Boiler Combustion Theory and Efficiency

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
BOILER COMBUSTION
THEORY AND EFFICIENCY
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Process Instrumentation

File Reference: PCI-201.05
For additional information on this subject, contact

PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556
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Boiler Combustion Theory and Efficiency
Section
Page
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 5
CALCULATING THE TOTAL AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC
CONDITIONS AND EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR A FUEL OF
KNOWN COMPOSITION ............................................................................................... 6
Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion................................................. 6
Boiler Fuels........................................................................................................... 6
Three Ts of Combustion ...................................................................................... 7
Carbon Combustion Formula................................................................................ 9
Hydrogen Combustion Formula.......................................................................... 10
Higher Heating Value & Lower Heating Value .................................................... 12
Fuel Combustion Equation ................................................................................. 13
By-Products of Incomplete Combustion and Resulting Inefficiency ......................... 14
Partial Combustion of Carbon............................................................................. 14
Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide.................................................................. 15
Excess Combustion Air............................................................................................ 16
Flue Gas Analysis to Determine Excess Air Requirements ................................ 17
%O2 vs. %CO2 to Determine Excess Air Requirements.................................... 18
Total Air Flow Requirements .............................................................................. 19
Example Problem. Calculating Excess Air......................................................... 19
Excess Air Shortcut Equations ........................................................................... 20
EXCESS AIR TRIM CONTROL..................................................................................... 25
Oxygen Trim Control .......................................................................................... 25
Development of % Oxygen Requirement ........................................................... 27
Oxygen & CO Trim Control................................................................................. 30
CALCULATING BOILER EFFICIENCY BY THE INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD ............... 33
Boiler Efficiency vs. Excess Air ................................................................................ 33
Boiler Inputs and Outputs ........................................................................................ 35
Heat Added by the Fuel...................................................................................... 36
Heat Added to the Incoming Feedwater ............................................................. 36
First Law of Thermodynamics: Applications to Boiler Efficiency ............................. 39
Example Boiler Efficiency CalculationInput/Output Method ................................... 40
CALCULATE BOILER EFFICIENCY BY THE HEAT LOSS METHOD ......................... 52
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Heat Loss Method ...................................... 52
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Example Boiler Efficiency CalculationHeat Loss Method ....................................... 53

OPTIMUM DISPATCHING OF MULTIPLE BOILERS ................................................... 62
Economic Load Allocation........................................................................................ 62
Methods ................................................................................................................... 64
Iterative Solutions ............................................................................................... 65
Model-Based Linear Program (LP) Solutions ..................................................... 66
Model-Based Nonlinear Program Solutions........................................................ 68
Incremental Cost Determination ......................................................................... 69
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE BOILER EFFICIENCY BY
THE INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD FOR A GIVEN SET OF BOILER OPERATING
CONDITIONS................................................................................................................ 72
Work Aid 1A: Example of Boiler Operating Parameters.......................................... 72
Work Aid 1B: ASME PTC 4.1.................................................................................. 73
Work Aid 1C: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation
Handbook ................................................................................................................ 73
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE BOILER EFFICIENCY BY
THE HEAT LOSS METHOD FOR A GIVEN SET OF BOILER OPERATING
CONDITIONS................................................................................................................ 74
Work Aid 2A: Example of Boiler Operating Parameters.......................................... 74
Work Aid 2B: ASME PTC 4.1.................................................................................. 75
Work Aid 2C: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation
Handbook ................................................................................................................ 75
WORK AID 3. RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE TOTAL REQUIRED AIR
FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC CONDITIONS AND EXCESS AIR
REQUIREMENTS FOR A GIVEN FUEL OF KNOWN COMPOSITION ........................ 76
Work Aid 3A: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation
Handbook ................................................................................................................ 76
Work Aid 3B: Procedure to Calculate Excess Air.................................................... 76
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 77
ADDENDUM ................................................................................................................. 79
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number
Page
Figure 1. Liquid Fuel Viscosity vs. Temperature ............................................................ 8

Figure 2. Increased Requirement for Excess Air at Low Boiler Loads.......................... 17
Figure 3. Excess Air vs. O2 (plus other flue gases) for Gas Fuel ................................. 22
Figure 4. Excess Air vs. O2 (plus other flue gases) for Fuel Oil.................................... 23
Figure 5. % Excess Air vs. Furnace and Flue Gas Temperatures................................ 24
Figure 6. % Oxygen Trim Controller ............................................................................. 26
Figure 7. ShGP SAMA Diagram of ShGP % O2 Trim Controller.................................. 27
Figure 8. BGP Boiler F2D O2 In Flue Gas versus Load Curve .................................... 29
Figure 9. O2% vs. CO at Increasing Load.................................................................... 31
Figure 10. %CO to O2 Cascade Trim Control .............................................................. 32
Figure 11. Boiler Efficiency vs. Excess Air ................................................................... 34
Figure 12. Boiler Unit Energy Input & Output Diagram................................................. 37
Figure 13. Boiler Unit Heat Balance ............................................................................. 38
Figure 14. Economic Load Allocation ........................................................................... 63
Figure 15. Typical Boiler Operating Line ...................................................................... 64
Figure 16. Linear Boiler Operating Line........................................................................ 66
Figure 17. Segmented Linear Boiler Operating Line .................................................... 67
Figure 18. Local versus Overall Optimum .................................................................... 68
Figure 19. Economic Load Allocation ........................................................................... 69
Figure 20. Boiler Load vs Fuel Cost ............................................................................. 70
LIST OF TABLES
Number
Page
Table 1. Common Chemical Reactions in Combustion ................................................ 11

Table 2. Combustion Constants ................................................................................... 14
Table 3. Excess Air Required at Full Capacity ............................................................. 16
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LIST OF EQUATIONS
Number
Page
Equation 1. Complete Combustion of Carbon (C) .......................................................... 9

Equation 2. Formula for Complete Combustion of Hydrogen (H) ................................. 10
Equation 3. Calculation of Theoretical Air Requirements ............................................. 13
Equation 4. Incomplete Combustion (Insufficient Air)................................................... 15
Equation 5. Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide ........................................................ 15
Equation 6. Method to Calculate Excess Air ................................................................ 19
Equation 7. Boiler Efficiency - Input/Output Method..................................................... 35
Equation 8. Total Heat Input Calculation ...................................................................... 40
Equation 9. Total Heat Output Calculation ................................................................... 41
Equation 10. Absolute Heat per Pound of Steam Calculation ...................................... 42
Equation 11. Heat Output in Boiler Blowdown Water Calculation................................. 42
Equation 12. Total Heat Output Calculation ................................................................. 43
Equation 13. Dry Refuse per Pound As Fired Fuel Calculation .................................... 48
Equation 14. Combustibles in Refuse Calculation........................................................ 48
Equation 15. Boiler Efficiency Calculation - Heat Loss Method.................................... 52
Equation 16. Carbon Burned per lb As-Fired Fuel Calculation ..................................... 53
Equation 17. Dry Gas per lb As-Fired Fuel Burned Calculation ................................... 54
Equation 18. Equation for Heat Loss Due to Dry Flue Gas .......................................... 54
Equation 19. Equation for Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Fuel...................................... 55
Equation 20. Equation for Heat Loss Due to H2O from Combustion of H2 .................. 56
Equation 21. Equation for Heat Loss Due to Combustible in Refuse ........................... 57
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INTRODUCTION
This module discusses combustion chemistry, products of
combustion, byproducts of combustion, and excess combustion
air. It also discusses the relationship between boiler efficiency
and excess air, boiler inputs and outputs, fuel higher heat value,
and the applications of thermodynamic laws and principles to
boiler efficiency.
This module discusses and gives examples of boiler efficiency
calculations by the input/output and heat loss methods. This
module discusses the advantages and disadvantages of using
the heat loss method to calculate boiler efficiency. Additionally,
this module discusses the purpose and methods for the
optimum dispatching of multiple boilers.
The sections of this module include:
Calculating the total air flow to meet stoichiometric

conditions and excess air requirements for a given fuel of
known composition.
Calculate boiler efficiency by the input/output method.
Calculate boiler efficiency by the heat loss method.
Purpose and methods for optimum dispatching of multiple

boilers.
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CALCULATING THE TOTAL AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC

CONDITIONS AND EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR A FUEL OF
KNOWN COMPOSITION
Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion

Combustion is the process in which hydrogen, carbon, and
sulfur in a fuel become oxidized by being combined with oxygen
from the air. Of these elements, carbon and hydrogen are the
major sources of heat when oxidized. Sulfur oxidation is more
significant as a source of corrosion and pollution.
The products of complete combustion include water, carbon
dioxide, and nitrous oxides and sulfur oxides that pollute the air.
The products of incomplete combustion include water, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon, aldehydes, nitrous
oxides, and sulfur oxides.
Complete combustion can occur when the exact amount of air
necessary to furnish the oxygen for complete combustion of a
fuel's carbon and hydrogen is present. Incomplete combustion
occurs because of insufficient combustion air and/or incomplete
turbulence for complete mixing of fuel and air. Table 5-7 on
page 63 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G.
Dukelow (Course Handout 8) provides a list of common
chemical reactions in combustion with molecular weights.
Boiler Fuels
Typical fuels for use in boilers around the world are natural and
fuel gas, fuel oils, and coal. In Saudi Aramco, we only use
gases and fuel oils, not coal. The typical energy contents of
boiler fuels are:
Natural Gas:
1000 Btu/scf or 22000 Btu/lb
Refinery or Fuel Gas: 1000 - 3000 Btu/scf

No. 2 Fuel Oil:
19,500 Btu/lb
No. 6 Fuel Oil:
18,000 Btu/lb
Coal.
13,000 Btu/lb
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Gas is the only fuel that can be delivered as it is being used. It

is delivered via pipeline and pressure controlled to the point of
use.
Fuel Oils must be stored, heated, and pumped to the point of
use. There, oils must be atomized with either steam or air
before combustion can take place in the burner.
Coal must be crushed, then either used in a suspension of air or
liquid, burner on a grate, or burned in a fluidized bed.
Burners for liquid fuel oils typically require a viscosity of 135 150 Saybolt universal seconds (SSU). Therefore, the more
viscous liquid fuels must be heated before they are pumped.
Three Ts of
Combustion
Combustion of any fuel requires three Ts, e.g. time
temperature, and turbulence. A short time, a high temperature,
and a very turbulent mixture indicate a rapid and complete
combustion. However, when turbulence is low, the flame is
cooler and it may take longer to get complete combustion.
Longer burning time and less turbulence has been found to
create less nitrogen oxides, a pollutant. Sometimes, complete
combustion does not take place because enough time is not
given for the flame to burn completely before hot gases contact
cooler heat transfer surfaces in the boiler.
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Figure 1. Liquid Fuel Viscosity vs. Temperature
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Carbon
Combustion
Formula
Equation 1 illustrates the formula for complete combustion of
carbon. One mole of carbon (weighing 12 pounds) combines
with one mole of oxygen (containing 2 atoms and weighing 32
pounds) to produce one mole of carbon dioxide weighing 44
pounds and containing 14,093 BTU per pound C of heat energy.
(Carbon)
+ (Oxygen)
(Carbon Dioxide)
O2
= C O2 + 14,093 BTU/lb C
12 lbs
32 lbs
= 44 lbs
Equation 1. Complete Combustion of Carbon (C)
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Hydrogen
Combustion
Formula
Equation 2 illustrates the formula for the complete combustion
of hydrogen. Two moles of hydrogen weighing 4 pounds
combine with one mole of oxygen weighing 32 pounds to
produce 2 moles of water weighing 36 pounds and containing
61,100 BTU per pound H2 of heat energy.
(Hydrogen)
(Oxygen)
2H2
O2
4 lbs
32 lbs
(Water)
= 2H2O + 61,100 BTU/lb H2

= 36 lbs
Equation 2. Formula for Complete Combustion of Hydrogen (H)
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Table 1. Common Chemical Reactions in Combustion
Moles
Pounds
Heat of
combustion
(high)
BTU/lb of
fuel
2C O2 = 2CO
2+1=2
24 + 32 = 56
4000
Carbon (to CO2)
C + O2 = CO2
1+1=2
12 + 32 = 44
14,100
Carbon monoxide
2CO O2 = 2CO2
2+1=2
56 + 32 = 88
4,345
Hydrogen
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
2+1=2
4 + 32 = 36
61,100
Sulfur (to SO2)
S + O2 = SO2
1+1=1
32 + 32 = 64
3,980
Methane
CH4 + 2 O2 =
CO2 = 2H2O
1+2=1+2
16 + 64 = 80
23,875
Acetylene
2C2H2 + 5 O2 =
4CO2 + 2H2O
2+5=4+2
52 + 160 = 212
21,500
Ethylene
CH4 3O2 =
2CO2 + 2H2O
1 +3 = 2 + 2
28 + 96 = 124
21, 635
Ethane
2C2H6 + 7O2 =
4CO2 + 6H2O
2+7=4+6
60 + 224 = 284
22,325
Hydrogen Sulfide
2H2S + 3O2 =
2SO2 + 2H2O
2+3=2+2
68 + 96 = 164
7,100
Combustible
Reaction
Carbon (to CO)
From Steam, Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox
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Higher Heating
Value & Lower
Heating Value
Combustion of Hydrogen always creates WATER! Since this
water is in the hot combustion zone, it is immediately vaporized
after it is formed. It absorbs heat to vaporize, e.g. equal to the
latent heat of vaporization. The ASTM procedures typically
specify the latent heat of vaporization for this combustion water
as 1040 Btu/lb. Because of the vaporization of combustion
water, there is less heat available to make steam in the boiler.
The higher heating value (HHV) is the heat of combustion
without considering the vaporization of combustion water.
When one subtracts the latent heat of combustion water
vaporization from the HHV, it is called the Lower Heating Value
(LHV). Therefore, for any fuel that contains hydrogen, there are
2 fuel energies identified, e.g.:
HHV: The total heat liberated from combustion
LHV: The total heat liberated from combustion MINUS the

latent heat of vaporization of combustion water.
The more hydrogen in the fuel, the lower the actual energy
available from combustion. Since gas has more hydrogen than
fuel oil than coal, gas is inherently less efficient to burn than oil
than coal.
The actual efficiency losses are described below. Note that
boiler efficiency calculations generally use HHV and process
heater calculations use LHV.
Coal:
5 to 7%; higher efficiency than gas

1 to 3%; higher efficiency than oil
Oil:
3 to 5%; higher efficiency than gas

1 to 3%; lower efficiency than coal
Gas:
5 to 7%; lower efficiency than coal

3 to 5%; lower efficiency than oil
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Fuel Combustion
Equation
The exact amount of air required to furnish the oxygen for
complete combustion of a fuel's hydrogen, carbon, and sulfur
content is called the theoretical air. Given the combustion
chemistry formulas, given the known content of oxygen in air,
and given a known fuel analysis, the theoretical air requirement
can be calculated. An example of this calculation is illustrated in
Equation 3. This example uses a formula developed from the
combustion equations along with the known content of oxygen
in air. Additionally, the calculation shows the amount of air
theoretically required to produce 10,000 BTUs.
lbsair/lbfuel = 11.53C + 34.34 H2 -
O2
+ 4.29S
8
Fuel analysis for #6 fuel oil:

90.2% by weight of Carbon (C)
12.0% by weight of Hydrogen (H)
3.5% by weight of Sulfer (S)
lbsair/lbfuel = (11.53 x 0.902) + 34.34 0.12 - 0
8
10.40
lbs air/10,000 BTU =
4.12
0.15
+ 4.29 x 0.035
=
14.67
10,000 x 14.67
= 7.9
18,500* (Oil)
*This value is for pure C.

Equation 3. Calculation of Theoretical Air Requirements
The combustion constants for typical combustion reactions are
defined in Table 2.
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Table 2. Combustion Constants
By-Products of Incomplete Combustion and Resulting Inefficiency

Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Carbon are by-products of
incomplete combustion.
Partial
Combustion of
Carbon
Equation 4 illustrates a formula for the incomplete combustion of
carbon. Two moles of carbon combine with one mole of oxygen
to produce two moles of carbon monoxide and 4,000 BTU per
pound C of heat energy. Some of the potential heat energy is in
the carbon monoxide.
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(Carbon)
(Oxygen)
2C
O2
24 lbs
32 lbs
(Carbon Monoxide)
= 2CO + 4,000 BTU/lb C
= 56 lbs
Equation 4. Incomplete Combustion (Insufficient Air)
Carbon Monoxide
to Carbon Dioxide
Given the right conditions and more oxygen, carbon monoxide
can be converted to carbon dioxide to release the remaining
heat energy. The formula for the conversion of carbon
monoxide to carbon dioxide is shown in Equation 5.
(Carbon
Monoxide)
(Oxygen)
2CO
O2
56 lbs
32 lbs
(Carbon Dioxide)
= 2CO2 + 4,435 BTU/lb CO

= 88 lbs
Equation 5. Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide
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Excess Combustion Air

In reality, if just the theoretical amount of air needed to burn a
fuel were supplied, it would not be enough to complete the
combustion. A certain amount of additional or excess air is
required to ensure complete mixing and optimum heat-release
characteristics. Excess air is also necessary from a safety
perspective. If the amount of oxygen at the burner drops below
the theoretical amount, an explosion may occur because of the
buildup of unburned hydrocarbons. Table 3 indicates the
minimum typical excess air required for combustion at full load.
Table 3. Excess Air Required at Full Capacity
Fuel
%Oxygen in Flue Gas
% Excess Air, minimum
Natural Gas
1.5 to 3
7 15
Fuel Oil
0.6 to 3
3 15
Coal
4.0 to 6.5
25 - 40
As load on a boiler decreases, the turbulence in a burner is

reduced, thus increasing the need for excess air. In all boilers,
the excess air required for complete combustion is increased at
reduced loads. This fact is indicated in Figure 2 that shows an
excess air curve for a specific boiler.
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Figure 2. Increased Requirement for Excess Air at Low Boiler Loads
Flue Gas Analysis

to Determine
Excess Air
Requirements
Flue gas percentages of O2, of opacity, and of CO2, CO, SO2,
and NOx in the flue gas can be all used to determine excess air
requirements. Most commonly used to determine the
percentage of excess air are the percentage of O2 and the
percentage of CO2.
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Percent O2. The Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon

Dioxide in Flue Gas (Work Aid 1D) describes the calculations
necessary to determine the percent of excess oxygen and
carbon dioxide in boiler flue gas, on a dry basis. The inputs
required for these calculations include the measured oxygen in
flue gas and the measurement basis (i.e., wet vs. dry), an
ultimate (elemental) analysis of the fuel, and the absolute
humidity in the air.
Percent opacity. This is a function of incomplete combustion
and/or the amount of particulate matter in the plume. A dark
plume coming out of the stack usually indicates incomplete
combustion. A white plume typically is the result of sulfuric acid
in the gas.
Percent CO2 and PPM CO . Percent carbon dioxide, CO2,
and percent carbon monoxide, CO, are a function of how much
carbon in the fuel is converted to CO2.
PPM SO2 and Nox. Sulfur that is present in fuel oils is
converted to either sulfur dioxide (SO2) or sulfur trioxide (SO3).
Nitrogen in combustion air and/or nitrogen in the fuel is
converted to nitrogen oxides (NO or NO2).
%O2 vs. %CO2 to
Determine Excess
Air Requirements
The measurement of O2 is preferred over the measurement of
CO2 to determine excess air requirements. One reason for the
preference is that greater precision of measurement is required
for CO2 than for O2 to determine excess air requirements with
the same degree of precision. Another reason is that the
presence of oxygen always indicates the presence of excess air
because oxygen is a component of air. With a given CO2, there
may be one of two different percentages of total air. Typically
most controllers are 'reverse', because the process itself is
'direct'.
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Total Air Flow

Requirements
The Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Flue
Gas (Work Aid 1D) describes the necessary calculations to
determine the percent excess oxygen and carbon dioxide in
boiler flue gas, on a dry basis. The inputs required for these
calculations include the measured oxygen in the flue gas and
the measurement basis (i.e., wet versus dry), an ultimate
analysis of the fuel, and the absolute humidity in the air.
Excess air equals excess oxygen. Excess air equals the %O2
by volume in the flue gas divided by the total air required for
stoichiometric combustion. Equation 6 is a procedure to
calculate excess air:
1.
Obtain flue gas analyses CO2, CO, O2, N2.
2.
From the percent N2, calculate the total O2 into the furnace.
3.
Reduce the free O2 by the amount required to burn the CO to CO2.

The remaining free O2 is excess. (CO is usually negligible)
4.
O2 required = (total in) less (excess)
5.
Percent excess O 2 =
(excess O 2 )
(excess ) x100
x100 =
total - excess
(required O 2 )
Equation 6. Method to Calculate Excess Air
Example Problem.
Calculating
Excess Air
Given the following lab flue gas analysis and the composition of
air, determine the excess air in combustion:
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Lab Flue gas analysis:
CO2
9.5
CO
1.8
O2
2.0
N2
86.7
100.0
Air composition. 21% O2, 79% N2
O 2 into furnace = 86.7 x
0.21
= 23.0 moles/100 moles flue gas
0.79
CO Correction:
Net O2 = 2.0 - 0.9 = 1.1 moles/100 moles flue gas
1 .1
x100 = 5.02%
(23 1.1)
If no CO Correction:
2.0(100 )
= 9. 5
(23 2.0)
Excess Air
Shortcut
Equations
The following are shortcut methods of determining excess air

based on nominal fuel hydrogen to carbon ratio. Note that the
calculation is different depending if the O2 is measure on a wet
or dry basis.
Wet Basis Stack Oxygen
Excess Air =
111.4x%O 2
(20.95 - %O 2 )
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Dry Basis Stack Oxygen

Excess Air =
91.2x%O 2
(20.95 - %O 2 )
Another method to determine excess air from oxygen measure

in the flue gas is by chart. Excess air versus Oxygen in flue gas
Charts have been created for nominal fuel compositions of
natural gas, fuel oils, and coal. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show
curves for excess air versus oxygen in the flue gas (both wet
and dry basis) for both gas and liquid fuels.
Note that the amount of excess air also affects the furnace and
flue gas temperatures. With increased excess air, there is more
air to heat up, so firebox temperature is lower, and the flue gas
velocity is increased, so heat transfer efficiency is decreased
and stack temperature goes up. The are both additional heat
losses incurred when running with more excess air than
essential. Figure 5 graphically shows the relationship between
% excess air and furnace/flue gas temperatures.
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Figure 3. Excess Air vs. O2 (plus other flue gases) for Gas Fuel
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Figure 4. Excess Air vs. O2 (plus other flue gases) for Fuel Oil
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Figure 5. % Excess Air vs. Furnace and Flue Gas Temperatures
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EXCESS AIR TRIM CONTROL

Since weve been discussing the need for excess air and how to
measure it, it is a good time to review boiler flue gas excess air
trim control.
Oxygen Trim
Control
Excess air, which is related to oxygen in the flue gas, is

controlled by a standard PID trim controller. This trim controller
adjusts the raw combustion air flow rate input from the air flow
measuring device. If the trim controller finds that the oxygen in
the flue gas is too low (based on its set point), it adjusts the
total airflow rate down such that the combustion air flow
controller will increase total air flow rate. The actual combustion
control system is discussed in a different module.
In the typical Saudi Aramco O2 trim controller, the oxygen in the
flue gas is measured on a wet basis with a in situ zirconium
oxide sensor. Note that this sensor also measures NET
oxygen, in that all combustibles are first burned with the
available oxygen before the O2 measurement is taken.
As we said earlier, the amount of excess air, and thus O2 in the
flue gas, must increase with decreasing load. Thus, to keep the
boiler operating at its optimum combustion air rate, the set point
to the oxygen trim controller must be characterized by load.
Figure 6 shows a % oxygen trim controller.
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Figure 6. % Oxygen Trim Controller
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Figure 7 is the SAMA drawing for the Shedgum Gas Plant %

oxygen trim controller. Notice that the controller set point is
characterized by the steam flow, and in this case the controller
uses integral only action.
Figure 7. ShGP SAMA Diagram of ShGP % O2 Trim Controller
Development of %
Oxygen
Requirement
The next question on the O2 trim controller is. How do you

determine the % oxygen in flue gas that is needed at each
particular load? That can be answered multiple ways.
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The most common way to get this data is to do a load test on

the boiler while measuring both %CO and %O2 in the flue gas.
The boiler is brought up in load in manual in (typically) 20%
increments, and is allowed to stabilize at each load point. The
combustion air is controlled such that minimum %CO and %O2
is measured in the flue gas. This is optimum combustion for
that load. The %O2 is recorded for this particular load (steam
flow rate). A curve of %O2 versus load is then developed for
the boiler. This is the data that is used in the O2 trim controller
f(x) set point characterizer .
Remember that boiler stack smoking (opacity) MAY commence
prior to reaching minimum CO operation. If this is the case, the
%O2 at the smoke point should be recorded rather than at
optimum CO. Also, an additional 0.5 1.0 %O2 is added to the
curve as a safety cushion.
Figure 8 shows this curve for Berri Gas Plant boiler F2D. Notice
the large increase in % O2 at loads below 100 Mlb/hr. The
reason for this is probably that the boiler has reached the
minimum air flow limit (typically 25% of MCR airflow), where the
airflow cannot be reduced further.
The combustion air data is usually only taken after the boiler is
first commissioned, and used for characterization data
throughout the life of the boiler. However, a new test should be
conducted after any major modifications to the boilers burners
or combustion air system.
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Figure 8. BGP Boiler F2D O2 In Flue Gas versus Load Curve
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Oxygen & CO Trim

Control
As we have seen, the %O2 signal itself does not determine

optimum combustion. Optimum combustion must be
determined from boiler tests measuring BOTH %CO and O2.
Note that It is also possible to continually monitor both %CO
and O2 in the flue gas. By knowing what %CO best indicates
optimal combustion, CO can be cascaded to the %O2 controller
to give more precise combustion control. Changes in boiler
operation, (e.g. when the boiler combustion system degrades
over time and requires more excess air), can be overcome with
this system since it can continually adjust %O2 in the flue gas to
provide best combustion.
Figure 9 shows that the optimum %CO is not constant with
boiler load, and should be characterized against load as is
%O2. Figure 10 shows a typical %CO to O2 cascade control
scheme.
The CO measurement usually comes from a infrared absorption
analyzer directing its IR beam across the flue gas stack. CO
absorbs IR radiation at specific frequencies, and the attenuation
of those IR frequencies determines the % CO in the flue gas.
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Actual
O2
versus
CO at
Loads
Figure 9. O2% vs. CO at Increasing Load
31
Boiler Control
Figure 10. %CO to O2 Cascade Trim Control
32
Boiler Control
CALCULATING BOILER EFFICIENCY BY THE INPUT/OUTPUT

METHOD
Boiler Efficiency vs. Excess Air

Figure 11 is a diagram of boiler efficiency versus excess air.
Flue gas analysis is used to indicate the air/fuel ratio and the
degree of completeness of combustion. The gas components
usually measured are CO2, O2, and CO. Figure 11 illustrates
that as the amount of excess air increases, the amount of O2 in
the flue gas increase.
Figure 11 also illustrates that both the amounts of CO and CO2
in the flue gas decrease as excess air increases. Excess
oxygen is the residual quantity remaining in the gases exiting
the boiler. As more and more combustion (excess) air is mixed
with a fixed rate of fuel, a greater fraction of that air (thus excess
oxygen) will remain after combustion is complete.
Carbon monoxide increases sharply at low excess air levels,
where incomplete combustion of the fuel occurs, i.e. where
carbon does not completely oxidize to carbon dioxide. At higher
excess air levels, little CO is generated, and is further diluted by
the large volume of air. Carbon dioxide approaches its ultimate
or maximum value at stoichiometric conditions, where carbon is
fully oxidized with little air remaining. Like carbon monoxide,
CO2 also becomes diluted at higher excess air levels.
Figure 11 illustrates the relationship between boiler efficiency
and excess air. As excess air increases from 0 to about 7
percent, boiler efficiency increases. As excess air increases
beyond 7% excess air, boiler efficiency decreases. This tradeoff between unburned fuel and stack heat losses, as a function
of excess air, is a relationship that exists at all boiler loads. The
control engineer who wishes to maximize boiler performance,
must first understand the methods of calculating efficiency and
the measurement data necessary for these calculations.
33
Boiler Control
CO2
18%
O2
14%
13%
15%
16%
17%
Oxygen
6%
4%
2%
1%
3%
5%
CO ppm
600
500
400
300
200
100
82.5% 83.0%
83.5% 84.0% 84.5% 85.0% Efficiency
CO2
Eff.
CO
10%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
% Excess Air
50%
33670
Figure 11. Boiler Efficiency vs. Excess Air
34
Boiler Control
Boiler Inputs and Outputs

Two acceptable methods are used to calculate boiler efficiency.
One method is called the input/output method, and the other
method is called the heat loss method. The input/output method
is less accurate than the heat loss method but is often preferred,
because it is the more simple method of the two.
A simplified form of the basic equation used by the input/output
method is illustrated in Equation 7, Boiler Efficiency Input/Output Method. The equation for the input/output method
in Equation 7 differs from the equation for the input/output
method show on page 13 of ASME PTC 4.1. The equation in
Equation 7 of this module does not include a heat credits term.
Efficiency =
Total Heat Output
Total Heat Input
Heat Added to Incoming Feedwater
Heat Added by the Fuel
x 100
((Steam Flow) x (Steam Enthalpy - Feedwater Enthalpy) +

Heat Output in Blowdown Water)
(Fuel Flow) x (Fuel Higher Heating Value)
Equation 7. Boiler Efficiency - Input/Output Method
35
Boiler Control
Heat Added by the

Fuel
Boiler inputs are defined as the heat added by the fuel. To

calculate the heat added by the fuel, the flow of the fuel is
measured over a period of time and is multiplied by the heat
content of the fuel.
The heat content of the fuel, also known as the higher-heat
value (HHV), is equal to the amount of heat liberated by the fuel
per unit quantity of the fuel. Combustion Engineering Fuel
Burning and Steam Generation Handbook (Course Handout 7)
contains higher-heat values for gas and oil expressed in BTU
per ft3 for gas and BTU per pound for oil.
The HHV for fuel oil number 6, which is 150,000 BTU per gallon,
is on pages 14 and 15 of Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning
and Steam Generation Handbook (Course Handout 7).
The HHV for natural gas, which is equal to 1061 BTU per ft3, is
on page 36 of Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam
Generation Handbook (Course Handout 7).
Heat Added to the
Incoming
Feedwater
Boiler outputs are defined as the heat added to the steam-water

circuit. Equation 7, Boiler Efficiency - Input/Output Method,
illustrates the calculation for boiler outputs. Steam flow is
multiplied by the difference between steam enthalpy and
feedwater enthalpy. Heat added to the incoming feedwater also
includes the non-useful heat added to the blowdown flow.
Figure 12 is a drawing from the ASME PTC 4.1 document
showing a steam generation unit and all energy inputs and
outputs. Figure 13, also from ASME PTC 4.1, is heat balance
around a steam generation unit, showing all inputs and outputs.
36
Boiler Control
Figure 12. Boiler Unit Energy Input & Output Diagram
37
Boiler Control
Figure 13. Boiler Unit Heat Balance
38
Boiler Control
First Law of Thermodynamics: Applications to Boiler Efficiency

The First Law of Thermodynamics is based on the conservation
of energy. The First Law of Thermodynamics states, "Energy
can neither be created nor destroyed." Figure 3-1 on page 37 of
The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam. G. Dukelow
illustrates boiler steam-water mass balance. The mass of the
feedwater is balanced with the mass of the steam plus
blowdown. Figure 3-2 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by
Sam. G. Dukelow illustrates boiler fuel, air-flue gas mass
balance. The mass of the fuel gas and the mass of the air are
balanced with the mass of the flue gas and the mass of the ash
or particulate.
Figure 3-5 on page 39 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by
Sam G. Dukelow illustrates boiler energy-heat balance. Boiler
performance is related to the boiler's ability to transfer heat from
the fuel to the water while still meeting operational
specifications. Boiler efficiency measures how effectively the
boiler converts the energy available in the fuel to energy in the
steam and blowdown.
39
Boiler Control
Example Boiler Efficiency CalculationInput/Output Method

Figures 1 and 2 of ASME PTC 4.1 represent a Steam
Generating Unit and Heat Balance of Steam Generator,
respectively. Equation 8 is the boiler input-output efficiency
calculation. In order to calculate boiler efficiency using the
input/output method, steam flow, feedwater flow, blowdown
flow, and fuel flow must be known. Steam, feedwater, and
blowdown pressure, temperature, or percentage moisture of the
steam are necessary to determine heat content. Also the fuel
higher heat value must be determined.
The ASME Test Form for Abbreviated Efficiency Test is on
pages 16 and 17 of ASME PTC 4.1. Item numbers 1, 2 ,5, 8, 11,
13, 15-17, 20, 21, 26, 28, 37, 40, 41, 43-47, and 64 are
necessary for an efficiency calculation using the input/output
method. Equation 8 of this module, Total Heat Input Calculation,
illustrates that in order to calculate Total Heat Input (item 29 of
ASME Test Form), the Rate of Fuel Firing (item 28) must be
multiplied by the BTU per Pound as Fired (item 41.)
Total Heat Input (Item 29), KBTU/hr =
Rate of Fuel Firing (Item 28), lb/hr BTU x per lb as Fired (Item 41)
1000 BTU/KBTU
Equation 8. Total Heat Input Calculation
40
Boiler Control
Equation 9, Total Heat Output Calculation, sums the heat

contributions from Actual Water Evaporated or Main Steam
(item 26), Reheat Steam (item 27), and Blowdown Flow (item
30). A reheat cycle generally exists on electric utility boilers,
where main steam is partially expanded through a steam turbine
then returned to the boiler, where it picks up additional
superheat. When this cycle does not exist, as on many industrial
boilers, the reheat portion of the calculation can be ignored.
Please refer to the note on Blowdown on page 9 of this module,
as it relates to Total Heat Output.
Total Heat Output (Item 31), KBTU/hr =

(Actual Water Evaporated (Item 26), lb/hr x
Absolute Heat per Pound of Steam (Item 20), BTU ) 10000
lb
+ Heat Output in Blowdown Water (Item 30),
KBTU
hr
Equation 9. Total Heat Output Calculation
41
Boiler Control
Equation 10 shows the calculation for heat absorbed by each

pound of steam. This represents, the heat added to each pound
of fluid from the inlet conditions of the (compressed liquid)
feedwater, to the outlet conditions of the (saturated or
superheated vapor) final steam.
Absolute Heat per Pound of Steam (Item 20), BTU =

lb
Enthalpy of Saturated or Superheated Steam (Item 16), BTU
lb
BTU
- Enthalpy of Saturated Feed to Boiler (Item 17),
lb
Equation 10. Absolute Heat per Pound of Steam Calculation
Equation 11, Heat Output in Boiler Blowdown Water Calculation,

measures the heat absorbed by the fluid - from (compressed
liquid) inlet feedwater conditions to (saturated liquid) blowdown
water conditions. Note the ASME procedure treats blowdown
flow, used to minimize water solids, as a valid boiler heat output
rather than a loss.
Heat Output in Boiler Blowdown Water (Item 30) KB/hr =

lb of Water Blowdown/hr x
(Enthalpy of Saturated Liquid (Item 15), BTU lb
Enthalpy of Saturated Feed to Boiler (Item 17),
BTU
)
lb
1000
Equation 11. Heat Output in Boiler Blowdown Water Calculation
42
Boiler Control
Be advised the ASME Short Form erroneously shows the

Blowdown Heat in the numerator of Total Heat Output
Calculation. Blowdown Heat Flow is already in units of KBTU/Hr,
as calculated in item 30, at the top of page 2 on the ASME form.
This quantity should not be divided by 1000; rather it is directly
added to the Total Heat Output Calculation, as shown in
Equation 12.
Total
Heat
Evap.
Water
=
Ht./lb
Stm.
( Item 26 x Item 20)
Reheat
Ht. in
Stm. Flow Reheat Stm.
Ht. in
Blowdown
+ (Item 27 x Item 21 )
+
1000
Item 30
Output
Equation 12. Total Heat Output Calculation
43
Boiler Control
The following example is of a boiler efficiency calculation using

the input/output method. The ASME heat loss efficiency
calculation requires that percent oxygen and carbon dioxide in
the flue gas be measured on a dry basis. The flue gas
concentrations appearing in this module's efficiency calculations
were determined in a separate procedure as documented in
Work Aid 1D (Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon
Dioxide in Flue Gas) of module PCI201.03. Boiler efficiency test
data are as follows:
Water and Steam Data
Fuel Data Gas
1. Feedwater
350 degF
1. Flow
11508 LB/Hr
2. Steam Drum
1273.9 psig
2. Analysis:
3. Superheater Out
1250.0 psig
a. Carbon
72.03
900 degF
b. Hydrogen
22.88
180.4 MLB/Hr
c. Oxygen
1.70
d. Nitrogen
3.39
e. Sulfur
f. Ash
g. Moisture
Total
h. Heat Value
100.00
22,322 BTU/lb
Air and Flue Gas Data

1. Combustion Air
80 degF
2. Flue Gas
400 degF
3. Oxygen (dry)
5.12%
44
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4. Carbon Dioxide
7.26%
5. Carbon Monoxide
0%
6. Nigrogen
85.9%
7. Excess Air
30.6%
Boiler Data
1. Rated Output
553.90 MMBTU/Hr
2. No. of Waterwalls
The ASME Test form (Addendum A) is filled out as follows:
Pressure and Temperatures

Item #
Description
Value
Steam Pressure in Boiler Drum
1288.6 psia
Steam Pressure at Superheater Outlet
1264.7 psia
Steam Temperature at Superheater Outlet
900 degF
Water Temperature Entering the Boiler
350 degF
11
Temperature Air for Combustion
13
Stack Gas Temperature
80 degF
400 degF
45
Boiler Control
Items 15 to 17 are computed from the Combustion Engineering

Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook (Course
Handout 7):
Unit Quantities
Item #
15
Description
Value
Enthalpy of Saturated Liquid (Total Heat)

(from the steam tables, page 46, for steam
at pressure 1288.6 psia)
16
584.8 BTU/lb
Enthalpy of Saturated, Superheated Steam

at pressure 1264 psia and steam temperature
900 degF)
17
1438.7 BTU/lb
Enthalpy of Saturated Feed to Boiler

(from the steam tables, page 44, for feedwater
at 350 degF)
321.6 BTU/lb
46
Boiler Control
The remaining items are filled out in the ASME Test Form:
Hourly Quantities
Item #
26
28
41
Description
Value
Actual Water Evaporated

Rate of Fuel Firing
BTU per Pound as Fired
180,400.000 lb/hr
11508
lb/hr
22322 BTU/lb
Flue Gas Analysis

32
33
34
35
36
CO2
O2
CO
N2
Excess Air
7.26 %
5.12 %
0%
85.9 %
30.6 %
Oil as Fired Ultimate Analysis

43
44
45
46
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
72.03 %
22.88 %
1.70 %
3.39 %
47
Boiler Control
Notes and special considerations in performing the calculations:

Carbon Burned per LB of As Fired Fuel (item 24) - This
straightforward calculation relies upon an Ultimate analysis of
the fuel to determine carbon content. An analysis of ash
samples, for solid fuels, is also required to determine the
unburned carbon remaining in the refuse, BTU/LB (item 23).
The quantity of dry refuse per LB As Fired Fuel (item 22) is
usually determined from the calculation shown near the top of
page 2 of the ASME short form (Equation 13).
Item 22 =
Ash in as Fired Fuel, %

100 - Combustibles in Refuse Sample, %
Equation 13. Dry Refuse per Pound As Fired Fuel Calculation
The value in the numerator, Ash in As Fired Fuel, %, is taken

directly from the fuel Ultimate Analysis. The unknown in the
denominator, Combustibles in Refuse Sample, %, is calculated
using the Unburned Carbon in Refuse quantity, as obtained
from the laboratory ash analysis (Equation 14).
Combustibles in Refuse, % = 100% x
Unburned Carbon in Refuse, BTU/LB

High Heating Value of Fuel, BTU/LB
Equation 14. Combustibles in Refuse Calculation
48
Boiler Control
Dry Gas per LB As Fired Fuel Burned (item 25) - This

determines the quantity of flue gases generated by each pound
of fuel burned. It requires both fuel and flue gas analysis data.
For the latter analysis, the percent Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide,
Carbon Monoxide, and Nitrogen in the flue gas must be
determined volumetrically - on a Dry basis.
A Dry Basis analysis has traditionally been determined via
manual sampling of the flue gases - using an Orsat kit. This
approach permits the determination O2, CO2, and C0; N2 then
being determined by difference, i.e. 100% minus all other
constituents.
Be advised, when analyzing flue gas, that many zirconium
oxide-type oxygen analyzers measure the flue gas in-situ, on a
Wet Basis - yielding an apparently lower oxygen reading. Refer
to conversion procedures in the ASME companion document,
Power Test Code PTC 19.10 - Flue and Exhaust Gas
Analyses.
Heat Loss Due to Dry Gas (item 65) - This loss tends to be the
largest single loss for most boilers. The calculation uses
measured and previously-calculated values, along with a
constant for the Specific Heat of Flue Gas, 0.24. If a high
degree of accuracy is sought in the overall efficiency calculation,
this Specific Heat value may be determined based on fuel
carbon/hydrogen ratio, flue gas CO2 content, and flue gas
temperature. Refer to the curves on Figure 7, page 66, in ASME
PTC 4.1. In general, this Specific Heat value will range from
0.23 to 0.25 BTU/LB-DegF.
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Boiler Control
Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Fuel (item 66) - This loss is

significant for fuels with entrained moisture, such as biomass
(wood) and some coals. The calculation requires that additional
enthalpy values be determined from the steam tables, namely
for the superheated vapor in the flue gas and for the saturated
liquid in the incoming combustion air (humidity).
Heat Loss Due to Moisture from the Combustion of Hydrogen
(item 67) - This loss is large for natural gas and other fuel
gases, since about 9 pounds of moisture are generated for each
pound of hydrogen burned. The calculation uses the same
enthalpy values as for item 67.
Heat Loss Due to Combustibles in Refuse (item 68) - This loss
is significant only for solid fuels with measurable ash content.
The calculation is based mainly on the lab analysis of the ash.
Heat Loss Due to Radiation (item 69) - This loss must be
determined from the ABMA Radiation Loss Chart (Course
Handout 11), included in ASME PTC 4.1 (Figure 8, page 67).
The Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR) and Actual Boiler
Output, both in MBTU/Hr, must first be calculated.
Next, examine the ABMA chart to determine if an MCR line
already exists for this boiler, or if it must be added to the chart. If
a new line must be added, locate this boilers MCR value on the
X-Axis, (e.g. if MCR is 600 MBTU/HR, find this value on the XAxis). Start the new MCR line at the point where this
MCR/Actual Boiler Output value intersects with the curved
Radiation Loss at Max. Cont.. Output line. Draw the new line
up and to the left, keeping it parallel with the existing MCR lines.
Extend the line until it reaches the 12% Radiation Loss value, as
measured on the Y-Axis.
50
Boiler Control
To determine the radiation loss for this steam load, locate the
boilers Actual Output on the X-Axis, and draw a vertical line so
that it intersects with this boilers MCR line. Next, draw a
horizontal line from the above intersection point to the Y-Axis.
Read the boilers Gross Radiation Loss, % from the Y-Axis. This
gross loss is multiplied by a water wall or air-cooled wall factor
as shown at the origin (lower left of the chart). The appropriate
factor is determined by the number of water or air-cooled walls
as shown at the upper left portion of the chart, i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4
water or air-cooled walls.
Enter the net radiation loss value directly in the % Loss column
of the ASME short form. If desired, the equivalent BTU loss may
be determined, by reverse calculation.
Unmeasured Losses (item 70) - Since the ASME Short Form
method is not a rigorous treatment of the complete efficiency
procedure, minor losses are not calculated. Instead, they are
estimated using this Unmeasured Loss category. This value is
as generally agreed upon by boiler owner and manufacturer,
when the boiler is commissioned. It can vary from 0.5% to 2%,
but is most often assumed at 1%.
Total (item 72) and Efficiency (item 72) - Sum all losses, items
65 through 70, and list the total as item 71. Heat Loss
Efficiency, item 72, is defined as 100% minus the total losses
(item 71).
51
Boiler Control
CALCULATE BOILER EFFICIENCY BY THE HEAT LOSS METHOD

A simplified version of the heat loss efficiency calculation
equation is shown in Equation 15. Each major loss of heat
energy is calculated and totaled. The total heat loss is converted
to per cent by dividing the heat losses by the sum of the heat in
the fuel and multiplying this quotient by 100. The total heat loss
in per cent is subtracted from 100% to equal boiler efficiency.
The equation for the heat loss method in Equation 15 differs
from the equation for the heat loss method show on page 13 of
ASME PTC 4.1. Note: Equation 15, does not include a heat
credits term.
BTU
lb
BTU
Heat in Fuel,
lb
Heat Losses,
Efficiency (Percent) = 100 -
x 100
Equation 15. Boiler Efficiency Calculation - Heat Loss Method
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Heat Loss Method

The heat loss method for boiler efficiency calculation is more
accurate than the input/output method because the variation of
measurements needed have less effect on the percentage
efficiency. A major advantage of the heat loss method is the
identification of the losses. As conditions change, and boiler
efficiency deteriorates, increased losses can be identified and
taken care of. Limitations of the input/output method include the
accuracy of flow meters and the measurement accuracy of the
heat content of the fuel. Another advantage to using the heat
loss method over the input/output method is that, for the
input/output method, data on load changes is inaccurate. A
disadvantage to the heat loss method is that it is more
complicated than the input/output method.
52
Boiler Control
Example Boiler Efficiency CalculationHeat Loss Method

The following is a list of the major heat losses calculated when
determining boiler efficiency using the heat loss method:
Heat loss due to dry flue gas
Heat loss due to moisture in the fuel
Heat loss to water from the combustion of hydrogen
Heat loss due to the combustibles in refuse
Heat loss due to radiation
The ASME Test Form for Abbreviated Efficiency Test on pages

16 and 17 of ASME PTC 4.1 (Course Handout 10) contain the
formulas necessary for the calculation of boiler efficiency using
the heat loss method. All the heat losses are calculated in terms
of per cent of the sum of the higher-heat value of the as-fired
fuel (items 65-70 of the ASME Test Form.) The heat losses are
totaled (item 71) and the total is subtracted from 100% to
calculate boiler efficiency (item 72.)
Equation 16 is used to calculate carbon burned per pound of asfired fuel (item 24.) Carbon burned per pound of as-fired fuel is
calculated as follows:
The remainder of dry refuse per lb A.F. fuel (item 22) times
BTU per lb in refuse (item 23) is divided by 14,500.
The above quotient is subtracted from the quotient of

percent carbon (item 43) divided by 100.
Carbon Burned per LB

=
As-Fired Fuel (Item 24)
% Carbon
(Item 43)
100
(BTU per LB
(Dry Refuse per
LB As-Fired Fuel, x in Refuse,
lb/lb (Item 23))
lb/lb (Item 22))
14,500
Equation 16. Carbon Burned per lb As-Fired Fuel Calculation
53
Boiler Control
Equation 17 illustrates the equation used to calculate dry gas

per pound of as-fired fuel burned (item 25.)
(Item 32)
(Item 33)
(Item 35) (Item 34)
11 x CO2 + 8 x O2 + 7 + (N2 + CO)

Dry Gas per LB As-Fired
=
Fuel Burned (Item 25)
3 x ( CO2 + CO )
(Item 32)
(Item 34)
(Item 37)
(Item 24)
LB Carbon Burned per LB As-Fired Fuel +
Moisture
267
Equation 17. Dry Gas per lb As-Fired Fuel Burned Calculation
Equation 18 is used to calculate the heat loss due to dry flue

gas (item 65 of ASME Test Form.)
Heat Loss due to Dry

Dry Gas per
Flue Gas (Item 65),
LB As-Fired
BTU
=
x
LB of As-Fired Fuel
Fuel Burned
(Item 25)
CP
Flue x
Gas
Flue Gas Leaving

Boiler (Item 13) F
Temp Air for

Combustion
(Item 11) F
Where CP = Specific Heat at Constant Pressure in BTU per LB F
Equation 18. Equation for Heat Loss Due to Dry Flue Gas
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Boiler Control
Heat loss due to dry flue gas (item 65) is calculated as follows:
The dry gas per lb as fired fuel (item 25) is calculated by

dividing the amount of pound of dry flue gas by the amount
of pound of fired fuel.
The value for dry gas per lb as fired fuel is then multiplied by
the specific heat at constant pressure (CP expressed in BTU
per lb.)
The above product is then multiplied by the remainder of the

temperature (in degF) of the flue gas leaving the boiler (item
13) minus the temperature (in degF) of air combustion (item
11).
Equation 19 is used to calculate the heat loss due to the

moisture in the fuel (item 66 of ASME Test Form.)
Heat Loss due to H2

from Combustion of H2
(Item 67)
BTU
LB of As-Fired Fuel
LB H2O
LB of As-Fired Fuel
(Item 37)
100
Enthalpy of Vapor at 1 PSIA &

BTU
Temperature of Gas Leaving (Item 13*), LB
Enthalpy of Liquid Water at Temperature BTU
Air Inlet Temperature (Item 11*),
LB
* Thes items come from Steam Tables from Combustion
Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook
Equation 19. Equation for Heat Loss Due to Moisture in Fuel
55
Boiler Control
Heat loss due to the moisture in the fuel is calculated by

multiplying amount of pound of water per pound of as-fired fuel
(item 37/100) by the difference between the enthalpy of vapor at
the temperature of the air leaving the boiler (item 13) and the
enthalpy of liquid at the temperature of air for combustion (item
11).
Equation 20 is used to calculate the heat loss due to water from
the combustion of hydrogen (item 67 of ASME Test Form.)
Heat Loss due to H2

from Combustion of H2
(Item 67)
BTU
LB of As-Fired Fuel
= 9 x H2 (Item 44) x
Enthalpy of Vapor at 1 PSIA & Temperature (Item 13),
Enthalpy of Liquid Water at Temperature (Item 11),
BTU
LB
BTU
LB
Equation 20. Equation for Heat Loss Due to H2O from Combustion of H2
Heat loss due to water from the combustion of hydrogen is

calculated by multiplying 9 times the per cent hydrogen in the
fuel (item 44) by the difference between the enthalpy of vapor at
the temperature of the air leaving the boiler (item 13) and the
enthalpy of liquid at the temperature of air for combustion (item
11).
56
Boiler Control
Equation 21 is used to calculate the heat loss due to

combustible in the refuse (item 68 of ASME Test Form.)
Heat Loss due to

Combustible in Refuse
(Item 68)
BTU
LB of As-Fired Fuel
= Dry Refuse per LB As-Fired Fuel (Item 22),

x BTU per LB in refuse (Item 23),
LB
LB
BTU
LB
Equation 21. Equation for Heat Loss Due to Combustible in Refuse
Heat loss due to combustible in the refuse is calculated by

multiplying the amount of dry refuse per lb of A.F. fuel (item 22)
by the BTU per lb in refuse (item 23).
All heat losses (items 65-69) are converted to per cent of asfired fuel by dividing the heat loss (BTU/LB of A.F. fuel) by the
fuel higher heat value. Heat losses are totaled (item 71) and
subtracted from 100 to calculate boiler efficiency (item 72).
Radiation heat losses cannot be measured directly and are
computed using the ABMA (American Boiler Manufacturer's
Association) Standard Radiation Loss Chart (attached.) This
chart uses the inputs of the boiler MCR (i.e. Maximum
Continuous Rating), actual boiler heat output, and number of
water-cooled furnace walls in determining the radiation loss.
The lines are drawn on the chart representing MCR and actual
boiler heat output to determine % radiation heat loss. The
percentage radiation loss is multiplied by the waterwall factor
also found on the ABMA Standard Radiation Loss Chart.
57
Boiler Control
The following example is of a boiler efficiency calculation using

the heat loss method. The ASME Test Form for Abbreviated
Efficiency Test is on pages 16 and 17 of ASME PTC 4.1
(Addendum B). Boiler efficiency test data are the same as the
data were used in the previous example, Example Boiler
Efficiency CalculationInput/Output Method.
Fuel Data Gas
1. Feedwater
350 degF
2. Steam Drum
1273.9 psig
3. Superheater Out
1250.0 psig
1. Flow
11508 LB/Hr
2. Analysis:
a. Carbon
72.03
900 degF
b. Hydrogen
22.88
180.4 MLB/Hr
c. Oxygen
1.70
d. Nitrogen
3.39
e. Sulfur
f. Ash
g. Moisture
Total
h. Heat Value
100.00
22,322 BTU/lb

1. Combustion Air
80 degF
2. Flue Gas
400 degF
3. Oxygen (dry)
5.12%
58
Boiler Control
4. Carbon Dioxide
7.26%
5. Carbon Monoxide
0%
6. Nigrogen
85.9%
7. Excess Air
30.6%
Boiler Data
1. Rated Output
553.90 MMBTU/Hr
3. MCR
385 Mlb/Hr
4. Assume unmeasured losses = 366.1 BTU/lb (As agreed upon by parties to the test)
The ASME Test form (Addendum A) is filled out as follows:
Pressure and Temperatures

Item #
Description
Value
Steam Pressure in Boiler Drum
1288.6 psia
Steam Pressure at Superheater Outlet
1264.7 psia
Steam Temperature at Superheater Outlet
900 degF
Water Temperature Entering the Boiler
350 degF
11
Temperature Air for Combustion
13
Stack Gas Temperature
80 degF
400 degF
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Items 15 to 17 are computed from the Combustion Engineering

Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook (Course
Handout 7):
Unit Quantities
Item #
15
Description
Value
Enthalpy of Saturated Liquid (Total Heat)

at pressure 1288.6 psia)
16
584.8 BTU/lb
Enthalpy of Saturated, Superheated Steam

at pressure 1264 psia and steam temperature
900 degF)
17
1438.7 BTU/lb
Enthalpy of Saturated Feed to Boiler

(from the steam tables, page 44, for feedwater
at 350 degF)
321.6 BTU/lb
The remaining items are filled out in the ASME Test Form:
60
Boiler Control
Hourly Quantities
Item #
Description
Value
26
Actual Water Evaporated
180,400.000 lb/hr
28
Rate of Fuel Firing
11508
lb/hr
41
BTU per Pound as Fired
22322
BTU/lb
Flue Gas Analysis

32
CO2
7.26 %
33
O2
5.12 %
34
CO
0%
35
N2
85.9 %
36
Excess Air
30.6 %
Oil as Fired Ultimate Analysis

43
Carbon
72.03 %
44
Hydrogen
22.88 %
45
Oxygen
1.70 %
46
Nitrogen
3.39 %
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Boiler Control
OPTIMUM DISPATCHING OF MULTIPLE BOILERS

The purpose of the optimum dispatching of multiple boilers is to
deliver steam at the lowest operating cost.
Economic Load Allocation

New methods are often searched for to reduce overall steam
production costs. One way to dramatically reduce costs is to
intelligently allocate steam loads to boilers in multiple boiler
powerhouses. Economic load allocation is the minimization of
cost by proper allocation of steam demand to a set of boilers.
Boiler operators have no trouble allocating steam production the
following situation.
Boiler No. 1 always operates at 87% efficiency.
Boiler No. 2 always operates at 86% efficiency.
The solution is, it would seem, obvious. Maximize the steam

production from Boiler No. 1 and let Boiler No. 2 make up the
difference.
Unfortunately, in most applications the solution is not this
simple. The relationship between boiler efficiency and steam
load is decidedly nonlinear. The solution of "loading up on the
most efficient boiler" may not always be the correct solution.
This approach may force the other boiler into an inefficient
operating range, increasing overall steam costs.
The varied effects and costs of different fuels complicate
matters further, making it very difficult to find a complete and
timely optimum dispatching solution (before another load
change occurs).
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Boiler Control
The solution to steam production problems must address more

than the performance of each boiler as it operates over its load
range. It must also include how the loading of each boiler affects
the operation of the other boilers. (See Figure 14.)
Fuel
Cost
Boiler
Efficiencies
Boiler
Status
Advise
Minimize
Overall
Operating
Cost
$/lb
Limits and
Constraints
$/lb
Fuel
Air
Boiler 1
Solution
Implement
$/lb
Steam to
Process Avg $/lb
Fuel
Air
Boiler 2
Fuel
Air
Boiler 3
Figure 14. Economic Load Allocation
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Boiler Control
Methods
A number of methods for optimally distributing boiler loads have
been developed over the years. These methods include iterative
searches, model-based solutions using both linear and nonlinear optimization algorithms, and incremental cost
determination. Each method has distinct advantages and
disadvantages regarding their ease of implementation, ability to
handle large applications, execution time, and solution
accuracy.
One common characteristic of all optimization methods is the
need to mathematically represent or model the boilers
performance, over its load range. This is necessary so that each
boiler can be evaluated - not only at its present load, but at all
other potential loads. Figure 15 shows a typical boiler operating
line.
700
Cost, $/Hr
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Steam Flow %
Figure 15. Typical Boiler Operating Line
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Boiler Control
This would be represented mathematically with a polynomial

function such as:
f(X) = A * X + B
Where:
Steam Flow, %
A, B = Constants
f(X)
= Operating Cost, $/Hr
The polynomial function might be of a higher order, i.e. with

second and third order terms, depending on the required
accuracy of the model.
Iterative Solutions
As its name implies, this method solves the optimization

problem (finds the best solution) by repetitively computing all
possible solutions. The solution set includes all boiler load
combinations that will satisfy the plant steam demand, while
maintaining boilers within their respective valid load range.
This approach is probably the simplest to implement. A logic
algorithm determines the various combinations of steam loads
that will be considered, given the present demand. The
appropriate steam load combinations are then evaluated, using
a suitable load increment - typically 1000 Lb/Hr of steam flow.
The operating line (operating cost versus steam load) curves for
each boiler are repeatedly accessed during the search.
Iteration also can produce accurate solutions, since the
operating line curve can be any math function necessary to
model or represent the boiler.
This optimization approach quickly becomes impractical,
though, as the number of boilers increases. With each new
boiler, the number of iterations increases exponentially. When
four or more boilers are being dispatched, the time required to
find an optimum solution may become prohibitive, depending
upon the system being used to perform the computations.
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Boiler Control
Model-Based
Linear Program
(LP) Solutions
Model-based solutions make use of a linear program (LP)

algorithm, typically based on the Simplex technique. A
mathematical model of the steam process is developed,
considering individual boiler constraints, interactions, and
balances.
The steam plant model, current data, and objective function (to
minimize operating cost) are developed as a series of
equations. These equations are arranged in a prescribed format
and the coefficients of all the equation terms are placed in a 2
dimensional matrix. This matrix is then presented to the
optimizer algorithm for solutions.
It should be noted that Linear in the name Linear Programming
indicates that only linear equations are involved. This is
unfortunate, since boiler operating costs cannot be accurately
represented by a linear or straight-line function. Figure 16
demonstrates the inadequacy of a straight line fit of a boilers
performance versus load data.
700
Cost, $/Hr.
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
20
40
60
80
100
Steam Flow %
Figure 16. Linear Boiler Operating Line

66
Boiler Control
One alternative is to model the boilers with a series of straight

line segments, usually three or more, instead of just one. This
method of segmentation, shown graphically in Figure 17, will
allow for a more accurate representation of the boilers
performance. Segmentation complicates the modeling effort,
though, as many more equations must be introduced and
considered by the optimization algorithm - requiring additional
computation time.
700
Cost, $/Hr.
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
20
40
60
Steam Flow %
80
100
Figure 17. Segmented Linear Boiler Operating Line
Consideration must be given to how the boilers performance vs.

load data points are used to form multiple line segments.
Experience has shown that an optimizer will often arrive at a
solution which places a boiler precisely at the junction of two
adjacent line segments.
67
Boiler Control
When operating line segmentation is employed and/or additional

boilers are to be optimized, the initial matrix size increases
accordingly. The solution of large matrices requires significantly
more algebraic manipulation - increasing LP execution time and
raising concerns over rounding errors.
Model-Based
Nonlinear Program
Solutions
When approaching nonlinear optimization problems, numerous

solution methods have been employed. These search
techniques are subdivided in many ways: discrete search
versus continuous search; nonsequential search versus
sequential search; local search versus global search; search
with quadratic convergence versus search without quadratic
convergence; etc.
This class of optimization allows for nonlinear modeling of the
boilers but takes longer to execute and may, in some instances,
identify false optimums. For instance, one search technique
might be faster than another, but might erroneously converge on
a local maxima (peak) or minima (valley) as an optimum point,
as illustrated in Figure 18.
Optimum
Local
Maxima
Figure 18. Local versus Overall Optimum
68
Boiler Control
Employing the appropriate nonlinear solution technique is

important for another reason. The concern here is not just to
solve the problem, but to solve it efficiently. In the interest of
finding solutions in something close to real-time, it is often
necessary to direct the optimizer algorithm to use a smaller
number of trials and a larger step size. This type of optimizer,
when used on-line, typically requires a sophisticated computing
platform and a highly-trained system administrator.
Incremental Cost
Determination
It has been proven, using Calculus, that two or more boilers are
optimally loaded when their incremental operating costs are
made equal. For a boiler, incremental cost is represented by the
slope of the operating line - such as we have already examined.
Figure 19 illustrates the relationship between boiler load versus
fuel cost for Boiler 1 and Boiler 2. The question to ask is, "How
do we split the load between the two boilers at low cost of fuel?"
600
BLR 1
Cost = 5 x Load + 100
Fuel Cost ($/HR)
500
BLR 2
Cost = 5 x Load + 0
400
300
200
100
20
40
60
80
100
Boiler Load (KLB/HR)
Figure 19. Economic Load Allocation
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Boiler Control
The data from Figure 19 reveals that no matter how the load is
split between the boilers, the total cost to operate the boilers is
the same:
Boiler 1
Boiler 2
Total Cost
20 K LB/HR
80 K LB/HR
$600/HR
50 K LB/HR
50 K LB/HR
$600/HR
80 K LB/HR
20 K LB/HR
$600/HR
Because the slopes of the lines that represent boiler load vs.
fuel cost for boiler 1 and boiler 2 are equal, the total cost to
operate the boilers is the same for a given load. If the boilers
can be set so that the slopes of the lines that represent boiler
load vs. fuel cost are equal, the math theory says that the total
fuel cost for a given load will be the same no matter how the
load is allocated between the boilers.
Figure 20 illustrates the relationship between boiler load versus
fuel cost for a second set of boilers.
Boiler Operating Cost ($/HR)
500
Boiler 1
Cost = 5 x Steam Flow
400
Boiler 2
Cost = 3 x Steam Flow + 100
300
200
100
20
40
60
80
Steam Flow (KLB/HR)
100
Figure 20. Boiler Load vs Fuel Cost

70
Boiler Control
The data from Figure 20 reveal that the total fuel cost increases
as we shift the larger share of the load from boiler 2 to boiler 1.
Boiler 1
Boiler 2
Total Cost
20 K LB/HR
80 K LB/HR
$440/HR
50 K LB/HR
50 K LB/HR
$500/HR
80 K LB/HR
20 K LB/HR
$560/HR
The slope of the line that represents boiler load vs. fuel cost for
boiler 1 is steeper than that of boiler 2. The solution is to make
the maximum use of boiler 2 to decrease operating cost.
71
Boiler Control
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE BOILER

EFFICIENCY BY THE INPUT/OUTPUT METHOD FOR A GIVEN SET OF
BOILER OPERATING CONDITIONS
Work Aid 1A: Example of Boiler Operating Parameters
Fuel Data Gas
1. Feedwater
206 degF
1. Flow
2. Water Pressure
160.3 psig
2. Analysis:
3A. Water Temp at S.H. Out
356 degF
a. Carbon
69.26
3B. Output Flow
180.4 MLB/Hr
b. Hydrogen
22.68
4.
0.0 MLB/Hr
c. Oxygen
Blowdown
d. Nitrogen
2756 LB/Hr
8.06
e. Sulfur
f. Ash
g. Moisture
Total
h. Heat Value
100%
22,658 BTU/lb

1. Combustion Air
48.4 degF
2. Flue Gas
302.4 degF
3. Oxygen (dry)
8.7%
72
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4. Carbon Dioxide
7.26%
1. Rated Output
50 MBTU/Hr
Boiler Data
Work Aid 1B: ASME PTC 4.1

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Power Test Code 4.1 (Course Handout 10)
Work Aid 1C: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam

Generation Handbook
Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook (Course
Handout 7).
73
Boiler Control
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE BOILER

EFFICIENCY BY THE HEAT LOSS METHOD FOR A GIVEN SET OF
BOILER OPERATING CONDITIONS
Work Aid 2A: Example of Boiler Operating Parameters
Fuel Data Gas
1. Feedwater
206 degF
1. Flow
2. Water Pressure
160.3 psig
2. Analysis:
3A. Water Temp at S.H. Out
356 degF
a. Carbon
69.26
3B. Output Flow
180.4 MLB/Hr
b. Hydrogen
22.68
4.
0.0 MLB/Hr
c. Oxygen
Blowdown
d. Nitrogen
2756 LB/Hr
8.06
e. Sulfur
f. Ash
g. Moisture
Total
h. Heat Value
100%
22,658 BTU/lb

1. Combustion Air
48.4 degF
2. Flue Gas
302.4 degF
74
Boiler Control
3. Oxygen (dry)
8.7%
4. Carbon Dioxide
7.26%
1. Rated Output
50 MBTU/Hr
Boiler Data
Work Aid 2B: ASME PTC 4.1

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Power Test Code 4.1 (Course Handout 10)
Work Aid 2C: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam

Generation Handbook
Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook (Course
Handout 7).
75
Boiler Control
WORK AID 3. RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE TOTAL

REQUIRED AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC CONDITIONS AND
EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR A GIVEN FUEL OF KNOWN
COMPOSITION
Work Aid 3A: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam

Generation Handbook
Refer to The Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook
for fuel analysis data.
Work Aid 3B: Procedure to Calculate Excess Air

Excess air equals excess oxygen. Excess air equals the %O2 by volume in the flue gas
divided by the total air required for stoichiometric combustion. The procedure to
calculate excess air:
1.
Obtain flue gas analyses CO2, CO, O2, N2.
2.
From the percent N2, calculate the total O2 into the furnace.
3.
Reduce the free O2 by the amount required to burn the CO to CO2. The
remaining free O2 is excess. (CO is usually negligible)
4.
O2 required = (total in) less (excess)
5.
(excess O 2 )
(excess ) x100
x100 =
total - excess
(required O 2 )
76
Boiler Control
GLOSSARY
ASME PTC
American Society of Mechanical Engineers Power

Test Codes.
A.F.
As-fired fuel. Fuel in the condition as it is fed to the

fuel burning equipment.
absolute humidity
The weight of water vapor in a gas water-vapor

mixture per unit volume of space occupied.
blowdown
Removal of a portion of boiler water to reduce

chemical concentration, or to discharge sludge.
CO
Carbon Monoxide.
CO2
Carbon Dioxide.
economic load allocation
The minimization of cost by the proper allocation of

steam demand to a set of boilers.
efficiency
The ratio of the output to the input. The efficiency of

a steam generating unit is the ratio of the heat
absorbed by water and steam to the heat in the fuel
fired.
enthalpy
The amount of heat energy that is contained in a

fluid or gas in BTU/lb.
H2
Hydrogen.
higher-heat value
Amount of heat liberated by the fuel per unit quantity

of the fuel.
O2
Oxygen.
77
Boiler Control
relative humidity
sensible heat losses
The ratio of the weight of water vapor present in a

unit volume of gas to the maximum possible weight
of water vapor in unit volume of the same gas at the
same temperature and pressure.
Dry gas losses at (Temperature of gas exiting
boiler) - Ambient Temperature.
78
Boiler Control
ADDENDUM
ADDENDUM TABLE OF CONTENTS
Addendum A:
ASME Test Form for Example Boiler Efficiency

Calculation - Input/Output Method
Addendum B:
ASME Test Form for Example Boiler Efficiency

Calculation - Heat Loss Method
Addendum C:
ASME Test Form for Evaluation Boiler Efficiency

Calculation - Boiler 1
Addendum D:
ASME Test Form for Evaluation Boiler Efficiency

Calculation - Boiler 2
79
Boiler Control
Addendum A:
ASME Test Form for Example Boiler Efficiency Calculation Input/Output Method
80
Boiler Control
Addendum B:
ASME Test Form for Example Boiler Efficiency Calculation - Heat

Loss Method
81
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Addendum C:
ASME Test Form for Evaluation Boiler Efficiency Calculation Boiler 1
82
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Addendum D:
ASME Test Form for Evaluation Boiler Efficiency Calculation Boiler 2
83

Boiler Combustion Theory and Efficiency

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Boiler Combustion Theory and Efficiency

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Chapter : Process Instrumentation

For additional information on this subject, contact

Example Boiler Efficiency CalculationHeat Loss Method ....................................... 53

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 1. Liquid Fuel Viscosity vs. Temperature ............................................................ 8

Table 1. Common Chemical Reactions in Combustion ................................................ 11

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Equation 1. Complete Combustion of Carbon (C) .......................................................... 9

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Calculating the total air flow to meet stoichiometric

Calculate boiler efficiency by the input/output method.

Calculate boiler efficiency by the heat loss method.

Purpose and methods for optimum dispatching of multiple

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

CALCULATING THE TOTAL AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC

Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion

1000 Btu/scf or 22000 Btu/lb

Refinery or Fuel Gas: 1000 - 3000 Btu/scf

No. 6 Fuel Oil:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Gas is the only fuel that can be delivered as it is being used. It

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 1. Liquid Fuel Viscosity vs. Temperature

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Equation 1. Complete Combustion of Carbon (C)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

= 2H2O + 61,100 BTU/lb H2

Equation 2. Formula for Complete Combustion of Hydrogen (H)

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Table 1. Common Chemical Reactions in Combustion

Carbon (to CO2)

Sulfur (to SO2)

Carbon (to CO)

From Steam, Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

HHV: The total heat liberated from combustion

LHV: The total heat liberated from combustion MINUS the

5 to 7%; higher efficiency than gas

3 to 5%; higher efficiency than gas

5 to 7%; lower efficiency than coal

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

lbsair/lbfuel = 11.53C + 34.34 H2 -

Fuel analysis for #6 fuel oil:

*This value is for pure C.

Table 2. Combustion Constants

By-Products of Incomplete Combustion and Resulting Inefficiency

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= 2CO + 4,000 BTU/lb C

Equation 4. Incomplete Combustion (Insufficient Air)

= 2CO2 + 4,435 BTU/lb CO

Equation 5. Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide

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Excess Combustion Air

%Oxygen in Flue Gas

% Excess Air, minimum

As load on a boiler decreases, the turbulence in a burner is

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Figure 2. Increased Requirement for Excess Air at Low Boiler Loads

Flue Gas Analysis

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Percent O2. The Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon

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