer.
therefore 6 1 <r l
Again,
62
is
a positive
and consequently
r 2 is positive.
N-b2
and
since
N -b^
positive integer.
for
n = 2,
3,...
number
is
= N- (a
fj
divisible
less
than
Further,
is
62 2 >0,
we have
- ^) 2 = N-b*-r l (afa - 2a 1 61 ),
by
rp
N -b
Hence
we form the equations
so also
where a n
therefore
^/-ZV,
is
r2
is
an integer such that

(F)
.................... (G)
leading to
steps similar to the above, we can show that every a, 6, r is a positive

For taking n = 2, by the preceding (*JN + b 2 )/r 2 >l, therefore a 2
integer.
By
is
it
- b^ is divisible
a positive integer. Also
by r 2 Reasoning as before,
will be seen that 6 3 andr3 are positive integers, and so for n = 3, 4, 5, ...
.
Finally, the fraction is periodic, for the
and
for every n, b n
<JN
therefore
rn
nth complete quotient
is
= (b n + b n+l )/a n <2JN.
Hence the fraction (JN + b n )/r n cannot have more than 22V distinct
values, and one of the complete quotients must occur again. From this
the
stage, all the succeeding a's recur and in the same order
for the fe's and r's. Thus the continued
fraction is periodic.
:
same
is
true
REDUCTION TO NORMAL TYPE
529
It will now be shown that in the process of expressing a positive quadratic

surd of any other type as a simple continued fraction, a stage must occur at
which the complete quotient is a surd of normal type. Whence it ivill follow
that in every case the continued fraction is periodic.
2
The lype (*JN -ftj)'?*! where

quotient is a surd of normal type.
/>
(B)
N/57-7
T.
X or instance,
~~p
The form
/>/57 + 7
__
i-t
where a x
a2
-1
form the equations
rz
__.,
are the integral parts of the fractions on the left and,
...
.1
--i
>N. We
0l+
3+l-t-l+l+l4-7
+ JN)/ri where
(bi
Here the second complete
s/57-7
(C)
<A
=2- --- =
= -/
1
dim
and
for every n,
"
"w-f-l
As
in (A), every r
hypothesis
~~
a n rn>
r n r n+ 1
~ ^n 4-1 ~
an integer and every b
is
an integer or
is
zero,
and by
> S/JV.
b^
Suppose that
are
6 15 6 2
6r
...
b l9
all positive, arid
b2
are
...
all
6 n41
^N
then r ly r 2 ... r n
greater than
is a decreasing
sequence of integers.
,
Hence a stage must occur at which

This being
and therefore
Hence n is
since also
is
so,
n cannot
b n+l
odd,
JN
be even
for in that case
we should have
>JN.
and
bn f t
+,JN>a n rn
bn
> 0,
it
x /-ZV
+ 6 n+l >0; and
Ar ~^ 4 >0, and
therefore r n+1
Consequently
follows that
negative.
Now
(n
being even, the
1)
(n
+ l)th complete
quotient
may
be
written
and
since
^w+i^^
according as 6 W a. 1
(D) The type
quotient
is
(b l
î s
or
^^ ie
next quotient
is
a surd of normal type
0.
~JN)/r 1 where
a surd of type
(C).
6 1 2 >^V.
Here the second complete
MENTAL PROCESS OF RECKONING
530
3.
Theorem.
Let the surd
ing fraction, then
if
(i)
(JN + b)/r
b<>JNb + r, it has an acyclic part consisting of a single quotient;

b > JN, it has an acyclic part of one or more quotients.
(iii) if
For if x = (JN + b)/r then (rx-b) 2 = N and the second root of this
- /iV +
hence, from Chap. XXIV, 33, it follows that
quadratic is
&)/r
+
(i) t/
-1<( N/2V 6)/r<0, the fraction has no acyclic part and these
(ii)
conditions are equivalent to 6< N/2V<6-hr; (ii) i/" ( - N/A + 6)/r< - 1,

that is, if
and
6 -f r, the acyclic part consists of a single quotient
that
if
contains
one
+
the
is,
(iii) if
b)fr>0,
acyclic part
b>JN,
r
JN>
(~JN
or more quotients.
In particular, if
v A/B has a
A>B,
simple continued fraction equivalent
the
to
single non-recurring quotient.
4. Method of Reckoning.
In practice we replace the written
work involving surds by an easy mental process, as in the next example.
Ex.
I.
Express (\/37
-f
as a simple continued fraction.
8)/9
Here a i integral part of the surd = l, also

are now found in succession from the equations
fe
fl
-&-n
n.-i r n-i
giving the table
rn
= N~
(
r n-i>
^
n
if
continued,
part of
a repetition of the part between the dotted
is
s/37+8 "
9
1111
lines,
and
i+I+3V2+""
Jf
The
= integral
various quantities
The reckoning,
NOTE.
^=9. The
8,
-X-
third complete quotient, (\/37+3)/7, marks the beginning of the

3<<s/37< 3 -f 7. It will be shown in the last article of this
recurring period, for
chapter that, from
5.
this stage, the above reckoning
can be replaced by a G.C.M. process.
>/A/B as a Continued Fraction.
(1) It is
supposed that A,
have A/ -= =
\ />
-5
jD
l
,
where
N = AB,
6a
and that
= 0,
rl
= B.
A>B. We
The surd
is
7*j
therefore of the type discussed in Art. 3, and it is expressed as a simple

continued fraction by constructing equations of the type
for values of
n = l,
2, 3,
...
CYCLE OF QUOTIENTS
where a n
is
an integer such that a n
an(i
b n+l
leading to
As
< (JN + bn )frn < an +
1,
=
=
A/"S
r is a positive integer and the continued
Also, it has been shown in Art. 3 that a 1 is the only
in Art. 2, every a, 6
fraction
631
is
periodic.
and
non-recurring quotient.
(2)
is
The following
greater than
inequalities are required.
JN + bn >rn
therefore
1,
Every complete quotient

(A)
= (# - bn*)/rn = (JN - b n (JN -f b n )/r n >JN- b w therefore

,/#<& + rnHl
Again, if n>l, the continued fraction equivalent to (*JN + b n )/rn
no acyclic part, therefore, as in Art. 3, 6n <\/^ <^n + rn n ^2)
Also
r n _!
(B)
has
For any
suffix
w,
6m
(3)
hence from (B) and
bm <*JN,
-6 n <rn _ 1
and
111
/-^
Now JNfr^-a^ is a root

equation being
V#Ai ~
Therefore by Ch.
Hence
ac
K -f
a 2"^" a c-fl
and therefore
It has
recurring fraction in
from
2a l
(iii)
the beginning
etc.
for the rest of the
and end are
rl
_L_JL
a 2 -i- a 3 -I-
"
_L
_J
a3
a2 4- 2a x
-f-
and we
cycle, the
equal.
be expressed by writing
M_N/A[
\
a3
<._!==
been shown that \IÂjB can be expressed as a simple

(i) there is a single non-recurring element, a l ;
partial quotients equidistant
may
31,
which
the last partial quotient of the cycle is
All this
XXIV,
= o2a t -f
. . .
2a l9 a c = a%,
a c+l
Summary.
(ii)
...
^c+
the other root of this
111
TT
r^ (x + a^^N,
of
i-
(D)
Let c be the number of elements in the
The Cycle of Quotients.
cycle, then
(C),
-6n <^n (n^2)
6m
(C)
shall call the sequence, a 2
cycle of quotients.
!_
+
"
'
*
,
a3
...
a 3 a 2 the reciprocal part of the

,
CALCULATION OF QUOTIENTS
532
(4)
The b and
Let
r Cycles.
cycle, so that
be the number of elements in the
jjf
The recurrence
due to the fact that the second complete quotient
is
From
appears again as the (c + 2) th.

recur in the same order hence,
and therefore
bc + m
Hence,
bc
63
r c +m
= 2a
complete quotients
ci
1,
rm
^^2.
f r
m = 0,
c _ m â 2+m for
1, 2, ...
we have
(i)
the cycle of
etc. ;
?'
The character
is
Vs
6 2 , 63
is
,..
the cycle of r's is r v
(ii)
first term, i.e.
sequences
and
that a c+1
Kemembering
and so on
bm
this stage all the
(JN + b c+m )/r e+m = (JN 4- b m )/rm
2,
f c -i
of
the
/'
= r^
bc
r2
^ and is
i.e.
reciprocal,
and
rc ,
...
b c+l
= b2
is reciprocal after the
etc.
and the reciprocity of the three
recurrence
exhibited below, where the recurring periods are enclosed in
brackets.
al
a2
&3
It should be noticed that the a
parts of the a
and
...
and
tt
a2
6 cycles correspond,
and the
reciprocal
r cycles correspond.
Calculation of the Quotients.

In finding the values of 6 n r w a n
teH
w/ien
middle
the
the
b
z/
of
cycle has been reached, no further
calculation is necessary. This matter is settled by the following theorem.
(5)
we can
If b m r rn a m are respectively equal to

are equidistant from the ends of the b cycle.
,
For
rn+i
and
:=
(6 n42
- bm _
the
l )/r
inequalities
__ l
less
rn ,
n+1 r n+1
Subtracting and using the hypothesis,
Now by
an
and
b n+l
+ 2 )/r n+l
and
then b m
= (N-b$ + i)lr n = (N-b m *)!rm = rm _ r
^m-i rm-i =b m _, l + bm
Also
b n+}
in
find that
(D),
(2),
are less than unity.
we
= 6 w+2 + 6 n4
both
(6 rn _ 1
- bn
Therefore the right-hand side of (A)
is
than unity, and consequently a w _i = a n+ i and bm _ l = b n+2
numerically
We can show by a similar argument that 6 TO _ 2
tively equal to 6 n+3
r n4 2 ,
.
n+2
and
so on.
^m _ 2
a m-2 are respec-
CONVERGENTS
m=n
Putting
m=n+ 1
and
533
we have
in succession,
the following
If two consecutive b's, namely bm and bm + v are equal, then rm and a m

are the mid-terms of the reciprocal parts of the r and a cycles. In this case
(i)
c is even.
=
// r n rn+l and a n =â n+l
(ii)
two consecutive
(so that
likewise the corresponding a's), then
rn ,
and a n
rn+l
r's are
equal and
an+1 are
the
mid-
terms of the reciprocal parts of the r and a cycles, and bn+l is the mid-term of
In
the b cycle.
Ex.
Express ^/î ana V^l as simple continued fractions.
1.
= V.
(i)
this case c is odd.
......
we construct the
Henco
A/T^J-
following table
^ = 11,
187,
al
by a mental process
[11
13
[11
22
[4
~l
11
and proceeding
as in Art. 4,
11
2].
Because 6 4 = 6 5 11, therefore a 4 is the inid-term of the reciprocal part of the

a cycle. This cycle can therefore be completed, for its last term is 2a x = 2, thus
17
111111
II"
4~+
8+ r+
8"+
IT 2*
*
x-
(ii)
For
/s/61
[I
60
a7
we have
= l,
=7 and
the
6, r, a,
table
is
[1431221341
12
a 7 and r 6
Seeing that a e
r7 ,
reciprocal part of the a cycle.
Therefore
ax
[757546
rj_
we conclude
Also the last quotient of the cycle
---
J+
j-
2+ 1+
where
Relations connecting the p's and q's.
N = AB,
VIN
-
rl
^B- and
J
let
.-
-}-
^ B t
o-f
î
p r /qr be
11~
1
05,-
an +
?i
zq n
Suppose that
the rth convergent, then
t.
wHere
= *PnPn=i
therefore
J+
*
(6)
is 14.
11111111111
_
2+
4+
14].
that a 6 , a 7 are the mid-terms of the
+ ? w -i
and
Equating rational and irrational parts,
21
==
7
V/A + h W-Hl
~~~
r^,.
CONTINUED FRACTION FOR
534
Solving for b n+1 and rn+1 and putting

that
N = AB
and
r^B, we
find
=(l)rw+1 ........................ (B)
Bp n *-Aq*
2
2
Integral Solutions of Bx -Ay = M. If for some value of n it
n
happens that (- l) r n+l = M, then, by equation (B), (j? n q n ) is a solution
(7)
of
Ex.
1.
Find two
Expressing ^/^f- as a continued fraction
= 5/4,
lqi
6.
^N
and therefore
1^4/^4=46/37,
In
(5),
(5,4),
Ex.
the cycle
3.
17?/
1),
we
find that r3
r6
= 3.
Also
(46,37) are solutions.
as a Continued Fraction.
Here
(1)
rx
= l and
the
all
Additional theorems are the following.
conclusions of the last article hold.

(i)
z
positive integral solutions of 11 x
o/Vs, one member and only one is equal to 1, namely r,

r m = l, then, remembering that 6 2 = a 1 and using the
For suppose that
_r
ar
equations
+y
we have a m = integral part

Also o
= &H-&,
Therefore
beginning of a
(ii)
//
r n >2,
cycle of
^n
- 1V
/V ~
(JN + 6J/r TO - % + &m = 6 2 + b m
of
/^H-6 m+ i)/ m î =
new
mrw+l
therefore
(N
--J
and
N /^-r62)/r 2>
marks
^tn^l
the
r's.
a n ^b n
For
in this case
n>l
and
so that
// r n 2, JAe number (c) of elements in the cycle belonging

even.
Also a n is the mid-term of the reciprocal part of the a
a n = a x or a l - 1.
(iii)
'
For a x
Also
an
is
is
cycle,
the integral part of <JN and x/^V>6 n therefore

the integral part of (î + b n )jr n
and so if r n = 2
fl
therefore 6 n = 6 w+1
is
and
a^bn
a w >(a 1 H-6 )/2-l>6 n -l>6n

But by the preceding, a n <6 n therefore a n = bn
Hence by
JN
to
we have
Also
2a n = 6n
+ 6n+1
even and a n is the mid-term of the reciprocal

Finally a n is the integral part of (î + n )/2, so that
(5), (i), c is
part of the a cycle.

a n = (a 1 + a n )/2 or (a l ^ a n - 1)/2, and therefore a n â l or a^-l.
(2)
Equations (A) and (B) at the top of the page become
^?n?n-l-^n^n-l = (~l)
p n *-Nq n
&4-l
....................... (A)
=(-l)rn+1 ......................... (B)
CALCULATION OF CONVERGENTS
(3)
x2 -Ny 2 = M.
Integral Solutions of
(-l) n+1 = M,
nr
found that
In particular,
if
c is
If,
for
535
some value
of w, it is
then (p n q n ) is a solution of x -Ny* = M.

the number of elements in the cycle belonging to
2
the necessary and sufficient condition that r n+l may be equal to 1

that n = tc where = 1, 2, 3, ...
hence, it follows that
JN,
is
x -Ny = l,
(i) for the equation

and- (PM C ?2fc) when c
>
is
(ii)/or the equation x*

c is
odd
odd
Find a
Ex.
1.
We
find that
Ny =
= 5.
>
18,
x2 -
13^/
1.
*
q5
~ 5 and
(18,5)
is
a solution.
The following formulae are
Calculation of Convergents.
(4)
we multiply equations (A), (B) firstly by

and secondly by p n and p n _i> we obtain by addition
this connection.
q n -i>
even
when
solutions are (p(2*-i)c> ?(2*-i)c)

solution when c is even.
positive integral solution of
Also
c is
I,
*
so that
when
the method giving no
solutions are (p tc yjtc)
If
useful in
and
qn
Again, changing n into n 1 in equation (B) and using equation (A),

find that p n ~i = r n q n ~b n+l q n
and Nq n _ l ^rn p n ~-b n ^p n _ l ..... (D)
we
In general, the p's are considerably larger than the <?'s, and to find
p n/q n we need only calculate the (/'s and then use the first of equations (C).
The Convergent p c /q c
(5)
elements in the cycle belonging
(i)
11~
?c
where
m + n = c,
where c
is the
number of
<JN, then
to
For
//
_..._
a
2+
111
m+ f
-- "
q n+l
therefore
If
is
the numerator and
the denominator of the last fraction,
m
Xq m -Ypm = (-I)-iqn and Xft^- Yp m .^(- l) qn+l
Hence any common factor of X and Y is a factor of q n and of
q n+l
and since these numbers are prime to one another, so also are X and Y.
Thus the fractions pjqc and X/Y are in their lowest terms, and therefore
pc = X and qc = Y, which are the results in question.
536
HALF-CYCLES
In particular, if c
(ii)
odd and n = |(c -
is
l>c=P*!7n+;W5Wi
// c
is
(iii)
//
even and n
equivalent
to the
-qm p c -(p m qm ^-q m p m ^)q n -=(-l)q ,

r
p m -Nq m ^(-lY"rm
V-AV-f-lJ'VHi;
mtn = c, we have r^^^r^^; and therefore
~ N<lmqc) 2
-Pn
remains to consider the sign of p mp c -
The convergent
.............. (H)
(PmPc
It
),
2
2
%n?c) - # (PmVc ~ VmPc? = (?> w ~ ^?m2 (^ 2 ~ W)2
since
and,
(P*-JNqm ){p e + JNq e
two equations
For using equations (E), p m q c

Also we have the identity
Now
= ? n 2 + ?JM-i ................. (F)
n = c,
-f
(PmPc
?c
\c,
Pn + JNqn = (-I)
icA
and
1),
pjq^
precedes
pjq c
2
-
Nqm q c
First suppose that c
is
even.
and p m p c >Nq n q e
If m is odd, it
follows from Ch. XXIV, 25, that p m P c <^r
Tlie
samc
results follow
q mq C
w
in a similar way when c is odd, and thus pm p c =
I) 7> n
Nq m q c
If
is
even,
JN
tc.
then
Pc + JNq = l(p n +JNq n )*, ........................... (J)

2
2
and q c - p n q n
p c = (p n + Nq n
e
which
is
Also
a cycle
equivalent
2
jt;
is a^
to
-J-
= 2Vyn
or a, - 1.
(
For by equations
(I),
therefore
/T) 2
and
_ JV0
1)
2,
and
the
mid-term of the reciprocal part of the
p np c - Nq nq e = - l)p n and p n q c ~ q n p c = - l) n qn
= (Pn* +
......................... (K)
Pc/Vc
n <ln
(
/-n
21 NqM>
(2s_^L)
^(A) -A^-,;
V
2p w 7 n /
?c
2
hence
^2
* ~ Nq "
\7
pw ?n
2\
-1)* ~,
?c
the sign being determined by the fact that p n <>JNq n

according as n is
even or odd. Since
is a
and
is
to
prime
pn
prime
q n the last fraction
is in its lowest terms.
Hence p n 2 - Nq n 2 = ( - l) n . 2 or ( - l) n and the
>
latter alternative
is
impossible.
MULTIPLE-CYCLES
*
^
p n - Nq n = -
Therefore
Vfi^
Hence,
NOTE.
and noting
When N
that p c /q
c
Thus we
and the
in
is
find that
its
>/21
^
and
rest follows
p c and
not a prime,
is
n
l)
537
q c =p n qn
by
(1), (iii), p.
may
be
qc
= 6,
= 4 + -i- -i-
_L I
1+1+2+1+1+8
9,
713
C^Q
(6)
and
n
o
y ^
The Convergent
c is the
number of
quotient
is
j9 6
_r
t>5,
g6
= 12.
V Pn/q n the n-th convergent of

<yiV=ai+ J_._9J_._L...
Pn-fec/qn+<c-
is
(i)
quotients in the cycle, then
Pn+tc =PnPtc
For the
anc* therefore
fo
iw
and
2,
#3
p ~ 81+21.4 = 55
2/
found by using equation (K)
lowest terms.
#
so that for \/21,
534.
+ N(lnqtc
(c + l)th quotient
a x + N/A therefore
is
and
2a x
q n + tc
=p n q + q np
tc
(L)
tc
and the corresponding complete
and equating rational and
fractions
Removing
Again,
11
1_
irrational parts,
^_
%
the last quotient being the
(te
we have
From
+ l)th.
this,
H- _p n
by means
?n
of equations
(I),
Pn+tc
If JC is
a l + Pn/<In)Ptc + Ptc~l
the numerator and
X-N Y= Pn Ptl?-Nq
PnPtc
+ Afyngtc
the denominator of the last fraction,
and
PtcY -q teX = q n ( Pt
-Nq *).
Now Ptc 2 -^9tc 2=: il ^7 (5)> (iii), therefore any common factor of -X
and y divides p n and y n which are prime to one another. Hence Xj Y is
in its lowest terms
so also is p n+t c/<ln+tc- Therefore p n+tc = X, q n ^ ^Y,
Ptc
qtc
*)
tc
which are the equations in question.
As a
special case
we have
P(s+t)c=PscPtc
in particular,
+ N qsc q tc
2
P 2 tc-Ptc + Nq tc
and
2
and
q( S + t )c=Psc<Itc
q^ ic
+ y8cPtc'>
......... (
^^p tc q tc ..................... (0)
ABBREVIATED CALCULATION
538
(ii)
JN
Since
is
irrational, equations (L) are equivalent to the single
relation
Putting
= 1 and n = c,
In Ex.
Find a
1, p.
t,
533,
solution in positive integers of x*
^61
- Sly 2 = 1.
Hence the smallest solution
The mid-elements of the cycle are the 5th and

58. Hence by equations (F),
(p 22 , q 22 ).
) (p c + JNq c y ............. (Q)
expressed as a continued fraction, the number of quotients

of the equatiort in question is
is
in the cycle being 11.
2? 6
+ V-%c = (Pc + J^Vc) 3 -,

.......... (P)
p tc + JNq tc (p c + JNqc
P3C
p n+tc + JNqn+tc = (p n + JNqn
and therefore
find that
generally, for every positive
Ex. L*
we
in succession,
...
+ >/#fee = (Pc + V^c) 2
Pte
and
2c, 3c,
6th,
and p 6 ~164, q 6 ~2l,
^453, # e
Pu -Ms +Pe?6 = 164
+ 453 58 - 29718,
21
qn
Using equations (0) and observing that p n
= - 1,
q 22 = 2p n qu = 226153980.
Pn ^Pn + 61 û = 2îi + 1 = 1766319049,

2
Thus the
7.
where
least solution is
(1766319049, 226153980).
The Cycle belonging

is
r'
= q* + g c2 - 21 2 + 58 2 = 3805.
- 61g n a
to z
N/N
Suppose that
b)/r.
a positive integer, then the simple continued fraction correno acyclic part (Art. 3), and the cycle can be calculated
sponding to z has
as follows.
Rule.
Let
(x> y)
be a solution in positive integers of
equations
-Ny*=
the latter pair being used only
when
or
r,
r'
4,
any one of
the
...........................
(A)
are both even and N,
are odd.
x/y for .JN in the given surd. Express the result as a simple
continued fraction with an even or an odd number of quotients according as
Substitute
on the right of the chosen equation is + or

or
more of the cycles belonging to (JN + b)/r.
one
of
the sign
Since
Proof.
N =6
-f-rr',
the surd
rs 2
(1)
We
shall
such that
where y
*
may
......................... ....... (B)

,
pq'-p'q=l
For equation
if
is
This fraction consists
prove that this equation can be written in the form
z~(pz f p')/(qz + q'), where p
with (B)
(JN + b)/r
-2fe-r' =
(C) is
the same as qz 2
=
q ry,
q p', q are positive integers

y
and
(p
p-q' = 2by,
......
(C)
q'^q .......................... (D)

-
q')z
p'
= r'y,
p'
= 0, which
is
identical
........................ (E)
be any rational.
Thi8 problem was set by Fermat as a challenge to the English mathematicians of his time.
GENERAL RULE
From
we have -Kp + q')
(D), (E)
where x
^Ny
=,r
2
(A) x, y are positive integers such that x
(B) x
/2,
539
2
........................... (F)
All possible cases are included in the following
rational.
is
y = 77/2 where
77
are
2
~-Ny =
1.
odd integers such that
- A7 2 -=
??
'
In case (B),
divisible
by
4,
r,
and
are both even, for

T
if
is
odd
so also
In both cases, from (E) and
(F),
we
p = x + by,
and
p/q
It remains to be
(i)
2 // x
(ii)
Ny
iind that
=x-b\j .............................. (G)
q'
This will be so
if
x/y^.b +
r.
the least value of y
therefore
N**:(b
x/y^\/N -i-l^b + r
where
~/2, y^rj/2
//
is
- Afy 2 = - 4, then
or
xly<^JN<b + r and q'<q.
Now N<(b + r) 2
(iii)
b2
^=I,
Hence
r'y.
= (x/y -f b)/r ................................. (H)
Three cases must be considered
- Ny 2 = ~
// x
p'
ry,
J-/1.
is 6,
shown that q'^q.
g=
-Nr)
and
is 1,
+ r) 2 and
--î,
1.
Hence
(f^q*
the least value of
77
is
land
xA/<V^TT.
Let N=^(b + r) 2 - k so that A: is a positive integer, then r/==r(26 + r) - &
where r, /' are even. Therefore A; is divisible by 4, and 4 is its least value.
Hence
(2) It
and
x/7/<VA Tl<6-fr
follows that
Up
q'^q.
11
-=a x + -----
..-
an
2 -f
(7
............................... ( J )
even or odd according as pq -p'q =

the convergent immediately preceding p/q. (Ch.
be determined by
z = al +
...
-7
a n -f z
2 +
where n
is
-111
-1, then
or
XXIV,
12.)
is
p'/q'
Now
let
'
then
= pz + P'
? 2/
Hence
belonging
2;'=^
and
+ 2'
and
^jtP'^^tP',
'
J2
'
+ ?'
2 21
the fraction (I) consists of
+ ?'
one or more of the cycles
to z.
The rule can be used (as in Ex. 2) to express any quadratic surd as a
continued fraction, beginning at the stage where recurrence commences.
2M
B- C
EXAMPLES OF USE OF RULE
540
Ex.
Express (*JQ2l +21)/18 as a simple continued fraction.
1.
21< s/621<21 +
Since
there
18,
no acyclic part.
is
Also
18r'
= 621 -21 2 = 180,
r' =. 10.
giving
Thus
r,
r'
are even
and
6 is odd, also
25 2 -621.
^4.
Using the rule, we substitute 25/1 for ^/621 in the given surd, and express the
result as a simple continued fraction with an even number of quotients, thus
+ 21
25
23
_9 +
~~T8~~""" r+ r+
s/621
^ -
and
+21
-
18
2.
1
-
v
1+1+4
*
Ex.
= 2n +
4'
.
Express (^13-+ 7)/4 as a simple continued fraction.
Since 7> N /13, there is an acyclic part. The reckoning on the right
shows that the second complete quotient is (/s/13 + l)/3, and since
l<*yi3<J 3, we can apply the rule. We have
\
Since
r --3,
-13.1
^-4
first
l)/3,
jy/13
fraction with an odd
number
in (;s/13
18
\1._
5/3
is
23
j^
and express the
,
1
15
7,
4,
2,
1.
Taking the second, we
useless.
is
equation
of quotients, thus
___L
This
and
an odd number, the
substitute 18/5 for
18 - 13
2
b
r
result as a simple continued
1111
___
___-
-j
1*
the cycle belonging to the given surd, and

s/13
"
L JL _L
_L
IT IT 6+
I'
EXERCISE LVI
1. Verify some of the following results, where the values of
as far as the middle of the first cycle
6, r,
a are given
fb. 0.3. 1.2

(i)
s/13
(Hi)
a 3
-j
Cb. 0.4. 2. 3. 3
(ii)
0.5. 1.4. 5.
Cb
^31
v/19 \ r
(v) s/91 \ r
[ a
^43^
(iv)
9.1.8. 7.7
10
14
1.1.5. 1.5
8
7.5.9. 7 8
9.5. 12.7.4. 15.3.
{ba. 10. 2.3. 1.2.4. 1.6.
.
1.
10
T6.0. 6. 1.5. 4. 5.
a 4
10
3
GENERAL CASES
r
N/^Tl
(vii)
__
VaM- 2
(ix)
541
O.a-l.a-1
("6.
\l~tf~- 1 J
(viii)
2(a -
l.a.2rt.2a
[a.a-1.
fb.Q.a.a
J
I
2a
Va 2 - 2
(x)
-|
1)
2(a-~l)
.a-l.a-2.a-2
I
a-
2a - 3
2
a -2
2a - 3
1
(a>2)
6
Va(a4 1H
(xi)
Va^Ht
(xii)
la.a.2.2a
(xiii)
*Ja(a
4 4)
r 6
la.a +
1.
p.O.
r
-I
.a -2. 2
La.a.i(a-l).
(a> 1 and odd)
a41
2a - 1
a-2
4
-l(a
1)
-1
.2
(a> 1 and odd)
(-!)
In certain cases, a solution of one of the equations x- can be written down at once
thus
Ny 2 ~-
2,
or
i4
if
A = a~
if
A =a
a2 -
if
if
Apply
3,
this to write
then
J- 2,
then
A7 = a (a 4- 1
A ^ a i 4,
2
down
the
then
),
(a
(2a
: j- 1 )
-f 1
N
-
Aa
22
T1
1
-= 1
a --A.I ~ T 4.
then
-A
1
when
integral solutions of x
N = 5l, 47, 56.
2
?/
Find a solution of x 2 -109?/ 2
-4, and apply the H.C.F. process to show
that
+7
__.
^
v/109
*-
JL J_
JL _JL
Y^ 2+ T+ 94 14
^-
4,
Obtain the following
*
*
I4l4l4l42
1+
84 24 14 34
/17_
= "9 +
V3
5.
111111
24 F+ ff IT 24*4*
Find two positive integral solutions of

2
2
2 ^
2
-7,
(i) 5^ ~13t/ ^7,
(ii) 5x -13i/
(iii)
3x 2 -
17i/
^7.
Find positive integral solutions of x 1 ~~ 621?/ 2 ~4 and of a; 2 621z/ 2 1.

Referring to Art. 7, verify that if 623/25 and 7775/312 are substituted for v/621
in the fraction ( N /62l421)/18, the first gives two cycles and the second three
6.
cycles of the fraction.
SUNDRY THEOREMS
542
If A=:(2ra
7.
+ 3) -4, prove
2
-l
~~-
that
JYI
111__
__
-I
___
m-f 1+ 4(w-f-l)+
2+
*
If a
8,
'
odd, find a positive integral solution of
is
x 2 -(a 2 + 4)y 2 = a;
(i)
(ii)
x 2 -(a 2 + 4)*/ 2 -^ -a.
9. Prove that r n ^2a lf and that if r n ~2a l9 then a w

term of the reciprocal part of the a cycle.
T
Show also that if A is an odd prime and rn = 2a l9 then
= 2fl,,
therefore
6n
+ 6n
and a n
is
the mid-
A must be equal
=a n rn = 2a so
r
<],
1
b n ~b n+l
Hence a n is the mid-term of the reciprocal part of the a cycle.
1.
is an odd prime, we must have a n
a.i or a t
Hence a x = 1 or 2, and N = 3, 5, 7. On trial it is found that JV 3.]
rw
[If
n <(N/-V-f'6J/rw
to 3.
that
If
10. If r n = r nn = a 19 then a n = a w}1 = l, so that a n a n+1 are the mid- terms

of the reciprocal part of the a cycle.
~ I(a + b n )la l ~\ or 2, according as b n
or b n = a l
If 6 n a x
l
[a n
~
=
&n+i 2! -6 n ffj, so that 6 n & w ,i. This is impossible. Hence a n = l and
,
â
= J(ffi + &nu)/i = l-]
4i
11. If aj
is
an odd prime, or a power of such a number, and
rn
a^ then
=!.
X-bn +l9
[For r n r nn
of
a;
=JV(mod
= (b n + b n
therefore a n
r n -ir n
since each
and
Gfj),
}Ir n
N-b n
two
and
irrationals z
p', q 9 q'
therefore b n and 6 nfl are solutions

a l is an odd prime, b n ~\~b n+1 ~a l9
continued fractions which are equivalent
are identical, prove that
(pz+p')/(qz + q')
z'
where p,
z'
âja^ --!.]
12. If, after a certain stage, the simple
to
<!, and
Show
are integers.
where
pq'~p'q=^:l
also that the converse
is
true.
number (c) of elements in the cycle belonging to \/N is even,

prove that Pc/zf Jci2 = (Pc-^^)l^c^ a^ c rding as c is or is not divisible by 4.
= 21 illustrate the fact that equations (J) of Art. 6, (5), (iv),
(ii) By taking
= 19.
is a prime, arid verify the equations for
are not necessarily true unless
13. If the
(i)
14. If the
(i)
Also,
(ii)
and
by taking
A'
If
ra
verify
T
[(i)
number
Prove that
is
(c
when
iV
of elements in the cycle belonging to *JN is odd

sum of two squares which are prime to one another.
205, show that the converse of this is not generally true.
(c)
is
and n
= 29.
a factor of
the
p r 2 + L]
(c -f 1),
prove that
(A)
L Show
that the product of any two numbers, as 19 and 35, can be found as
In the left-hand column, each number is the
jg
quotient when the preceding number is divided by 2. Any
70
9
remainders are disregarded.
In the right-hand column,
4
each number is twice the preceding.
2
1
560
The numbers 140 and 280 which are opposite even numbers
~ 665
on the left are crossed out, and the sum of the other numbers
1 9 x 35
on the right is 19 x 35.
[The reckoning shows that
on the
right.*
2
19x35^(1 +2 + 2
2. Show that n 8 is the sum of n consecutive odd numbers, and find

or the two middle numbers.
tjie
middle
3. Take any sum of money less than

9 8s. 7d. Reverse the order
12, say
of pence and pounds, obtaining 7 8s. 9d. The difference between these sums is
1 19s. lOd.
Reversing the order of pence and pounds, we obtain 10 19s. Id.
Adding the last two sums, we have 12 18s. lid. Prove that the result will be
the same whatever sum less than 12 is chosen.
4.
r t r2
,
a/b is a proper
the remainders
If
...
rn
show that
fraction and q l9 q 2 ... q n are

b is divided by a, r 19 r 2
,
quotients and
the
when
?"n~i>
respectively,
<^
ql
Rn =
where
1)
tfn
(ii)
For some value of

form
n,
Rn = 0,
p
where p,
(iii)
5.
and
are positive integers, their
q, ...
Express in this
can always be expressed in the
so that a/b
1111
way
Prove that a -f b
-f
2 (a 4
-4-
and
f-f
J-f
number being
finite.
+ d and a f 6 - c - d are factors of

6 4 + c 4 -f d*) - (a 2 + 6 2 + c 2 -f d 2 ) 2 4- Sabcd,
c
find the remaining factors.
6.
Solve
7.
If x, y, z are real, prove that

(x
cannot
8.
(i)
among
(ii)
lie
between
and
-f
+ z 2 )/ (yz + zx + xy)
2.
Find the simplest equation with integral coefficients which has

-Vf + s/f and -Vf-Vf
its roots.
What
Prove that 4(z
are the other roots of the equation ?
+ #4 l)*-21x*(x+ l) 2 ^(z-
*Known
as the Russian peasants'
method
l) (2a;
l) (z
+ 2) 2
of multiplication.
MISCELLANEOUS
544
9. If #-ft/
+ 2 = o;
10. If a~\~b
+c+d
-f ?/
4-2
and
(A)
-2, show that
a;
?/
= 0,
prove that the results of rationalis-
ing the equations

*Jax
*Jby
+ *Jez 4- V^ ~- 0,
*Jay + \'dz
v/fa: 4-
0,
Find the equation whose roots arc given by

a
a
a
%=*<-*, + (ai + s* + S3
s ~
are the roots of x
x -f 4 ~ 0.
2
(i=l,
),
where x l9 x 2
equation
being given that

13. If
15. If
it
has a pair of roots whose
------- f
-----/ +
x -me x f tno x + nm
value of x is m(nc + bd)/(a + b).
-ac') <A(ab' -a'b)(bc/ -b'c),
a< 6 < c <
r/,
and a -
are real for all values of
+m+n
0,
positive
}-d
0,
c>
/>
r/,
c)
prove that
&' 2
>a'c'.
the roots of
^k(x
b)(x-d)
k.
show that the expression

b 2 m'z + c'2 /i 2
2brmn ~ 2canl - 2ablm
a 2/ 2
if
zero.
2
prove that 6 >ac and
(ca'
is
and oH-6-f c
_-f
(x a)(x
16. If
sum
nid
the only finite

14. If
2, 3),
x%
12. Solve the
is
-f >/cJ
State the two other equations which lead to equivalent results.
are equivalent.
11.
-f
-I-
a&c(a + & + c)
is
positive.
Show
that the expression (ex ~-az) z - (ay -bx)(bz -cy) is the product of
two linear functions of x, y, z, and that, when a, b, c are real, the coefficients in
the linear functions are real if 6 2 5? 4ac.
17.
abed
from the equation
18. If the cubic derived
+ --, -- -- -f ----x+b x+c x+d
-,
x-\-a
has a pair of equal roots, then either one of the numbers

the numbers c, d or
a, b is
equal to one of
1111
abed
-+T=-+119.
20.
Express in factors
- a 2 ) (ca - b 2
(be
)
Show
that
if a, b, c
+ (ca- b 2
(ab
- c2)
-f
(ab
are real, the roots of
are real.
21.
Eliminate
x, y, z
from the equations

x
__
x
z
y
x
c 2 ) (be
- a 2 ).
MISCELLANEOUS
22,
10 n - (5
Prove that
23. (a) Solve
If a:,
(6)
i/,
(xz are
l)
divisible
is
... -f
n+1
by 2
(x-n)^-O.
unequal and
show that each product
- 1 and that
equal to
~
yz + zx -f xy 3 (a: -f y 4- 2) -f 9 =
is
xyz-2(x + y + z) + 9~0.
and
24.
+ */l7) n - (5 - \/17) n
+ (z-2) 3 + (x -3) 3 +
545
(A)
By the method of partial fractions, prove

sum of n fractions of the type
that, if a, 6,
c, ...
are
ft
/&
numbers,
then the
is
(a-b)(a~~c)(a-d) ... (a-k)

and is unity if
m is an integer less than n- I
zero if
24
21
25. If
is
n -
a positive integer,
+ 2\n-2
\n
_
_
,
26.
Under what conditions
27.
Show
+4
jn-f3|n-3
-
...
are the following equations consistent
that, if the roots of x*
n terms
to
'
- ax 1 -f 6x - care not in A.P., then there are

form x y-\-\ such that the transformed
in general three transformations of the

cubic in y has its roots in G.P.
28. (a)
Rrove algebraically that,
if a, 6, a,
j8
are real numbers, then
the positive root being indicated by the radical sign.

(b) If a and b are positive and a-f-6=-l, show that
\ 2
29.
Examine,
\2
for different positive or negative values of
x and p, the conver-
gence or divergence of
"
x
r\ r
(1)27-;
rN/(^ +
r-\
--
)-Vw
(11)^^5
30. Show how to find the nth term and the sum of n terms of a recurring series
of which the scale of relation is of the form ^n -f jm n _ 1 +
n _ a = ^ anc* of which
the first four terms are known.
Apply the method to the series
(i)
(ii)
31.
(a)
Show
(b)
Eliminate
1,2,5, 14...,
1,2,5, 12....
that 2Z'6 2 c 2 (6 2
--
x, y, z
2
= a3
q = 3)
b--2, ^=-1)
- 6 2c 2 )
- a 4 [(6 4 - c 2a 2 ) (a 2 - 6 2
c 2 ) (a 4
- 27 (a 26 2 4- a 2c 2
x*y 4-
(i>=-4,
-f (c
- a 26 2 ) (c 2 - a 2 )].
from
z 4-
2
2/
a:
= 68
z zx
+ z 2y = c 3
JM/Z
rf .
MISCELLANEOUS
546
Show
32. (a)
If #
(b)
Show
a, 6, c,
r
is less
33.
number n can be expressed
that any root of the
where each of the quantities
than >/A
#
1S
(A)
is
...
n, 1 or
n~ l
but greater than
nearer *to
Ns
*u
than
AT
is
form
%JN
-^
either
'
in the
show that
or x.
that
a z n(ai
___
-a
y)
(a-a 2 )"
2
(a-a 3 )-
Write out the terms of the product in the numerator, and give the resulting expression its correct sign.
34. Discuss the reality of the roots of
x 4 + 4z 3 - 2x* - I2x + a = 0,
for all real values of a.
[Denoting the equation
by/(#)0,
35. Solve the equation 46u;

side as the sum of two cubes.
36. If
+ x) n
+ c^x
{-
c zx z
-f
72#
consider the roots of f'(x)~Q.]

-f
+ ...+ c nx n show
,
[Denoting the expressions by ^ and

37.
Prove that there
18&- 11=0, by expressing the left-hand

that
show that f-==^-,

ttic
ct^c
v,
only one set of real values of
is
x,
etc.]
which
satisfy the
equation
and
find them.
[Writing
a, 6, c, d, for
o + 6 a + c 2 4-d a = i
38. If
39.
oj is
fifth
Prove that,
(l-x), (x-y), (y-z)>

2
hence
(a-b) = 0.]
root of 2 and
if r 2
p 2^,
a;
= eo + w a
z,
we have a+b + c\-d = l and
prove that
the product of a pair of roots of the equation
x 1 ~\-px* 4- qx 2 4- rx + 5
is
equal to the product of the other pair.

x* - # 3 - 16# 2 - 2x + 4 = 0.
Solve
40. Obtain the roots of
in the
41.
form
Prove
= (3 +
and (4?i-f l)a = 27r.
that
positive integer
a;
"* 1 +
77r "
2
1 (a:
+ 2o:
cos r a -1),
where n
is
MISCELLANEOUS
numbers
42. If three real
satisfy the equations
x+y+z=5
prove that none of them

43.
by
yz 4- zx
4-
xy = 8,
nor greater than 2^.
when divided
3 respectively, and show that 206 is the
for all the positive integers which,
leave remainders
1, 2,
them.
leant of
44.
and
than
is less
Find a general formula
5, 6, 7, will
547
(A)
Show
that a determinant of order n can be expressed as one of "order
n-l
as follows.
a l^l c l
If
^1
then Jrt 1 "- 2
[Multiply A by
at
-&!
...0
...0
tfi
a 1 ...0
-c,
-^
45.
where
as r
Show that, if n is a positive integer,
and
when n
7? 2
is
is
1,
7
(a-f
n
JL
is
~\~
where
number of
the
3 36 2
or
rr^-TT
4
44
solutions of the equation
or
is equal to
+ 1 according
denotes the quotient and r the remainder
3 3a 2
^3^3
Prove that
47. If
are positive integers or zero,
not equal to
divided by 6.
or
is
46.
...
~rr
4
4
r>)
a b being positive,
>
>
a positive integer,
OIL
3.4
~ n(n-\)
~
~
*
~\~
.2
4.5 w(n-l)(n-2)
3
1.2
r ^r
~"7^
48. If a, 6,
d are
c,
real
and
b2
- ac
ad -be
show that each
ratio
= (~
ad -be
r 2 - bd
'
and that a*c + bd* + a*d*
0,
the real values of the
\a/
roots being taken in

49.
all cases.
Prove that the condition that
(ax + by -\-cz) (bx + cy + az)(cx -\-ay + bz)

can be expressed in the form P* + Q* where P and Q are linear functions of
x y> z is
a 3 + 6 3 + c 3 ^3a6c;
9
and
find values of
50. If
Zx m ^n
x i9 x 2
if
P and
...
xn
Q.
are
positive
numbers such that
Zx=n,
prove that
MISCELLANEOUS
548
51. If r
to i(r-f
terms
1)
/ } 4,
is
# n
52. If
(
equal to
-I
7,
prove that
>
|.
-l-a^-f
a^-f tf 2 #
(r
an odd integer and q r =^ ~>
is
(A)
-h...
+ #r
-f ...
a r+l - 2na r - (r -
show that
fl^ - 0.
Also show that
53.
Sum
54.
Examine the convergence of
27*
the series
ft
th
series
x n /(x* n
for
any value of
55. If
56.
is
Prove
that, as the real variable x changes steadily

(x
'
where a and 6 are real and r/

an interval of length 4(6 a)
Prove that,
,/;,
if
a,
58.
ft,
-"V-6
is
'
al]
values except those in
locate this range of values precisely.
a3
fr
a4 b*
c3
^*
|-0,
'*
The graph of y~---
Prove that,
if
----.
l)(x
x^
then x^
100,
61. If f'(x)
is
Prove that
show that
positive,
1)}.
has a turning point at P(2, -1).

is
maximum
-%((x+
f(x)
is
1 ft
i-
(x
at P.
1 ft] -=
increasing.
2x + x cos x - 3 sin x >0
if
0< x<
Prove that
T75 + 5.
11.31.3.5
^
44.64.6.8
^
-f
4-
#,
Find
4)
and show that y
6,
i-
Sketch the curve.

*x~
the approximation being correct to at least eight decimal places.
and that
-h oo
in the expansion of (1 \-x) n (I

in ascending powers of
x)'
a positive integer, the sum of the first n -t- r coefficients is
the values of a and
62,
to
c are all different, then
(x
60.
oo
+ 3)+4r(r
59.
a)
Prove that,
where n
from
assumes twice over
and
r,
and
is
x.
the function
57.
whose wth term
+x n +1)
4-
. . .
to infinity =
(nearly),
MISCELLANEOUS
63. Solve the equations
y*
+ z*-x(y + z)â,-}
)~ b
[Show that
64.
+ c - a = 2 (x 2 - yz),
By expanding
+ (n -
ax + by + cz =
65. If
that this
is
>
etc.]
in
)~
two
different ways, prove that
2-' +
which - H
x y
x, y, z, for
Show
1)
-2x-3x
(1
549
(A)
and
a, 6, c
stationary, are given
is
maximum
a true
are
or
show that the values of
positive,
minimum,
by
if
xyz>Q>
tan x~ I + x
66. Show that the equation
has an infinite number of real roots, and find graphically the approximate value
of the smallest positive root.
67.
Assuming that
+ a;)}~ 1 can be expanded
a;{log(l
in
ascending powers of
a:,
f~\d the first four terms of the expansion.

By help of this result prove that a capital
interest at r per cent, per
annum
/23026
sum accumulating at compound

be increased ten-fold after
will
1-15
years approximately.
68. If
y~y
-\-2y
-y*
and
it
is
assumed that y can be expanded
in
ascending powers of x show that

9
69.
Draw graphs
of
2
_2(z ~6z)
70.
in
2(x*-$x)
By expanding
two ways, prove that
71.
Show
maximum
difference
that
(a
--- #)(4-3o:
value and one
between them
minimum
/
is
for various values of a

72.
Prove that
has four real roots,
where a
),
value.
1\
}
is
a positive constant, has one
Find these values and show that the
3
.
What
is
a/
x*
if
- ISx 2 + 4dx + 9 =
d*
^ 1728.
the least value of this difference
MISCELLANEOUS
550
r*xâR + bW,
73. If
and the quantities denoted by
all
is
Prove that,
if
approximately
where
the letters are real and positive, prove that

jc,
74.
(A)
^ 2âb.
small, one root of

x* + x 2 -(I+2c*)x-IÔ
is
f ie 2
and
find corresponding approximations to the other
roots.
75. If
/?,
y are the roots of

x 3 - ax 2 4- bx
= 0,
the area of the triangle, of which the lengths of the sides are a,
If the triangle
is
right- angled,
a(4ab
76. If
is
show that
-a 3 - 8c)(a
- 26) ^
_<3
71
(ii)
71
P.2
.3 3
... rc
when n
<(^-
/?/
78.
y, is

nn
2n
n - 1 when
__ <
(i\
77. If
/?,
is
positive,
Prove that
all
show that
log
between 2
lies
1\
-
and
2 -~
the roots of the equation
8< k<
are real if
11.
79. Find a function (ax H- 2bx + c)/(a x 2 -f 2b x + c') which has tm ning values
2 respectively, and has the value 6 when x = 0.
3 and 4 when x = 2 and
2
80. If a, 6 are
81.
Show
unequal positive quantities, show that
that two pencils of straight lines in one plane, containing p and q

no two lines being coincident or parallel, divide the plane into
lines respectively,
pq + 2p + 2q-l
parts.
Show
that the number 30 may be divided into three unequal parts in

61 ways, while if equal parts are allowed, there are 75 ways.
82.
83. In
how many ways can a batsman make
more than 4
84.
off
any
Prove that the equation
has no real roots

85.
14 runs in 6 balls, not scoring
ball ?
if r
<s 3
Find the minimum values of

a m + a.m
/a + x\
I
_.
AT/
for positive values of x,
where
CITlH
3
a, 6,
m are positive and
~~3
m>l.
MISCELLANEOUS
86.
551
(A)
Find the condition that ax + b/x can take any
of x.
real value for real values
- (x - a] (x ~
b)/ (x -c)(x-d) in terms of y where y~(x~ d)f (x-c);

and hence, or otherwise, show that f can take all real values if
(c-a)(c~b)(d~a)(d-b)
Express f
is
negative.
87.
maximum and minimum
Find the
values of
and draw a rough graph of the curve.

7 2n - 48n - 1
is divisible by 2304.
88. Prove that
89. If
then
#,_
yl
2/3
-c).
that an approximate solution of x log x 4- x -
90.
Show
91.
Find the
--y3
~
j3
limits of
greater than
Prove that
f/â;-a;
(ii)
ar =
1 -f r~ -
+ o ai +
b>c.

&
Li
1
where
v/3
or than
if
then
prove that square root of a
|(2a-6~c)
= e,
as x, y tend to zero along the curves
92. If a, 6, c are real,
x ~y
y=x-x
(i)
93.
-x
(x l
b""2
-^
-f ... -f
y-
a 2+--- to
oo
=2^6.
n pence can be made up of
pennies, halfpennies
and
different ways.
x>2, prove that

n n(n + l)
^^
"
t
"'""
n
*~*~
n(n-l)
+"
and deduce that
n+ n(n-l)
(r-l)
96.
n(n-l)(n-2) (r-l)(r-2)
^+
_n(n
+..._
+ l)
...(n
+ r-1)
.
Find approximations to the roots of
where a
97. If
is
small,
3wn -7w n _ 1 + 5w n _ 2
~u n _ 3
and w ~l>
î
8,
w2
17,
prove that
MISCELLANEOUS
552
98.
Expand
approximation for
Deduce that
+ V(9 + 3z 2 )}/(3 _#)
{2a;
the fifth power of
ei
and show that
x,
e
(A)
n ascending powers of x, as far as

x it leads to a good
for small values of
x
.
= 1-2840
....
99 If a, 6 are positive, and p and q are positive rationals such that 1 /p +

prove that
ab ^ a p !p + b //qt
.
I,
1 /q
<
By means
100.
of the expansions of
ex
and
log (1 +x), prove that,
when n
is large,
1 H
Show
that e
is
given approximately by
with an error of about 0-46 per cent.

101. If
a time,
Show
102.
is
r>p>q, show that the number of combinations of p+q things r at

things being of one sort and q of another, is p + q -r + 1.
that one root of the equation
approximately 1-0103, and find the other roots correct to two places of decimals.
Prove that,
103.
if
is
a positive integer, the
coefficient of
xn
in
(l+x + x z
n
)
is
104.
The number of ways of selecting
105.
Having given that
r pairs
from n different things
is
prove that
106. If a,
then a 2
fc
107. If
and x 2 ^ 3.
6, c
are real
and
c 2 are all greater
than
or
all less
than
x + y + z~xyz and x 2 =yz, then y and
1.
may have any
real values
108. Solve
109.
Show
that the result of eliminating x and y from the three

equations
1.11
x-a y-a
1
9
x-b
11
y-b
and
is
110.
Prove that
log e {log, ( 1
+ *)*} = - \x + ^-a: 2 - |a;3 -
....
Find, without using tables, the value of log e (log e 1-01) correct to five
places of
decimals, having given log e 10 2-302585.
MISCELLANEOUS
111.
--
~ in a
-that the coefficient of a371 * 1 in the expansion of
(x + 4)(x +&)
#
of
is
ascending powers
Show
series of
Find to
112.
553
(A)
# ~^
113. If
equation
five places of
is
given by
+ x + 1 = 0.
decimals the real root of x3
where ^ is small, show that an approximate root of the

x a{l+%p log e a + ^n 2 log e a ( I + log e a)}.
-J-
114.
Prove that
x^ =
1 -f
x + x* + f* 3 + V* 4 +
115. The difference between the A.M. and the G.M. of a set of nearly equal
numbers is to a first approximation equal to the quotient of half the difference
between the square of their A.M. and the A.M. of their squares by any of the
numbers.
116.
Find the sum of the terms
after the
nth in the expansion of
(1
+ #)/(! ~x) 2
powers of x.
Prove that the ratio of this sum to the sum of the corresponding terms in the
1
expansion of (l-x)" can be made equal to any given number A, which is
than
suitable
choice of x. Explain clearly why the restriction
2n, by
greater
in ascending
upon A
is
necessary.
marks are
117. An examination consists of three papers, to each of which
assigned as a maximum. One candidate obtains a total of 2m marks on the three
papers. Show that there are f (m + l)(w + 2) ways in which this may occur.
118.
Show
that the 2n-th convergent of
3434
------
43+4-3+
n
n
...
differs
from the
12 + 4( -
value of the continued fraction by 13/{9

l) }.
with a like
[Prove that (i) p 2 n 1 Ijp2n-z + 12# 2n _ 4
- l) n and ? 2 n-i/4 = 2n
2n + (
(ii) ? 2
(<7
-#an-i)/5
.
result
for
the
q'a;
n^
119. If the infinite product

'
2/
is
expressed in the
form
then
120.
(2
Find the
l+xz
- z - xz z
1
r +*
. . .
- l)a i
r+
~f
2V
a rx r +
. . .
= 4(ar + ar _j).
expansion in ascending powers of z of
show that
f/l + V4a?+l\)
H
n+ a
j/
,
+ wo; H
/l-Vto-fl\ n+2
-(2;
..-x M ..-2)
o:
j^r
(n-2)(n-3)(7t-4)^
rx3 +
. . .
Prove that
where m and ?i are positive integers,

where
2V
2
c^x + a 2 x -f
coefficient of z n in the
121.
-f
p r = m(m + n -r-
1)
is
divisible
(r^m),
by
>
(x
I)
and that the quotient is
~(r-f-l)n
(r<m).
MISCELLANEOUS
554
122.
among
123.
(A)
Prove that the number of ways in which n prizes

may have one at least is
may
Prove that when x
is
sufficiently small
Jog (1 +#)~~
Also, if n
>1
11
24*
12*
"
(n
L__
|
+ 2)
"
'
\n
'L
A man
owes a sum of a, and repays b at the end of each year, partly

interest at 100?* per cent, and partly to repay capital. Show that the
will be repaid in A years, where A is the integer equal to or next greater than
124.
to
be distributed
q people so that everybody
pay the
sum
125.
Show
which n are
that the number of combinations taken

n axe b, and the rest unlike is
(
and that
n together of 3n
this
sum
is
4-
26'Jt-
w
equal to 2
+ 3CJU +
(n + 2).
. .
~1
of
+ nC? + n + l,
126. If a, b are positive integers, the probability that ^(a 2 f 6 2 )
integer
letters
a,
is
a positive
gV
is
x + (b+c)y + bcz = b~c,

x + (c +
+ caz - c ~ a,
127. If
a)y
x + (^
&2
4- ft)y 4-
- a - 6,
where a^b^c, prove that 2;o;-2/ 2 = 3.

128. Ladders 15 ft. and 10 ft. long are placed in a passage, each with its top
against a wall and its foot against the opposite wall. If the point where the
ladders cross is 5 ft. from the ground, find the width of the passage. (Sunday
Times. )
[If the width of the passage
b ft. from the ground, then
-
Hence
if
5(t/-|-l),
i/
ft.
+ ! = ?> and
b
and the tops of the ladders are a

a2
-& 2 -125.
show that 0<z/<l, and

y
giving
is
4-2?/
+ 5i/2 --2?/-1^0,
= 0-5761287, 6^7-880644, ^ = ^(100-
6 2 )^ 6- 155929.]
ft.
and
(B)
of
party consisting of 7 robbers ami a monke}' had stolon a number
In the night a
nuts, which were to be divided equally among the robbers.
robbor woke and decided to take his share. He found that, if he gave one to the
monkey, the remaining nuts could be divided into 7 equal lots. He gave one to
the monkey and took his share. The other robbers woke in succession, found
that the same thing was possible, and each gave one to the monkey and took
one-seventh of the remaining nuts. In the morning they divided what v,ere left,
and they found that, if they gave one to the monkey, the nuts could be divided
8
is 7 - 6 = 5764795.
into 7 equal lots. Prove that the least value of
- 7,
- 6 of i\ satisfies the numerical conditions
6 fur
value
[The
~ - 6. Thus - 6 is unaltered
- 7 ~-7 = -7- the set of
1.
1,
by
1)
Hence the values of
corresponding to what each robber did.
2,
Let a/b be a proper fraction and
c l9 r 2 , c 3 ,
...
an
infinite
operations
are given by
sequence of
r n the
If q l9 g 2 </ 3 ... q n are the quotients and r l9 r 2 r s>
positive integers.
remainders when ac L9 r L c z nc 3 ... r n _^r n respectively, are divided by 6, show that
,
--
......
c^ qr^
CL
qca...^
E n = --
r
~
where
Ci<- a
(iiiJV-ar^
(iv) If a
is
...c n
...c
(mod6);
a prime to b and a<6, then
^? +
_??
CL
c^'o
(h
.j..
c,c 2 c 3
where the
of
series terminates if c x c 2 ... c n is divisible by

otherwise the series is convergent.
Express the following fractions in the form
3.
ft
+ J'- 4--?
+
3.5 3.5.7
(i)
In the
4.
two
last
Show
6.
Use Ex.
Sum
(ii)
some value
JLn
4.
3.5... (2n +
cases, find the value of q n
for
(iii)
'
l)
J.
that
"
"
32
8
5.
4--
6,
3"
2, (iv), to
show that
e is
irrational.
the series
n 2 + 2(w-l) 2 -f3(rc-2) 2 -f...,

where n
is
a positive
Prove that
integer.
$I
+ TS+-"+
12
where
2N
Sn
is
the
sum
of the squares of the
to infinity
'
first
n positive
integers.
B.C.A.
MISCELLANEOUS
556
7.
Prove
(B)
and x + y + z = l, then
that, if x> y, z are positive
\y
From
8.
a cask containing x apples, a
man
half the contents of the cask
sells
and half an apple to one customer, half the remainder and half an apple to a
second, and so on, always selling half of what are left and half an apple. In no
case is an apple divided. After n sellings, a apples are left. Show that
z = 2 n (af 1)-1.
Show
9.
mon
line
m
10.
if,
TA-
II
/?
if,
= --<
.,
y~"n
Cp
have a com-
where ad -
3
d
-f-
d are connected by the equation
a, 6, c,
mx~ly~v
COL -f
and
ny-mz = \, h-nxp,
ZA + mfji + nv =
that the planes
and only
a2 +
+6
+
cy
=-ay
prove that
e/
Show
also that a,
y are the roots of
/?,
ex
|2r-2
where
A:
-ri
^), ^,
13. If
-dx + b
_____-ex
-a
Ca - a
k r =kjc r
that
^+
-da + -6
aa
+6
---COL f a
=a
...
a positive integer greater than unity, and
is
10
ou
.u .
12. Show that
where
s
show
11. If
+d
a P + 6 p + cP
+
a+& m---> ~
c
r are positive quantities
a-j-^-t
.
such that
x r = x(x-l)(x-2) ...(x-r+l), prove that

(2n
!)_!
(2n-3) w _3
(2n-5) n _ 5 ...>nn
nw _ 3 nn _ B
.
7i n
_7
each product being continued as long as the suffixes are greater than zero.
14. If
TH,
Z',
w', I"
and
X/
7W
are integers,
and
if
/)9
is
not rational, and
show that / = Z and m m'.

Also show that no two of the numbers
r
(2Z
+ 5m)a + /^,
-f
(2Z
5m' -f
/X
)a
-f
Z^,
-f
(2Z
5m") a -f (Z
/x
-f 1) jS
can be equal.
15.
is
One
root of the equation
3 - 33 - 33"
x 6 - 9x 5 + 18x*
9o;
+ 27 x 2 - 54x -36-0
find all the roots.
+ c ^V,
x) + c 2 = O
a 1 yz + b l (y + z)
16. If
a&x
4-
6 a (z
4-
are true for an infinite series of values of x, y,

c 2 --
26 2 6 3
agCj, 4-
z,
a x c 3 = 26 1 6 3
prove that, in general,

a 1 c 2 + a 2 c 1 ~26 1 6 2
.
if
MISCELLANEOUS
557
(B)
show that
17. If a, b, c are unequal,
ax
b~ c
4-
+ cxa ~ b â + b + c.
~
bxc a
18. If
a (z 4- x + 6)
where y and
z are unequal,
bzx (z
4-
= 0,
x)
+ ?/ 2z 2 + fy/z (y + z) = 0.
Prove that
2
a4-4-y4-5
a + j3 + y
is
4-
prove that
a (y 4- 2 + 6 )
19.
z*x 2
4-
+8
a(y 4- 8) 4- y8(a
2(a4-]8)(y4-8)
equal to zero.
20.
Prove that
rt
~(L-x
where
A r ~(
according as n
21.
7""' 1
I)
cos n
sin 2
is
and
r&
TIT
X"
4-
tan-
= 1,
n
...
2, 3,
^(n
or
1)
-^
odd or even.
Determine the condition that
(x
shall be divisible
by
1).
22.
Show
that the
are identical
four terms in the expansions of
first
1 4- x) n 4-
1 4-
and
j
if
'
and
find the values of a, 6, c in terms of p, q,
23.
pz
c
r2
'
r.
Find the limiting values of

i
(cos x)
.1
(cos x)
xz
(cos x)
x3
,
as x tends to zero through positive or negative values.

24.
Show
that, if
l9
l9
n^
/2 ,
2,
n2
-f
13 ,
3,
n 3 are
real quantities satisfying
the six relations,

2
-f
m^ 4- ^! =
2
/2
-h
n 22 = /
=l
3 -f n 2 r? 3
4-
then
4-
and
n 3?3
ll
4-
wâ
0,
MISCELLANEOUS
558
25. If z 3
-j-3/fcz
+ <7~
[/x(z-hi/)
-v(z-f
3
/x) ]
A = g 2 + 4th 3
where
Show
26. If
that the cubic 4z 3
(i)
If
(ii)
If
for all values of
z,
show that
has two equal roots.
27a 2 (z-f a)
- c) n + (c- a) n + (a- 6) n where n is a

positive integer, prove that
2 divisible by 27a
Z!bc, then n is of the form 3k
1, where k is an
(b
is
(B)
integer,
divisible
is
2
2
by (Ha - Hbc) then u
,
is
of the form 3& +
1.
27. If all the roots of the equation
are rational
28.
and negative, show that
Prove that,
if
is
a positive integer, and

1
m -2xn
x'
29. Investigate the
~(a-f 2r7r)/n, then
^tt-xsina-tfsin (oc~6 r )
r "=0
x 2 ~-2x cos O r + l
cosa + l~~nsina
maximum and minimum
l) /(x
+ 1), and
real roots if
0<m<16
values of (x+
trace its graph.
Prove that the equation (x+ I)*~m(x 5 + 1) has three

and only one real root ( - 1) if m<0 or m>16.
30. If
divisible
31.
n and n + 2 are both prime numbers, prove that

by n (n + 2)
(n -2) in
-1-2
is
Prove that,
if e is small,
has a root nearly equal to
the equation
-f
4e 2
and
find approximations to the other
two
roots.
32. If a, b,
show that
JJL
c, ... k, I
lies
are positive
numbers arranged
-Z
/xa
between the greatest and

a/6, 6/c, c/d,
33. Discuss the
least of the
...
in descending order,
and
numbers
k/l.
convergence of the series whose nth terms are

(J*)!*-.
(-!)
w+1
|^,
.
34.
where
If z
Find the seventh roots of unity and show their positions in the z plane
z
x + iy.
is any one of the imaginary roots, find the
equation whose roots are
z2
and
MISCELLANEOUS
35. If
and
559
(B)
d denotes the determinant

ax
a2
a3
a4
a6
#2
aa
a4
a5
ax
aa
D denotes the determinant obtained by

A = a + 2a
2
a 6 + 2a 3 a 4 ,
a52
At
4-
^4
= a 4 + 2a
2
2ia 4 -f 2a 2 a 3
^4 5
changing a r into A r where

^ 3 = a 2 2 -f 2a 1 a 3
a 2 + 2a 3 a 5
= a 3 2 -f 2^(15 4- 2a
a4
show that d*~D.

36. If
n, p, g are positive integers
m,
and
if x, y, z all
^(yn^g^ + ytn^n^^^gm^^yn)
a;(y-^)+yP(2-a^) + p (a^-y)
wre (
tend to
m,n
prove that
a,
__
2:
Prove that,
37.
in the expansion of
where - !<#<!, the terms are either all positive or, after a certain stage,
become and remain negative, and that in the latter case the last positive term
exceeds numerically the sum of the infinite series of negative terms.
Deduce or otherwise prove that
vanishes with or has the same sign as
Show
38.
zero)
l)x
2
.
that the number of distinct sets of three positive integers (none

is the odd integer 2n -f 1, is given by the least integer containing
whose sum
39.
Show that
whose sum
40.
is
the
number of distinct
an even integer 2n
is
positive for positive values of x,

41.
which
sets of three positive integers (none zero)

the integral part of \ri*.
Prove that
I-x
is
m(m
+ ix*-(l+x)e~ x
and increases
as x increases.
Find to 6 places of decimals the root of

lies
between 5 and
Prove that the

in powers of * is
42.
6.
coefficient of
xm
in the
expansion of
(1
*) (1
- *)( 1 *)
43. If the volume of a right circular cone is 20 cubic feet, prove that, when
the cone is such that the curved surface is a minimum, the radius of the base is
approximately 2-381 feet.
44. Arrange the following numbers in order, .so that as x -> a
each number to the preceding may tend to infinity
:
ar
2
,
2X ,
xx
ex ,
a;lo8
r
,
(log
2
a;) ,
the ratio of
MISCELLANEOUS
560
45.
---
(B)
Prove that
-r
'
|r)2[n-r
and deduce, or otherwise prove, that

ln
+1
lrc
46.
Prove that,
+2
a, 6, c are
+3
ln-f-4
"
n-3"
|3
|w^4~~'"
[3 [4
if
where
|2
[n-2
[2
|n
"
not zero and no two of
bm
al
m
x y
j+ m + nô.
,
en
~ are
equal, then
47. If a 1 a 2 ^3
an =
the a's is greater than
-
An
prove that the
sum
of the products r together of
x + y + z + w = l,
+ dw~ A,
+ ^ 2t^ = A 2
a*x + 6 3 y -f c 3 ^ + d 3 w = A 3
c 22
/ 4-
Prove that, if a, 6, c, d, A are all

than three of x, y, z, w are positive.
49.
Prove that
2
t/
-f
yz
real
and unequal, at
least
two and not more
if
z2
a2
z2
+ 2#-f # 2 ~6 2
x z + xy + y z
y2 -f zx 4- ^2/ = 0,
c 2,
a&c-0.
then
172
50.
Prove that 7^=7-, -
51.
Prove that
if
1 is divisible
by
73.
m is prime and p<m,

\p-l \m-p + ( -l) p
8f
52. If a 2 -fj8 2 = *a0, j3 2

are all different, then
53.
-1 =
+ y 2 = /c)5y, y 2 + 8 2 -fcy8,
82
ÂcSe,
and
Prove that
1 1
ttfo"
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)
2n-f2r
54. If
ar
prove that
and that
+3a t 4- 6a 2 +
... -f
a 2n_r
(4w + l)a,n = (2n
+ 1)(2 +f
n
)
if a,
)3,
y,
MISCELLANEOUS
561
(B)
55. If of 3n letters there are n a's, n 6's and n c's, the number of combinations
of these r together is equal to the number of combinations 3n ~ r together.
Also, if n>r>2n + 1, the number of combinations is
|(n + l)(n + 2) -f (r n)(2n number of combinations is
and the maximum

according as
56.
is
|{3(n-f
even or odd.
1 4- -
Assuming that
+~
-f
-f
l)
--
H-
. . .
or
1}
r)
-J(n-f I)
- log n tends
2
,
a limit v as
to
n -*
oo
prove that
(i)
lim
57.
Expand
lim
n v j'
-a:
l/-vf* /"I
1
V
obtain an expression for
^^~3
n~
-/
# 4 and
,
if
'
>
-2
t^
and prove that
n,
r
hm
- (2x ~ x 2 )
_ ^03
--(j*
'
)*
/yi
lim
'""
as far as the term containing

f%\
Ulj
H 2-<I'"* ~ IIf 3-*I'"'
a
M
*" x
/
5'
Findi
Find
T-"! 1
59.
"~
lo g
KQ
58.
n
~
log(l -a:
^
n ~ "2
(n
1
(li)
where
,_>o c^-rf*
a, 6, c,
are positive
* 2 + y a +2 2 = f a + i7 2 -f
60. If
and
show that
a;
+ y + 2 = f 4-^-f
3a:
^=(i7-{)
and
and
= 1,
+ <y??4-2: = 0,
2:
4-f
^!.
61. If n points are taken in space so that not more than 3 of them lie in any
plane and not more than 2 in any straight line, show that the points define
\n(n - 1) straight lines and \ \n 1 polygons of n sides.
------
- in which a is
x
- 1 and is
repeated any number of times, must have one of three
equal to
that if x satisfies the equation 2# 3 + 3# 2 - 3x - 2 ~ 0, the fraction
and
values,
62.
Prove that the continued fraction
a~ a
...
satisfies this equation.
63. If (1
+ x) n ~Co -cx+
-\
...c n x n ,
where n
'
38
2*
is
(n
w+lV
l)
n+1/'
64. If a, 6, c are real and I, ra, n are integers, find the values of
l
~ b) m (x - c) n has maxima or minima.
(x ~a) (x
I,
Determine which of these values give maxima and which minima,

m, n are all even, (ii) when I, m, n are all odd.
y + z = a(l -yz),
66.
o
Sum
the series
which
(i)
when
+ x~b(I
-zx),
for
13
x + y + z -xyz~c(\
30
55
+ 7^ + 77; + "l+7T1 + T + T^H~r7

4 |5
3
o
|2
1
~xy~ yz-zx).
to
MISCELLANEOUS
562
(B)
convergence of the series
67. Discuss the
I2n
E.
,n
w) 2
(l
for all values of z, real or complex, distinguishing cases of absolute
and conditional
convergence.
The equations of four
68.
(1)
(3)
lines are
y = a, z = a';
x = c, y = c';
= 6, * = &';
(2) 3
x=y=z.
(4)
Find the equations of the line drawn from the point (k, k, k) to cut the lines
(1) and (2).
Prove that two lines can be drawn to cut all the four given lines, and that these
k where
lines cut the line (4) in two points determined by x = y = z
9
(k-a)(k~b)(k-c)^(k-a')(k-h')(k-c').
69. Discuss the reality
and equality of the roots of

x* - 2A(3* 2 - 4x + 3) + 3A 2 =
for different real positive values of A.
70.
bag contains 21 balls of G different colours, there being 6 of the first
Show that the number of
colour, 5 of the second, 4 of the third, and so on.
different selections of 6 balls which can be made from the bag is 259.
Af(a)=f(a + w)-f(a)
71. If
f(a + xw) =f(a)
prove that
Use
A 2f(a) = AJ(a + w) -
+ xAf(a) + -^r^-
1)
J/(o), etc.
4 /() -f
2
- - .
given that
this to find log 7-063,
J
7
= 0-845098
log 7 -2
= 0-857332
log
--
x(x
J2
log
J3
log
log
12234
-334
11900
log 7-4
16
= 0-869232
-318
11582
log 7-6 = 0-880814

72.
series is
such that the
sum
of the rth term and the
(r
+ l)th
is
4
always r
Prove that
(i)
(ii)
73. If
the rth term

the
is
sum
is
%r(r
l)(r
r(r 2
of r terms
is
-r1
->
- -
1)
W^r
r
l) c
7^
'-
;).oO
+ ^{l-(~
2
r
l)
}.
a positive integer,
7)
74.
Prove that,
if -
- are fractions
s
nator of any fraction whose value
lies
such that qr-ps
between
p
q
and
\,
then the denomi-
- is
not
less
than q -f s.
Prove that there are two and only two fractions with denominators
which lie between jf and -J.
less
than 19
MISCELLANEOUS
563
(B)
Determine ranges of x for which the function (log x)jx (i) increases and
decreases as x increases.
Hence prove the following theorems, wherein n is a given positive number
and only positive values of x are considered
75.
(ii)
The equation n x
(i)
x has two
roots,
one root or none according to the value
of n.
The inequality n x >x n
(ii)
a consequence of either
is
x>n
x<n,
or
accord-
ing to the value of n.

State the critical values of n.
From
a bag containing 9 red and 9 blue balls, 9 are drawn at random, the
Show that the probability that 4 balls of each colour will
be included is a little less than -J.
76.
balls being replaced.
For
77.
continued fraction
the
(I
altered if a l9 a 29
An
78.
...
approximate value of
provided that <^<

error
is
a n are permuted
OTT.
approximately
------
prove that
...,
^ -f-
cyclically.
measured
<^,
radians,
in.
when
Establish this result
<^
is
3 sin
(f>
<^)
/180.
fc
nearly equal to
cos
r>
<
Hence express approximately the acute angles of a right-angled

2
terms of the sides and deduce that, if c 2 ~a'2
then
is
/ (2 -f
small and show that the
is
values of a and
\TT for all positive
triangle in
h.
79. Given a l things of one kind, a 2 things of another kind, etc., a r things of an
rth kind, show that the number of different groups which can be formed from one
or more of the above things is
(a 1
and show that

n members is
|-
80.
and
if
verify
if
[(n
When n^2,
r~4 and
-M) (n
-f
l)(a t
l)...(a r +l)-l,
a l <n<a 2 <a z <a
2) (n
+ 3) - (n - ax
tl
(n
- Oj +
1)
(w
- a x + 2)].
Zn^Vn-i + ^n-z*
if
xQ ~I,
xl
a^,
yQ
by induction that xn+l yn -xn yn+l = ( ~
Q,
l)
1,
2/i
n+1
,
and deduce that
2/n_i2/n
2/22/3
81.
number of groups having
the
Find the equation determining the values of x for which
stationary.
Hence, or otherwise,
exceeds
show
that,
if
is
an
integer,
sin mx/sin.
sin 2 war/sin 2
is
x never
2
.
82. A quadratic function of x takes the values y l9 y zt y%> corresponding to

three equidistant values of #. Prove that if 2/i + ,V 3 >2?/ 2 , the minimum value
of the function is
2
_
,
83.
Show
that
(n
+ l) n ~ l (n 4-2) n >3 n ( ]n ) 2
MISCELLANEOUS
564
84. The
any order.
by 11.
85. If
a number are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, written at random in

that the odds are 115 to 11 against the number being divisible
digits of
Show
w, n are
show that
positive,
86.
(B)
The
w-f
x 2n in the expansion of
coefficient of
87. If
-f
1 -f x*)
n
/
- x) 3
cz 2 2
is
= d,
&z + by 2
prove that
88.
Z2
2/3
23
Prove that
sin a
sin
cos a
cos
sin 2a
sin 2/J
sin
sin 3 a
sur
sin j
sin a
sin
sin
cos a
cos
89.
2/2
-4
sin
cos y
()3
y) sui
^(y
~ a)
sin v(a
j8)
j3).
2y
--
- sin
(p -y) sin (y a) sin (a
/?)
sin (a
-f-
/?
+ y).
Denoting the number of combinations of n
unlike, the
Show
from 3n
by
W 6' r
show that
number of combinations
letters taken r together, all the

of the lettersâre alike, the rest being
if r
is
that the number of combinations in groups of n which can be formed

letters, of which n are a and n are b and the rest unlike, is
VV
and show that
<? +
sum is
this
Prove that
1
if
is
+ Vn-s + - +
~
2 n (w + 2).
1
a positive integer,
n
n(n-l)
x+
t(w -!)(*_- 2)
3
1T2
TT2i"
1.
91. Investigate the convergence of the stories
whose nth term
is
92. Prove that
^__
"* ,/V
and
93. If
A,
nn
;
_
2n(2n
n(w-fl)
where
2 sin (a +
COS y
letters being unlike,
90.
sin
/Lt,
+ at~b both have
v are integers
[For instance,
and
+ 5^-f6 and
jtx
is
prime to
rational factors, then
v.
MISCELLANEOUS
For the fraction
94.
565
(B)
2
. . .
prove that
95. Discuss the reality of the roots of
16* 4 + 24* a +16^+9 = 0,

for all real values of k,
96. If ax*
for
all real
and solve the equation when k = ^2.
+ 2hx + b>0
show that
for all real values of x,
values of x, y,
z,
the coefficients being real.
97. 2 n players of equal skill enter for a tournament. They are drawn in pairs,
and the winners of each round are drawn again for the next. Find the chance
that two given competitors will play against each other in the course of the
tournament. Also show that if n -7 the chance that a given competitor either
wins or is beaten by the actual winner is tV
98. If thore are four relations,
for i = 1, 2 j= 1, 2
A fy + B& + Cfy + Djdj =
(B,C)_(C A)_(A,B)_(A
D)_(B,D)_(C,D)
~
~
~
;
show that
(a~d)
99. If sin
""(ft, d)
(c,
d)
(b, c)
x~xy 2 where x 2 and y - I
(ii)
(c,
a)
(a,
are both small,
'
ft)
show that
x*= -12(t/~l)+(y-l) 2 approx.

c
of Craps, each player in turn acts as banker.' The banker

throws with two dice numbered 1 to 6. If he throws 7 or 11 he wins. If he throws
If he throws any other number, he throws again and con2, 3 or 12, he loses.
tinues to throw until either the number he threw first or 7 turns up. In the first
case he wins, in the second he loses.
Show that the odds against the bank are 251 to 244.
100, In the
101
where
If
a,
/?
game
un u n _i + aun + bu n
_!
+ c = 0, show
that
are the roots of
unless a = jS, in which case

1
Un - a
Hence obtain the general
results so obtained agree
102. If
solution of the first equation,
with those in Exercise
rv
cosx
COS
XXXVIII,
COS a
COS
COS a
COS
cos
2
2
2
prove that sin y 8in z = cos a
-f
ft
oos 2 /3
cos y
-2
oos a oos
ft
ft
oos y.
and show that the

15, p. 372.
MISCELLANEOUS
566
103. If
o
*-.**-?*
=*,
x
x d
+
+y
(B)
!=,<) or z = a-c.
*++
o
a
then either
a 2x* + b*y* + cW = 0,
104. If
aW + b y
z
l-
and
+c
a z
z*^Q,
-f
4
?/
-f c
4 3
a e z 3 + & 6 */ 3 4- cV = a 4 ^ 2
and
1
,
y
4
=--& = - -c
a;
prove that
= 0,
&y + c z
4
-f-
2
.
Y are two places on a road, 4 miles apart. A man A starting from

X at any time between one and four o'clock, walks to Y at 4 miles an hour. A
man B, starting from Y at any time between one and four o'clock, walks to X at
105.
and
4 miles an hour. Show that the odds in favour of the men meeting on the way
are as 5 4, all times of starting being equally likely.
[Suppose that A and B start at x hrs. and y hrs. past one, respectively. Taking
axes Ox, Oy at right angles, set off OL~3 units along Ox and draw a square
on OL. The total number of cases is represented by the area of the square, and
the number of favourable cases by the part of the square between the lines
:
*-y=
106.
1.]
that, in a game of whist, the chance that a hand is void of a suit is

Also the chance that in 25 deals a certain player has a hand void of
Show
about -$.
a suit at
least twice is
about 0-358.
[Chance that a hand

107. If
is
void of a suit
u~ax* + 4bx* + 6cx + 4:dx + e and
show that the
roots of
w=
are given
by
Gy3J
t
-rC'JJ.]
is
any root of
ANSWEES
EXERCISE
PAGE
10.
7.
28 2 -27 2
82
11. 23. 6,28,496.
-3 2
10. 212, 213,
27. 120.
28. 360.
...
22. 20, 4836.
219, 220.
30. (i)**'"**;
-
(ii)
(p-1)
EXERCISE
22. 19.
(?)
5-394, 0-006
(ii)
2-594
II
0-002
EXERCISE
31.
1.
5* 3 -20z 2 + 80a;-314; 1258.
3.
ia-V*' + tfa-tt
5.
3z 2 + a;-3;
8.
2.
(iii)
11.
13.
15.
2-276
0-002.
III
z 4 - 3* 3 - 6* 2 - &x - 10
-21.
fc^-i^ + fcc'-fta + A; ~Â-3z~7.

6. 3z 3 + o;-3;
5a + l.
7.13.
3
2
3
(i)(x + 5) -13(z + 5) -f56(*4-5);
(ii) (x + I) ~(x+ l) + 80
4.
+ 5^2.9. (ii)jf-75y + 7; (iii)

-n + 7n(n-hl)-67i(7i + l)(n4-2)4
9. (1)2/3
10.
T(p-1)
~^;
0,^.
i/
15?/ -f
257.
12.
(x-3y)(2x + y)(x* + xy + y
7z 2 - lla; - 6.
z
).
16.
+ 4x 2 - 6x - 2.
3* - Ixy + 4y 2
23.
x 2 - 3y 2 + 3z*
14. 3a; 3
2
18.
20. a(
21.
a=3, 6=-3,
= l.
32. 22. p* - 3q z + 3r 2 - s 2 = 0.
24.
26.
a=5, 6- -3, c = l.
a = 8, 6=0.
25. a
-w = 0.
2
= l, 6-2.
27.
29. a 2 + 2)(a? + 2y-3).

31. (i)
(x-l)*(x + 5); x + 3)*(x-3).
A = l,(2a? + y-2)(aj-y + l); A = - 7/8, (* - 7y + 4) (x - y - 4)/8.
A=-l,(y-l)(y-2); A- -2, -(
28. (3a;-4y
30.
33.
34.
EXERCISE IV
.
16. 120.
21.
23.
(i)
17. 60.
#i"("+i)
(n)|tt
18. 15.
20.
(i)
2 2 ".
+ l.
(-l)Ca ifn=2m; (-l)(n + l)05, if n=2m + l.

f
HIGHER ALGEBRA
568
EXERCISE V
PAGE
43.
1.
5.
(s-l)
2
(s-1)
8. JC:=:r 3
10.
2.
2*4-
1.
3.
6.
3z~4.
7.
+ l, 7=3.
x*
+ x-3.
4.
= i(x + 2), y = J(a;-2).

Z^l-fz 2 7^1 JC
'
9.
A=-2 = l; 4= -*,=-!, 0=1, !>=-*.

ft
EXERCISE VI
50.
3.
18.
51.
-2x* + 3Zx
pâ+f-g-fi,
25.
24. 6.
-2.
26.
31.
-4(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)(a + 6 + c).
l
33.
2
~(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)(Z a + 3Z 6c).
2
2
2
(l-a&c)(l-a ~& -c -f2a&c).
36. (16)(25)(34)
(12)(24)(36)(65)
(16)(65)(53)(24).
EXERCISE
60.
1. 2, 7T/6;
4. (i) (5
61.
5.
-7T/6; 2,
2,
Ô
(x
+ 1/ 2
5 F
2
)
(a:- iy)(x*
(i)1625;
cos
*>
(iii)
(iii)
+1
+ y*)
(ii)
y\
--
tan"" 1
7i
L_
(x -2/
7.
13/125.
7.
3.
i( 1
+ 0/25.
(18
+ cot-
sin n( tan~" x
\
y
i*
1
._
l~2t; i(ltV3).
13.
~7r/3.
EXERCISE
67.
VII
-.
D
2,
-0/13; (ii)(- 2 + 2)/8;

2
(i)
(ii)
6.
I2xyz.
30.
+ a + 26)(a + 6 + 2c).
32. 3(6H-c-f-2a)(c
62& 2 y-
-f
27.
-(6-fc-2a)(c + a-26)(a + 6-2c).
35.
q
1.
29.
34.
2z
4.
y-12xyz.
VIII
2-i, -4-3i.
EXERCISE IX
78.
3.
KX + 4r = (l+* + iy)/(l-*-iy), then X =

and
2
a
(l -a: -i/ )/[(l
x 2 + t/ 2 = l.
ZÔ,
y-2?//[(l-a;) + 2/ ];
Geometrically,
take any line ^4OJ5, so that BO OA, and draw AL,
9 parallel
to Ox to meet a line through 1, parallel to BOA, in L and
con2
if
BM
struct
OMN
similar to
opposite directions.
1+3,
1-zand
hence L
5.
If
OM
is
If
OL1, with L* ION,
represents
(l+z)/(l-z). If |z| =
a right angle
a=p + iq, px + qy=p + q

2
pendicular to qx =py.
2
,
and
z,
l,
LOM
described in
then L, M,
represent
O^lLl, J5O13f arerhombi;
N lies on Oy.
which passes through
(p, q)
and
is
per-
ANSWERS
EXERCISE X
569
PAGE
86.
1.
1 = 0;
4z - llz + 9z - 2=0
4x- 3
(i)
2x*-3x-
(iii)
(i)4z
3.
t(3
-8z 2 + 8;r-3=0;
N/6)
2, 9/2,
t(
(iv)
6.
4.
2, 1/3,
-2,
9.
8. 4, 2, 1, i.
+ 9x 2 +
llx-f 3=0
2z - 9x*+llx
-3=0;
x3 -4
(ii)
N/5).
1/2.
2x*
3
2.
5.
(ii)
3/2, 1(1
\/5).
7.
1/2.
5, 3, 1,
10. 3,
3, 6.
-2,
1.
1/2,
1/2.
2
4
x - Sx - 15
(ii):r -23x 4-59x-52=0.
3
3 2
14z + lla; -75 = 0; (ii) a; 4 25* 3 + 375z 2 - 1260*- 11700=0.
z
3
11.
(i)
12.
(i)
EXERCISE XI
94.
3.
4,
7.
V,
-2.
-1.
4.
2.
11,
-3.
15, 3,6, -4.
8.
14. 6.
18. 2, 2, 2/3,
3-1,
5.
4,
9.
7,
2,0.
<>.
6.
-0.
13.
4.
17.
3/2,2/3.
16. 2/3.
19. 3/2, 2/3.
1/2.
EXERCISE XII
99. 17.
iv3a 2 + 2a& + 36 2 ).
-a, -6, -i(a4~&
EXERCISE
i
'
2.
^ i;
J5___^___?
T
x
9
^
<r
.c
1
i
*-3 x-2
^T
\2
(x-2)
^_
(x-2)
'
'
J-+-
x-l
*
5.
XIII
ft
5.
x-2
x-3
X4-2
-1)
Q
(a:
_ _____
j^
_i_
______ 4.
x + 2) 3
*
10.
"'
13
x"2
-fl" (x 2 -fl) 2
_1
x 2 +~2
"
L(x+l)
x 2 + x-fl'(x 2 -fx+l) 2
1,1,1,1
-I)
14.
JLr
1
3
2(x-fl)
HIGHER ALGEBRA
570
PAGE
104.
15.
*_
-l + -JL_ +
1 -ax
-ox
'
'x-a'
(a-b)(a-c)
18.
Put x^din Ex.
19.
x + a + b + c + Z.
r.
7-7-7
(a~b)(a-c)
1.
2.
+ l)(2n- I).
l-n(2n
7.
Tzn(n + l)(?i-f 2)(3n + 13).

10. 2926.
^(47i 2 -f7i-l).
J
Miw 1).
!)(/<- f2)(3/*
iV/t^j
14.
pui>x~d.
19.
(i)
(n
})
i-/i(6n
8.
(ii)
iw(n
23. 715.
(B)
2.^.
1.ÎV\UIV
13. 4300.
- l)(9w a -9w
-2), where
21. 344.
EXERCISE XIV
117.
12. 50336.
%n(n + l)(n + 2,).
15.
'2).
-3-l);
20. 220.
(A)
11. 286.
t-
-f-
16. -iVw("
'
4.
3.
9.
x-a
x-a
EXERCISE XIV
116.
-b)(a-c)
17.
a*
105.
'
(a
3.
6.
n(29n 2 +
138r*4- 157)
*
"
36(ft4-l)(rZ'4-2)(tt4-3)
10
2.5....(3n + 2j"
llf
'
1 _ Li?_i -Jil^^tl)
2 2.4.6 .... (2w + 2)"
1~,
17.
^y/2.
18.
19.
140
4(2n + 7)(2ra
Q|
i
__.
i
I
i
I
si
n(n-f 2)
ANSWERS
571
PAGE
'
(l-.r)
n)'
26.
fc
where k^=2 n
(I-*) 2
2(1-.*:)
------
27.
where & = 2 r
28. 1
EXERCISE XV
129. 8.
131.20.
a3 + & 3
(i)
- (a 3 + 6 3
(ii)
(0-y)(y-a)(y-|8);
(i)
36.
(iii)
(ii)
(jB
y)(y
- a)(a0)(a +
y)
EXERCISE XVI
143.
146.
1.
19.
V|7
0,
39
+ &2 + c2
).
= 30 2 + 20 + 14 2 + 5
2
2
.
EXERCISE XVII
158.
1.
^ ii
-Tir;
-2, -1,3.
(ii) 1,
-2:
3:
2.
10.
3.
-3/2.
EXERCISE XVIII
165.
3.
4. (1
*N/2,
5. (0, 0),
V,
IT J-N/2),
-f
9. (1,1,
\/3, q= N/3),
7. 2, 1, i,
in
any
- iTt'),
i>/57~,
t,
-2
-2
iN/2,
T 0-
order.
6. 2, 3, 4,
in
8. (3, 5),
-f,
any
tD
x4:
or -4^36
y, a) y,
(W54^, W^T ii^S),

or
a;
= -y
wy
*v2).
-|),
order.
-^).
(f,
2 or -*
(a-iVSdbl^, i^ v
a fourth root of f
4
2
2
2
2 2
4
[Use the identity, # + x y + y = (# + xy + y ) (x
12.
- i=F iV57).
1),(-|, -f,7).
10. x, MX,
11.
-1
(2, 0), (0, 2),
The only
solutions are (0, a), (a, 0).
xy0 or a
2
,
and that the
[Remove
-xy + y
fractions
rangement of
= i{l
with ftny ar _
signs.
+ 26 + 2c - 2a)}, etc., with any arrangement of signs.

b 2 + a 2c 2 -b 2 c*)labc, etc., the upper or lower sign to be taken
14.
a;
15.
16.
&*=a a (& a + c 2 -a 2 ), etc., where
(a
).]
and show that
latter alternative is impossible.]

_ t
13. (1, 1),
s/(l
throughout.
17. (a,6,c)
2o
or
a
Jfc
2
2
2
a
2
2
2
2
a
=(6 + c -a )(c + a -6 )(a + 6 -c ).
a;=(a6-a6 c~l)/(a6
c2
-6 2c + 6),
etc.
[Put
s=
HIGHER ALGEBRA
572
PAGE
165.
= (a + 6 + c)/(a-&-c),
or
18. (1,1,1)
etc.
(-3, -3, -3), (>J2, dW2, 1TV2), in any order.
19. (1,1,1),
20. (i,|, -i).
J^V(&
21. If
+ c 2 ~a 2 ),
B=^/(c + a*-b
2
(Voc,
),
2z~A+B,
2z=J3-hC', 2y=C+A,
2
2
[Show that 2x(y - 2) = 6 - c .]
then
22.
N/(
giving eight solutions.
(i(a-6+c)VQ, J(6 + c-a)

Q = Za*~2Ebc.
N/6c),
C=
VG) where
Zbc^Q, the only solutions are (0, 0, 0), (a, 0, 0), (0, 6, 0), (0,
2bc=Q, the equations are not independent. [Show that
23. If
0, c).
If
x(y-z)/bc =
n>i
24.
0, 0,
rt ,
--
x=
or
..
= ....]
a(ca-b )(ub-c
25.
(-!,-!,
26.
The values of
27.
*=y=a: =y =a.
etc.
-2,
3, |, f).
28. (f,V).
166. 29. (2,1), (-1, -2), (-5,4).

31. a 3 -f-6 3 + c 3 â 2 (6 + c)-f6 2 (c + a)
(i)
-1), (i,i,i), (if,0).

x, y, u, v are (3, -2, |, |) or
32.
+ c 2 (a + 6).
Subtract the second equation from the first, and divide by x-y;
4
3
5
then, from the fact that
prove (x + y*)(l -xy}~ 2a -a ;
2
z
are roots
of
x, y
(2a-l)t -\-a(2a-l)t + a (a-l)=Q, obtain
(ii)
(2a~l)(o;
from
(i)
+ 2/ 2 )=a 2 (2a- l)(z 3 -ft/ 3 )=a 3 (a-2), and

z
xy = 2a* -a + l =a (a l)/(2a 1)
,
for
(iii),
(iv),
(v),
multiply the result
- 2a -
obtain 3a 4
39.
40.
a 4 + 6 4 =c 2 (a 2 + 6 2 ).
167. 42. 16:5: -21.
46.
EXERCISE XIX
1.
i(3dbv/5),
3.
i(-lW3), i(-lW15).
1, i(-3V15), i(-lW15).
5.
7.
-1, -1,
8.
-1,
9.
-1, -1,
t,
2.
i(5iV21).
*,
i(3
(-
4. i(
6.
-1,
+ K/7).
i[3-f N/33
>/(6 N/33-42)J,
K-1 + W3).
16.
i[3
k=-3.
EXERCISE XX
184.
(ii)
1, and the results follow.

2
=
...^...-Za
+ 2i;bc.
2x(b + c-a)
2
3 3
4 2 2
4 2c
3a&
3a
6
4ac 3 ) + 16d 3 (a 2 - 6 2 ) 2 -0.
-f
-f 36
(a
) (a
34.
177.
thus
2-68061
0-80125
4-22524.
1.
(i)
2.
2 cos 40 or 1-53209, 0-34730, -1-87939.

(ii) 0-69073, 0-11479, -6-30553.
(i)
(ii)
(ii)
by a 4-1, and
ANSWERS
573
EXERCISE XXI
PAGE
198.
9.
10.
-lN/2, l2i.
i(-l
11. t(l
13.
14.
12. |(1
*s/3).
-2>/2, -4 2*.
a
2 3x + 3),
i(# -'# + 1)(#
2
199.
1(1
N/13)",
{x
s/5),
1(3
N/17).
- x(2 - <V3) - 1^3} {z 2 - x(2 -f
i>/3) 4-
{a;
- V5
v2 + 2\^5,
18. s/5
v 2 - 2^5
the other substitutions are given
by g + 2# + 5^0.
2
20.
Roots as in Ex. 10
the other substitutions are given by
-3=0.
EXERCISE XXII
214.
7.
8.
= t(y -9y);
z*-10a; 2 + 1^0;
8
s/2
- i(i/ 3 - lly)
-18i/- 110 = 0;
-s/3=
3
7/
N/
z9
- 15z 6 - 117z 3 - 125^0.
EXERCISE XXIV
233.
1.
Oscillates
(i)
between
- 2 and + 2
(iv)
and 3
(ii)
converges to 2
diverges
(iii)
oscillates
between
(v) diverges.
EXERCISE XXVI
254.
255.
1.
(i)
7.
Divergent.
Convergent
Convergent.
15.
Convergent.
Divergent
if
19. Convergent.
23. a?<l.
24.
oscillates finitely.
(ii)
8.
11.
18.
12.
Convergent.
16. Divergent.
p-q+
^ 0,
25.
10. Divergent.
Convergent.
14. Divergent.
17.
Convergent.
convergent
20. Convergent.
x^l.
Divergent.
13.
9.
Divergent.
if
2>--fl<0.
22. Convergent.
21. Divergent.
x^l.
26.
x<l.
x<l.
29.
x>a.
30.
x^l.
31.
39.
40.
&.
41. -h.
27.
x>I.
38.
28.
x<l.
A-
EXERCISE XXVII
264.
10.
265.
13.
(i)
Between i(5-Vil) and
(ii)if
or between 2
i,
and
|a:|
1-t.
EXERCISE XXVHI
282.
283.
1.
15.
i, i.
2. 0,
-oo.
f, 0.
3.
4.
1.
5.
7/3.
6.
GO.
(ii)
-(l-&r(l+aO
(v)
-n
""
cos n 1 x sin
2
;
(iii)
(vi)
(a
-2z 2 )/(a 2 + z 2 );
n tann-1 x
sec 2 x.
(iv)
7.
fa;*.
8.
1.
HIGHER ALGEBRA
574
PAGE
283.
-(hx + by+f)l(ax + hy + g);
16.
(i)
21.
yâx.
-ay)l(ax-y*).
(x*
(ii)
when z^l/3.
24. 4/27,
the graph has a point of inflexion at (1, 0), where the gradient
is zero;
another at (3/2, -1/16), where the gradient is -J; a
minimum at (7/4, -27/256).
25. 1,7/4;
284.
27.
Between x~ -2 and x 0, and for x>3

at ( - 2, - 65)
min. at (3, - 190).
max. at
(0,
-1); min.
29. 18 cubic inches.
EXERCISE XXX
a
= 2,
s=
304.
305.
18.
315.
2.
2e
9.
+z+
-[(z~l)e*
3?
3.
l,
Zx^
Use
1,
or a = if, * = 3/5, 3/5, 5/6.

substitute the values of 27s 3 , 2J^ 2 , 2k.
5/2;
3
and
-272:(a; + 3)
,
EXERCISE XXXI
3.
c-1.
4.
e.
5.
6.
3e/2.
15e.
7.
1-2/e.
8.
-1/c.
l].
EXERCISE XXXII
322.
5.
9.
(ii)
0-84510.
6.
-3/4m; + l/(4w +
1-04139.
(ii)
13
12.2-log,2.
oô
323.
,r
&1
c--,.-;
17.
1-010299956?
19.
20.
-4
(x
+ 2) +
15.
7.
1-11394.
(ii)
21og e 2-l.
11.
10. log, 2.
l).
-^-^.^l.c^-;a^.
0-3010299957.
+ _L_ (5 _ a;2)lo g i_ a;)

(
+ 3^ + 2^) +
%x
x2
-^
(8
- x 3 log
)
(1
- *).
EXERCISE XXXIII
339.
10.
Convergent for
13.
(i)
If
all
values of
y>a + ]8+l;
(ii) if
(see Art. 11,
y>a +
Ex.
1).
]8.
EXERCISE XXXIV
349.
1.
8th term.
5.
6th and 7th terms.
7.
<<f
23. 1-5860098; 5
10~
5th term.
3.
8th term.
6.
5th and 6th terms.
4.
llth term.
8.
350. 21. 10-0033322284; 5

25. 1-2431626;
llth term.
2.
10~ 13
4.10~ 8
22. 1-414214;
24. 1-70998;
26. 1-319508;
10~ 7
10~ 6
.
10~ 7
ANSWERS
575
EXERCISE XXXV
PAGE
356.
10.
(n-f
12.
P-<?, whore P =
13.
P-g,
where
+ 2+
Q--^
2
1.
57i
n+ ^9
-?i~9
~~
II* 2 + 26^ + 57a: 4 + I20x 5

2 n 2 ~ - 3.
- 1 + 3 2* - 3 W
+ 2o; + 2x 2 - 4.T3 - 34z 4 - I48,r 6
(i) 1 4- 4o; 4-
1
(ii)
7?
EXERCISE XXXVII
365.
1.
366.
4.
1
(iJKl + S"- ),
(20/i
- 27
-f
i(2?i
~
3 3 n ), J (20w 8
5.
K(23-3n)2^ + (-l)].
370.
1.
2n
371.
8.
- 34n -f 27 - 3 3 ~ n ).
6.
-J + l +
EXERCISE XXXVIII
10.
4>
~2
.
A .2 n -f-.3 n + i(4n-f7).
W2
2n-l 2n-3
"~'
11.
2n
EXERCISE XXXIX
384.
1.
s 3 + 2a?-l.
2.
(i)J(4n-l);
(ii)
and
and
EXERCISE XXXVI
359.
15
131
""'
13n
HIGHER ALGEBRA
576
EXERCISE XL
PAGE
394.
1.
+2
H,
|,
(i) J,
-ffs
J.
+3
+4
-3' -"12
'
5
D
T+r+BTsTi*
+
'
J.
111
6.
(ii) 1,
a-2+
'
^~2^3~4-
-I
-^-^-
2a 2
5*
-a~l
*
'a-2'a-l'
2a 2
3a
EXERCISE XLI
412.
8.
10.
-f& = 0-242253
12
yards
. . .
^=
0-242268
....
3 inches.
EXERCISE XLII
419.
127, 55
(i)
3.
5.
29 + 41*, 12+17*.
7.
155
+ 8*,
13. 3,
(ii)
2.
+ 27*.
+ 225*,
10. 39, 8
420.
30, 13.
1.
137
+ 199*.
11.
18.
17. 67.
20. 14, 2, 3
22. 2, 1, 3
20 + 29*.
4.
9+
6.
24 + 7*, 11 +
13*,
12*.
9.
1,
20;
8, 9.
A-A; #-
12.
3, 2,
x = 205 -17*;
13,
12,
x = 201 -
17*.
21. 11, 3, 7.
23.
4, 3, 1.
2.3.7.
1149 + 1540*.
24. 1149;
26.
25.
27.
+ 8*.
f + A.
1, 13, 8.
14. 57, 43,
13, 10.
+ 27*,
8. 6, 1.
10, 20.
19
One
12 12s. 8d.
EXERCISE XLIII
428.
12. 2,
3,
4, 13
5,
8,
15
10, 12
11, 14.
EXERCISE XLIV
434.
1.
(i)9+13*
3.
435.
8.
11.
(ii)75
+ 179*
(i)78 + 1217*;
+ f + A-117 + 77 k.
2. (i)
149
+ 77*;
(iii)
379 + 770*.
(ii)
30+179*.
(ii)
1800+ 1861*
9.
(iii)
f+
12. 3
540+ 1009*
+ H-2.
+ 23*, -7 + 23*.
(iv)
1683 + 1901*.
10.
ANSWERS
577
PAGE
435.
15. 2,
14. 1735 + 3465*,

+ 66*, 9 + 66*.
2
x + l=s(inod 7) has no solution.
4
16.
2,
etc.
13
13.
-3, -4.
17. 3.
EXERCISE XLV
442.
1.
those of 19 in reverse order
1, 10, 5, 12, etc., i.e.
since 7
number
the 6th
is
2 1 2 5 , 2 7 2 11 2 13 , 2 17 , or
,
2.
1, 3, 9, 10, 13, 5, 15,
number
or
444.
12.
is
divisible
2, 20, 36, 32, 37,
14. Tf
16.
is
2n-fl
since
preceding,
3 2n +*,
is
i.e.
every other
prime
to
17-1,
6.
41, hence recurring periods contain 5 digits

the remainders in the division of 2 by 41.
by
= 271; w = 123, ^' ^903342366757.

p-1 occurs as a remainder.
7i=41, w
Because
and 6
1,
2, 13, 14, 15, 3, 10.
11, 16, 14, 8, 7, 4, 12, 2, 6
10,5, 11, 14,7, 12,
3,
90999
the
in
after
a period of 3,
a factor of (19-1);
1, 7, 11,
EXERCISE XLVI
445.
4. 25.
1.
1, 7, 11.
2.
15.
3.
5.
5.
8, 33.
6.
2, 10, 19.
7.
19fc9, 19&2
8.
(25, 214), (54, 2157), (67, 4120).
18& + 4.
EXERCISE XLVII
447.
1.
10.
2.
15.
3.
5. 5.
4. 4.
4.
EXERCISE XLVIII
456.
2.
2,
4.
6,
6.
- 3,
8.
Two
10.
- 1), (I, 2),

(3, 4).
- 7) and two in (0,
- 4) and two in (5,
1).
5.
6).
7.
(2, 3), (3, 4).
9.
(-2, -
in (1,2).
- 6, -
5),
1, 0), (4, 5).
- 8, - 9), (13, 14),

(14, 15).
- 9, - 10) and two in (3, 4).
3.
11.
One
1), (0,
root in
l)and two in
(1, 2).
EXERCISE XLIX
466.
2-6306166.
1.
1-3569, 1-6920.
2.
1-7838.
4.
16-0428539.
5.
0-3472964, 1-5320862, -1-8793826.
6.
0-1147994, 0-6907309.
7.
13-8440609, 14-2895592.
5-2100150,5-2973245.
9.
17-7459667. -1-9216606.
8.
10. 1-2783089, 1-5511616.
3.
11. 1-4007219, 1-5823564.
12. 1-0156820, 1-52858586.
13. 3-4334634, 3-6617081.
14. 1-7320508, 1-8666161.
15. 4-4707625, 4-7814825.
16. 2-59861938, 2-76190631.
17. 2-1010205, 2-1084952.
18. 7-3355540.
19.
(i)
3-3548487
(ii)
4-4641016
(in)
0-6386058.
(1, 2).
HIGHER ALGEBRA
578
EXERCISE
LIII
PAGE
c+
504.
1.
(i)6720;
9.
1024.
10.
116280.
505.
13.
(i)
20.
(i)44; (ii)20.
n
17.
27.
(i)
506.
480.
(ii)
2.
22.
\\n.
57
47
(ii)
1771
(i)
(ii)
a~ l
.C+*>-i c
m
1895040; (ii) 145680.

969
(iv) 165
(iii) 885
;
28. 23,
15.
(iii)
7.
\n-lj\r.
29. 42.
(v) 552.
30. 15.
EXERCISE LIV
506.
1.
C%-('$.
EXERCISE LV
523.
1.
6.
(ii)
5/12
(iii)
5/9.
1/12;
(ii)
125/1296;
(iii)
1/36
(i)
8. (i)
10.
15.
(ii)
23.
12.
18.
(ii)(ft-l)/2;
(n-
(iii)
1/8.
9.
25.
;. (ii)
2/7.
(m + l)(2n-m -2)/n(n-
(iii)
(i)
7.
20/27,
(ii)
21. (n
l)2w,
1).
496/729.
+ l)(3n + 2) pence.
2257/54145.
(ii)
1/7
(i)
2(n-7w-l)/n(fl-l);
2162/54145
(i)
4. 5/33.
14/33.
155/648.
l/2w.
19. (i)l//*;
22.
236/270725.
13. (i)2//i;
524.
3.
(i)6/55; (ii)4/ll.
(i)
Zp
(H)
24. 73/648.
525.
25. (0-55) 7
OC
Ab.
(i)
A
p-,
]6
13
5i
3-0
2197
13
13
.
4U~ 2-0-82.I
/'
1_2
P = 4 tf
/;; \
11 )
I
13
'
13
49
5"6"
13
~4.*=P
>
(iii)
97
Z/.
Tsp +
J ~
U/ ?71--^
(\\
i$p'-"-p.
2fi
'
-^01-30
~ 833
2_^__3_26..
49
/::\
11 /
>
P /_ O.
a
24
50
_2_R
51
26
49
_2 _5
.
__
48'-/?,
526.
29.
(i)6/w(w~l); (ii)6(-3)/?i(w-l);
33.
(i)
35.
1/2.
36.
(i)
1/6
(ii)
pp'p" to
34.
7/9.
(1
-p)(l
-j>')(l
-XO
(i)
(iii)
1/4
(n-3)(n-4)/n(w-
(ii)
^'(1 -X')
(ii)
to (1 -jp)(l
EXERCISE LVI
541.
542.
5.
(i) (2, 1),
6.
(i)
8.
(i)[|a(a-l)
(50, 31)
(ii) (3,
(25, 1), (623, 25),
...
2), (29, 18)
(7775, 312),
+ l, i(a-l)];
(ii)
[Ja(a
(iii) (5,
...
2), (12, 5).
+ 1) +
1,
1).
2/3.
J(a
+ 1)].
-^)X'.
ANSWERS
579
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES (A)

or
n -! and n 2 + l.
2
4.
2.
ri*
5.
a + c-6-d, a + d-6-c.
i-i + i-A + iis;
(iii)
*=-i
6.
8.
10.
1L
^. V _,, + 1 o=o.
21. a6
26.
29.
>/o
= c + l.
a?=i(n +
23.
or
l)
(a~6) + c a ~c 3 =:2a~6.
Convergent if a? <1 or if a;= 1.
a-4-6^0 and
(i)
c1
the series
is
Convergent
(ii)
30.
12.
1(14-3^);
(i)
p> i,
if
Divergent
divergent if
p> 1,
if
convergent
divergent
if
a?
|
|>
When
a?=
p^%.
if
(ii)
31. d 6 (
>9, none
34. If
35.
46z= -24 + 15.

-.
3.
4,
- 7 sea <0, four
real,
io
4* A;
+ 10
5,
2
49.
Equate the factors to

4
59.
a=
l,
or
= l,
A:
43.
i(5N/17).
P 4- Q,
- x)
r- log (1
where
or
o>
o>
real.
2
.
4.
x=~2*J2
ic
2* A; 2
- 1 two
39.
53.
a<
real,
P-fcuQ,
Convergent unless x =
54.
206 + 2 lOn.
= 0. [y0, ~l,x= 4, are asymptotes;

a;
66
etc -
y is a minimum at (
(i)
(ii)
-1+e-l
4
/
76.
Since
\m
<e< 3)
2
.'.
<y <4(6 - a).
6 * 05
74.
71. 32/9.
56.
1.
_l- -i
/4\ 3
/3\ 2
2
,
"
X*1 1
...()
<8.
(l
(|) (|)
L)
Consider the arithmetic and geometric means of the factors of
P.2 2 .3 3 ..... nn
when
written at full length thus
1.2.2.3.3.3....
83.31.
85.
Minimum
87.
is
values
maximum
when
(i)
value
x~a
(ii)
a;=^(a-
and - 4^f
are
minimum
values.
2,
-i).]
HIGHER ALGEBRA
580
91.0,
2,
96.
QO.
Put p^llm, g = l/7i.
99.
l+l
?-^
108. 4*, 6*,
-0-68233.
112.
-4-61015.
110.
-1047.
102. 946,
2-a,
^>
123.
3
ul+^+î+ir^
(iii)
& = 0,
g 4w+a
= 3 4- 6n,
2
=n
* )q
(B)
'>
g 4w ^3 = 5 + 6n,
+ 2w, for* = 0,
1, 2, ....
6.
15. 3
-3?k-3*k 2 and
of the form 6k
21.
22.
The values of - a,
23.
31.
is
1,
3^fc,
where
has the values
A;
1.
6, c
are
pz
~-~
2
.
and similar expressions.
(p-q)(p-r)
and
16
29.
e~i, 0.
2+8e-f32e 2
1, <o, o>
0.
--3-7c.
and
33.
(i)
(ii)
x < 4, divergent
Convergent
Oscillates between finite limits.
if
35.
D = IJ(a
36.
Put
+ a 2 o> + a a w 2
-i-
64.
a 4 o> 8 + a 5 a> 4
x=a + h, y=a + k, z=a +
x ^ 4,
l,
2
)
where
where
# -= -
oscillates if
4.
-1.
<o
h, k and Z->0.
44. (logs) 2 , 2lg*,
41. 5-674619.
58.
if
a:
2
,
X
xê*, 2 9
x
,
x*.
59. (Ioga-log6)/(logc-logd;).
Let a, j9, (a<)3) be the roots of Zl(x~b)(x-c)=Q. (i) If I, m, n are odd,

x a gives a max. and x=j8 a min. value, (ii) If Z, m, n are even, cc=a
and x = j3 give max. values, and x=a, 6, c give min. values, each zero.
c-a
Put
c-6
67. Converges absolutely if
|l<t,
verges, but not absolutely.
diverges
if
||>J.
If
||=t,
it
con-
ANSWERS
581
'
(a-k)(b-k)
(a'~ k) (b'-k)
(a'
> 2, the roots are all real

if A < 0, all are imaginary
69. If A
-k)(b-k)'
< A < 2, two are real and two imaginary

if A = 1 or 2.
if
;
;
equal roots
71. 0-8489892.
73.
For the
first part,
use Chap.
show that the

second part,
r
sum
15, p. 223, putting
of the series <
6 to oo
to e
and
+l
w= -1.
4n-t-l
decreases as
3?t
increases as x increases from
75. (logo;)/a;
from
XIV,
<
(ii)
One root if < n < 1 two roots if

nx > xn if x < n < e, or if e < n < x.
;
A rough graph of
(log x)/x should
84. Consider the number of

sum is 17 or 28.
85. This
is
so if
/
I
ways
\wM-i
rr
in
P<4,
all
< n < ee
x increases
1
no root
digits
the roots
* = N/2,
-
if
n > ee
can be chosen so that their
then use Chap. XIV, 11.
and comparison test (iii), p. 250.

are imaginary; if A; 2 ^4 two are real and two
imaginary.
If
be drawn.
which 4
>1
91. Convergent; use Euler's constant, p. 311,

95. If
1
(i)
For the
=-oo.-8in
tcos- + Binwhere
Bin-j
or
INDEX
The numbers
Abel's inequality, 330
test for convergence, 331
theorem on multiplication of series, 338
Absolute error, 15
least residues, 421
value, 13
residues
of
terms, 8
Approximations, "M, 15-17

to roots of equations, 456-461
to sums of series, 260
Approximate value as a fraction
?'(l +x) (Newton), 347, 348
of log e (l+a;), 323
of log e (a/6) (Napier), 323
Archimedes' axiom (Eudoxus), 13
Associated residues, 425
of
Asymptote, 473
Bernoulli's numbers, 113, 114, 378
theorem, 115
Bessel's interpolation formula, 381
Bicycle -gear as revolution counter, 435
Bilinear substitution, 80
Binomial equations, 170, 171

solution of
a"-l,
series, 263,
reciprocal
form,
Tschirnhauseri's transformation, 105
Bordered determinant, 138

Bounds of a function, 286
of a sequence, 237
of,
Cardan's solution of cubic, 180

Cauchy's condensation test, 325
Change of order of terms, 240, 258
Cofactors of determinant, 123
Combinations and permutations, 403
Commutative law, 13
Comparison tests for convergence, 250
Complex functions of a real variable, 270
Complex numbers, 52 et seq.
modulus and amplitude, 56
product and quotient, 60
use as operator, 76
Complex sequences, 243

Complex variable, 201, 334
in binomial series, 328
limits and continuity, 202
Associative law, 13
Binomial
into
258
60, 70
Arithmetic mean, 221

Arithmetical progression,
transformation
104
Brackets, introduction and removal
Absolutely convergent series, 256, 261

Aggregate, 14, 211
Alternating functions, 45
Amplitude of complex number, 56
Argand diagram, 56, 77

product and quotient,
refer to pages.
173
328
for complex variable, 334

Binomial theorem, 34, 204
general statement, 340
elementary proof, 342
Euler's proof, 341
Biquadratic equation, 186-190
condition for four real roots, 102, 453

Euler's solution, 100
Ferrari's and Descartes' solutions, 189-
102
functions /, J, and the discriminant
A, 187, 188
reducing cubic, 187-101
roots of equations, 66
Composite numbers, 4
Conjugate numbers, 60
partitions, 402
Congruences, linear, 428
reduction of, 433
x a ~b(modp), 445
Continued fractions, 380
approximations by, 402
equivalent surds, 401, 527
calculation of convergents, 535
Continued product, 33
Continuous functions, 260-271
variable, 266
Continuum, 212
Convergence, general principle of, 235,
240, 244, 257
Convergence of infinite products, 486
Convergence of sequences, 231, 235, 244,
257
Convergence of series, 247 et seq.
binomial series, 263, 328, 334
INDEX
comparison test, 250
hypergeometric series, 328
(for other tests see under the respective
proper names)
Cube roots of unity, 65
Cubic as sum of two cubes, 182
Cubic equation, 85
auxiliary quadratic, 182, 184
Cardan's solution, 180

character of roots, 180
functions 0, H, and the discriminant
J, 179
irreducible case, 180
roots as power series, 469, 472
Curve tracing, 474 et seq.
Cusp, 474
Cyclic expressions, 46
D'Alembert's test for convergence, 252

Dedekind, definition of irrational, 201
theorem on section of system of real
numbers, 211
De Gua's rule, 90
Do Moivre's theorem, 59, 63
De Morgan's and
Bertrand's test for con-
vergence, 330
Derivatives of polynomials, 273
x n 309
of a x
,
log x,
Descartes' rule of signs, 88
,
Determinants, 119
bordered, 138
Expansion off(x + k), 35, 290

Exponential curve, 309
function and series, 19, 306, 312
inequalities and limits, 232, 306, 310
values of sine and cosine, 313
Exponential theorem, 307

Expectation, 514
Eudoxus, theorem of, 13
Euler's constant, 311
solution of biquadratic, 199
theorem on polynomials, 301

Factorial n, powers of primes in, 9
Factors of cos mj> - cos nO t 68
of x n
l, 64
of x 2n -2x n coaO + l, 68
Fer mat's theorem, 424, 433
Euler's extension, 425, 437
Ferrari's solution of biquadratic, 189
Finite difference equations, 363, 367
Fourier's theorem on position of roots of
an equation, 454
in connection with Newton's
method, 457
Function of a function, 271, 278
rule
Fundamental laws of arithmetic,
13, 53,
of order, 12
et seq.
Gauss's test of convergence, 327

General principle of convergence, 235,
expansion, 132, 137
reciprocal, 136
symmetric, 138-140
use of remainder theorem, 126
Differences, method of, 106
Differentiation, 273, 276
Dirichlet's test for convergence, 331
Discontinuous functions, 269
Discriminant of biquadratic, 188
of cubic, 179
of quadratic in x, y, 30
Displacements and vectors, 70

Distributions, 494, 496
of,
240, 244, 257

Generating function, 362
Geometric series, 248, 262
Gradient of tangent, 274
Greatest term in binomial expansion, 345
Hessian of cubic, 183

Higher derivatives, 280
Highest common factor, 40
^Homer's method, 461
319
Hyperbolic functions,
Hypergeometric series, 328
Imaginary roots of equations,

number of, 89, 90
Distributive law, 13
Division (mod n), 432
Division transformation, 24
number and sum
Errors in excess and defect, 15

Exclusive events, 509
54
minors and cofactors, 193

product of two, 134
Divisors,
583
Double points on curves, 473

Double roots of equations, 42
Elements of
set, 14
Endless decimals, 16, 203
Equation of a plane, 154
Equations, cubic, biquadratic, 85

equivalent systems, 149
numerical, 447
rational roots, 92
symmetric functions of the roots, 95
65, 82
Implicit functions, 467

Independent events, 511
Indeterminate equations, 415
Indetermination, limits of, 239
Induction, method of, 9
Inequalities, fundamental, 216, 219
A.M.^Q.M., 221
exponential, 239
logarithmic, 306, 310
Infinite continued fractions,
Infinite products, 485
390
derangement of factors, 488

expansion as series, 488
INDEX
584
sums of powers of roots of an equation,
Infinite sequences, 15
Inflexion, points of, 282, 473

line of inflexions, 484
Integration, 289
Interdependent events, 512
297
upper limits to roots, 446
Node, 473
Intermediate convergents, 402

Interpolation, Lagrange's formula, 379
Interval, 210
of convergence, 333
Inverse functions in general, 83, 284
circular functions, 285
hyperbolic functions, 321
Inverse probability, 518, 528
Inversions, 48
Irrational numbers, 12, 17
Dedeldnd's definition, 201
Irrational indices, 209
Operators A, E, D, 373, 378, 382

cos 6 + 1 sin 6, or E(id), 75
Order and weight of functions, 298
Rummer's
Lagrange's interpolation formula, 379

theorem on divisibility, 426, 433
Least positive residues, 421
Leibniz'
theorem on differentiation of
product, 383
Limits, exponential and logarithmic, 232,
306, 310
of a function, 228, 229
of indeterrnination, 239
of sequence, 15, 16
to roots of equation, 90
Line at infinity, 152
Linear congruences, 429
Linear difference equations, 369
Logarithmic curve, 309

function and series, 306, 310-316
Logarithms, 210, 317
Maclaurin's theorem, 291

Magnification, 80
Matrices, 135
Maxima and minima, by
five sides,
178
of seventeen sides, 175

Power-series, 332
criterion for identity, 334
Prime and composite functions, 42
Primitive roots, 438, 444
Principal value of amplitude, 56

of inverse circular functions, 285
of inverse hyperbolic functions, 321
Principal nth root, 207

Pringsheim's theorem on convergence, 257
Probability, 508
of causes, 518
geometrical methods, 522, 526

Product of consecutive integers, 7
Lagrange's theorem, 426, 433
Quadratic function of
.r,
y,
29
Raabe's test for convergence, 326

Radius of convergence, 333
Ratio and proportion, 212
Rational fractions, 100, 357
integral functions, 23
roots of equations, 92
differentiation,
inequalities, 223
Mean
value theorem, 288

Minors of determinants, 123, 132
Modulus of complex number, 56-59
Monotone sequences, 230
Multinomial theorem, positive integral
index, 35-37
real index,
Pfaffian, 141
Polygon of
Real numbers,
280
by
Partial derivatives, 299

Partial fractions, 100, 302
Partition of numbers, 500
Perfect numbers, 11
354
Multiple roots of equations, 82

Multiplication of series, 335-338
Abel's theorem, 338
E(x)xE(y)=E(x + y), 336

Merten's theorem, 337
Newton's approximation to >/l 4- x, 348

approximation to roots of an equation,
456
method of divisors, 92
parallelogram, 479
18,
201
Reciprocal equations, 168

determinants, 136
Rectangular arrays, 135
Recurring continued fractions, 392, 409
decimals, 439
series,
360
Relative error, 15
Remainder theorem, 26
use in determinants, 126
Residues, associated, 425
of terms of A. P., 8
of terms of G.P., 436
Reversion of series, 467
Rolle's theorem, 287
deductions from, 295

Roots of equations, number
position
and character
of,
81
of, 87,
Roots, of complex numbers, 62

of i 1,64
of congruences, 428
Rule of Sarrus, 128
448, 454
INDEX
Scalar quantities, 71
Scale of relation, 360
Section of rational system, 200
of real system, 211
Sequence, definition of, 15
bounds, upper and lower limits, 237, 239

general principle of convergence, 235,
244
monotone, 230
Series, approximation to sum, 260
of complex terms, 261
summation
of,
106
Taylor's, Maclaurin's, 290

Series for cos 6, sin 0, 313
for cosw0, sinn#, 61, 360
for cos n 0, sin n 6, 62
for Jog c 2, 312
for tan- 1 .*-, 294
Series summablc by the binomial theorem,
351
exponential series, 3 1 4
logarithmic series, 317
n r in terms of <j, -u' where a ~n(n -f 1),
<j' = 2rt + l, 110-112
Sun x n where u n is a polynomial in n, 110
,
...
T
6(6
(a
1). ..(&
+ r-
1)
+ r-l)
16),
106
110
Simple continued fractions, 391

Smallness, orders of, 14
Skew- symmetric determinants, 138, 140
n
1, 171
Special roots of x
n 515
Stirling's approximation to
|
Sturm's theorem, 448, 452

Substitutions, 47
Successive events, 515
Sums of powers of roots, 297
of two squares, 407, 408
585
Surds, 208
expressed as continued fractions, 401,
427, 435
JP,
7, 8
Symbols, I(r/y),
,
[n,
0(x), 14
t as an
operator, 75
l
/- (*),83
Symmetric continued
fractions,
406
determinants, 138
Symmetric functions, 44
of roots cf equations, 95
order and weight of, 298
Synthetic division, 24, 84

Systems of equations, linear, 149
of any degree, 160
Tangent to a curve, 274

Tangents and asymptotes, 473
Taylor's theorem and series, 290
for polynomials, 300
Testimony, value of, 521
Test-series for convergence S\jn'p 251
Z'l/n(lo g n), 325
Tetrahedron, volume of, 159
Three planes, 156
Transformation, Z = (az + b)f(cz+d), 80
Transformation of equations, 82-84
Transpositions, 44
,
Tschirnhausen's transformation for cubic,

186
for biquadratic, 195
Undetermined
coefficients,
28
Vandermoride's theorem, 340

Vectors, 70-76
Weierstrass' inequalities, 216

Whit worth's theorem, 499
Wilson's theorem, 425, 433

Higher Algebra by Barnard &amp; Child

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HIGHER ALGEBRA

FORMERLY ASSISTANT MASTER AT RUGBY SCHOOL, LATE FELLOW AND LECTURER AT

FORMERLY LECTURER IN MATHEMATICS IN THE UNIVERSITY OF' MANCHESTER

is copyright in all countries which

First Edition 1936

Reprinted 1947, ^949> I952> *955, 1959

MACMILLAN AND COMPANY LIMITED

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA LIMITED

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY

LOWE AND BRYDONE (PRINTERS) LIMITED, LONDON, N.W.IO

Minors, Expansion in Terms of Second Minors (132, 133). Product

Symmetric and Skew-symmetric Determinants, Pfaffian (138-

Systems of Equations of any Degree, Methods of Solution for

RECIPROCAL AND BINOMIAL EQUATIONS.

AND BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS.

(roots a, jS, y), Equation whose Roots are

the Functions /, J, J, Reducing Cubic, Character

a Real Number, Endless Decimals (203, 204). The Fundamental

Weierstrass' Inequalities (216).

Arithmetic and Geometric Means (221, 222).

XV. SEQUENCES AND

Maxima and Minima

ponential Inequalities and Limits,

General Principle of Convergence (235-237).

Increasing Sequence (u n ), where

u n >0 and u n+l lu n -*l, then u nn -*L

a n ~a, and lim

Complex Sequences, General Principle of Convergence

Definitions, Elementary Theorems, Geometric Series (247, 248).

and Cauchy's Tests

Terms alternately Positive and Negative (256).

Derivatives, Tangent to a Curve, Notation

XVIIL, THEORY OF EQUATIONS

Multiple Roots, Rolle's Theorem, Position of Real Roots of/(&)=0

Partial Derivatives, Taylor's

A Theorem on Partial Fractions (302).

XIX. EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND

Series for sinx, cos x arid Exponential Values (313).

Use of Exponential Theorem

Series of Positive Terms.

Cauchy's Condensation Test, Test Series

Rummer's, Raabc's and Gauss's Tests

Binomial and Hyper-geometric Series (328, 329).

Bertrand's Tests (330).

Terms Positive or Negative. Theorem, Abel's Inequality,

XXI. JBlNOMIAL AND MULTINOMIAL THEOREMS.

Euler's Proof, Second Proof, Particular Ins tancesj 34 1-345).

XXII. RATIONAL FRACTIONS

Expansions of cos nd and sin nOjsin 9 in Powers of cos 6 (360).

Difference Equations, General

and Particular Solutions

XXIII. THE OPERATORS 4> E, D.

XXIV. CONTINUED FRACTIONS

Definitions, ForniationjoConvergents, Infinite Continued Fractions

Simple and ^eeuTrirSg; Continued Fractions (391-394).

Simple Continued Fractions, Properties of the Convergents, an

XXV. INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS

OF THE FIRST DEGREE.

XXVI. THEORY OF NUMBERS

Congruence, Numbers less than and prime to n, Value of q)(n)

Roots of a Congruence, the Linear Congruence, Simultaneous

XXVII. RESIDUES OF POWERS OF A NUMBER, RECURRING DECIMALS.

n) the Congruence gr*s 1 (mod n) 9

Decimal Equivalent of m/n Number of Figures in the Period,

Higher Algebra by Barnard & Child

Higher Algebra by Barnard & Child

u n >0 and u n+l lu n -l, then u nn -L