Reducing Motor Vehicle Crashes - Health Officer Report

Copies of this report are available from:
Office of the Provincial Health Officer

BC Ministry of Health
PO Box 9648, STN PROV GOVT
1515 Blanshard Street
Victoria, BC
V8W 3C8
Telephone: (250) 952-1330
Facsimile: (250) 952-1362
and electronically (in a .pdf file) from:
http://www.health.gov.bc.ca/pho/reports
Back cover, roundabout photoPhoto credit: Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure,

CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 (see: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/).
Ministry of Health
Victoria, BC
March, 2016
The Honourable Terry Lake
Minister of Health
Sir:
I have the honour of submitting the Provincial Health Officers Annual Report for 2011.
P.R.W. Kendall
OBC, MBBS, MHSc, FRCPC
Provincial Health Officer
iv
Provincial Health Officers Annual Report
Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
HIGHLIGHTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO ROAD SAFETY IN BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Reimagining Road Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Governance of Roads and Road Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Methodology and Data Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Data Analysis and Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Data Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Police Traffic Accident System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Discharge Abstract Database. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

BC Vital Statistics Agency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Data Challenges and Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Population Health Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Public Health Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Public Health Triangle Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

The Haddon Matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
A Safe System Approach to Road Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Road Use in Canada and BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
MVC-related Fatalities and Serious Injuries in Canada and BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
MVC-related Fatalities and Serious Injuries in Canada. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
MVC-related Serious Injuries and Fatalities in BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The Cost of MVCs in Canada and BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Organization of This Report. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Where the Rubber Meets the Road: Reducing the Impact of Motor Vehicle Crashes on Health and Well-being in BC
Table of Contents
Chapter 2: MOTOR VEHICLE CRASHES IN BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Historical Overview of MVCs in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examining MVC Trends in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis by Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis by Sex. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis by Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors Contributing to MVCs in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road System Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Top MVC Contributing Factors in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
27
27
30
32
35
35
36
40
Chapter 3: DRIVERS AND PASSENGERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatalities and Serious Injuries Among Road Users in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatalities and Serious Injuries among Drivers and Passengers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MVCs among Commercial Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measures to Promote Driver and Passenger Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Increase Restraint Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Support Expanded Drivers Licence Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Enhance Road Safety among Commercial Vehicle Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Increase Public Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
42
46
51
56
56
59
60
61
62
Chapter 4: VULNERABLE ROAD USERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatalities and Serious Injuries among Vulnerable Road Users. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measures to Promote Vulnerable Road User Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motorcyclists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatalities and Serious Injuries among Motorcyclists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measures to Promote Motorcycle Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cyclists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatalities and Serious Injuries among Cyclists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measures to Promote Cyclist Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pedestrians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatalities and Serious Injuries among Pedestrians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vulnerable Pedestrians: Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vulnerable Pedestrians: Older Adults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measures to Promote Pedestrian Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vi
63
64
67
67
67
70
72
72
76
78
78
79
80
82
84
Table of Contents
Chapter 5: ROAD USER BEHAVIOUR AND CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Distracted Road Users. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Distracted Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
The Burden of Road User Distraction in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Measures to Prevent and Reduce Distracted Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Substance-Based Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Effects of Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Alcohol Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Drug Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
The Burden of Road User Impairment in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Measures to Prevent and Reduce Substance-based Impaired Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Increase Public Education and Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Limit Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Lower Legal Limits for Alcohol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Increase Enforcement Checkpoints and Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Increase Penalties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Deter Repeat Offenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Physical or Cognitive-Based Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Medically-At-Risk Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Sleep-Related Driver Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Measures to Prevent and Reduce Physical or Cognitive Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Preventing Medically At-Risk Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Preventing Sleep-Impaired Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
High-risk Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Chapter 6: SAFE SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Speed Behaviour in Canada and BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Burden of Speed-Related MVCs in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Speed and Impairment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Managing Speed Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Speed Limits and Road Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Setting Speed Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Types of Speed Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Determining Speed Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Speed Control and Enforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Speed Reader Boards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Roadside Speed Violation Tickets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Speed Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Section Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Controlling Speed with Vehicle Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Controlling Speed with Roadway Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
vii
Table of Contents
Chapter 7: SAFE ROADWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Responsibility for Roadways in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roadway Types and Locations in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Small Roadway Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intersections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Highways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rural and Remote Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roadway Environmental Contributing Factors to MVCs in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road and Weather Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wildlife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road Safety Measures for Roadways in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road Safety Initiatives for Mixed Use Roadways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Public Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Traffic Calming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cycling Infrastructure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road Safety Initiatives for Intersections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Roundabouts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Red Light Cameras. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Intersection Design for Pedestrians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road Safety Initiatives for Highways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Barriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rumble Strips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road Safety Initiatives Related to Road and Weather Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road Safety Initiatives Related to Wildlife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Road Safety Initiatives for Resource Roads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
121
122
122
122
123
126
126
127
128
129
130
131
131
131
132
133
133
134
134
136
136
137
138
139
139
140
Chapter 8: SAFE VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Safety Standards in Canada and BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Role of Vehicles in MVCs in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vehicle Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vehicle Crash Incompatibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vehicle Design and Safety Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crash Avoidance Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Improved Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Lane Use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Speed and Vehicle Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Safe Braking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Avoiding Pedestrians and Cyclists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crash Protection Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Passenger Restraints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air Bags. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Table of Contents
Safety Technology and Socio-economic Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Vehicle Maintenance and Modification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Vehicle Maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Vehicle Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Vehicle Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Vehicle Modification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Commercial Vehicle Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Chapter 9: ROAD SAFETY AND ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Aboriginal Peoples in BC and MVCs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Profile of Aboriginal Peoples in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Tripartite Initiatives for Injury Prevention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Aboriginal Road Safety Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Aboriginal MVC Fatalities and Serious Injuries in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Analysis by Region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Analysis by Sex and Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Safe System Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Safe Road Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Substance-Based Impairment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Restraint Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Safe Speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Safe Roadways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Safe Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Preventing MVCs in Aboriginal Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Best and Promising Practices for Road Safety among Aboriginal Peoples. . . . . . . . . . 173
Addressing Challenges in Road Safety for Aboriginal Peoples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Child Passenger Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Northern and Rural Road Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Chapter 10: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Discussion of Key Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A Strategic Approach to Road Safety in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Safe Road Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Safe Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Safe Roadways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Safe Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Road Safety for Aboriginal Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Education, Awareness, and Enforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
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Table of Contents
Appendix A: GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Appendix B: DATA SOURCES TECHNICAL APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
List of Figures and Tables

Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities and the Decade of Action for Road Safety, Worldwide, 2011 to 2020. . . . . . . . . 2
Figure 1.2 Public Health Triangle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Figure 1.3 Safe System Approach to Road Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Figure 1.4 Proportion of Mode of Transportation to Work amongEmployed Labour Force, Canada, 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 1.5 Profile of Drivers, by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Figure 1.6 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Jurisdiction, 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 1.7 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per Billion Vehicle-kilometres, by Jurisdiction, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 1.8 People Involved in Motor Vehicle Crashes, Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 2001 to 2012. . . . . 15
Figure 1.9 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Province, Canada, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Figure 1.10 Motor Vehicle Crash Injury Rate per 100,000 Population, by Province, Canada, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Figure 1.11 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Figure 1.12 Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 2002 to 2011. . . . . . . . . 19
Figure 1.13 Total Cost per Capita for Transport-related Injuries, by Province, Canada, 2004. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table 1.1 The Haddon Matrix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Number of Active Licenced Drivers and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Active Licensed
Drivers, BC, 1994 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.2 Population Count and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population with Key Dates of Road
Safety Initiatives, BC, 1986 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.3a Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Health Authority, BC, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.3b Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Health Authority, BC, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.4 Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Health Authority,
BC, 2008-2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.5 Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population,
by Health Authority, BC, 2006-2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.6 Number of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Health Authority, BC, 2001 to 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.7 Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex, BC, 1996 to 2013. . . .
Figure 2.8 Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex, BC,
2002 to 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Figure 2.9 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Age Group, BC, 2002 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.10 Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population, by Age Group, BC, 2002 to 2011. . . . . .
Figure 2.11 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2009-2013 . . . . . . .
Figure 2.12 Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group, BC,
2007-2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.13 Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Top Contributing Factor, BC, 2008 to 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.14 Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities for the Top Three Contributing Factors,
by Health Authority, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2.15 Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Top Contributing Factor and Sex, BC, 2008-2012. . . . . . . .
Figure 2.16 Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Top Contributing Factor and Age Group, BC,
2008-2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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35
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38
39
40
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
Table 3.1
xii
Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Road User Type, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalizations, by Road User Type, BC, 2007-2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Road User Type, BC, 2009 to 2013. . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population, by Road User Type, BC,
2007 to 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Road User Type, Greater Vancouver, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Driver and Passenger Fatality Counts and Rates per 100,000 Population, BC,
1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Driver and Passenger Hospitalization Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC,
2002 to 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Crash Average Annual Driver Fatality Rate per 100,000 Driver Population, by Sex
and Age Group, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Crash Passenger Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group, BC,
2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Driver and Passenger Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex
and Age Group, BC, 2007-2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proportion of BC Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Age Group, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . .
Heavy Commercial Vehicle Crash Rate per 100,000 Licenced Heavy Commercial Vehicles, BC,
2003 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fatalities from Motor Vehicle Crashes Involving a Commercial Vehicle, Count and
Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Proportion of Fatalities Involving a Commercial Vehicle, by Road User Type, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . .
Motor Vehicle Crashes Involving a Commercial Vehicle, Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,
by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rural and Urban Seat Belt Non-use, BC and Canada, 2009-2010. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Motor Vehicle Crash Patient Count, Proportion and Mean Hospital Stay, by Restraint Use and Urban
or Rural Location, BC, 2001-2008. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Proportion of Total Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Vulnerable Road User Type, BC, 2009 to 2013. . . . . .
Figure 4.2 Proportion of Total Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalizations, by Vulnerable Road User Type, BC,
2007 to 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.3 Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Vulnerable Road User Type
and Health Authority, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.4 Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant Fatality Count and Rate per 100,000 Population,
BC, 1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.5 Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant Hospitalization Count and Rate per 100,000 Population,
BC, 2002 to 2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.6 Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age
Group, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.7 Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant Hospitalization Rate, by Sex and Age Group, BC,
2007-2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.8 Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Fatality Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.9 Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Hospitalization Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 2002 to 2011. . .
Figure 4.10 Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group, BC,
2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.11 Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group,
BC, 2007-2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.12 Sample of Infrastructure Measures to Increase Cyclist Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.13 Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Fatality Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 1996 to 2013 . . . . . .
Figure 4.14 Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Hospitalization Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC,
2002 to 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.15 Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group, BC,
2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4.16 Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group,
BC, 2007-2011. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC,
2004 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.2 Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group,
BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.3 Age-standardized Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,
by Sex, BC, 2004 to 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.4 Electronic Device Warning Signage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.5 Relative Risk of Fatal Motor Vehicle Crash, by Blood Alcohol Content Level and Age Group. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.6 Impaired-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC,
1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.7 Age-standardized Impaired-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,
by Sex, BC, 1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5.8 Impaired-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and
Age Group, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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88
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90
92
94
95
95
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Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crashes and Fatalities, by Year, BC, 2008 to 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Number and Proportion of Sleep and Medication Impaired-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,
by Impairment Type, BC, 2008-2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Number and Proportion of High-risk Driving-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,
by Behaviour Type, BC, 2008-2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Speed-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC,
1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.2 Proportion of Speed-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Road User Type, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.3 Speed-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group,
BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 6.4 Age-standardized Speed-related Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex, BC, 1996 to 2013. . . . . . . .
Figure 6.5 Sample of Signage in BC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
109
110
111
111
114
Number and Proportion of Speed- and Impairment-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, BC,
2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Survivable Speed and Road Type, by Road User and Motor Vehicle Crash Type. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Potential Conflict Points at Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.2 Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities at Intersections, Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC,
1996 to 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.3 Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities at Intersections, by Road User Type, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . .
Figure 7.4 Pedestrian Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population for Motor Vehicle Crashes at Intersections,
by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2009-2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.5 Top Five Environmental Contributing Factors in Fatal Motor Vehicle Crashes, BC, 2008-2012. . . . . . . .
Figure 7.6 Number of Environment-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, BC, 2001 to 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.7 Example of Provincial Highway Cycling Routes Signage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.8 Example of a Pedestrian Scramble. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.9 Selection of Rumble Strips. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 7.10 Regulatory Signs for Winter Tires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
123
124
125
125
127
128
133
135
137
138
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
xiv
Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Vehicle Type, BC, 2008 to 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vehicle Crash Incompatibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distribution of Light Vehicles, by Body Type, Canada, 2000 and 2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Top Four Vehicle Condition Contributing Factors in Fatal Motor Vehicle Crashes, BC, 2008-2012. . . . . . .
Age Distribution of Vehicle Fleets, by Vehicle Type, Canada, 2009. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
143
144
145
152
154
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Distribution of the Aboriginal Population, by Health Authority, BC, 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.2 Aboriginal Population as a Percentage of the Total Population, by Health Authority, BC, 2006. . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.3 Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians
and Other Residents, BC, 1993 to 2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.4 Potential Years of Life Lost Standardized Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians and
Other Residents, by Cause of Death, BC, 2002-2006. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.5 Age-standardized Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians and
Other Residents, by External Cause, BC, 2004/2005-2006/2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.6 Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians and
Other Residents, by Health Authority, BC, 2002-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.7 Potential Years of Life Lost Standardized Rate per 100,000 Status Indian Population due to
Motor Vehicle Crashes, by Health Authority, BC, 2002-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.8 Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population among Children Age 1-4 Years for Status Indians and
Other Residents, by Cause of Death, BC, 1992-2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 9.9 Percentage of Youth On- and Off-reserve Who Always Wore a Seat Belt When Riding in a Vehicle,
BC, 2003, 2008, and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
159
160
164
165
166
167
167
168
170
xv
Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
This report represents a large-scale, collaborative effort that has spanned numerous years and iterations. The Provincial
Health Officer (PHO) is grateful to the many analysts, researchers, writers, project managers, and experts who have
contributed to, or reviewed, drafts of this report over the years. While not all content contributions can be included, the
input received was vital in the development of the final report.
This report is dedicated to the work of former Deputy PHO, Dr. Eric Young. His passion and dedication to improving
road safety in BC were essential to the development of this report.
2014-2016 Report Contributors and Reviewers (Alphabetical)

Numerous individuals and organizations contributed to the current iteration of this report. The PHO would like to thank
Neil Arason, a technical reviewer of this report, as well as the contributions of the BC Injury Research and Prevention
Unit, the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, the BC Coroners Service, regional health authorities, the First
Nations Health Authority, and the ministries of Justice, Public Safety and Solicitor General, and Transportation and
Infrastructure.
The PHO would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions and assistance to the PHO team during the
last two years of report development:
Dr. Sandra Allison

Chief Medical Health Officer
Northern Health Authority
Debbie Andersen
Director, Seniors Health Promotion Directorate
Neil Arason
Manager
BC Road Safety Strategies
BC Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General
Dr. Charl Badenhorst
Medical Health Officer
xvi
Denis Boucher
Officer in Charge
E-Division, Traffic Services
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
Dr. Jeff Brubacher
Associate Professor
Department of Emergency Medicine
University of British Columbia
Dr. John Carsley
Vancouver Coastal Health
Dr. Herbert Chan
Researcher
Department of Emergency Medicine
Acknowledgements
Dr. Ronald Chapman

The City of Richmond
Richmond, BC
Dr. Trevor Corneil
Senior Medical Health Officer
Interior Health Authority
Dr. Patricia Daly
Dr. Meenakshi Dawar
Dr. Raina Fumerton
Dr. Kamran Golmohammadi
Dr. Rka Gustafson
James Haggerstone
Manager of Health Information Analysis
Dr. Althea Hayden
Lisa Lapointe
Chief Coroner
BC Coroners Service
Dr. Andrew Larder
Fraser Health Authority
Dr. Victoria Lee
Dr. Marcus Lem
Dr. Gord Lovegrove
Associate Professor
Faculty of Applied Science, School of Engineering
University of British Columbia Okanagan
Dr. James Lu
Dr. Mark Lysyshyn
Sam MacLeod
Superintendent of Motor Vehicles
RoadSafety BC
Dr. Paul Martiquet
Matt Herman
Executive Director
Healthy Living and Health Promotion
Population and Public Health
Richard Mercer
Research Officer
Clint Kuzio
(former) Director
Aboriginal Health Directorate
Megan Misovic
(former) Project Director
Aboriginal Health Directorate
xvii
Acknowledgements
Dr. Lisa Mu
Dr. Michelle Murti
Tara Nault
Director, Aboriginal Health
Rural, Remote and Aboriginal Health
Ken Ohrn
Photographer
Cypress Digital
Dr. Shovita Padhi
Mike Pennock
Population Health Epidemiologist
Kathleen Perkin
Manager, Harm Reduction Policy
Dr. Ian Pike
Director
BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit
Child and Family Research Institute
Dr. Sue Pollock
Fahra Rajabali
Researcher and Data Analyst
Child and Family Research Institute
Kim Reimer
Economist
xviii
Tej Sidhu
Manager, Policy, Research and Systems
BC Coroners Service
Will Speechley
Research Officer
BC Coroners Service
Dr. Richard Stanwick
Vancouver Island Health Authority
Jan Staples
Director, Road Safety Unit
Police Services Division
Dr. Helena Swinkels
Dr. Kay Teschke
Professor
School of Population and Public Health
Dr. Gerald Thomas
Director, Alcohol and Gambling Policy
Shannon Tucker
Program Manager, Road Safety Unit
Police Services Division
Dr. Kenneth Tupper
Director, Problematic Substance Use Prevention
Acknowledgements
Past Report Contributors (Alphabetical)

Many individuals and organizations contributed to the inception and initial work on this report, and/or to previous drafts
and related draft recommendations. While these people have not had a chance to review the report in its current iteration,
prior to publication, the PHO acknowledges the work of these dedicated individuals and would like to thank them for
their contributions.
Every attempt has been made to provide a comprehensive list of the numerous individuals and organizations* who have
contributed to this report over the years, but the PHO wishes to apologize in advance for any who have been missed.
The PHO would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions and assistance to the development of
this report:
Marc Alexander
Dr. David Bowering

Mary Anne Arcand

Central Interior Logging Association RoadHealth,
Northern Health Initiatives
Dr. Elizabeth Brodkin

Dr. Gillian Arsenault

Dr. Beth Bruce

(contracted by) BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit
Dr. Najib Ayas

Glenyth Caragata
Insurance Corporation of BC
Dr. Shelina Babul

Barbara Carver
Dr. Peter Barss

Kevin Begg
Dr. Nathaniel Bell
Trauma Services BC
Kevin Bennett
WorkSafeBC
Hilary Blackett
Tyann Blewett
RoadSafety BC
Dr. Ross Brown

Provincial Health Service Authority
Dr. Ronald Chapman

Charmaine Chin
Preventable.ca
Aline Chouinard
Transport Canada
Mary Chu
Denise DePape
Dr. Ediriweera Desapriya
* This information reflects affiliation at the time of contribution, which may not be the same as an individuals current organization.
xix
Acknowledgements
Mike Diak
Miranda Kelly
First Nations Health Authority
Teresa Dobmeier
Debra Kent
Drug and Poison Information Centre
Dr. Naomi Dove

First Nations and Inuit Health Branch
Health Canada
Eric Kowalski
David Dunne
Insight Driving Solutions
Ted Emanuels
Denise Foucher
Dr. Murray Fyfe
Joe Gallagher
First Nations Health Council
Dr. Cecile Lacombe

RoadSafety BC
Nasira Lakha
Trauma Services BC
Allan Lamb
BCAA Traffic Safety Foundation
Pierre Lemaitre
Eve Lenkevitch
Norm Gaumont
Nancy Letkeman
RoadSafety BC
Jamie Graham
Victoria Police Department
Steve Martin
RoadSafety BC
Jim Gross
Highway Safety Roundtable
Alyson McKendrick
Safe Start, BC Childrens Hospital
Nial Helgason
Jeff Moffett
Contractor
Karen Horn
Safe Start, BC Childrens Hospital
Pamela Morrison
Nicolas Jimenez
Glen Nicholson
Advocate Electronic Stability Control
Mavis Johnson
Canadian Traffic Safety Institute
Mark Ordeman
WorkSafeBC
Catherine Jones
Provincial Health Service Authority
Dr. Shaun Peck

Public Health Consultant
Magda Kapp
BrainTrust Canada Association
Dr. Roy Purssell

BC Medical Association
xx
Acknowledgements
Doug Rankmore
Brain Trust Canada
Meridith Sones
BC Coroners Service
Dan Riest
Centre for Addictions Research BC
Shannon Stone
Melanie Rivers
Dana Tadla
RoadSafety BC
Dr. Diane Rothon

BC Coroners Service
Pierre Thiffault
Canadian Council of Motor Traffic Administrators
Manik Saini
Kyle Todoruk
Jat Sandhu
Vancouver Coastal Health Authority
Amy Schneeberg
(contracted by) BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit
Giulia Scime
Janis Urquhart
Lori Wagar
BC Ministry of Healthy Living and Sport
Samantha Scott
RoadSafety BC
Dr. Shannon Waters

Health Canada
Sonny Senghera
Joy Sengupta
BC Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure
Sukhy Sidhu
Leonard Sielecki
BC Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure
Joelle Siemens
RoadSafety BC
Kate Turcotte
Dr. Veerle Willaeys

Health Canada
Dori Williams
Trauma Services BC
Jean Wilson
Gurjeet Sivia
Frank Wright
Capital Reional District Integrated Road Safety Unit
Dorry Smith
Louise Yako
BC Trucking Association
xxi
Acknowledgements
PHO Report Team

The Provincial Health Officer would like to thank the following PHO team members (past and present) for their work on
this report:
Adrienne Bonfonti Project Manager
Manager, Project Research Reporting Initiatives
Wendy Vander Kuyl Data analysis

Research Assistant
Robin Yates
(former) Project Manager, Injury Prevention Analyst
Barb Callander Copy editing and referencing

Manager, Projects and Strategic Initiatives
Sophia Baker-French Research and editing

Manager, Projects and Strategic Initiatives
Tim Anderson Graphic design

Alphabet Communications Ltd.
Vancouver, BC
Leanne Davies Research and editing

(former) Manager, Projects and Strategic Initiatives
Dr. Bonnie Henry

Deputy Provincial Health Officer
Adrienne Munro Research and editing

(former) Manager, Projects and Strategic Initiatives
Dr. Evan Adams

(former) Deputy Provincial Health Officer for Aboriginal
Health
Stacy White Research and editing

Health Promotion Policy Analyst
Healthy Living Branch
Dr. Eric Young

(former) Deputy Provincial Health Officer
xxii
Highlights
Highlights
This report explores road safety in BC using
a comprehensive safe system framework
that includes the pillars of a Safe System
Approach (SSA)safe road users, safe
speeds, safe roadways, and safe vehicles
in combination with a population health
approach and a public health approach. The
report explores each of the four pillars of the
SSA, including technologies and strategies
for improving road safety related to road
user behaviours and conditions, speed limits,
vehicle technologies, and roadway design and
infrastructure. The report aims to support
and advance the health of the BC population
as a whole, while examining sub-populations
that face a greater burden of motor vehicle
crash (MVC) serious injuries and fatalities.
Analyses explore data according to road user
type, age, sex, and health authority area.
Analyses presented also examine road safety
for Aboriginal peoples and communities. The
report concludes with 28 recommendations
for reducing the burden of MVCs and
improving road safety in BC.
SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS

Road Use and MVC Fatalities in BC
In 2012, Canada ranked 15th for MVC
fatalities compared to 36 international
jurisdictions.
The MVC fatality rate in BC has
substantially declined over time, from
18.4 deaths per 100,000 population in
1996 to approximately one-third that
rate in recent years. This success should
be celebrated, as should the work of the
many dedicated individuals who brought
it about. However, our numbers are
still high relative to other Canadian and
international jurisdictions, and there are
still opportunities to improve road safety in
BC, particularly for vulnerable road users.
In 2012, BCs rate for MVC fatalities
(6.2 per 100,000 population) was fourth
lowest and just slightly higher than the
average among Canadian provinces
(6.0per 100,000). In the same year,
BCs rate for MVC serious injuries
(444.5 per100,000 population) was
slightly lower than the average among the
provinces (475.3per100,000).
Each year about 280 people are killed
and another 79,000 are injured on BCs
public roads.
In 2013 there were approximately
3.3 million active drivers licences in BC,
including 1,675,000 held by males and
1,619,000 by females.
xxiii
Highlights
MVC Trends in BC
Among BC health authorities,
proportionately more MVC fatalities
occur in Northern Health and
Interior Health than their respective
proportions of the BC population. In
2012,Northern Health had 6.3 per cent
of thepopulation, but 13.5 per cent of
MVC fatalities in BC occurred there;
Interior Health had 15.9 per cent of the
population but 38.8 per cent of MVC
fatalities in BC.
For 2008-2012, MVC fatality rates were
18.0 per 100,000 population in Northern
Health and 16.3 per 100,000 in Interior
Healthboth much higher than the BC
average of 6.9 per 100,000. Vancouver
Coastal had the lowest rate for that period
at 2.3 per 100,000.
Analyses based on age group show that
for 2002 to 2013 there were decreases
in MVC fatality rates across all age
groups, but those aged 16-25 and 76 and
up continue to have the highest MVC
fatality rates per 100,000 population.
Similarly, those two age groups had the
highest MVC serious injury rates per
100,000 from 2002 to 2011.
Age-standardized MVC fatality rates for
males and females in BC for 1996 to
2013 show that the rate for males was
more than double the rate for females for
the majority of years, although a greater
decline in the rate for males has narrowed
the gap somewhat in recent years.
The top human contributing factors
for MVCs with fatalities that were
reported by police in BC between 2008
and 2012 were speed, impairment, and
distraction. In 2012, speed was the top
factor, associated with 35.7 per cent of
MVC fatalities, followed by distraction
(28.6 per cent of MVC fatalities), and
impairment (20.4 per cent of MVC
fatalities).
xxiv
MVC Fatalities and Serious

Injuries among Vehicle Drivers
and Passengers
As one would expect, drivers represent
the largest number of MVC fatalities and
serious injuries. While the MVC fatality
rate for passenger vehicle drivers improved
from 2009 to 2013decreasing from
4.0 per 100,000 population to 2.7 per
100,000this was still the highest fatality
rate compared to other road user groups
(passenger vehicle passengers, motorcycle
occupants, cyclists, and pedestrians).
Among the driver population of BC,
males have higher fatality rates than
females across all age groups.
Drivers age 16-25 and 76 and up have the
highest fatality rates for both males and
females. Compared to their proportion of
the BC population, these two age groups
are overrepresented in MVC fatalities.
Of all MVC fatalities that occurred in BC
for 2009-2013, 19.3 per cent involved
heavy vehicles (in this case defined as
vehicles over 10,900 kg). In 2013, there
were almost two crashes per 10 licenced
heavy commercial vehicles in BC.
Measures to reduce vehicle occupant
fatality and serious injury include proper
restraint use, such as child safety seats
and seatbelts; a strong drivers licensing
program; and increasing the safety of
commercial vehicle drivers.
Highlights
MVC Fatalities and Serious Injuries

among Vulnerable Road Users
Vulnerable road users (those without the
protection of an enclosed vehicle) make
up a substantial proportion of MVC
fatalities and serious injuries in BCa
proportion that has been increasing
in recent years. They accounted for
38.7percent of MVC serious injuries in
2007, which increased to 45.7 per cent
in 2011, as well as 31.7 per cent of MVC
fatalities in 2009, which increased to
34.9percent in 2013.
Motorcycle occupant fatalities are
disproportionately high in Interior and
Northern Health, and cyclist fatalities
are disproportionately high in Island and
Interior Health. Pedestrian fatalities are
more evenly distributed compared to
health authority population.
The number and rate of MVC serious
injuries and deaths among motorcycle
occupants have increased over time in
BC, but have declined in recent years.
The rates were much higher among males
than females for all age groups analyzed.
In 2011, there were 658 motorcyclerelated serious injuries in BC, and in
2013 there were 29 motorcycle-related
MVC fatalities.
For cyclists, both the numbers and rates
per 100,000 population of MVC-related
serious injuries and deaths have increased
over time. MVC fatality and serious
injury rates were higher among males
than females for almost all age groups.
In 2011, there were 237 MVC serious
injuries to cyclists, and in 2013 there were
13 MVC-related cyclist deaths in BC.
Among pedestrians, both the numbers

and rates per 100,000 population
of MVC-related serious injuries and
deaths have decreased over time. In
2011 there were 493 MVC serious
injuries to pedestrians, and in 2013
there were 52pedestrian MVC fatalities
in BC.
Roadway design is one of the top ways
to improve the safety of vulnerable road
users. Roadways should be designed
to improve the clarity of all road
users travel paths and the visibility
of vulnerable road users to vehicles.
Policy measures can further support
vulnerable road users, for example,
by shifting laws and policies to favour
vulnerable road users as other national
and international jurisdictions have
done.
Road User Distraction

The number and rate per 100,000
population of distraction-related
fatalities have been decreasing, but the
proportion of MVC fatalities that are
distraction-related has increased from
17.3percent in 2004 to 28.6 per cent
in 2013.
Despite the distracted driving
legislation that came into force in
January 2010 prohibiting the use of
handheld devices, road user distraction
is still contributing to a sizeable portion
of MVC serious injuries and fatalities
in BC. In 2011, distraction surpassed
impairment as a contributing factor to
MVC fatalities, making it the second
highest contributing factor in BC
(to speed).
xxv
Highlights
Substance-based Road User

Impairment
The number and rate of substance-based,
impairment-related MVC fatalities have
fluctuated, but overall have decreased
from 1996 to 2013. In fact, the rate in
2013 was just over one-third of the rate it
was in 1996.
From 1996 to 2013, the substance-based,
impairment-related MVC fatality rate
for males decreased from 5.8 to 2.3 per
100,000 population (a 60.3 per cent
reduction), and for females decreased
from 2.1 to 0.4 per 100,000 (an
81.0percent reduction). Across almost
every age group males have at least double
the impaired-related MVC fatality rate
as females. The highest impaired-related
fatality rates identified for both sexes are
in the 16-25 age group, at 6.3 fatalities
per 100,000 for males and 2.4 per
100,000 for females.
The strongest approach to preventing
and reducing substance-based road user
impairment is by employing a combination
of strategies, which includes increasing
public education and awareness, limiting
access to substances such as alcohol and
illegal drugs, lowering legal blood alcohol
content limits, increasing enforcement
checkpoints and testing, increasing related
penalties, and introducing additional
measures to deter repeat offenders.
Physical- and Cognitive-based

Road User Impairment
Mental and physiological conditions
can compromise a road users ability to
safely navigate the roadway, increasing
the risk of MVC involvement. Detecting
these forms of impairment is difficult
and relies heavily upon self-awareness,
self-detection, and/or feedback from a
persons friends, family, and health care
professionals.
xxvi
Older adults are a growing proportion of

the BC population and are more likely
than younger adults to be medically at
risk as road users. While many older
adults are skilled and experienced drivers,
changes related to aging can make driving
more challenging, such as slower reaction
times, reduced range of motion, sensory
impairments, and cognitive declines.
Furthermore, age-related frailty makes
older adults more susceptible to serious
injuries and fatalities if they are involved
in an MVC.
In BC, some drivers are required to
complete medical examinations relevant
to their driving ability (e.g., those with
a possible or known medical condition,
commercial drivers, and drivers 80 years
and older), and a few of them are then
referred for further assessment. A variety
of medical professionals are required to
report individuals whose driving ability
may be impaired by a condition, but this
reporting role is currently challenging.
Driving ability is also impaired by
fatigue, and for 2008-2012 fatigue was a
contributing factor in 53 MVC fatalities
(3.2 per cent of all MVC fatalities during
that time).
Some road infrastructure may be effective
in reducing fatigue-related MVCs: those
that alert drivers when they cross a
highway line (e.g., shoulder and/or centre
line rumble strips) and secure highway
rest areas (to encourage breaks).
Speed-related MVCs in BC
There is an established and expanding
body of research showing a clear
relationship between safe speeds and road
safety. This is founded on two main facts:
as speed increases, reaction time decreases;
and physical force increases with speed,
resulting in an exponentially increasing
risk of serious injury or death in an MVC.
Highlights
The human body has a limited tolerance

for experiencing physical force. For
example, research shows that pedestrians
have a 10 per cent risk of dying when
hit at 30 km/h, but an 80 per cent risk
of dying when hit at 50 km/h. There are
different survivable speeds for different
road users. Research suggests that
survivable speed limits are 30 km/hr for
pedestrians and cyclists, 50 km/hr for
vehicle occupants in a side-impact MVC,
and 70 km/hr for vehicle occupants in a
head-on MVC.
The number and rate per 100,000
population of speed-related MVC
fatalities increased in the early 2000s, but
declined from 2005 to 2013. Similarly,
the speed-related proportion of MVC
fatalities has decreased in recent years and
reached its lowest proportion since 1996
in 2013, at 29.0 per cent.
From 1996 to 2013, among those in BC
age 16 to 55, males had a consistently
higher speed-related fatality rate than
femalesoften double or triple the
female rate. The highest speed-related
fatality rates identified for both sexes are
in the 16-25 age group, at 6.9 fatalities
per 100,000 population for males and
3.5per100,000 for females.
Options for speed control mechanisms

include conventional roadside ticketing;
speed cameras; use of technology such
as speed reader boards; vehicle features
(e.g.,intelligent speed adaptation,
which alerts drivers when they are above
the speed limit); and roadway design
(e.g.,rumble strips, speed humps).
Safe Roadways
The number and rate of MVC fatalities at
intersections in BC decreased overall from
1996 to 2010, but the rate has increased
slightly since that time. Vulnerable road
users were the most likely fatal victims at
intersections for 2009-2013, making up
53.3 per cent of intersection fatalities.
In BC for 2008-2012, 32.9 per cent of
MVC fatalities occurred on highways
with posted speed limits of 90 km/hr or
higher.
MVCs are more commonly fatal in rural
areas because of relatively high travel
speeds, increased interaction between
non-commercial and commercial vehicles,
longer emergency response times, and
further distances to hospitals.
Speed limits are one key strategy

to manage roadway speed, and it
is important that speed limits are
appropriate for road types and conditions;
safe for all road users, especially
vulnerable road users; and realistic so that
drivers are more likely to follow them.
Despite the concerns of numerous
health, enforcement, and road safety
professionals in BC, in July 2014, speed
limits were increased on 1,300 kilometres
of rural highways in BC, including a new
maximum speed in BC of 120km/h. In
2015, legislation was also amended to
enable police to enforce the requirement
of slower drivers to move into the right
lane to allow drivers travelling at higher
speeds to pass.
53.3%
Vulnerable road users made up 53.3 per cent

of intersection fatalities in BC in 2009-2013.
xxvii
Highlights
In BC in 2008-2012, 23.7 per cent of

fatal MVCs had one or more contributing
factors that were related to the roadway
environmentroad condition and
weather were the most common. While
the number of MVC fatalities with
environmental contributing factors did
not meaningfully change between 2001
and 2012, their proportion of total
MVCs increased, from 21.6 per cent in
2001 to 29.6 per cent in 2012.
Measures to improve road safety through
roadway design include expanding
availability and accessibility of public
transportation; implementing traffic
calming infrastructure; enhancing cycling
infrastructure; improving intersection
safety (e.g. installing roundabouts, red
light cameras); and installing rumble
strips and barriers on highways. Other
measures to improve road safety focus on
wildlife, road and weather conditions, and
resource roads. Some of these are currently
in place and/or underway in BC.
Safe Vehicles
From 2000 to 2009, the proportion
of light vehicles on the road that were
cars decreased from 60.5 per cent to
55.4percent; during the same time
period, the proportion of sport-utility
vehicles nearly doubled from 6.9 per cent
to 12.8percent.
Additionally, during this time sub-compact
and mini-compact vehicles (both very
small vehicle types) were introduced by
vehicle manufacturers. As a result of these
changes, vehicle crash incompatibility in
Canada has become more pronounced,
with the different shapes and sizes, and
frame-to-frame misalignment resulting in
increased risk of injury or death for vehicle
occupants (usually for the occupants
of the smaller vehicle). After-market
modifications (such as raising vehicles
or adding bull bars) also create and/or
exacerbate vehicle crash incompatibility.
xxviii
Imported vehicles can pose additional

safety challenges for road safety
in BC, including right-hand drive
vehicles (which were not designed
for the Canadian road system) and
vehicles 15years and older (which
can be exempt from current safety
standards). Right-hand drive vehicles
have been associated with a 39 to
60 per cent increased risk of MVC
compared to left-hand drive vehicles
in BC. Older vehicles are not likely
to have current safety features that
protect vehicle occupants and other
road users.
There are a wide variety of crash
avoidance technologies available to
help prevent MVCs from occurring.
Examples include adaptive headlights,
lane departure warning systems,
adaptive cruise control, intelligent
speed adaptation, forward collision
warning, electronic stability control
for braking, and pedestrian detection
systems.
Crash protection technologies such as
passenger restraints and air bags are
also available and can reduce fatalities
and serious injuries during an MVC.
Evidence indicates that people with
lower socio-economic status are more
likely to own a vehicle with lower
safety ratings and fewer standard
safety features (e.g., side air bags,
electronic stability control), putting
them at disproportionate risk of
serious injury or death in an MVC.
Vehicle condition and maintenance
are important components of vehicle
safety. Among fatal MVCs with
one or more contributing factors
related to vehicle design in BC in
2008-2012, tire failure/inadequacy
was by far the most often reported
contributing factor, being cited in
56.5per cent of these MVCs.
Highlights
18.8 per
100,000
7.1 per
100,000
Aboriginal Health and Road

Safety
MVCs were responsible for the largest
number of deaths due to external causes
among Aboriginal people in BC between
1992 and 2002. The age-standardized
fatality rate for MVCs during this time
period was nearly four times higher for
Aboriginal people than for other BC
residents (38 per 100,000 for Status
Indians, compared to 10 per 100,000 for
other residents).
The age-standardized fatality rate for
MVCs for Status Indians decreased from
34.7 per 100,000 population in 1993 to
18.8 per 100,000 in 2006, but was still
more than double that of other residents
of BC (7.1 per 100,000 in 2006).
Examination of potential years of life lost
(PYLL) shows that MVCs were the third
highest cause of PYLL for Status Indians
at 842.5 per 100,000 population for
2002-2006more than twice the rate of
other residents at 338.2 per 100,000.
The age-standardized fatality rate for MVCs
for Status Indians was higher than for other
BC residents across the regional health
authorities. The highest rate for Status
Indians was in Interior Health at 35.9 per
100,000 population, while the rate for
other residents in Interior Health was less
than half of that (15.7 per 100,000).
In 2006, the age-standardized MVC fatality rate

for Status Indians was more than double that
of other BC residents.
For 1992-2006, MVCs were the leading

cause of death for Status Indian children
age 1-4 years, with a rate of 5.6 per
100,000 population. This rate was nearly
four times higher than the rate for other
BC children this age at 1.5 per 100,000.
A survey of Aboriginal youth in BC
found that the self-reported proportion
of alcohol-impaired driving among
those who lived off reserve was fairly
stable from 2003 to 2008, at
5 and 6percent respectively, while
the proportion for youth who lived on
reserve increased from 8 per cent in
2003 to 17per cent in 2008.
Seat belt use may be improving among
Aboriginal youth in BC, with selfreported proportion of seat belt use
increasing from 35 per cent in 2003 to
59 per cent in 2013 on reserve and from
49 percent in 2003 to 73 per cent in
2013 off reserve among youth.
A variety of best and promising practices
for road safety among Aboriginal
people have been identified. Some
examples include working in close
partnership with communities and
with organizations that have a clear
understanding of Aboriginal culture and
values, integrating Aboriginal culture
and values in resource materials and their
delivery, and involving Elders in safety
program development and delivery.
xxix
Highlights
SOLUTIONS
Over the last two decades BC has achieved
many gains in advancing road safety
and reducing the burden of MVCs. By
continuing to improve infrastructure,
vehicle designs, speed-related safety
measures, and road user behaviours and
conditionsparticularly with a focus on
vulnerable road users, BC can achieve
even lower death and injury rates. These
improvements would also foster more active
and ecologically friendly transportation
improving both human and environmental
health. The 28recommendations offered
in this report aim to address challenges to
road safety while building upon our current
successes. These recommendations highlight
xxx
opportunities and tools to strengthen

the approach to road safety in BC. Key
areas of focus for these recommendations
are taking a strategic and comprehensive
approach to road safety in BC, safe road
users (including driver behaviours and
conditions), safe speeds, safe roadways, safe
vehicles, improving Aboriginal road safety,
revising education and enforcement, and
expanding research and data collection
related to road safety. Overall, this
report demonstrates that motor vehicle
crash fatalities and serious injuries are
systemic failures and that road safety is a
critical public health issue that canand
shouldbe further improved in BC.
Any preventable death or serious injury is
unacceptable, including those that occur as
the result of an MVC.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Road Safety in BC
Chapter 1
Introduction to Road Safety in BC

INTRODUCTION
Transportation is an important part of daily
life for British Columbians. People seldom
live, work, learn, and play in the same place,
and motor vehicles are a popular method
of transportationwhether a car, van,
truck, bus, or other vehicle.1 At the same
time, these vehicles mix with cyclists and
pedestriansa, who are considered vulnerable
road users. Together, these road users are all
at risk of motor vehicle crash (MVC) related
injuries, disabilities, and death. Every year
around the globe, over 1.25 million people
are killed in MVCs, and another 50 million
are injured. As this report shows, despite
important improvements in road safety in
BC, hundreds of people are still killed and
thousands are still injured in MVCs each year.
There has been a notable decrease in the
last decade in the number of MVC-related
serious injuries and fatalities occurring
in BC. While these successes should be
celebrated, the numbers are still high
relative to other Canadian and international
jurisdictions, and there are still opportunities
to improve road safety in BC, particularly for
vulnerable road users. In BC in 2010, MVCs
were the leading cause of unintentional
injury-related fatalities for people age 1 to
24years, and the third leading cause for
those age 25 and up. MVCs were the second
leading cause of injury-related hospitalizations
for those age 1534 and those over age 45,
in BC in 2010/2011. While there have
been many achievements in road safety and
a
related improvements in serious injury and

fatalities, almost no meaningful or sustained
progress has been made over the last decade
to improve serious injuries and fatalities for
cyclists and pedestrians.
This Provincial Health Officers (PHO)
report discusses road safety strategies in BC,
provides related data and analyses, and offers
recommendations to further improve road
safety in BC. The report combines a Safe
System Approach (SSA), and population
health and public health perspectives to
create a safe system framework for examining
road safety in BC. This framework includes
four main pillars (safe road users, safe
speeds, safe roads, and safe vehicles), impacts
of those four areas on the health of the
population in BC, and related best and
promising practices to improve the safety
of the whole road system. This report looks
at causes of MVC fatalities that are direct
or immediate (e.g., distracted driving,
speeding), and those that are distal or
more indirect (e.g., roadway design, vehicle
design). The report also discusses the impact
of MVCs on the health and well-being
of Aboriginal peoples in BC, and how
road safety can be enhanced in Aboriginal
communities. The report concludes
with a discussion of key findings and
recommendations for programs and policies
that broaden the discussion from basic traffic
safety to a multi-stakeholder population
health approach to road safety, with the
goal of further reducing MVCs and related
serious injuries and fatalities in BC.
Bolded text throughout this report indicate glossary terms, which are defined in Appendix A.
In this report, road and roadway are used

interchangeably, and generally mean the
open way for vehicles and persons, and may
include only the strip used for travel (usually
paved or gravel) or encompass related
features on the right-of-way such as the
shoulder or sidewalk.
REIMAGINING ROAD SAFETY

Recently there has been a shift in the
understanding of road safety. Experts in the
field have moved away from the historical
view that MVC-related serious injuries and
deaths are unfortunate but inevitable, to
the current view that MVCs are, in large
measure, systemic failures, and that while
some crashes are unavoidable, related deaths
and serious injuries are preventable through
systemic interventions.(p.111) In recent years
there has been wide acknowledgement of the
impact of MVCs in Canada and beyond, and
consequently efforts to improve road safety
are underway around the world.
Figure
In 2004, the World Health Organization

(WHO) identified MVC injury and
death as a major public health problem,
and recognized that MVC-related serious
injuries and deaths are preventable. In
response, the United Nations General
Assembly proclaimed the Decade of
Action for Road Safety (2011-2020), as
a way to draw public attention to road
safety at local, regional, national, and
global levels. This initiative emphasizes the
need for a holistic, multidisciplinary, and
cooperative approach to road safety, and
a shift to a culture of safety that includes
collaborative work between policymakers, victims and survivors, private
companies, international organizations,
media, and more. One key goal of the
initiative is to stabilize and then reduce
by 50percent the projected number of
global MVC fatalities for 2020. This would
result in less than 1 million MVC-related
fatalities occurring globally by 2020, or
approximately 5 million fatalities prevented
(see Figure 1.1).
Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities and the

Decade of Action for Road Safety, Worldwide, 2011 to 2020
1.1
Number of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities

(Millions)
Projected
increase
without action
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
5 million lives saved
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
Projected
reduction if
action taken
0.4
0.2
0
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Year
Source: Adapted from Fia Foundation. Make Roads Safe. A Decade of Action for Road Safety10 and World Health Organization.
2013. Global Status Report on Road Safety: Time for Action11.
The current situation is a system failure. Because safety has not been the starting
point for the design of the system, what we now have is an untreated public
health problem. In many other areas of public policy, we simply do not tolerate
such consistent levels of unmanaged human harm.
N. Arason, No Accident: Eliminating Injury and Death on Canadian Roads 14(p.3)
As a United Nations Road Safety

Collaboration Partner, Canada is actively
participating in this initiative, and named
2011 the National Year of Road Safety
to promote and raise public awareness
for road safety.12 In 2015, the Canadian
Council of Motor Transport Administrators
(CCMTA) released the Canadian Road
Safety Strategy 2015 (CRSS 2015),b which
brings stakeholders together to work on road
safety in an interdisciplinary and inclusive
way. It has the long-term vision that Canada
will have the safest roads in the world.13
A subsequent version of this national road
safety strategy is currently being planned.
In BC, a provincial strategy was developed
by RoadSafetyBC (formerly the Office of
the Superintendent of Motor Vehicles) to
address the impact of MVCs in the province.
RoadSafetyBCs vision aligns with the
CRSS 2015, and aims to have the safest
roads in North America and work toward
an ultimate goal of zero traffic fatalities.15
This provincial strategy, British Columbia
Road Safety Strategy: 2015 and Beyond (BC
RSS 2015), was released in August 2013.
Acknowledging the multidisciplinary nature
of road safety, BC RSS 2015 is based on
a partnership approach involving over
40different road safety partners across the
province, including government and nongovernment organizations. The strategy is
designed to leverage the work of all partners
and to ensure that effective mechanisms are
in place to support cross-sector activities.
GOVERNANCE OF ROADS AND

ROAD SAFETY
Governance of road safety is complex,
involving municipal, provincial, and federal
government responsibilities, along with
numerous acts and regulations. Chapters3 to9
provide more detail about the responsibilities
for roads and road safety governance.
In Canada, the control, regulation, and
administration of highway safety and
motor vehicle transportation is shared
among various levels of government
and coordinated by the CCMTA, who
developed the CRSS 2015. This organization
includes members from federal, provincial,
and territorial governments, and works
closely with stakeholders to develop motor
transport programs and strategies.13 CRSS
2015 was endorsed by the Council of
Ministers Responsible for Transportation
and Highway Safety in September 2010.16
This federal/provincial/territorial council
comprises ministers with responsibility
for transportation policy and highway
safety from each of 10 provinces and
three territories, as well as the federal
government.17
Transport Canada is the federal department
responsible for policies and programs related
to transportation in Canada.18 Road safety
responsibilities fall under three main areas:
safe vehicles (e.g., vehicle design), child safety
CRSS 2015 is Canadas third national road safety strategy and spans five years (20112015). Canadas first road safety strategy,
Road Safety Vision 2001, was released in 1996. It was followed by Road Safety Vision 2010 in 2000.
b
(e.g., car seat manufacturing regulations),

and commercial vehicles.19 Relevant
legislation governing Transport Canada
includes the Motor Vehicle Safety Act and
the Motor Vehicle Transport Act.19 Transport
Canada also leads the Canadian Global Road
Safety Committee. This committee develops
and promotes national road safety initiatives,
shares best practices and information, and
discusses road safety issues.20 It includes
representatives from the CCMTA, federal/
provincial/territorial governments,
government insurance agencies, police,
academia, non-government organizations,
and youth from the Canadian Road
Safety Youth Committee. The Canadian
Department of Justice is responsible for
driver behaviour relating to the Criminal
Code of Canada, such as impaired driving
and dangerous driving causing death.
In BC, responsibility for road safety is shared
between the Ministry of Transportation
and Infrastructure (MoTI), the Ministry
of Justice (including RoadSafetyBC and
the Policing and Security Branch), and the
Insurance Corporation of British Columbia
(ICBC). MoTI plans transportation
networks, provides transportation
services and infrastructure, develops and
implements transportation policies, has
responsibilities regarding commercial
vehicle safety, administers many related
acts and regulations, and administers
federal-provincial funding programs.21
It is also responsible for the provinces
rural highways, and some roads that run
through local or municipal government
boundaries. MoTI shares responsibility for
the Motor Vehicle Act with RoadSafetyBC
at the BC Ministry of Justice. In addition
to sharing responsibility for this Act and
leading the implementation of the provinces
coordinated road safety strategy (BC RSS
2015), RoadSafetyBC works collaboratively
with government ministries, departments,
and agencies; road safety interest groups; law
enforcement; research organizations; and
others. RoadSafetyBC leads on legislation
and policies such as those addressing
distracted driving, drinking and driving
(e.g., Immediate Roadside Prohibitions),

and vehicle impoundment for excessive and
unsafe speed. In addition, RoadSafetyBC
is responsible for some aspects of driver
licensing, including working to ensure that
drivers are medically fit to drive, and that
high-risk drivers are not on the road. The
Policing and Security Branch is responsible
for ensuring that there is an adequate
and effective level of policing and law
enforcement throughout BC; it is specifically
responsible for traffic enforcement policy, as
well as administration and oversight of road
safety enforcement initiatives.22 ICBC is
responsible for providing vehicle insurance,
some aspects of driver licensing, and vehicle
licensing and registration services, as well as
promoting road safety overall.23
While the provincial government leads road
safety in BC, the Motor Vehicle Act gives local
governments the power to improve road
safety in their communities in numerous
ways. For example, municipal councils have
the ability to change speed limits, install
traffic control devices (such as stop signs),
establish school crossings, and more.24
METHODOLOGY AND DATA

SOURCES
Since the underlying premise of an SSA
is that MVC-related fatalities can be
eliminated and the severity of injuries can
be reduced, this PHO report uses fatality
and serious injury (hospitalization) data
to help measure, examine, and discuss the
impact of MVCs in BC. Some variables are
examined only in relation to fatalities, but
this does not suggest that serious injuries are
not a critical component of understanding
the full burden and impact of MVCs
on the lives of British Columbians; we
recognize that some serious injuries involve
months, years, and/or a lifetime of pain
and suffering, and rehabilitation, and have
profound negative impacts on a persons
family, their ability to earn income, and
their quality of life.
Data Analysis and Methodology

This report presents descriptive analyses
by year, health authority, road user, age
group, sex, and MVC circumstances.
MVC-related injuries can be minor or
serious, but those that require admission to
hospital are more likely to be serious, or to
result in longterm or permanent disability.
Accordingly, hospitalization data in this
report are used as an indicator of serious
injury. Definitions of serious injuries and
fatalities are described in the following
section.
Comparisons of MVC fatalities and
hospitalizations are made using agestandardized rates. Rates are calculated
per 100,000 population for year, age, sex,
and health authority. The rates of MVC
fatalities and hospitalizations are based
on the total population and calculated
by the total number of MVC deaths or
hospitalizations over the sum of the annual
population for the same period. If rates
are age- and sex-specific, the rates are
calculated using the numbers of deaths or
hospitalizations for the specific age group
and sex, over the population for that age
group and sex. Age-standardized rates
have been calculated using the 1991
Canada Census for the purpose of rate
comparisons between sexes, geographic
regions, or populations, or over time
periods. Ninety-five per cent confidence
intervals are provided where appropriate
and reasonable, and are not shown on
figures with lower rates.
While some data regarding MVC fatalities
are available with details including type
of vehicle (e.g., truck, bus, taxi) or type of
MVC (e.g., side impact, head-on, runoff-road), an in-depth exploration of these
factors is beyond the scope of this report.
Off-road vehicles (e.g., snowmobiles, allterrain vehicles [ATVs]), and private and
rural access roads are also beyond the scope
of this report.
c
For more information about MVCs and

related policies and programing for regional
health authorities, including additional
region-specific data, refer to the reports
produced by the respective regional health
authorities.c For more detailed information
about data sources and methodology, see
Appendix B.
Data Sources
Data for this report were obtained from a
variety of primary and secondary sources.
Primary data presented in this report were
obtained from three main sources:
(1) the Police Traffic Accident System (TAS)
database from ICBCs Business Information
Warehouse; (2) the Discharge Abstract
Database (DAD) from the BC Ministry
of Health; and (3) the BC Vital Statistics
Agency (VSA) statistical database at the
Ministry of Health. These three sources are
discussed in this section. Some additional
data were provided by the BC Trauma
Registry, BC Coroners Service, BC Ministry
of Transportation and Infrastructure, BC
Ministry of Justice (RoadSafetyBC), Statistics
Canada, Transport Canada, and WorkSafe BC.
1. Police Traffic Accident System

Fatality data are derived from the TAS for
this report. Fatality data included in the TAS
database are gathered from police reports and
include information from police-attended
MVCs, and MVCs self-reported by the
public to police. In the TAS, a fatality is
defined as a road user who dies from injuries
resulting from an MVC within 30 days of
the incident. This only includes MVCs that
occur on roadways where the Motor Vehicle
Act applies. Roads where the Motor Vehicle Act
does not apply, such as forest service roads,
industrial roads, and private driveways,
are excluded. Additionally, fatal victims of
off-road snowmobile accidents, and vehicleinvolved homicides or suicides are also
excluded. TAS data include both information
about the crashes (e.g., annual and monthly
Some of these reports are accessible via the website of the Office of the Provincial Health Officer (www.health.gov.bc.ca/pho/reports).
trends, and crash location) and contributing

factors to the crashes (contributing factors
will be described further in Chapter 2).
Fatality data presented by health authority
are reported based on crash location.
2. Discharge Abstract Database

In this report, hospitalization data from
the DAD are used as a proxy indicator
for serious injuries. The DAD includes
patient information about diagnoses,
causes of injury, and types of injury. The
DAD only reflects data for those persons
who were admitted to hospital. Serious
injury (hospitalization) data include acute,
rehabilitation, and surgery cases that required
at least one overnight stay in the hospital.
To avoid multiple counts of the same injury,
when a patient was hospitalized more than
once during a fiscal year (e.g., re-admitted,
transferred to another hospital), only the
first admission was counted. Fatalities that
occurred in hospital as a result of a serious
injury were excluded from serious injury
counts. Typically, DAD data are reported by
fiscal year. The hospitalization data in this
report are depicted by calendar year based
on the admission dates, so as to be consistent
with the fatality data sources that report
out by calendar year. Hospitalization data
presented by health authority are reported
based on the health authority region of
residence of the victim.
3. BC Vital Statistics Agency

The VSA registers vital events in BC,
including deaths. VSA data used in this
report provide fatality information about
victims of MVCs, and were used to conduct
regional analyses by health authority, year,
age group, and sex. VSA data were also used
in Chapter 9 for analyses showing MVC
fatalities of Aboriginal peoples compared
to other residents. These analyses do not
include contributing factor information but
include MVC fatalities on all roads, such as
forest service roads and industrial roads, as
well as vehicles designed for off-road use,
such as ATVs and snowmobiles.
Data Challenges and Limitations

As with any data sources, data presented
in this report are subject to challenges.
Some limitations of the data include
different interpretations from reporting
law enforcement staff, unreported crashes,
incorrect classifications, missing values, and
different methods for identifying Aboriginal
identity among data sources (see Chapter9).
Furthermore, data sources for MVCs differ;
for example, ICBC data differ from policereported data, as police do not attend all
MVCs, and not all MVCs are reported to
police and/or to ICBC.
In addition, since multiple data sources are
used in this report, they are each subject to
their respective procedures, updates, and
challenges. TAS data are subject to the police
reports of a crash and so most often focus on
establishing human causes of crashes rather
than focusing on a multi-dimensional system
for preventing injuries (e.g., safe vehicles,
safe roads, appropriate speed limits). It is
also possible for misinterpretation, such
as a heart attack being mistaken for driver
inattention. Within DAD data analyses,
there may be reasons beyond actual decreases
in MVC serious injuries that may reduce
the rate of related MVC hospital admissions
over time (e.g., improved diagnostic and
treatment technologies). Furthermore,
while fatality and serious injury data may be
presented together in a discussion, there are
usually different years and/or levels of detail
available for analyses. For example, for most
discussions fatality data were available and
presented up to 2013, but serious injury
data were only available up to 2011, and
while fatality data specify MVC contributing
factors and whether a vehicle occupant was a
driver or passenger, available hospitalization
data do not.
The recognition that any level of serious trauma arising from the road
transport system is ultimately unacceptable, and that the system should
be designed to expect and accommodate human error, is relatively new
in road safety. These views have long been held in other transport and
infrastructure systems, such as air transport or the distribution of domestic
electricity. In these environments elaborate protection strategies have
been developed; the manager of the system responds to crashes and other
incidents by making systemic improvements, and the leaders of the system
expect a failsafe system and prioritise activity and resources accordingly.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Towards Zero:
Ambitious Road Safety Targets and the Safe System Approach 6
THE FRAMEWORK
To best examine the complex topic of road
safety and MVCs and to highlight the
importance of a comprehensive and multisectoral approach to injury prevention, this
report integrates three key approaches into
its framework: a population health approach,
a public health approach, and an SSA.
Population Health Approach

Population health focuses on improving
the health of the broader population and
reducing health disparities between groups
within the larger population. To achieve this,
population health seeks to understand and
address the causes of underlying inequities.
In the case of road safety, a population health
approach examines why some populations
are more affected by deaths and serious
injuries related to MVCs than others, and
then seeks to address underlying causes.
The built environment (such as
transportation infrastructure and parks or
other green spaces) affects population health
and is one important part of examining
roadway systems.25 The design of the built
environment, starting with planning and
investment policies and practices, affects
behaviour. Behaviour then influences
the health of the people living in the
environment. For example, in denser, wellplanned neighbourhoods, it is easier for

people to walk, cycle, or use public transit.
This results not only in fewer vehicles on
the road, and subsequently fewer MVCs,
but also in reduced emissions, better air
quality, and healthier, more physically active
residents.26 For the last 50 years the built
environment in BC had been designed
primarily around vehicles, but, as will be
explored in this report (see Chapter 8), this is
beginning to change.
Public Health Approach

Public health refers to efforts that focus
on health promotion, disease and injury
prevention, and protection of the health of
the population as a whole. It recognizes the
relationship between individuals and their
environment, and how they work together
to influence health. Epidemiology is the
study of the patterns, causes, and effects of
health and disease conditions in defined
populations. It is the cornerstone of public
health and is used to examine relevant
data to help understand the complexities
of MVC fatalities and injuries. This report
incorporates a public health approach with
consideration of multiple public health
concepts: the public health triangle, the
Haddon Matrix, and an SSA. These concepts
will be discussed in the sections that follow.
The Public Health Triangle Model
The Haddon Matrix
The public health triangle is an

epidemiological model used to identify
the major risk factor categories of a disease
or injury, and show the relationship
between the three elements that impact
its occurrence and associated prevention
(agent, host, and environment). In
this model, the host is the person (or
population) with the disease or injury, the
agent is the entity that causes the disease
or injury, and the environment is the
place where the host and agent interact.27
Using a public health approach to road
safety allows for an investigation of these
three factors and how they contribute
to an MVC. This application of the
model is shown in Figure 1.2, in which
the roadway is the environment, the
road user population is the host, and the
vehicle is the agent. These elements can be
considered risk factor categories for MVCs
and are foci for MVC prevention.
Early attempts to improve road safety

focused almost exclusively on addressing
road user behaviour and improving that
behaviour through education, information,
and enforcement strategies.6 The evolution
to a more systemic approach to road safety
is widely credited to Dr. William Haddon,
whose development of the Haddon Matrix
(Table 1.1) broadened the focus of road
safety strategies beyond road users to include
roadways and vehicles. This approach
incorporates a public health triangle model
(host/road user population, agent/vehicle,
environment/roadway) with the three phases
of an MVC in which related fatalities and
injuries may be prevented or mitigated:
before the crash, during the crash, and
after the crash.6,7(p.13),28 The resulting matrix
provides a method for identifying strategies
to prevent MVCs or reducing their severity,
for each of the three public health factors, at
each of the three phases of an MVC.
Figure
1.2
Public Health Triangle
Agent
Host
Environment
Table
The Haddon Matrix
1.1
FACTORS
OPPORTUNITY
FOR PREVENTION
Road User
Vehicle
Roadway
Before Crash
(Crash prevention)
Attitudes
Information
Impairment
Enforcement
Handling
Roadworthiness
Lighting
Speed management
Braking
Crash avoidance technologies
Electronic stability control
Road design and layout

Speed limits
Intelligent transport systems
Weather
Pedestrian facilities
Crash
(Injury prevention
during crash)
Restraint use
Speed at impact
Impairment
Crash protection from vehicle

structure (crashworthiness)
Restraints
Safety features (e.g., air bags)
Kinetic energy-absorbing
roadside objects
After Crash
(Sustaining life)
Access to medical care

General health of road user
First aid skill
Automatic crash notification

systems
Access to crash site
Fire risk
Rescue services
Time to medical care
Congestion
Source: Adapted from Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Towards Zero: Ambitious Road Safety Targets and the Safe System
Approach,6(p.71) and Peden M, Scurfield R, Sleet D, Mohan D, Hyder AA, Jarawan E, et al. 2004. World Report on Road Traffic Injury Prevention.7(p.13)
A Safe System Approach to Road

Safety
The aim of an SSA is to reduce the overall
level of risk for human trauma in a multisectoral, multi-faceted way. The premise
of this approach is that MVCs will
undoubtedly occur, but that associated
fatalities and serious injuries are preventable.6
It recognizes that road users will inevitably
make mistakes that may lead to crashes and
that human beings have a limited tolerance
for physical force; thus, it emphasizes the
need for a comprehensive system designed
to anticipate and accommodate human
error, and reduce the risk of death and
serious injury to road users when an MVC
occurs.6,29 Within an SSA, responsibility for
preventing MVCs and related fatalities and
serious injuries is not borne solely by road
users, but is shared by those responsible for
designing and managing vehicles, as well as
those who are responsible for speed limits
and roadways.6 This approach also recognizes
that road safety decisions must be made in
a larger societal and economic context and
that improving safety may be achieved

more effectively by investing in innovative
technologies, rather than investing more
in traditional interventions.6 An SSA
aligns with a public health perspective
because both recognize that road safety
is multi-faceted and both rely on multisectoral partnerships and a comprehensive
approach to reducing the negative impact
of MVCs on health outcomes.
The SSA has been recommended by
the WHO7 and the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and
Development,6 and has been adopted
and adapted by several countries such as
Australia and New Zealand.30,31 Though
not entirely based on anSSA, the CRSS
2015 uses safe system concepts.13 The
BC RSS 2015 adopted the SSA as part of
one of the underlying principles to promote
road safety.3 The safe system framework
used in this report is derived from road
safety strategies developed in the mid-1990s
in Sweden and the Netherlandsboth
world leaders in road safety.32,33,34
Figure 1.3 represents the safe system

approach applied in the framework in this
report, which includes four pillars:
Safe Road Users a safe system includes
road users who are skilled, alert, focused,
and unimpaired. They take steps to
increase road safety, such as complying
with rules and choosing safe vehicles.35
This group includes drivers, motorcyclists,
cyclists, pedestrians, and other road
users.3
Safe Speeds in a safe system, speeds
are chosen to match the function and
design of the road, and there is alignment
between the use of the road and the
related survivable speed for those road
users.14,35,36,37
Safe Vehicles a safe systems vehicles

are designed to both prevent crashes and
to reduce the severity of crashes for road
users.35
Represented in the outermost circle of
Figure 1.3 is the foundational understanding
that organizations and partners in road
safety must work together to achieve a road
system that is free of fatalities and serious
injuries. Each has responsibility within
their area of influence and control to apply
key intervention functions, which include
education and awareness, governance and
leadership, research and data, legislation and
enforcement, innovation, and community
and First Nations engagement.
Safe Roads roadways in a safe system

are designed around all road usersthey
should be predictable, be forgiving of
mistakes, and encourage appropriate
speed and road user behaviour.35 This
includes infrastructure such as roads,
signals, and sidewalks.3
Safe System Approach to Road Safety
WA
TI
AG E M E
NT
Y
NIT
&F
ENG
NS
IR
O
U
RI
AT I O N C O M M
SE
D
N
OA D
W AY S F
TH A
REE OF DEA
NNOV
AT
IO
SAF
RIE
ERS
JU
SAFE
US
IN
VE
AN
TO
ER
DATA
NF
AF
EN
AND
DE
SS
EM
E
CH
RO
AN
RC
ER
ION
AD
TH
IP
Human
tolerance
to physical
force
SAFE
L E G I S L AT
RD
SAF
SH
AR
ES
ICL
DER
EED
EDUC A
TION
ANCE AND LEA
SP
VERN
ADS
EN
GO
DA
AR
S
ES
O R K I N G TO
RS W
GE
SE
PA
NE
RT
TN
1.3
RO
Figure
US
Source: Reproduced with permission from BC Ministry of Justice. 2013. British Columbia Road Safety Strategy 2015 and Beyond.3
10
ROAD USE IN CANADA AND BC

In 2009, approximately 4.4 million people
lived in BC,38 which is about 13 per cent
of Canadians. Also, almost 2.7 million
cars and trucks were registered in BC,39
representing about 13 per cent of registered
vehicles in Canada. According to the federal
governments 2009 Canadian Vehicle
Survey, there was an estimated average of
1.43vehicles per household in BC.40 The
ratio of registered vehicles to people in BC
has consistently been the highest in Canada,
at approximately 0.57 vehicles per person.41
In 2006, approximately 1.9 million people
in the BC labour force commuted to work.1
During that year, BC workers travelled a
median distance of 6.5 km from their homes
to their workplaces, which was less than the
national average in that year of 7.6km.42
Figure 1.4 shows that 76.9 per cent of
commuters traveled to work in a car, truck,
or van, either as a driver (71.3 per cent)
or as a passenger (5.6 per cent). Another
12.6percent used public transit, while
Figure
1.4
Proportion of Mode of Transportation to Work among

Employed Labour Force, Canada, 2011
Public Transit
Driver of Car,
Truck, or Van
12.6%
71.3%
Walk
6.7%
5.6%
Passenger of
Car, Truck, or Van
2.1%
Bicycle
1.7%
Other
Note: See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Statistics Canada, 2011 Census of Population. Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
11
8.8per cent used active transportation

(6.7per cent walked and 2.1 per cent
cycled). Road user types will be explored
further in Chapters 3 and 4, and more
information on the types of vehicles on roads
in BC will be provided in Chapter 8.
According to ICBC there were approximately
3.3 million active drivers licences in BC in
2014.43 As shown in Figure 1.5, this included
nearly equal proportions held by males and
females. This figure indicates that the largest
group of British Columbians holding an
active drivers licence in 2014 were males and
females between the ages of 46 and 55.
Figure
MVC-RELATED FATALITIES AND

SERIOUS INJURIES IN CANADA
AND BC
In Canada, about 2,500 people are killed in
MVCs each year and another 180,000 are
injured.44 In BC, about 280 people are killed,
and about 79,000 people are injuredd on BCs
public roads each year.43 Cross-jurisdictional
analyses show that there is still room for
improvement in road safety both provincially
in BC and nationally.
Profile of Drivers, by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2014
1.5
350,000
Number of Drivers
300,000
250,000
200,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
0
Male
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
223,000
277,000
277,000
320,000
292,000
188,000
76+
Total
97,000
1,675,000
Female
208,000
272,000
280,000
318,000
287,000
174,000
80,000
1,619,000
Total
430,000
550,000
557,000
639,000
579,000
362,000
178,000
3,297,000
Age Group
Note: "Drivers" include those who currently hold an active BC drivers licence. Not all individuals who hold a driver's licence own or operate vehicles in
BC. Counts have been rounded to the nearest thousand. Totals are rounded, but calculated based on unrounded numbers. There were 3,000 cases
where age group and/or sex was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, data as of September 30, 2014. Prepared by BC Injury Research
and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
12
Fatality and injury numbers are calculated based on a five-year average for 2009-2013.
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,

by Jurisdiction, 2012
1.6
4.4
4.3
4.1
4.1
3.9
3.5
3.3
3.0
3.0
2.8
2.9
13.4
12.7
12.4
11.4
11.4
10.8
10.0
9.7
7.1
6.9
6.9
6.5
6.3
6.3
6.1
6.0
5.8
5.8
4.7
5.7
6.8
9.1
10
9.2
12
10.7
14
2.8
Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population
16
Jurisdiction
Note: Fatality includes death within 30 days of the crash. Numbers are based on police recorded data (except the Netherlands). See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: International Traffic Safety Data and Analysis Group. 2014. Road Safety Annual Report: Summary.45 Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
MVC-related Fatalities and

Serious Injuries in Canada
As shown in Figure 1.6, Canada had
5.8 fatalities per 100,000 population in
2012, and ranked 15th for road safety by
this measure (along with France), when
compared to 36 other international
jurisdictions, including some international
leaders in road safety.
For a more fulsome comparison across
international jurisdictions, calculation of
the rate of fatalities per billion vehicle
kilometres can be used, which takes into
consideration how much and how far
people in a given population drive.46 Vehicle
kilometres measure an estimate of traffic
volume and are calculated by multiplying
the number of vehicles on the road by the
distance travelled. The distance travelled can
be via odometer readings, traffic counts, or
household surveys and fuel sales.46
13
Figure 1.7 shows that in 2012, Canada

had 5.9 MVC fatalities per billion vehicle
kilometres. While comparisons should
be made with caution since international
jurisdictions are likely to measure these data
differently, Canada ranks 13th compared to
22 other jurisdictions. Together, analyses
presented in Figures 1.6 and 1.7 suggest that
approaches used by other jurisdictions for
roadways, vehicle requirements, and related
policies and programs (e.g., Sweden, Norway,
Denmark, and the United Kingdom) may be
having positive impacts on road safety that
can serve as models for improvement in BC.
MVC-related Serious Injuries and

Fatalities in BC
In BC, approximately 260,000 MVCs are
reported to ICBC each year.e,43 There has
been an overall decrease in MVC fatalities
and serious injuries over time in BC, but
there has been considerable variation from
year to year.
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per Billion Vehicle-kilometres,

by Jurisdiction, 2012
1.7
18.4
15.7
18
13.4
16
14
12
7.8
7.7
7.7
7.2
7.1
6.5
5.9
5.6
5.6
5.2
5.0
3.6
3.6
3.4
3.4
3.3
4.7
4.9
6.9
10
2.9
Fatality Rate per Billion Vehicle-kilometres
20
2
0
Jurisdiction
Note: Fatality includes death within 30 days of the crash. Numbers are based on police recorded data (except the Netherlands). Comparisons of
vehicle-kilometres shown here should be interpreted with caution, as these data may not be consistently measured across international jurisdications. See
Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: International Traffic Safety Data and Analysis Group. 2014. Road Safety Annual Report: Summary.45 Prepared by Population Health Surveillance,
Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
14
This number is based on a five-year average for 2008-2012.
The number and rate of people involved in MVCs in BC

was the same in 2012 as it was in 2001. However, even
a steady number shows progress since there have been
increases in the size of the BC population and in the
number of active drivers licences in BC during that time.
As shown in Figure 1.8, a reduction in the

total number of individuals involved in
MVCs has not been sustained in recent
years; in fact, the number of people involved
in MVCs was the same in 2012 as in 2001.
There were increases in both the number and
rate of people involved in MVCs from 2004
up to their peaks in 2007, in which 469,000
people in total and 10,929 people per
100,000 population were involved in MVCs.
Figure
However, this figure also shows that

since the population of BC is increasing,
the rate of people involved in MVCs
per 100,000 population has improved
somewhat over time. Therefore, while
reducing the number of MVCs and their
associated serious injuries and fatalities is
an important goal for BC, even a steady
number during these years of population
growth indicates improvement.
People Involved in Motor Vehicle Crashes,

Count and Rate per 100,000 Population, BC, 2001 to 2012
1.8
12,000
500,000
450,000
Number of People
350,000
8,000
300,000
250,000
6,000
200,000
4,000
150,000
100,000
Rate per 100,000 Population
10,000
400,000
2,000
50,000
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Number of People
439,000
435,000
427,000
428,000
434,000
450,000
469,000
459,000
446,000
429,000
432,000
439,000
Involvement Rate
10,768.0
10,609.3
10,354.2
10,300.8
10,343.8
10,609.0
10,929.9
10,553.2
10,111.8
9,606.1
9,601.8
9,664.3
Year
Note: "People" includes drivers, passengers, pedestrians, and cyclists involved in a motor vehicle crash (MVC) regardless of injury or fatality. Counts have
been rounded and do not include people involved in an MVC that was not reported to the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia. See Appendix B for
more information about these data sources.
Sources: Motor vehicle crash data are from the Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 2001-2012; population
estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance,
15
Figure 1.9 depicts the MVC fatality

rates for Canadian provinces in 2012.
It shows that BC had the fourth lowest
MVC fatality rate in Canada in 2012, at
6.2fatalities per 100,000 population
slightly higher than the national average
of 6.0 per 100,000. Ontario had the
lowest among provinces that year, at
4.2per 100,000 population. According
to Ontarios Road Safety Annual Report
2010,47(p.9) the low fatality rate per
100,000 population may be attributable
Figure
to the provinces focus on strong

enforcement, education, and legislation, as
well as rigorous truck safety laws.
While BC had a fatality rate slightly above
the provincial average in Canada in 2012,
Figure 1.10 shows that BC had an injury
rate slightly below the average across
Canadian provinces in the same year. BC
had 444.5serious injuries per 100,000
population, while the national average was
475.3 per 100,000.

by Province, Canada, 2012
1.9
16.8
16
14
12
10
Manitoba
8.9
Prince Edward
Island
8.8
7.7
Newfoundland
and Labrador
7.6
Quebec
New
Brunswick
Nova Scotia
Alberta
6.2
5.3
5.2
8.6
Average (6.0)
4.2
18
2
0
Ontario
British
Columbia
Saskatchewan
Province
Note: Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut have been omitted due to unreliable reporting. Data for Ontario were preliminary. Data for
Newfoundland and Labrador, and New Brunswick were estimated. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Transport Canada, Canadian Motor Vehicle Collision Statistics, 2012. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population
Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
16
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Injury Rate per 100,000 Population,

1.10
900
842.1
700
664.9
Average (475.3)
600
492.8
British
Columbia
483.3
444.5
Ontario
468.5
442.3
300
392.1
400
438.8
500
375.4
Injuries per 100,000 Population
800
Alberta
Quebec
Nova Scotia
200
100
0
New
Brunswick
Newfoundland Prince Edward

and Labrador
Island
Saskatchewan
Manitoba
Province
Note: Northwest Territories, Yukon, and Nunavut have been omitted due to unreliable reporting. Data for Ontario were preliminary. Data for
Newfoundland and Labrador, and New Brunswick were estimated. Changes in how motor vehicle crash reports are collected in Manitoba resulted in an
increased number of minor injuries being captured in these data compared to previous years. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Transport Canada, Canadian Motor Vehicle Collision Statistics, 2012. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population
17
to factors such as improvements to

vehicle safety standards and better road
engineering, and may also relate to
legislative and regulatory changes. However,
while these two figures depict overall
successes, it is noteworthy that the steady
decline in fatalities from 1996 to 2001 was
disrupted by a spike in fatalities in 2002,
and did not reach a similar level again until
2006. This may be the result of program
and policy changes in 2001, particularly the
cancellation of the photo radar program.
These trends will be examined further in
subsequent chapters.
In BC, the numbers of MVC fatalities and

serious injuries have fluctuated considerably
over time, but overall, have shown a
downward trend. Figure 1.11 shows MVC
fatalities in BC from 1996 to 2013, while
Figure 1.12 shows MVC hospitalizations
in BC from 2002 to 2011. These figures
indicate that fatalities and serious injuries
have decreased over the years shown, with a
reduction by 42.6 per cent for fatalities and
23.3 per cent for serious injuries.
Declines in MVC-related fatalities and
serious injuries in BC are likely due
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Count and Rate

per 100,000 Population, BC, 1996 to 2013
1.11
450
12
Number of Fatalities
400
10
350
300
250
6
200
150
100
2
50
0
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
469
429
429
409
-396
394
457
448
440
452
402
411
354
363
364
292
280
269
Fatality Rate
12.1
10.9
10.8
10.2
9.8
9.7
11.1
10.9
10.6
10.8
9.5
9.6
8.1
8.2
8.2
6.5
6.2
5.9
Year
Note: See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality counts are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia,
1996-2013; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health
Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
18
14
500
Figure
1.12
120
4,500
Number of Hospitaiizations
4,000
100
3,500
80
3,000
2,500
60
2,000
40
1,500
1,000
20
500
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Number of Hospitalizations
3,959
3,932
3,944
3,864
3,931
3,804
3,673
3,466
3,312
3,038
Hospitalization Rate
96.6
95.3
94.9
92.1
92.7
88.7
84.4
78.6
74.2
67.5
Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population
Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization

Year
Sources: Hospitalization data are from the Discharge Abstract Database, Ministry of Health, 2002-2011; population estimates are from the BC Stats
website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations,
Ministry of Health, 2015.
THE COST OF MVCS IN CANADA

AND BC
There are three major cost components
when estimating the economic impact
of MVCs. The first component is direct
costs. These include costs for medical
treatment of people involved in MVCs,
costs to repair or replace damaged
vehicles, policing and enforcement,
repair of roadways damaged by MVCs,
and related administration costs. The
second component is indirect costs
losses due to goods and services that
were not produced as a result of an MVC
fatality or serious injury. This includes
the value of time lost fromwork and
homemaking due to morbidity, disability,
and premature mortality.48 The third
component is often left out of economic
calculations, but is also important to
consider. It involves social costs, such as
the loss of quality of life due to physical
and emotional pain and suffering resulting
from an MVC, changes to relationships and

family dynamics (e.g.,if the primary income
earner for a family dies or is seriously injured
from an MVC), increased fuel use, increased
pollution, and more.48,49
19
In 2009, SMARTRISKf,50 completed a

report on the economic burden of injury
in Canada, using calculations that included
costs based on 2004 data. Figure1.13
shows the resulting estimated per capita cost
of transport-related injuries in Canadian
provinces. It shows that in 2004 BC had the
third highest cost per capita of transportrelated injuries. The total estimated yearly
cost of MVCs in BC was $574 million,
45.3per cent of which were direct costs.48
The estimate did not include the direct
costs related to vehicle damage, or indirect
costs resulting from the MVC. Direct costs
for this estimate included all the goods and
services used to diagnose and treat MVC
patients, as well as rehabilitation and terminal
care when needed; as such, the estimate
incorporates expenditures for hospitalization,
outpatient care, nursing home care, services
of physicians and other health professionals,
Figure
pharmaceuticals, and the administrative costs

of third-party payers.
According to BC Ministry of Health
data, average annual direct MVC-related
hospital costs in BC between 2001 and
2010 were estimated at $51.3 million (or
$140,448perday).g,51 This is 12.7percent of
all injury-related hospitalization costs in BC,
which total approximately $404.9million,h
and about 13.8 per cent of the hospitalization
costs associated with unintentional injury
(approximately $373.0million) in BC in
2010/2011.52 In addition to economic
costs for health care, the provincial workers
compensation system (WorkSafe BC) incurs
costs for workers who are injured or killed on
the job. In BC for 2009-2013, MVCs cost the
workers compensation system an average of
$56.6 million per year (totalling $283million
over these five years).53
Total Cost per Capita for Transport-related Injuries,

1.13
$200
Ontario
Manitoba
$137.00
Prince Edward
Island
$128.00
$109.00
Newfoundland
and Labrador
$123.00
$60
$93.00
$80
$92.00
$100
$104.00
$120
$122.00
$140
$148.00
Average ($116.90)
$160
Cost per Capita
$187.00
$180
$40
$20
$0
Nova Scotia
Quebec
New
Brunswick
British
Columbia
Saskatchewan
Alberta
Province
Note: Total cost per capita includes direct costs (the value of resources used to treat the persons in motor vehicle crashes) and indirect costs (the value
lost to society as a result of the motor vehicle crash). "Transport-related injuries" include incidents with pedestrians, pedal cycles, motor vehicles,
all-terrain vehicles, snowmobiles, and other non-specified transport.
Source: SMARTRISK. 2009. The Economic Burden of Injury in Canada.48 Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health
SMARTRISK was a national charity that focused on injury and fatality prevention. In 2012, SMARTRISK joined with Safe
Communities Canada, Safe Kids Canada, and ThinkFirst Canada to become Parachute, a national charity that acts as a leader in
injury prevention.
g
Based on a cost per weighted case value of $5,390. Calculation of per-day cost is based on annual related costs of $51,263,379.04.
h
These costs include intentional, unintentional, other causes, and undetermined causes of injury-related hospitalizations.
f
20
ORGANIZATION OF THIS
REPORT
This report provides an overview of
the impact of MVCs on the health of
British Columbians and identifies current
successes, challenges, and opportunities
to improve road safety in BC. Chapter2
provides an overview of the burden of
MVCs in BC, including related fatalities
and hospitalizations. Chapters 3to8
look at data and trends related to the
four main pillars of the SSA (safe road
users, safe speeds, safe roadways, and
safe vehicles), examining serious injuries
and fatalities and presenting evidencebased practices from leading jurisdictions
when possible. Chapter9 was developed
in collaboration with the First Nations
Health Authority. It explores MVCs
involving Aboriginal peoples in BC, and
discusses current initiatives and promising
practices to improve road safety in
Aboriginal communities. The final chapter
discusses the main findings presented in
this report, and offers a comprehensive set
of recommendations that aim to prevent
fatalities and serious injuries due to MVCs
in BC. Bolded text throughout this report
indicate glossary terms, which are defined
in AppendixA.
SUMMARY
This chapter has provided an overview of
the data sources and methodologies used in
this report, and outlined key responsibilities
of the various partners and bodies that
together provide governance of road safety
in BC. This report combines population
health and public health perspectives, and a
Safe System Approach (SSA) in its analyses.
It does this by focusing on the impact
of motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) on the
population, and exploring each pillar of the
SSA while examining related fatalities and
serious injuries. Principles of public health
and population health are incorporated
into the analyses, discussions, and related
recommendations in this report. This chapter
showed that Canada ranked somewhat
higher in MVC fatality rates than some other
international jurisdictions and leaders in road
safety. Within Canada, BC ranked fourth
lowest, but slightly higher than the average
for MVC fatality rates, and slightly below the
average for related serious injury rates. Over
time, BC has seen reductions in the number of
MVC-related hospitalizations and fatalities, as
well as in related rates per 100,000 population.
The next chapter will examine the burden of
MVCs in BC in more detail.
21
22
Chapter 2: Motor Vehicle Crashes in BC
Chapter 2
Motor Vehicle Crashes in BC

This chapter provides a brief historical
overview of motor vehicle crashes (MVCs)
and road safety initiatives in BC, and then
examines MVC-related trends and MVC
contributing factors in BC.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MVCS

IN BC
Figure 2.1 shows the number of active

drivers licences in BC, which has increased
from approximately 2.4 million in 1994 to
almost 3.3 million in 2013 (a 35 per cent
increase).1 The MVC fatality rate based on
active drivers licences during these years
showed a substantial improvement, declining
from 20.6 deaths per 100,000 active drivers
licences in 1994 down to 7.0 deaths per
100,000 active drivers licences in 2013.
Over the last 50 years, the population of BC

has grown substantially, and the number
of active drivers licences and of vehicles
has increased. During this time, numerous
laws, policies, and other initiatives have
been introduced to address road safety and
prevent MVCs and related serious injuries
and fatalities in BC.
Number of Active Licenced Drivers and Motor Vehicle Crash

Fatality Rate per 100,000 Active Licensed Drivers,
BC, 1994 to 2013
Figure
2.1
3.5
25
20
2.5
15
2.0
1.5
10
1.0
5
Fatality Rate per 100,000

Active Licensed Drivers
Number of Licensed Drivers

(Millions)
3.0
0.5
0
Active Licensed
Drivers (Millions)
MVC Fatality Rate
MVC Fatalities
1994
2.41
1995
2.46
1996
2.54
1997
2.59
1998
2.69
1999
2.73
2000
2.75
2001
2.77
2002
2.80
2003
2.84
2004
2.86
2005
2.91
2006
2.96
2007
3.01
2008
3.06
2009
3.11
2010
3.14
2011
3.18
2012
3.21
2013
3.26
20.6
496
19.0
468
17.4
442
16.3
423
15.9
427
14.2
389
14.4
396
13.7
380
16.2
453
15.8
447
15.3
438
16.0
466
13.8
408
14.0
420
11.6
355
11.7
365
11.1
349
8.8
279
8.7
279
7.0
228
Year
Notes: An "active licensed driver" is one who holds a valid BC driver's licence (including a Learner or Novice licence). To be valid, the licence must not be suspended, cancelled, or expired on the date of interest.
The definition of active drivers used was similar to the one used in numbers after 2002 in the ICBC Business Data Warehouse. This chart provides a crude ratio of motor vehicle-related deaths to the number of
active licensed drivers in order to reveal a general trend over time. The ICBC numbers change, especially for the most recent time periods, because of late reporting, corrections, and adjustments.
Sources: Fatality data are from the BC Vital Statistics Agency; driver's licence data are from the Insurance Corporation of BC (ICBC) (data for 1994 to 2002 are from the ICBC mainframe); population estimates are
from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
23
Figure
Population Count and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population
with Key Dates of Road Safety Initiatives, BC, 1986 to 2013
2.2
Prior to 1986
Population (Millions)
24
1965
1977
1971
1985
25
4.0
20
3.0
15
2.0
10
1.0
13
12
20
11
20
1997
20
10
09
20
08
1996
20
07
20
05
06
1995
20
20
04
1994
20
03
1993
3,003,621 3,048,651 3,114,761 3,196,725 3,292,111 3,373,787 3,468,802 3,567,772
20
02
20
01
1992
20
00
99
1991
20
20
98
97
1990
19
19
96
1989
19
95
19
94
1988
19
93
19
92
1987
19
91
90
1986
BC Population
19
19
88
89
19
19
19
19
19
87
86
1998
1999
3,676,075 3,777,390 3,874,317 3,948,583 3,983,113 4,011,375
MVC Fatality Rate
18.4
19.2
18.1
17.0
18.3
15.3
12.8
13.5
13.5
12.4
11.4
10.7
10.7
9.7
MVC Fatalities
552
584
564
545
604
515
443
482
496
468
442
423
427
389
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
BC Population
4,039,230 4,076,881 4,100,161 4,123,937 4,155,017 4,195,764 4,241,691 4,290,988 4,349,412 4,410,679 4,465,924 4,499,139 4,542,508 4,582,625
MVC Fatality Rate
9.8
9.3
11.0
10.8
10.5
11.1
9.6
9.8
8.2
8.3
7.8
6.2
6.1
5.0
MVC Fatalities
396
380
453
447
438
466
408
420
355
365
349
279
279
228
Sources: Fatality data are from the BC Vital Statistics Agency; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and
Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
Event Key
1965 Mandatory motorcycle helmet law
24
2005 Responsible Driver Program for drinking drivers

introduced
1971 24-hour roadside prohibition for drinking drivers
2006 Civil Forfeiture Act introduced allowing forfeiture of

vehicles of risky drivers
1977 Mandatory seat belt law

1985 Mandatory child restraint law
1990 ICBC Road Improvement Program begins
2008 Child restraint law enhanced; mandatory

booster seats
2010 Motor Vehicle Act amendment prohibits the use of
handheld electronic devices while driving
1996 Bicycle helmet law introduced

1997 Photo radar introduced
1998 Graduated Licensing Program introduced
x
$
24
2001 Photo radar program cancelled

2003 Traffic enforcement initiatives enhanced through ICBC
funding for the Ministry of Justice Road Safety Unit
2010 Immediate roadside prohibitions for impaired driving

introduced*
2011 Intersection Safety Camera Program upgraded and
expanded
2012 Additional safety provisions for motorcyclists
implemented
* Immediate roadside prohibitions for impaired drivers were suspended temporarily in
2011 until May 2012, to amend related legislation after Judge Sigurdson ruled that the
program in part violated constitutional rights.
5.0
Figure 2.2 shows the number and rate of

MVC fatalities and measures these fatalities
against the growing population of BC from
1986 to 2013. As this graph illustrates, the
population of BC increased by more than
50 per cent during the time period (from
approximately 3.0 million in 1986 to nearly
4.6 million in 2013), while the number
of MVC fatalities per year was reduced by
nearly 60 per cent (from 552MVCdeaths in
1986 down to 228 in 2013). Consequently, the
MVC fatality rate per 100,000population
improved substantially, declining by
72.8per cent, from 18.4 deaths per 100,000
population to 5.0 deaths per 100,000 over
these 28 years. While this figure shows
overall improvement, there are some
fluctuations, where some years saw higher
levels of MVC fatalities and associated
higher MVC fatality rates per 100,000
(e.g., 1993, 2002, 2005).
Figure 2.2 also highlights some of the road
safety initiatives introduced in BC from
1986 to 2013, such as new and revised
laws about seat belts, helmets, alcohol
impairment, and driver distraction, as
well as initiatives to address speeding,
and increased emphasis on education and
deterrence from violations. While correlation
in the trends of MVC-related fatalities
and introduction/cancellation of road
safety initiatives does not provide evidence
of causation, it does provide compelling
information about how legislation and
programming may impact road safety
outcomes. For example, it is reasonable to
assume that the cancellation of the photo
radar program in 2001 contributed to the
subsequent increase in MVC fatalities, while
the introduction of the Immediate Roadside
Prohibition Program and prohibition of
handheld electronic devices while driving in
2010 likely contributed to the subsequent
reduction seen. The successes seen in
reduced fatalities in BC are likely due to

the numerous road system safety initiatives
introduced during this time, including safer
vehicles, safer roads, and appropriate speed
limits, which have all been combined with
widespread police enforcement of rules of
the road (e.g., seat belt use, impairment,
speeding).
The initiatives and changes shown in
Figure2.2 are only a sample of events from
the last 28 years. Since 2003, the Insurance
Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC)
has provided funding to the Ministry
of Justices Road Safety Unit (RSU) for
enhanced traffic enforcement activities in
BC. These initiatives have included road
safety research, CounterAttack road checks
for impaired driving, Integrated Road Safety
Unitsi dedicated to traffic enforcement, and
the implementation of new enforcement
technologies such as Automated Licence
Plate Recognition.2 In 2011, the RSU also
supported the Vancouver Pedestrian Safety
Initiative3 and the completion of an upgrade
and expansion of the provinces Intersection
Safety Camera Program.2
Understanding MVCs in BC requires not
only an examination of the number and rate
of MVC fatalities, but also an examination of
who is suffering the burden of MVC-related
serious injuries and fatalities, and how that
burden is distributed across sub-populations
and regions of BC.
Integrated Road Safety Units (IRSUs) are distinct from the Ministry of Justices Road Safety Unit (RSU). The RSU is a policy unit
within the provincial governments Police Services Division, while IRSUs are teams of officers from independent municipal police
departments and RCMP traffic services who work together to target high-risk driving behaviours.
25
Figure
Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash

Fatalities, by Health Authority, BC, 2012
2.3a
Northern
6.3%
13.5%
Interior
15.9%
38.8%
Fraser
Vancouver Coastal
Island
16.6%
13.5%
Health Authority
24.7%
Population
12.5%
Number
of MVC
Fatalities
36.6%
21.7%
Percentage
of BC
Population
Percentage
of MVC
Fatalities
13.5
Northern
284,552
38
6.3
Interior
722,357
109
15.9
38.8
1,121,688
35
24.7
12.5
Vancouver Coastal
Island
751,809
38
16.6
13.5
Fraser
1,662,102
61
36.6
21.7
Total
4,542,508
281
Notes: Regional information presented is based on crash location. Percentages are calculated based on population of health authority area. There were five cases in which health authority was unspecified, and these cases are excluded from this
figure. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 2012; population data are from BC Statistics, Population Estimates, 2012. Prepared by BC Injury
Research and Prevention Unit, 2014.
26
EXAMINING MVC TRENDS IN BC

Examining provincial data in greater depth
enables the identification of groups that have
an increased risk of MVC-related serious
injuries and fatalities within the broader
population. This in turn helps promote a
better understanding of the burden of MVCs
in BC, and how to most effectively target
prevention and intervention strategies. This
section reviews MVCs by region of BC (based
on health authority area), sex, and age.
Analysis by Region
BC is divided into five geographic regional
health authority areas for health service
delivery. Figure 2.3a shows that more than
half of the approximately 4.5 million people
in BC are concentrated within two of the
geographically smallest health authority
areas: Fraser Health and Vancouver Coastal
Health. In contrast, Northern Health is
the most rural and remote health authority,
encompassing almost two-thirds of the
province geographically, while home to
only a small percentage of the total BC
Figure
2.3b
population. However, health authority

areas can be very diverse, so analyses
presented at this level can mask higher rates
of fatalities and hospitalizations in particular
communities; for example, Vancouver Coastal
Health is a diverse region, and low MVC
fatality rates in the large urban population in
Greater Vancouver may mask higher fatality
rates in the more rural and remote areas of the
health authority, such as the central BC coast
and the Bella Coola Valley.
Figures 2.3a and 2.3b show that the burden
of MVCs in BC is also not distributed
proportionally to population size among
regional health authorities. In 2012, the
more rural/remote health authorities,
Northern Health and Interior Health,
were significantly over represented:
Northern Health had 6.3percent of the
population, but 13.5percent of the MVC
fatalities occurred there; Interior Health
had 15.9percent of the population,
but 38.8percent of the MVC fatalities
occurred there. At the same time, much
lower proportions of MVC fatalities
occurred in the more urban health
Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

by Health Authority, BC, 2012
Population
MVC Fatalities
6.3%
36.6%
21.7%
15.9%
24.7%
13.5%
38.8%
12.5%
16.6%
Northern
13.5%
Interior
Vancouver Coastal
Island
Fraser
Notes: Regional information presented is based on crash location. Percentages are calculated based on population of health authority area. There were five
cases in which health authority was unspecified, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 2012;
population data are from BC Statistics, Population Estimates, 2012. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014.
27
Regional variation in MVC fatality rates

likely reflects the different geographies,
specifically, the differences between
rural/remote and urban areas and the related
differences in infrastructure, speed limits,
traffic patterns, and access to emergency
services. The variation may also highlight
differences in the quality and frequency of
road maintenance and traffic enforcement
and regional variations in weather. The effect
of road locations, road types, and weather
will be discussed further in Chapter 7.
authorities, Vancouver Coastal Health

and Fraser Health, compared to their
populations. Vancouver Coastal Health
had 24.7 per cent of the population,
but only 12.5 per cent of the MVC
fatalities occurred there. Fraser Health
had 36.6percent of the population but
only 21.7per cent of the MVC fatalities
occurred there.
Figure
Figure 2.4 shows the average agestandardized MVC fatality rates (20082012)
per 100,000 population by health authority.
The highest rates in BC occurred in
Northern Health and Interior Health,
at 18.0and 16.3 fatalities per 100,000,
respectively. These rates are higher than the
BC average rate of 6.9 per 100,000 for this
time period, and considerably higher than
rates for other regions (three to nearly eight
times higher). The lowest MVC fatality rate
is found in Vancouver Coastal Health, at
2.3fatalities per 100,000.
Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

Rate per 100,000 Population, by Health Authority, BC, 2008-2012
2.4
22

(with 95% CI)
20
18
16
14
12
Average (6.9)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Northern
Interior
Island
Fraser
Vancouver Coastal
18.0
16.3
6.0
4.8
2.3
Health Authority
Notes: Health authority rates are based on the residence of the patient and may not be the same as the location of the crash or the location of the health
care service provided. Rates are calculated based on the population of the health authority. Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991
Census population. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia,
2008-2012; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population
28
Figure
Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization

Rate per 100,000 Population, by Health Authority, BC, 2006-2010
2.5

(with 95% CI)
160
140
120
Average (85.0)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Northern
Interior
Island
Fraser
Vancouver Coastal
134.9
124.5
85.0
78.1
54.1
Health Authority
Notes: Health authority rates are based on the residence of the patient and may not be the same as the location of the crash or the location of the health
care service provided. Rates are calculated based on the population of the health authority. Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991
Census population. There were fewer than five cases in which health authority was unspecified, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix
B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Hospitalization data are from the Discharge Abstract Database, Ministry of Health, 2006-2010; population estimates are from the BC Stats website,
April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
Figure 2.5 shows the average agestandardized MVC-related hospitalization

rate per 100,000 population in BC for
20062010 by the victims health authority
of residence. Similar to fatality rates, this
figure demonstrates that residents of Northern
and Interior Health had the highest MVC
hospitalization rates in BC, at 134.9 and
124.5 per 100,000, respectively, while
residents of Vancouver Coastal Health again
had the lowest, at 54.1 per 100,000. While
the difference in hospitalization rates is not
as drastic as the difference in fatality rates
between health regions, the rate in Northern
Health is still two-and-a-half times higher
than the rate in Vancouver Coastal Health.
Higher serious injury and fatality rates in
Northern and Interior Health may be linked
to challenges specific to rural and remote
geographies. For example, this could include
longer driving distances between population
centres; reduced traffic enforcement on

rural/remote and resource roads; higher
speeds on highways; more interactions with
wildlife on roadways; more severe weather
conditions, particularly in the winter
months; a high volume of commercial
vehicle traffic;j,4,5,6 increased likelihood of
impaired driving outside metropolitan areas;7
and lower restraint use in rural areas.8
People living in Northern BC are two and a half times

more likely to die in a Motor Vehicle Crash than are their
counterparts across the province.
D. Bowering, Crossroads: Report on Motor Vehicle Crashes
in Northern BC 5
A high volume of commercial vehicle traffic or frequent use by large and heavy vehicles requires specific road design and
maintenance to ensure the integrity and ongoing safety of roadways.
j
29
Interior Health may have elevated counts

due to the inclusion of non-residents in these
data. This figure also shows that year-to-year
trends have not been the same across the
province, and health regions have experienced
increases and decreases in different years than
one another. For example, in 2002 in Fraser
Health and Island Health there were decreases
in the number of MVC fatalities, while in
Vancouver Coastal, Northern, and Interior
there were increasesincluding a substantial
spike on roads within Interior Health.
The greater disparity between regions for MVC

fatalities may be the result of higher vehicle
speeds, and/or of longer emergency response
times and greater distances between hospitals
and treatment centres in more rural and remote
areas, which can impact the outcome of an
injury, or whether a serious injury becomes
a fatality.5 Conversely, lower fatality and
serious injury rates in urban areas may be
linked to factors such as lower posted speeds,
increased likelihood of enforcement, and
closer proximity to emergency responders and
hospitals and treatment centres. These issues
will be explored in more detail in Chapter 7.
Analysis by Sex
As shown in Figure 2.6, the total numbers of

MVC fatalities in the health authorities reveal
somewhat different patterns than the rates
presented earlier, with the highest numbers in
Interior and Fraser Health (Fraser was second
lowest when analyzed by rate), and the lowest
in Northern and Island Health (Northern was
highest when analyzed by rate). Interior Health
has the highest raw numbers of MVC fatalities.
However, these data reflect fatalities based on
crash location, and as a major corridor into the
province for commercial vehicles and tourism,
In addition to regional differences, MVC

fatalities and serious injuries in BC vary
by demographic variables, including sex.
Research shows that males tend to drive
more aggressively than females, are more
likely than females to engage in a variety of
highrisk road user behaviours (e.g., speeding,
impaired driving), and also tend to drive
more kilometres9,10,11,12,13,14 (see Chapter 5 for
additional discussions of driver behaviour).
Therefore, males are at greater risk of MVC
fatalities and serious injuries.
Figure
Number of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

by Health Authority, BC, 2001 to 2012
2.6
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Interior
130
179
152
141
146
145
135
115
145
122
113
109
Fraser
115
106
125
112
125
90
109
105
84
102
62
61
Vancouver Coastal
50
57
49
58
57
59
51
30
30
23
25
35
Northern
58
78
60
71
64
57
53
52
48
61
57
38
Island
41
37
62
55
61
51
61
52
56
56
35
38
BC Total
394
457
448
440
453
402
411
354
363
364
292
281
Year
Notes: Health authority is presented based on crash location. Rates are calculated based on population of health authority. There were five cases in which
health authority was unspecified, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 2001-2012. Prepared by BC Injury
Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
30
Figure

Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex, BC, 1996 to 2013
2.7
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Male
16.7
15.7
14.9
13.8
13.1
13.3
16.0
14.7
14.8
14.4
13.3
12.4
10.5
11.0
10.1
8.2
7.7
7.0
Female
7.4
5.7
6.3
6.3
6.1
5.6
5.7
6.1
5.8
6.4
4.7
5.4
4.9
4.3
5.0
3.7
3.7
3.7
BC
12.0
10.7
10.6
10.0
9.6
9.4
10.8
10.4
10.3
10.4
9.0
8.9
7.7
7.6
7.5
5.9
5.7
5.4
Year
Notes: There were 101 cases where age group was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. There were 24 cases where sex was missing, but
these cases are included in the total rate. Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. See Appendix B for more information
about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 1996-2013;
population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health
Figure 2.7 shows age-standardized MVC

fatality rates in BC analyzed by sex, from
1996 to 2013. Overall, the total agestandardized MVC fatality rate in BC
decreased by more than half over these
18 years, from 12.0 fatalities per 100,000
population in 1996 to 5.4 per 100,000 in
2013. The fatality rate for males was more
than double the female rate for the majority

of years, though the greater decline for males
has somewhat narrowed the gap in recent
years. The rates decreased from 16.7 to
7.0per 100,000 population for males and
from 7.4 to a low of 3.7 per 100,000 for
females from 1996 to 2013. Female rates
showed less fluctuation over this time period.
31
Figure
Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization

2.8
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Male
92.9
92.2
91.5
88.1
82.4
81.6
78.5
70.0
65.9
56.9
Female
55.3
59.6
54.4
51.4
55.8
50.6
46.8
43.4
41.2
39.0
BC
73.6
75.4
72.6
69.3
68.9
66.0
62.3
56.4
53.4
47.8
Year
Notes: Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Hospitalization data are from the Discharge Abstract Database, Ministry of Health, 2002-2011; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April
2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
Figure 2.8 shows similar trends in

age-standardized MVC serious injury
rates in BC as the fatality rates shown in
Figure2.7. From 2002 to 2011, the overall
hospitalization rate declined from 73.6 to
47.8 per 100,000 population, with males
having a higher rate at all points in time
but also experiencing greater decreases over
time than females, resulting in the gap
between sexes beginning to narrow. For
males, the rate declined from 92.9serious
injuries per 100,000 population
in2002 to 56.9 per 100,000 in 2011 (a
39percent reduction). For females, the
seriousinjury rate declined from 55.3to
39.0 per100,000 population over these
10years (a 29 per cent reduction). Similar
to the trends in fatality rates, the male and
female trends for serious injury rate are
noticeably different, with a heightened rate
for females in 2003 and 2006 that was not
observed among males, while for males
there was a nearly steady decrease across
the years shown.
32
Analysis by Age
Trend analyses suggest that in addition
to region and sex, age also plays a role in
the burden of MVC fatalities and injuries.
Figure2.9 shows that from 2002 to 2013,
there were considerable successes in reducing
MVC fatality rates per 100,000 population.
The highest fatality rates seen here areamong
those age 16-25, and 76 and up. The
1625age group achieved the greatest decrease
in fatality rate overall during this period
(60.3per cent). The rate jumped from 2008
to 2009 among those age 76 and up, and the
highest MVC fatality rate was experienced by
this age group from 2009 onward.
Figure 2.10 shows that from 2002 to 2011,
there were similar trends for hospitalization
rates as for fatality rates among the age
groups, with those age 16-25 and 76 and
up having the highest rates per 100,000
population among the age groups. However,
Figure

by Age Group, BC, 2002 to 2013
2.9
Fatality Rate
per 100,000 Population
25
20
15
10
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
0-15
2.9
3.7
2.0
1.3
1.9
1.5
1.6
1.2
2.4
1.2
1.8
1.0
16-25
20.4
21.5
16.7
23.0
17.0
17.4
14.7
11.9
9.9
10.1
8.5
8.1
26-35
11.6
9.4
13.0
13.0
10.9
9.2
8.2
7.6
8.9
6.4
6.0
7.2
36-45
10.2
10.3
9.5
7.9
9.3
10.5
8.3
10.0
7.6
5.0
6.3
4.5
46-55
8.8
8.2
9.8
9.1
8.0
10.2
7.0
9.9
10.2
6.4
5.7
5.2
56-65
13.1
8.0
12.3
9.7
8.6
7.3
9.1
6.8
7.6
7.5
5.3
6.2
66-75
12.2
11.8
12.6
8.8
6.6
7.4
6.6
6.1
7.9
6.2
7.3
7.4
76+
18.7
21.1
17.3
20.1
17.2
13.7
11.9
17.8
13.9
12.9
12.5
11.2
Year
Notes: There were 63 cases where age group was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these
data sources.
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalization Rate per 100,000 Population,

by Age Group, BC, 2002 to 2011
2.10
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
0-15
41.3
36.6
38.7
34.2
33.9
30.1
24.6
19.3
22.4
16.7
16-25
171.9
167.8
161.8
157.2
154.2
140.6
128.8
112.7
101.5
91.4
26-35
112.2
108.7
112.8
111.4
102.4
108.0
105.3
87.6
80.1
69.5
36-45
89.6
91.2
93.6
92.3
92.0
88.6
89.6
78.3
75.7
67.2
46-55
87.6
92.5
86.5
86.6
84.0
84.9
81.8
90.0
77.4
72.9
56-65
79.7
75.3
73.3
77.2
91.2
82.4
73.9
78.1
78.3
72.2
66-75
100.7
85.1
98.9
84.2
92.9
80.9
80.5
81.5
76.0
74.2
76+
129.3
149.3
133.4
125.2
131.1
128.9
128.7
115.3
118.4
114.4
Year
Notes: Rates are calculated using age-specific population. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
33
A U-shaped curve is often observed when agespecific MVC risks are charted: fatality and
hospitalization rates are high for younger road
users, decrease for those in middle age groups,
and increase again for older road users.9
Figures 2.11 and 2.12 reflect this U-shape,
though it is most pronounced for males. These
figures also demonstrate that the increase
in risk of suffering a fatality or of sustaining
a serious injury due to an MVC increases
dramatically at age 16. Since individuals can
only drive once they are 16years old, this
suggests that when youth begin to drive they
are at much higher risk of being killed or
seriously injured in an MVCfor both males
and females, but particularly for young males.
(See Chapter 5 for additional discussions of
driver behaviour).
much like fatality rates, in 2009 those age

76 and up surpassed those age 16-25 in
serious injury rates and have remained the
group most burdened by hospitalizations
per 100,000 population ever since. Unlike
the fatality trends, there were no striking
increases in rates for 2005 and 2009.
Figures 2.11 and 2.12 show MVC fatality
and hospitalization rates by age group and
sex in BC for 2009-2013 and 2007-2011,
respectively. These figures show that males
have higher fatality and serious injury rates
than females in all age groups over age 16. As
these two figures show, the MVC fatality and
hospitalization rates per 100,000 population
are lowest for males and females less than
16 years old. For fatality rates, both sexes
have their highest rate within the 76 and up
age group, but for hospitalization rates, the
highest rates differ by age group and sex,
with males having the highest hospitalization
rates at age 16-25, and females having the
highest at age 76 and up.
Figure
Evidence indicates that factors that influence

the level of risk among younger drivers
may include limited driving experience,
immaturity, poor risk perception, peer
influence, and a greater tendency toward

by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2009-2013
2.11
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
1.6
13.0
10.3
9.2
10.6
9.5
8.7
19.6
Female
1.4
6.1
4.1
4.2
4.4
3.8
5.4
9.2
Age Group
Notes: Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. There were 19 cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and these cases
are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
34
Figure

2.12
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
27.5
151.3
125.1
115.0
112.0
106.7
79.3
124.1
Female
17.4
76.6
54.4
45.6
51.3
47.2
77.6
118.7
Age Group
Notes: Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry
of Health, 2015.
higher-risk driving.9,15,16,17 A report by the

Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development concluded that driving
experience is of greater relevance than age in
considerations of young driver safety.18
Factors that influence the level of risk
among older drivers may include age-related
visual, cognitive, and/or motor function
impairments (e.g., reduced peripheral vision,
range of motion, and judgment and reaction
times), medical conditions, and medication
use, all of which can diminish driving
performance and safety.19,20,21 Increased risk
of fatality and serious injury among older
age groups may also be linked to agerelated physical frailty: older adults may
be less able to withstand and recover from
physical trauma, and those who are involved
in MVCs are therefore more likely than
younger people to sustain serious or fatal
injuries.22,23 Chapters 3 and 4 provide a more
in-depth discussion regarding road users and
their related risk factors.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO MVCS

IN BC
In addition to understanding which regions
and sub-populations are experiencing the
greatest burden of MVC fatalities and serious
injuries in BC, it is important to examine the
factors that contribute to MVCs.
Road System Use

From a system perspective, one overall
contributing factor to MVC risk for a
population is the number of vehicles on the
roadin other words, traffic volume24 and
distance traveled.25 It is generally recognized
that, at a population level, the less traffic
volume and the fewer annual vehicle
kilometres per capita traveled, the lower the
MVC fatalities per 100,000 population.24,25
For example, a study in Norway showed
that 66.8 per cent of the variation in injury
MVC rate between counties was explained
by traffic volume.24
35
Public transit is one way to reduce vehicle

volume. Evidence shows that as annual
percapita public transit passenger distances
increase25 or the number of annual transit
trips per capita increase,26 the traffic fatalities
per 100,000 population decreases. Public
transit is also a safe option for travel:
research has shown its high safety rates in
comparison to private vehicles. For example,
a study of US transportation-related
fatalities from 2000 to 2009 shows that
fatalities per billion-miles traveled are much
lower for public buses, urban mass transit
like light rail, and commuter heavy rail
(0.1, 0.2, and 0.4, respectively) compared
to car and light truck drivers and passengers
(7.3), and motorcyclists (212.6).27 Research
from the UK confirms similarly low MVC
fatality rates per billion passenger-kilometres
for light rail, heavy rail, and bus (0.00002,
0.1, and 0.1, respectively), compared to
private cars (3.0) or motorcycles (112.0).28
Furthermore, an international study
including data from Sweden, Denmark,
Great Britain, The Netherlands, and
Norway estimated that bus passengers had
half the injury rate relative to car drivers.24
Overall, public transit benefits road safety by
providing a safe alternative to private vehicle
travel while reducing road traffic volume.
Public transportation will be discussed
further in Chapters 3 and 7.
Top MVC Contributing Factors in BC

For each police-attended MVC, police
identify contributing factors. These
are events and circumstances that are
perceived to directly contribute to the
MVC, as determined by the attending
police officer,29(p.xi) and are recorded when
an accident report is filed.30 These MVC
contributing factors fall within four broad
categories:
1) Human conditions such as road user
distraction (distraction of a driver or
other road user), driver inattention, or
impairment of a driver or other road user.
k
36
2) Human actions such as driver error,

speeding, or failing to yield right of way.
3) Environmental conditions such as road
condition, weather,k or wild animals.
4) Vehicle condition such as defective tires
or defective brakes.29(p.12),30
These four categories roughly reflect the four
pillars of the Safe System Approach (SSA)
employed in the safe system framework used
in this reportsafe road users, safe speeds,
safe roadways, and safe vehiclesthough
the framework allows greater emphasis on
speed by setting it apart as its own pillar (safe
speeds), and combines human condition
and human action into one pillar (safe road
users). Contributing factors identified in
police reports are subject to the attending
police officers and witnesses interpretations
of the contributing factors to the crash. They
are also not based on an SSA; instead, they
focus on human contributing factors and
other factors related to the Motor Vehicle Act
rather than providing a broader framework
in which prevention and harm reduction
through vehicle design, roadway design and
conditions, and speed zone limits would
be of similar emphasis. (See Chapter 1 and
Appendix B for more information).
Police may assign up to four contributing
factors to each road user involved in an
MVC (i.e., vehicle, motorcycle, cyclist, or
pedestrian),31 so each MVC may have multiple
contributing factors, all of which help to
explain the events leading to the MVC. In some
cases a particular contributing factor may be
clearly dominant and additional contributing
factors may not be assigned. For example, if it
is known that a driver fell asleep at the wheel,
entered the oncoming lane and collided with
an oncoming vehicle, contributing factors
would include fell asleep (human condition)
and driving on wrong side of road (human
action), but since the driver falling asleep is
clearly the main cause of the MVC, it is not
likely that any contributing factors would be
assigned to the second vehicle.30
Road condition includes considerations such as ice, snow, slush, and water, while weather includes fog, sleet, rain, and snow.
The Immediate Roadside Prohibition program has demonstrated

success in reducing impaired-related MVC fatalities.
involved MVC fatalities.32,33 These results

are visible in the substantial decreases seen
in impairment-related MVC fatalities
in the years following its introduction
(Figure2.13).
As shown in Figure 2.13, overall, the top

contributing factors to MVCs with fatalities
that were reported on MVC incident
report forms by police in BC between
2008 and 2012 were speed, impairment,
and distraction. The proportion of MVC
fatalities with speed as a contributing factor
declined from 2008 to 2010 but increased
again, reaching nearly 2009 proportions
by 2012. The percentage of MVC fatalities
with impairment as a contributing
factor decreased from 31.6 per cent to
20.4percent over these five years, despite a
pronounced increase in 2010.
The proportion of MVC fatalities with

distraction as a contributing factor
increased from 25.7 to 28.6 per cent
from 2008 to 2012. This figure suggests
that while distracted driving legislation
introduced in 2010 may have had a small
as well as brief effect in curbing the increase
in distraction-related fatalities, this factor
increased again slightly the following year.
Further monitoring and analysis of the
impact of this legislation will be important
in the coming years. While road condition
is not one of the top three contributing
factors, the increase shown in recent years
also warrants further monitoring.
Evaluations of the Immediate Roadside

Prohibition program for drivers with a
blood alcohol content (BAC) level of
0.5milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres
of blood introduced in BC in 2010 have
demonstrated its success in reducing alcoholFigure
Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

by Top Contributing Factor, BC, 2008 to 2012
2.13
40
Percentage of Fatalities
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Speed
37.6
36.6
31.0
33.6
35.7
Impairment
31.6
29.2
34.9
25.7
20.4
Distraction
25.7
27.3
28.0
27.1
28.6
Driver Error/Confusion
15.8
9.9
8.0
5.8
4.6
Driving on Wrong Side of Road
13.6
10.7
15.7
8.6
6.8
Road Condition
13.6
12.4
10.7
13.7
17.1
Year
Notes: "Impairment" includes alcohol involvement, ability impaired by alcohol, alcohol suspected, drugs illegal, ability impaired by drugs, drugs suspected,
and ability impaired by medication. "Distraction" includes use of communication/video equipment, driver inattention, and driver internal/external
distraction. "Driver error/confusion" includes gas/brake pedal confusion. "Road condition" includes ice, snow, slush, and/or water on the road. Data are
based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other
systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
37
Figure
Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities

for the Top Three Contributing Factors, by Health Authority, BC, 2009-2013
2.14
Northern
Pop
6.3%
18.0%
21.0%
13.0%
Interior
Pop
16.0%
Pop
42.5%
37.9%
39.4%
Population
Speed
Impairment
Distraction
Fraser
Vancouver Coastal
Island
Pop
Pop
Pop
16.6%
13.2%
Health Authority
Northern
Interior
Vancouver Coastal
Island
Fraser
BC Total
24.7%
13.1% 13.3%
Population
282,826
721,190
1,110,349
748,797
1,637,014
4,500,175
7.3%
Percentage of
BC
Population
Number of
Speed-related
Fatalities
6.3%
16.0%
24.7%
16.6%
36.4%
94
222
38
69
99
522
6.1%
8.0%
Percentage Number of
of Speed- Impairmentrelated
related
Fatalities
Fatalities
18.0%
42.5%
7.3%
13.2%
19.0%
90
162
26
56
94
428
36.4%
19.0%
22.0%
26.3%
Percentage of
Impairmentrelated
Fatalities
Number of
Distractionrelated
Fatalities
Percentage of
Distractionrelated
Fatalities
21.0%
37.9%
6.1%
13.1%
22.0%
57
172
35
58
115
437
13.0%
39.4%
8.0%
13.3%
26.3%
Notes: Regional information presented is based on crash location. "Population" is the average population for 2009 to 2013. Population percentage is calculated based on the population of health authority area. There were cases in
which health authority was unspecified, and these cases are excluded from this figure. "Speed-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: unsafe speed,
exceeding speed limit, excessive speed over 40 km/h, and/or driving too fast for conditions. "Distraction-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in the crash had any one of the contributing factors: use of
communication/video equipment, driver internal/external distraction, and/or driver inattention. "Impaired-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in the crash had any one of the contributing factors of:
alcohol involvement, prescribed medication and/or drug involvement listed. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than
other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). Victim may or may not be the impaired person involved in the crash. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia 2009-2013; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury
Research and Prevention Unit, 2015; and the Office of the Provincial Health Officer, 2015.
38
Figure 2.14 shows the distribution of the

population and the top three contributing
factors to MVCs based on regional health
authority for 2009-2013.The figure shows
a generally uneven distribution of MVCs
with these contributing factors relative
to the population. The higher relative
proportions occurred in Interior Health
and Northern Health for all three factors,
while Vancouver Coastal Health and Fraser
Health had relatively lower proportions for
all three factors.
Exploring these top contributing factors by
sex and age enables a greater understanding
of which sub-populations are at greatest
risk of an MVC fatality due to these factors.
Figure 2.15 shows that for 2008-2012 male
and female MVC fatalities share the same
top three human contributing factors (speed,
impairment, and distraction). However, a
greater proportion of male MVC fatalities
involved speed and impairment, while a
slightly higher proportion of female MVC
fatalities involved speed and distraction.
Figure

by Top Contributing Factor and Sex, BC, 2008-2012
2.15
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Male
Female
Speed
37.0
30.6
Impairment
32.5
21.3
Distraction
25.6
30.9
8.5
10.4
10.8
12.5
Road Condition
11.8
16.7
Sex
and ability impaired by medication. "Distraction" includes use of communication/video equipment, driver inattentive, and driver internal/external distraction.
"Driver error/confusion" includes gas/brake pedal confusion. "Road condition" includes ice, snow, slush, and/or water on the road. Data are based on police
reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g.,
vehicle design, roadway design). Fewer than five cases had sex data missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more
information about this data source.
39
Figure 2.16 provides further insight into the

impact of MVC fatalities by top contributing
factor for 2008-2012, by age group. As this
figure demonstrates, speed and impairment
are a substantial proportion of the burden
of contributing factors to MVC fatalities
for ages 16-25, while the burden of these
factors decreases as age increases. Distraction
is shown to be a considerable contributing
factor in MVC fatalities across all ages, but
is lower among younger sub-populations
and increases in proportion among older age
groups.
SUMMARY
Over the last few decades there has been
an increase in road users in BC, based on
increases in the size of the BC population
and in the number of active drivers licences.
Figure
The figures presented in this chapter show

substantial decreases in the rates of motor
vehicle crash (MVC) fatalities per 100,000
active licensed drivers and per 100,000
population. Further exploration of related
geographical data for BC highlights a
higher burden of MVC fatalities and
serious injuries in Northern and Interior
Health Authorities. Higher rates of MVC
fatalities and serious injuries were seen
among males and two age groups: youth
age 16-25 and older adults age 76 and up.
From a system perspective, the volume of
roadway traffic contributes to the number
of MVCs. The top human contributing
factors for MVCs with fatalities were speed,
distraction, and impairment, with more
recent years showing increases in speed and
distraction, and decreases in impairment.
The next two chapters will examine road
users in BC.

by Top Contributing Factor and Age Group, BC, 2008-2012
2.16
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Speed
31.1
55.2
41.4
38.6
32.1
27.9
19.7
10.8
Impairment
18.0
46.9
44.1
31.8
25.2
21.6
5.1
7.2
Distraction
21.3
22.4
19.8
25.0
32.1
30.9
28.2
38.1
9.8
5.2
7.2
7.6
11.3
10.8
9.4
14.9
18.0
13.2
12.6
9.7
12.0
8.8
7.7
10.3
Road Condition
24.6
11.7
8.6
16.1
15.3
17.2
16.2
5.7
Age Group
and ability impaired by medication. "Distraction" includes use of communication/video equipment, driver inattentive, and driver internal/external distraction.
"Driver error/confusion" includes gas/brake pedal confusion. "Road condition" includes ice, snow, slush, and/or water on the road. Data are based on police
reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g.,
vehicle design, roadway design). There were 19 cases in which age group was unknown, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for
more information about this data source.
40
Chapter 3: Drivers and Passengers
Chapter 3
Drivers and Passengers

INTRODUCTION
Roadways are shared by a mix of road
users that includes drivers and passengers
of motor vehicles such as passenger
vehicles, trucks, and motorcycles, as well
as cyclists and pedestrians. Pedestrians,
cyclists, and motorcyclists are all
considered vulnerable road users because
they do not have the protection of an
enclosed vehicle,2 which puts them at a
greater risk of serious injury and death
from motor vehicle crashes (MVCs)
compared to road users inside vehicles.
While drivers have the protection of a
vehicle, they are still the road users most
frequently impacted by MVCs in BC.
Safety of road users will be explored over

three chapters. This chapter will examine
the burden and distribution of fatalities and
serious injuries and the impact of MVCs
on drivers and passengers. Chapter 4 will
explore vulnerable road users in greater
detail, and Chapter 5 will examine road user
behaviour and conditions.
Fatality and serious injury rates for
motorcyclists, cyclists, pedestrians, and
passengers (where applicable) are calculated
using the BC population as the denominator,
but rates for drivers are calculated using BC
drivers with active drivers licences as the
denominator. See Chapter 1 and Appendix B
for more information.
For now, at least, each of us relies on one another

to make the road system work in a safe and
equitable manner.Some people will say that the
use of the road system isabout their freedom:
their freedom to drive the way they want to and
to drive fast. But this is only one type of freedom:
freedom to. There is also our freedom from, which
includes our freedom from having injuries and
deaths inflicted on us, as well as our freedom
from being exposed to dangerous situations and
associated human stress
N. Arason, No Accident: Eliminating Injury and
Death on Canadian Roads1(p.101)
41
FATALITIES AND SERIOUS INJURIES

AMONG ROAD USERS IN BC
Not all road user types share the
burden of MVCs equally. As shown in
Figure3.1, vehicle drivers represent the
largest proportion of MVC fatalities
in BC at 46.1per cent for 2009-2013.
This is followed by vehicle passengers at
20.5percent, pedestrians at 18.5 percent,
motorcycle occupants at 11.0 per cent,
and cyclists at 3.0percent. Over this
period vehicle occupants accounted for
66.6percent of deaths, while vulnerable
road users accounted for 32.5 per cent.
Figure 3.2 shows the percentage of road
user types that experienced MVC serious
injuries, represented by hospitalizations, for
2007-2011. Vehicle occupants (drivers and
passengers) represent the largest portion
of MVC hospitalizations at 54.4 per cent,
followed by motorcyclists at 20.6 per cent,
pedestrians at 15.0 per cent, and cyclists at
6.4 per cent (a total of 42.0 per cent among
vulnerable road users).
Figure
Figure 3.3 shows the rates of MVC fatalities

for five road user groups from 2009 to
2013. Across all five years, passenger vehicle
drivers had the highest MVC fatality rate
at 4.0 per 100,000 population in 2009,
dropping to 2.7 in 2012 and 2013. The rates
for vehicle passengers declined over the five
years, and the pedestrian rate overtook the
vehicle passenger rate beginning in 2012.
The motorcyclist fatality rate also saw an
overall decrease over this time period, from
1.1 per 100,000 population in 2009 to
0.6per100,000 in 2013.

by Road User Type, BC, 2009-2013
3.1
Passenger Vehicle Driver
46.1%
Passenger Vehicle
Passenger
20.5%
11.0%
Motorcycle Occupant
18.5%
Other
0.8%
3.0%
Cyclist
Pedestrian
Notes: "Passenger vehicle" includes cars, trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and excludes motorcycles. "Motorcycle
occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
42
Figure
Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalizations,

3.2
Motorcycle Occupant
20.6%
Passenger Vehicle
Occupant
54.4%
6.4%
Cyclist
15.0%
Pedestrian
3.7%
Other
Notes: "Passenger vehicle occupant" includes drivers and passengers of cars, trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and
excludes motorcycle occupants. "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about this
data source.
Source: Discharge Abstract Database, Ministry of Health, 2007-2011. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health
Figure

by Road User Type, BC, 2009 to 2013
3.3
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2010
2011
2012
2013
Passenger Vehicle Driver
4.0
3.9
2.8
2.7
2.7
Passenger Vehicle Passenger
2009
1.5
2.0
1.4
1.3
1.0
Motorcycle Occupant
1.1
0.8
0.8
0.5
0.6
Cyclist
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
Pedestrian
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.1
Other
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
Year
occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
43
Figure 3.4 shows the rates of serious

injuries per 100,000 population resulting
from MVCs between 2007 to 2011, by
road user type. In all five years, passenger
vehicle occupants had the highest rate of
hospitalizations, steadily decreasing over the
period from 72.0 per 100,000 in 2007 to
54.5 per 100,000 in 2011a 24.3percent
decrease. All other road user types, including
motorcycle occupants, cyclists, and
pedestrians, had fairly steady hospitalization
rates over the period with only minor
fluctuations. Motorcycle occupants had the
second highest rate between 2007 and 2011,
at 15.9 to 14.6 per 100,000, followed by
pedestrians (13.4 to 11.0 per 100,000) and
cyclists (5.0 to 5.3 per 100,000).
There is considerable variation in rates and
numbers of road user fatalities and serious
injuries in the different regions of BC.
These regional differences can be important
for understanding the challenges faced
by some road user groups based on their
environment (for example, a rural area in
Figure

by Road User Type, BC, 2007 to 2011
3.4
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Passenger Vehicle Occupant
72.0
68.3
64.4
60.6
54.5
Motorcycle Occupant
15.9
17.0
16.8
16.5
14.6
Cyclist
5.0
4.8
4.8
5.1
5.3
Pedestrian
13.4
12.6
11.0
11.0
11.0
Other
3.2
3.6
3.2
2.5
2.0
Year
Notes: "Passenger vehicle" includes cars, trucks, sport utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and excludes motorcycles. "Motorcycle
occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. "Other" includes animal-drawn vehicles driven on roads governed by the Motor Vehicle Act. See
Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
44
comparison to an urban centre). Figure 3.5

shows MVC fatalities by road user type in
the urban centre of Greater Vancouver. For
the five-year period 2009-2013, pedestrians
experienced the highest burden of MVC
fatalities in Greater Vancouver, accounting
for 44.1percent of MVC fatalities.
Comparatively, the proportion of vehicle
driver fatalities amounted to just over half
that of pedestrians, at 22.6 per cent. For
more information about MVCs at regional
levels, see the MVC reports produced by
regional health authorities.l
The overall declining trend in BC in
road user serious injuries since 2007 and
fatalities since 2009, shown in Chapter 1,
is likely due to multiple factors, including
increased public transportation options,3
improvements in roadway engineering,
increased traffic enforcement, changing
public attitudes and behaviours towards road
safety (reflected in behaviour changes such
as decreased alcohol-impaired driving and
Figure
increased seat belt use), and evolving vehicle

designs that increasingly incorporate safety
features for both assisting drivers to avoid
crashes and better protecting road users
when crashes do occur (e.g., electronic
stability control, greater numbers of air
bags).4,5 However, ongoing and emerging
challenges to road safety include the overall
population growth in BC, which is likely
to increase stress on existing roadway
infrastructure as well as competition among
road users for road and roadside space.6
In addition, northern, rural, remote, and
Aboriginal communities continue to be
faced with high levels of distracted and
impaired driving and speed-related MVCs,
and with geographically unique road safety
challenges such as commercial vehicle
corridors and wildlife.5,7
The remainder of this chapter will examine
trends in MVC fatalities and serious injuries
in BC for drivers and passengers. Vulnerable
road users will be discussed in Chapter 4.

by Road User Type, Greater Vancouver, 2009-2013
3.5
Passenger Vehicle
Passenger
Passenger Vehicle
Driver
13.3%
22.6%
Motorcycle Occupant
14.9%
0.5%
Other
4.6%
Cyclist
44.1%
Pedestrian
Notes: "Passenger vehicle" includes cars, trucks, sport utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and excludes motorcycles. "Motorcycle
occupants" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. Greater Vancouver excludes the Fraser Valley region. See Appendix B for more information
about this data source.
Some of these reports are accessible via the website of the Office of the Provincial Health Officer (www.health.gov.bc.ca/pho/reports).
45
FATALITIES AND SERIOUS

INJURIES AMONG DRIVERS AND
PASSENGERS
fatality rate, and a 42.9 per cent decrease in

the number of driver fatalities. There was
a 73.3 per cent decrease in the passenger
fatality rate and a 68.3 per cent decrease
in the number of passenger fatalities over
these 18years. There were some minor
fluctuations in the rates and number of
MVC-related fatalities for drivers and
passengers over this period, with a few
noticeable changes (such as increases in
fatality rates and counts in 2002 and
decreases in 2011). These changes may
be associated with policy and legislation
changes in 2001 (e.g., the cancellation of
photo radar) and 2010 (e.g., introduction of
the Immediate Roadside Prohibition [IRP]
for driving while impaired by alcohol).
Considering that all MVCs involve at

least one driver, it is no surprise that they
represent the largest road user group
impacted by MVCs, as seen in Figures 3.1
and 3.3. This section provides an overview
of the impact of MVCs on drivers and
passengers (referred to as passenger vehicle
occupants when combined) over time, and
provides analyses based on age and sex.
Every year in BC there are hundreds of
fatalities and thousands of serious injuries
among vehicle occupants that result from
MVCs. Figure 3.6 shows the MVC-related
fatality counts and rates per 100,000
population for drivers and passengers from
1996 to 2013. Drivers suffered a higher
number and rate of fatalities compared to
vehicle passengers in all years. Overall, there
was a 51.6 per cent decrease in the driver
Figure
Figure 3.7 shows the counts and rates

for driver and passenger serious injuries
between 2002 and 2011. Both the total
number of hospitalizations and the rate of
hospitalizations per 100,000 population
decreased over these 10 years, with the rate
decreasing 41.9 per cent and the number
decreasing 36.2 per cent over the period.
3.6
400
350
300
250
4
200
3
150
2
100
50
0
1996 1997 1998 1999
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
2013
Number of Driver Fatalities
217
211
201
203
197
204
244
185
177
124
Number of Passenger Fatalities
145
133
116
102
106
101
132
Total Vehicle Occupant Fatalities
362
344
317
305
303
305
376
Driver Fatality Rate
5.6
5.3
5.0
5.1
4.9
5.0
Passenger Fatality Rate
3.7
3.4
2.9
2.5
2.6
2.5
222
224
193
197
178
175
125
121
140
90
102
92
83
70
67
88
63
58
46
325
312
326
285
280
247
245
263
188
179
170
6.0
4.5
5.3
5.3
4.6
4.6
4.1
4.0
3.9
2.8
2.7
2.7
3.2
3.4
2.2
2.4
2.2
1.9
1.6
1.5
2.0
1.4
1.3
1.0
Year
Notes: "Drivers" and "passengers" include drivers and passengers of cars, trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and exclude
motorcycle occupants. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
46
Motor Vehicle Driver and Passenger Fatality

Counts and Rates per 100,000 Population, BC, 1996 to 2013
Figure
3.7
70
3,000
60
2,500
50
2,000
40
1,500
30
1,000
20
500
10
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2,442
2,489
2,470
2,326
2,294
2,195
2,018
1,890
1,740
1,558
59.6
60.4
59.4
55.4
54.1
51.2
46.4
42.9
39.0
34.6
Motor Vehicle Driver and Passenger Hospitalization

Year
Notes: "Drivers" and "passengers" include drivers and passengers of cars, trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and exclude
motorcycle occupants. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health,
Drivers represent the largest number of both

MVC fatalities and serious injuries. Figure3.8
presents the fatality rate per 100,000
Figure
Fatality Rate per 100,000 Driver Population
3.8
driver population by age group and sex for

20092013. Males have higher fatality rates
than females across all age groups. Drivers
Motor Vehicle Crash Average Annual Driver Fatality

Rate per 100,000 Driver Population, by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2009-2013
14
12
10
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
8.5
6.1
5.6
6.7
4.9
4.1
12.8
Female
3.9
2.2
2.1
1.8
1.2
1.8
5.3
Age Group
Notes: "Driver" includes drivers of cars, trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and excludes motorcycle occupants.
Five-year average rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific driver population numbers (Sept. 2014), based on active BC driver's licences. Not
all individuals who hold driver's licences own or operate vehicles in BC. There were fewer than five cases where the driver was under 16 years old,
and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia
(ICBC), 2009-2013; driver population data are from the Business Information Warehouse, ICBC, as of September 30, 2014.
Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
47
driver fatality rates, female passengers have

higher fatality rates per 100,000 population
than male passengers for all age groups
except those aged 16 to 35. A higher rate of
passenger fatalities for females may reflect,
at least in part, the tendency for males to
drive when travelling with female partners.
A 2010 survey conducted by the Institute of
Advanced Motorists in the UK found that
men were four times more likely to drive
when male-female couples drove together.8
age 76 and up have the highest fatality rate

for both males and females, at 12.8 fatalities
per 100,000 driver population for males
and 5.3 per 100,000 driver population for
females. The second highest driver fatality
rates for both males and females are found
among younger drivers age 1625, at
8.5fatalities per 100,000 driver population
for males and 3.9 per 100,000 driver
population for females.
Figure 3.10 presents hospitalization rates

for drivers and passengers combined for
20072011 in BC by sex and age. It shows that
male drivers and passengers have the highest
serious injury rate per 100,000 population
for most age groups. This difference becomes
less pronounced among the higher age
groups. Similar to fatality rates for drivers
and passengers, the hospitalization rate per
100,000 population among male vehicle
occupants is highest among those age 16-25
and 76 and up, whereas the hospitalization
for females is highest among those age 66
and up, followed by those age 16-25.
Vehicle passengers have the second highest

fatality rate among road user groups,
as shown earlier in Figures 3.1 and 3.3.
Figure3.9 shows passenger fatality rates by
age group and sex for 2009-2013. Similar to
the findings for driver fatality rates, the two
age groups with the highest passenger fatality
rates were those age 16-25 and those age
76and up. However, unlike the findings for
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Passenger Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,

3.9
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.6
3.4
1.3
1.2
0.8
0.8
1.0
2.0
Female
1.0
2.0
1.2
1.6
1.2
1.1
1.2
3.5
Age Group
Notes: "Passenger" includes passengers of cars, trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and excludes motorcycle
occupants. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. There were six cases where age group was missing, and these cases
are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
48
Figure
Motor Vehicle Driver and Passenger Hospitalization

Rate per 100,000 Population, by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2007-2011
3.10
(with 95% CI)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
7.3
78.7
59.7
49.5
47.0
41.2
46.3
84.1
Female
8.4
54.1
35.8
29.9
31.1
37.4
56.1
90.7
Age Group
Notes: "Motor vehicle occupant" includes drivers and passengers of cars, trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and
excludes motorcycle occupants. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. See Appendix B for more information about
these data sources.
Worldwide, young drivers are

disproportionately involved in MVCs and
MVC-related fatalities. The Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and
Development reports that the MVC-related
fatality rate for drivers age 18-24 was
consistently more than double the fatality
rate of drivers over 25 years-old between
1980 and 2004.9 Research indicates that
young age alone is not a risk factor for
MVCs and MVC-related fatalities; instead,
lack of driving experience is a risk factor,
which can be exacerbated by variables such
as a young age, sex, and gender.9,10,11,12 (See
sidebar: The Interaction of Driver Experience,
Age, and Gender.) A younger age can be an
exacerbating factor because it is associated
with immaturity, status-seeking behaviour,
greater propensity for risk-taking (e.g.,not
wearing a seat belt), susceptibility to
impact of peers as passengers, and increased
likelihood of driving while impaired.9,12,13
The Interaction of Driver Experience, Age, and

Gender
In their 2006 report on young drivers, the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development and the European
Conference of Ministers of Transport highlighted the
connection between driver experience, age, and gender:
Young men drive more than young women, and have more
fatal crashes per kilometre driven. Furthermore, research has
revealed that they are generally more inclined toward risk-taking,
sensation-seeking, speeding and anti-social behaviour than their
female counterparts. They are also more likely to over-estimate
their driving abilities and [are] more susceptible to the influence
of their friends.
It is precisely the interaction of experience and age-related
factors, exacerbated by gender differences, that makes young
drivers risk situation unique, although experience has a greater
overall impact on risk reduction than age. While men have
more crashes than women at any age, the impact of gender is
particularly strong among the young and exacerbates the negative
effects of both age and inexperience.9
49
As shown in Figure 3.11, a

disproportionate burden of MVC fatalities
is seen among youth. For 2009-2013,
youth age 1625 made up only 13.3
per cent of the provincial population
but accounted for 18.6percent of
MVC fatalities. Examining Traffic
Accident System data from the Insurance
Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC)
further reveals that on average for
20082012, the top reported contributing
factors for MVC fatalities in BC among
young drivers age 16 to 25 were speed
(79.4 per cent), alcohol (55.9per cent),
and distraction (34.6percent).14
As with younger drivers, older
drivers (those age 76 and up) are also
overrepresented among MVC fatalities,
at 12.6 per cent in comparison to their
6.4 per cent of the population (see Figure
3.11). A report from the Traffic Injury
Research Foundation (TIRF) suggests
that older drivers have an elevated risk
of dying due to frailty, which increases
sharply after age 80.15 The BC Road
Figure
3.11
Proportion of BC Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

by Age Group, BC, 2009-2013
Population
66-75
7.9%
76+
6.4%
56 - 65
13.0%
46-55
15.6%
MVC Fatalities
76+
12.6%
0-15
16.4%
16-25
13.3%
26-35
13.5%
36-45
13.9%
66-75
8.1%
0-15
3.6%
16-25
18.6%
56-65
12.5%
26-35
14.2%
46-55
16.9%
36-45
13.5%
Notes: "Fatalities" include deaths resulting from motor vehicle crashes involving all types of vehicles, including motorcycles. There were 16 cases where
age group was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
50
Safety Strategy: 2015 and Beyond notes

that the provinces aging population is
a factor in road safety policy, given that
people age 60 and up are the fastest-growing
group of licensed drivers in BC.16 Canadas
Road Safety Strategy 2015 considers older
drivers and age-related impairment within
the category of medically at-risk drivers,
including driver performance, related to
the aging process, deemed to be outside the
boundaries of normal driving behaviour
(e.g., compromised cognitive function or
decision-making, vision-related problems,
limited physical motor functions) that may
result in MVCs.17As such, older drivers will
be discussed in Chapter 5 with medically
at-risk drivers.
many other types of drivers and vehicles that

make up and support commercial industry.
MVCS AMONG COMMERCIAL

VEHICLES
Commercial drivers are those who drive as

part of their core business activity18 (e.g.,bus
drivers, taxi drivers, couriers, emergency
vehicle drivers, drivers of heavy commercial
vehicles).20 They are often at heightened risk
for MVCs due to spending many more hours
driving than the average driver, but they
are also subject to higher levels of training,
testing, and regulatory standards than other
drivers, such as medical examinations and
driver fitness standards.21,22,23 Occupational
drivers are those who are required to drive for
work-related purposes, but driving is not their
principal occupation. They are not necessarily
professional drivers, and they have generally
not received related specialized training or
testing (e.g., community health professionals;
real estate agents; workers in retail, wholesale,
service industries).18
Hundreds of thousands of cars, vans,

trucks, buses, and other types of vehicles
are used for work-related purposes in
BC.18 Trucking represents 15.7 per cent
of the commercial transportation industry
in BC, and there are more than 60,000
professional drivers in the provinces
trucking industry.19 However, there are
In 2007 in BC, there were 2,204 reported

injury and fatal collisions involving light
and medium commercial vehicles (in this
case defined as vehicles under 10,900 kg).
Of these, 2,124 resulted in injuries and 80
resulted in fatalities. The same year there were
1,098 MVCs involving heavy commercial
vehicles (in this case defined as vehicles with
51
a gross vehicle weight of 10,900kg or

heavier). Of these, 1,042 resulted in injuries
(1,411 injuries) and 56 resulted in fatalities
(65 fatalities). The top two reported human
contributing factors for MVCs involving
light and medium commercial vehicles,
and heavy commercial vehicles were driver
inattention (22.3 per cent and 18.3 per
cent of MVCs, respectively) and speed
(13.7 per cent and 12.8 per cent of MVCs,
respectively).24
Figure3.12 shows that the rate of MVCs

per 100,000 licensed heavy commercial
vehicles (in this case defined as vehicles with
a gross vehicle weight of 11,795 kg or more)
have declined more than 15.7 percent
overall across the 11 years presented. There
were 21,900 crashes per 100,000 licensed
heavy commercial vehicles in 2003, and
18,460 crashes per 100,000 licensed heavy
commercial vehicles in 2013. The decrease
seen from 2007 to 2010 may be related to a
number of federal and provincial initiatives
to improve safety in this industry (see
discussion later in this chapter). However,
the crash rate was still high in 2013 at
almost one crash per five heavy commercial
vehicles.
Of all MVC fatalities that occurred

in BC for 2009-2013, 19.3 per cent
involved heavy vehicles, in this case
defined as vehicles over 10,900 kg and
including construction vehicles and buses.14
Figure
Heavy Commercial Vehicle Crash Rate per 100,000 Licenced

Heavy Commercial Vehicles, BC, 2003 to 2013
3.12
Crash Rate per 100,000 Licenced
Heavy Commercial Vehicles
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
Crash Rate
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
21,900
21,900
22,340
22,560
22,750
21,610
19,670
18,130
18,720
18,660
18,460
Year
Notes: "Heavy commercial vehicles" for this figure include commercial vehicles greater than or equal to 11,795 kg. Rates are calculated using the total
number of licenced vehicles, based on Insurance Corporation of British Columbia records as a proxy denominator.
Source: Adapted from British Columbia Trucking Association. 2015. Collisions Involving Heavy Commercial Vehicles.25 Prepared by BC Injury Research and
Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
52
As shown in Figure 3.13, fatalities from

MVCs that involved a commercial
vehicle had some year-to-year variation
between 1996 to 2013 but decreased
overall in both number and rate per
100,000 population. These decreases are
3.13
Fatalities from Motor Vehicle Crashes Involving a Commercial Vehicle,

3.0
500
450
2.5
400
350
2.0
300
250
1.5
200
1.0
150
100
0.5
50
0
Number of MVC Fatalities
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
469
429
429
409
396
394
457
448
440
452
402
411
354
363
364
292
280
269
Number of Fatalities Involving a

Commercial Vehicle
69
85
72
92
85
68
100
83
88
86
79
72
63
73
59
71
67
50
Commercial Vehicle
MVC Fatality Rate
1.8
2.2
1.8
2.3
2.1
1.7
2.4
2.0
2.1
2.0
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.7
1.3
1.6
1.5
1.1
Commercial Vehicle-related Proportion

of Fatalities
14.7
19.8
16.8
22.5
21.5
17.3
21.9
18.5
20.0
19.0
19.7
17.5
17.8
20.1
16.2
24.3
23.9
18.6
Figure
slightly lower than, but are reflective of, the

larger reduction in the number of MVC
fatalities in BC during these years. In 2013,
the 50commercial vehicle-related fatalities
accounted for 18.6 per cent of the 269 total
MVC fatalities that year.
0.0
Year
Notes: "Commerical vehicle" includes heavy vehicles, such as trucks, trailers, tractors, buses, and construction vehicles. See Appendix B for more
information about these data sources.
1996-2013; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and
Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
53
Figure 3.14 shows that among fatal MVCs

that involved a commercial vehicle for
2009-2013, the majority of the fatalities
were experienced by vehicle drivers
(54.7percent), followed by vehicle
passengers (21.9 per cent) and pedestrians
(13.8 per cent).
Figure 3.15 shows the rate of fatalities
from MVCs in BC that involved one or
more commercial vehicles for 20092013,
presented by age group and sex. It
demonstrates that males had higher rates of
related fatalities in all age categories except
0-15. Fatalities among females ranged from
0.6 to 1.6 fatalities per 100,000 population
and males ranged from 1.7 to 3.0 per
100,000.
According to a 2009 TIRF report on best
practices for truck safety, compared to
other regions in Canada, fatal MVCs in BC
involving heavy commercial vehicles (in this
case 4,536 kg or heavier) were more likely
to involve speeding, drivers over the age
Figure
3.14
of 41 years, single-vehicle collisions, runoff-the-road collisions, head-on collisions,

curved and graded roads, winter driving
conditions, poor road conditions, and poor
weather conditions. In addition, heavy
truck injury MVCs in BC were more likely
to involve speeding, driver inexperience
and inattention, single-vehicle collisions,
runoff-the-road collisions, head-on
collisions, poor road conditions, and
curved graded roads.26 The Police Traffic
Accident System identified falling asleep as
a contributing factor in police reports for
only 3 per cent of MVCs involving heavy
commercial vehicles in BC from 2009 to
2013;14 however, this is likely an underreporting of falling asleep incidents due to
a reluctance to self-report (see Appendix B).
Transport Canada cites fatigue as a factor in
as many as 30 per cent of fatal heavy vehicle
collisions in Canada.27 Some commercial
drivers acknowledge that financial and/or
other work-related pressures can lead them
to drive when it is no longer safe to do so
(e.g.,when fatigued).7
Proportion of Fatalities Involving a Commercial Vehicle,

Passenger Vehicle
Passenger
Passenger Vehicle
Driver
21.9%
54.7%
5.6%
3.8%
Motorcycle Occupant
13.8%
Cyclist
Other
0.3%
Pedestrian
Notes: "Commerical vehicle" includes heavy vehicles, such as trucks, trailers, tractors, buses, and construction vehicles. "Passenger vehicle" includes cars,
trucks, sport-utility vehicles, commercial vehicles and heavy trucks, and excludes motorcycles. "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers.
See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
54
Motor Vehicle Crashes Involving a Commercial Vehicle,

Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,
Figure
3.15
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.3
2.0
2.4
1.7
3.0
2.2
1.7
2.5
Female
0.5
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.6
Age Group
Notes: "Commercial vehicle" includes heavy vehicles, such as trucks, trailers, tractors, buses, and construction vehicles. Rates are calculated using age- and
sex-specific population numbers. There were seven cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See
2009-2013; population data are from BC Vital Statistics, 2009-2013. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health
For commercial and occupational drivers,

MVCs that occur during working hours are
defined as workplace injuries. Further, if
someone is struck by a vehicle (as a vehicle
occupant, pedestrian, or other road user
type) while working, it is also considered
a workplace injury. MVCs are the leading
cause of traumatic workplace injuries and
fatalities in the province.29 For 2009-2013,
an average of 1,316 MVC-related insurance
claims were made to WorkSafe BC, the
provincial workers compensation system,
each year.m,29 WorkSafe BC incurs costs for
workers who are injured or killed on the
job. In 2009-2013 in BC, MVCs cost the
workers compensation system an average
of $56.6 million per year (totalling $283
million over these five years).29
Freight companies are in business to haul maximum

loads in minimum time. But to do so, North American
carriers are mandated to abide by a series of policies,
legalities, licences, certificates, permits, and other official
documents that allow them to move goods across state,
provincial, and country borders. They need to find the
competitive edge within this jungle of official demands
and expectations.To succeed in the highly competitive
enterprise of transportation, drivers and/or freight
executives may cut corners to reduce trip time, save
storage costs, decrease operating costs, or increase the size
of loads.
J.P. Rothe, Driven to Kill:Vehicles as Weapons 28(p.62)
WorkSafe BCs MVC-related claims data do not reflect every worker-involved MVC in BC, as some workers are involved in MVCs
with third-party liability, or choose to report the incident to ICBC rather than to WorkSafe BC.
55
MEASURES TO PROMOTE DRIVER

AND PASSENGER SAFETY
A Safe System Approach (SSA) emphasizes
the need to improve all aspects of the road
system to promote safety for all road users,
including vehicle occupants (drivers and
passengers). This section provides a limited
discussion about measures that promote
driver and passenger safety, including
restraint use, licensing, commercial
driver training, and increasing public
transportation. Safety measures related to
driver conditions are addressed in Chapter5.
Roadway and vehicle improvements are
discussed in Chapters 7 and 8, respectively.
Increase Restraint Use

In Canada, federal laws require that all new
vehicles in Canada have restraints installed.30
Provincial laws regulate the use of seat belts
and child restraints,4 and seat belt use has
been mandatory in BC since 1977.31 In
BC, both drivers and passengers may be
ticketed for not wearing seat belts, and it is
the drivers responsibility to ensure that all
passengers under age 16 are appropriately
restrained (individuals 16 and up are
responsible for ensuring their own seat belts
56
are on).31 The use of approved restraints for

child passengers 18 kg and under has been
legislated since March 1985,24 and specific
restraint requirements for children under
age9 have been required since 2007.32 BC
law sets out stages of appropriate restraint
use for child vehicle occupants, including
rear- and forward-facing infant seats, and
booster seats, based on a childs size, weight,
and age (for more information see the ICBC
website at www.ICBC.com).33,34 The RCMP
identifies non-use of seat belts as one of their
top five road safety concerns.35
The proper use of restraintsseat belts and
child restraint systemsby vehicle drivers
and passengers has been shown to reduce the
risk of MVC-related injuries and fatalities27,31
by 40 to 50 per cent or more36,37 and save
an estimated 1,000 lives in Canada each
year.4 Seat belt use is associated with reduced
risk and severity of MVC-related injuries,
particularly when used in conjunction with
vehicle air bags.38,39 Child car seats have
repeatedly been found to significantly reduce
the risk of serious injury or fatality among
child passengers involved in MVCs. Studies
have found reductions that varied from
20 to more than 80 per cent, depending
on the type of restraint, front or back seat
position, correct use, and the age of the
child population considered.40 However,

many people are still not using restraints.
According to RoadSafetyBC, among MVC
vehicle occupant fatalities in BC from
2008 to 2012, about one-in-five victims
(20.5percent) were not using a restraint at
the time of the crash.41
According to a Transport Canada
observational seat belt study conducted in
2009, women were more likely than men to
wear seat belts, and seat belt use increased
with age.42 This study also found that rates
of seat belt use in Canada were higher
among those in the front seats of a vehicle
than among passengers in the rear seats, and
were slightly higher among occupants of
passenger cars (94.8 per cent) and minivans
and sport-utility vehicles (95.4 per cent)
compared to pickup trucks (92.0 per cent).42
One US study found that child passengers
were more likely to be properly restrained in
vehicles where drivers wore their seat belts.43
Even when children are old enough to
secure their own restraints, a drivers attitude
toward safety have a significant influence on
childrens attitudes and behaviours.43
Whether restraints were used during an
MVC has also been found to impact the
length of hospital stay for injured victims.
Table 3.1 shows that among all MVCrelated patients hospitalized in BC in
Table
3.1
2001-2008, the average hospital stay was one

day longer for vehicle occupants who had
been unrestrained than for those who had
used a seat belt. When this is examined by
geography to compare crashes in rural and
urban settings, no difference in hospital stay
was reported in urban settings, but among
patients in rural communities the average
hospital stay was three days longer for those
who did not wear a seat belt compared to
those who were restrained during the MVC.
This may be related to higher speeds in rural
areas and an associated greater severity of
injuries sustained from MVCs involving
higher speeds. While length of hospital
stay is not necessarily an accurate measure
of injury severity, it can provide a relative
understanding of the potential harms and
costs associated with injuries sustained when
a person is unrestrained during an MVC.
Analysis regarding seat belt use in rural
areas compared to urban areas showed that
location makes a difference on whether
individuals wear a seat belt. According to
one study, BC had a relatively high rate
of seat belt use overall in 2009-2010, at
96.9percenthigher than the Canadian
national average rate of 95.3 per cent.42
However, when this pattern of seat belt
use/non-use was examined further, the
study showed that while BC had the second
highest rate of seat belt use in urban centres
Motor Vehicle Crash Patient Count, Proportion and Mean Hospital Stay,
by Restraint Use and Urban or Rural Location, BC, 2001-2008
URBAN
RESTRAINT USE
RURAL
ALL
Patient Count Mean Hospital Patient Count Mean Hospital Patient Count Mean Hospital
(per cent)
Stay (days)
(per cent)
Stay (days)
(per cent)
Stay (days)
Restrained
1,641
(74%)
14.2
535
(61%)
13.4
2,176
(70%)
14.0
Unrestrained
583
(26%)
14.2
337
(39%)
16.6
920
(30%)
15.2
Note: Total number of patients=3,096.

Source: Bell N, BC Trauma Registry. Personal Communication; 2010 Apr.
57
(97.3 per cent), the province ranked only

fifth highest in rural areas (91.6 per cent
slightly lower than the overall Canadian
rate of 92.0 per cent).42 Figure 3.16
depicts these results showing the disparity
between rural and urban areas. Lower
seat belt use in rural areas may be due, at
least in part, to the perception that there
are generally lower levels of enforcement
in rural areas, and thus less risk of being
caught,44 or possibly a perception that
there are fewer vehicles on rural roads and
so crashes are less likely.
Figure
Evaluations of a number of restraint

promotion and enforcement programs suggest
that effective strategies for encouraging restraint
use include the use of seat belt checkpoints,
ticketing and associated penalties for seat
belt violations (e.g., fines, penalty points),
and high-visibility campaigns to increase the
perception that violators will be caught.45,46,47
To address the issue of lower occupant
restraint use in northern BC, stakeholder
groups implemented the North Central Seat
Belt Initiative in 2003 (see sidebar: The North
Central Seat Belt Initiative).44
Rural and Urban Seat Belt Non-use,

BC and Canada, 2009-2010
3.16
10
9
Percentage of Non-use
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Rural
BC
Canada
8.4
8.0
Urban
2.7
Overall
3.1
4.2
4.7
Region
Source: Transport Canada. 2011. Rural and Urban Surveys of Seat Belt Use in Canada 2009-2010.42 Prepared by Population Health Surveillance,
The North Central Seat Belt Initiative

The North Central Seat Belt Initiative (NCSBI) was a community-based initiative that began in 2003 to
promote road safety in north-central BC, and involved local and regional road safety stakeholders, including
the RCMP and the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia. The NCSBI raised awareness of the
importance of restraint use, increased enforcement, conducted annual regional seat belt use surveys, and
helped foster a competitive spirit among local communities. An evaluation of the NCSBI found that between
2003 and 2007 the program was associated with annual reductions of 3 per cent in the frequency of instances
of motor vehicle crash injuries sustained without restraint use in north-central BC.44
58
Support Expanded Drivers

Licence Programs
Another measure to promote the safety of
all road users is rooted in drivers licences,
including the training and processes by
which drivers earn and maintain their
licences. The process to obtain a drivers
licence varies by jurisdiction, and in many
countries with high levels of road safety,
graduated licensing programs (GLPs) are
used to ensure that drivers learn to operate
a vehicle safely. Research suggests that GLPs
introduced in jurisdictions within Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, and the United
States have contributed to reducing MVC
rates among young, and new, drivers.48,49,50
Effective GLPs contain multiple elements
that function together as a system.51
These include extending the period of
time for learning to operate the vehicle;
exposing new drivers to lower risk
situations, including limiting the number
of peer passengers; rewarding good driving
behaviour; responding to violations with
more severe penalties; and encouraging
practice and progressive development of
skills to improve driver proficiency.52,53 Most
GLPs have three phasesa learner phase,
a novice phase, and the final full privilege
licence. The components and restrictions
contained in GLPs during these stages vary
by jurisdiction. The following initiatives
have been shown to reduce MVCs: setting a
sufficiently long minimum time for the first
(learner) phase; restricting nighttime driving;
limiting the number of passengers allowed in
the vehicle for learner and/or novice drivers;
and requiring a blood alcohol level of zero
for all drivers in the learner and novice
phases.51
BCs Graduated Licensing Program (BC
GLP) was introduced in 1998 and was
enhanced with further restrictions in 2003.
The program resembles those in other
jurisdictions, and its primary goal is to allow
drivers to gain experience under lower-risk

conditions54,55 by requiring all new drivers
to pass through a Learners (L) stage and a
Novice (N) stage before being eligible for
a full-privilege Class 5 drivers licence.55
The program includes an initial period of
driver supervision, as well as restrictions on
carrying passengers and driving at night,
and a lower blood alcohol content (BAC)
requirement than other drivers (they must
maintain a BAC of zeroor 0.0 milligrams
of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood).56,57,58
The L-stage lasts a minimum of 12 months
and requires a supervisor in the vehicle
at all times; the N-stage lasts for another
24months, which can be reduced to
18months with an ICBC-approved driver
training course.59,60,61
Adoption of the BC GLP has resulted in
a reduction in new driver involvement
in MVCs.56,62,63 After the program was
enhanced in October 2003, an ICBC study
estimated a 28 per cent reduction in MVCs
involving BC GLP drivers in the first three
years of the expanded program (2004 to
2006). These indicators of success included
31 fewer fatal MVCs and 4,137 fewer injury
MVCs involving learner or novice drivers
during those three years.63
Another initiative to promote road safety is
the assignment of penalty points to drivers
for certain driving offences. Drivers who
accumulate more than three points in a
12month period must pay additional driver
penalty point premiums that increase with
the number of penalty points.64 In addition
to these points, a driver identified as high
risk by the Superintendent of Motor Vehicles
(including drivers with a high number of
penalty points,n or a motor vehicle-related
Criminal Code conviction such as impaired
or dangerous driving) may be subject
to administrative interventions through
RoadSafetyBCs Driver Improvement
Program, ranging from a warning to a
driving prohibition, which prevents the
Typically nine or more penalty points within a two-year period, or two points for drivers in the BC GLP.
59
driver from legally driving.53,65 However,

some drivers will continue to drive without
a valid drivers licence. The BC Ministry of
Justice reports that this is a chronic problem
on BC roads,66 though there are currently
no statistics available to reflect the actual
number of people driving without a licence
in BC.
Enhance Road Safety among

Commercial Vehicle Drivers
Several organizations currently work to
foster road safety among commercial vehicle
drivers (the safety of commercial vehicles is
discussed in Chapter 8). Transport Canadas
Motor Carrier Division regulates extraprovincial carriers and commercial vehicle
drivers (truck and bus carriers who transport
goods or passengers across provincial or
international boundaries), and provincial and
territorial authorities regulate commercial
vehicle drivers within their jurisdictions.67
Transport Canada also develops safety fitness
certification requirements and sets hours
of service standards for federally-regulated
(extra-provincial) buses and trucks, in order
to promote commercial driver safety and
prevent MVCs caused by fatigued drivers.68
Government and other organizations across
BC have worked to promote safety among
commercial and occupational vehicle drivers
in the province.29,70,71 The 2005 TruckSafe

Strategy was a joint initiative involving
WorkSafe BC, ICBC, the BC Trucking
Association, the Ministry of Transportation
and Infrastructure, and the RCMP, which
aimed for practical and workable solutions
to eliminate or reduce serious injuries and
deaths resulting from MVCs involving
commercial trucks.18 Key TruckSafe Strategy
projects have included the implementation
of the Fraser Canyon Highway Safety
Corridor in 2006 (see sidebar) and the
establishment of the Trucking Safety Council
of BC in 2008.18 SafetyDriven is an industry
organization affiliated with the Trucking
Safety Council of BC. It represents the
occupational health and safety needs of those
in commercial and trucking industries, and
provides training, resources, and information
with the goal of eliminating workplace
fatalities and injuries in BCs trucking,
transportation, and related industries.18,72
A 2009 TIRF report outlines several best
practices for improving truck driver safety
in BC. A sampling of the recommendations
included the following: to review commercial
vehicle driver licensing standards, conduct
in-person driver recruitment and selection,
implement professional competence
certification for truck drivers, and implement
a recognition and incentive program for safe
driving, among others.26
The Fraser Canyon Highway Safety Corridor

The 192-kilometre Fraser Canyon Highway Safety Corridor was the first
designated highway safety corridor in Canada. The location was chosen due
to its comparatively high volume of commercial vehicles, and the challenges
presented by the roads design and severe weather conditions. Safety measures
introduced in 2006 in the corridor include road improvements (e.g.,shoulder
rumble strips); increased RCMP enforcement focusing on speeding and
aggressive driving; and increased vehicle safety checks.18 The programs initial
success was followed by some rebound in MVC fatalities, but overall the
program remains a model for other truck safety corridors.69
60
Also in 2009, WorkSafe BC partnered with

the BC Automobile Association Traffic Safety
Foundation to form Road Safety at Worko
(RSAW), with a mandate to address key road
safety issues affecting BC workplaces. RSAW
is now managed by the Justice Institute of
BC and comprises three programs:
Fleet Safety aimed at improving the
road safety performance of BCs more
than 215,000 employers.
Care Around Roadside Workers focused
on improving the safety of all roadside
workers in BC, such as flag persons,
road construction workers, emergency
responders, and telecommunication and
utility workers.
Winter Driving Safety focused on
reducing the number and severity
of MVCs during winter months by
encouraging all drivers to adapt their
driving behaviour to accommodate winter
hazards (e.g., snow, ice).73
Overall, the industry involvement in
initiatives to improve safety among
commercial vehicle drivers is promising,
and achievements have been observed, such
as the declining rate of heavy commercial
vehicle crashes shown earlier in Figure3.12.
See Chapters 5 and 8 for additional
discussions of commercial vehicles.
Increase Public Transportation

Globally, it is recognized that safe public
transportation systems, particularly in urban
areas, can increase overall road safety.74
The World Health Organization (WHO)
suggests that governments can increase
road safety by ensuring safe, accessible,
and affordable public transportation.74 In
addition to reducing traffic volume, public
transit offers a method of travel that is very
safe for its passengers and can increase health
through active transportation. The WHO
reports that in high-income countries,
public transit is much safer than private

means of transportation,74 specifically
public transportation by bus or by train.75
Data from the US show that bus occupants
have a fatality rate of 0.4 per 100 million
person-trips compared to 9.2 for other
vehicle occupants.76 Data from the European
Union for 2001-2002 showed that rail
transport had 0.035 deaths per 100 million
passenger-kilometres and bus transport
had 0.07; personal car transportation was
an order of magnitude higher at 0.7 deaths
per 100 million passenger-kilometres.75
Additionally, research has shown that as
public transportation ridership in urban
areas increases, MVC fatalities per 100,000
population decreases.77
Road Safety at Work was formerly known as the Occupational Road Safety Partnership.
61
The WHO has also identified ways to increase

the use of public transportation, such as
providing a well-functioning, convenient, and
comfortable mass transit system; coordinating
modes of transport such as cycling, driving,
and walking with public transportation
systems (e.g., providing secure bicycle shelters;
allowing bicycles on board buses, trains, and
ferries; creating park-and-ride facilities).78 The
WHO highlights the importance of giving
roadway priority to high-occupancy vehicles,
such as city buses, in order to reduce overall
distance travelled per capita and thus reduce
risk of MVCs.75 Strategies that deter people
from driving personal vehicles, such as
distance-based insurance, can also be used to
encourage public transit use.79
Increasing public transit is consistent with

the BC Road Safety Strategy: 2015 and
Beyond, which recognizes the importance of
public transportation in reducing private car
use and thus MVCs, as well as in supporting
healthy physical activity and reducing our
impact on the environment.16 (See Chapter 7
for further discussion of public transit.)
SUMMARY
As discussed in this chapter, vehicle
occupants (drivers and passengers) make
up the majority of motor vehicle crash
(MVC) fatalities and hospitalizations,
although these rates have been decreasing
in recent years. Male drivers have higher
MVC fatality rates than female drivers at
every age, while females are more likely
than males to die as passengers at most
ages. Overall, youth age 16-25 and older
adults age 76 and up are disproportionately
represented among MVC occupant fatality
victims. Over the last 18 years, there has
been a slight decrease in the rate of MVC
fatalities that involve a commercial vehicle;
however, in 2013 nearly one in five MVC
fatalities still involved a heavy commercial
vehicle. Measures to promote driver and
passenger safety discussed in this chapter
included increasing the use of restraints,
supporting expanded drivers licence
programs, increasing initiatives to prevent
commercial vehicle MVCs, and increasing
opportunities for public transportation.
The next chapter will investigate motor
vehicle crashes that involve vulnerable road
users in BC.
62
Chapter 4: Vulnerable Road Users
Chapter 4
Vulnerable Road Users

INTRODUCTION
As described in Chapter 3, motorcyclists,p
cyclists,q and pedestrians are all considered
vulnerable road users because they do
not have the protection of an enclosed
vehicle.1,2,3 This puts them at greater risk
of serious injury and death from a motor
vehicle crash (MVC) compared to road users
inside vehicles. This chapter will examine
the burden and distribution of fatalities and
serious injuries among these vulnerable road
user groups in greater detail.
When motor vehicles were invented and
introduced onto roadways, a cultural shift
toward a motor vehicle-centred roadway
began that continues today.5 As a result,
non-motorized travellers such as pedestrians

and cyclists have experienced a change
in their use of roadways and therefore, a
change in their safety on the road. Injury
rates of vulnerable road users in MVCs
have been studied in northern Europe
and North America.6,7,8 These studies all
showed vulnerable road users had higher
injury rates (per trip or vehicle mile) than
motor vehicle occupants; in fact, rates for
motorcyclists were 10 to 25 times higher,
pedestrians 1.5to7times higher, and cyclists
2 to 9 times higher.6,7,8 In the new vision of
road safety, in which fatalities and serious
injuries are considered preventable and in
which a Safe System Approach (SSA) is used,
vulnerable road users are given priority and
roadways and vehicles are designed with these
road users in mind.
No longer is it acceptable to assume pedestrian injury is inevitable when motor vehicles share the
road system with vulnerable road users. In the modern era of road safety, jurisdictions can assume
a safe system approach and include pedestrians and other vulnerable road users as an essential
component of the system and one that is given top priority.
Canadian Council of Motor Transport Administrators, Countermeasures to Improve Pedestrian Safety
in Canada 4(p.5)
Some definitions of vulnerable road user exclude motorcyclists. They are included in this category in this report because they
lack the protection or enclosure of a vehicle, and because their smaller size reduces their visibility to other motor vehicle drivers.
q
In this report cyclist refers to a person riding a bicycle, as well as riders or passengers of other pedal-powered vehicles,
including childrens or adult tricycles, tandem bicycles, and other configurations of pedal cycles.
p
63
Together, vulnerable road users make

up a substantial proportion of MVC
fatalities and serious injuries; however,
this is not a homogeneous group, as
each type of vulnerable road user uses
roadways differently, follows different
laws, and has its own road safety
challenges. Since there are currently
no accurate measures of the numbers
of pedestrians, cyclists, and to some
extent motorcyclists, on the road it is
not possible to determine an accurate
denominator for each road user group;
as such, rates in this section are based
on the BC population. This results in
lower rates per 100,000 population for
some road user types than if a road user
group denominator were available, and
may also result in small fluctuations
in fatality or serious injury counts
appearing as large changes in rates
over time. For further discussion, see
Chapter1 and Appendix B.
Figure
4.1
FATALITIES AND SERIOUS

INJURIES AMONG VULNERABLE
ROAD USERS
Figure 4.1 shows vulnerable road user fatalities
in BC from 2009 to 2013. During this time,
the number of vulnerable road user MVC
fatalities declined from 115 to 94; however,
because there was a sharper decrease in
fatalities for other road users during this
time, the proportion of vulnerable road
user deaths increased from 31.7 per cent in
2009 to 34.9percent in 2013.9 The highest
proportion of fatalities among vulnerable road
users were pedestrians for all years depicted,
generally growing in proportion over the
years with a slight dip in 2010. Motorcyclists
were the next highest proportion, followed by
cyclists.
Proportion of Total Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

by Vulnerable Road User Type, BC, 2009 to 2013
Percentage of MVC Fatalities
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
12.9
9.9
13.0
8.6
10.8
2.8
1.6
2.4
3.9
4.8
Pedestrian
16.0
15.9
19.5
23.2
19.3
Total Percentage among MVC Fatalities
31.7
27.5
34.9
35.7
34.9
Number of Vulnerable Road User Fatalities
115
100
102
100
94
Motorcycle Occupant
Cyclist
Year
Notes: "Vulnerable road users" are those who use the road without the protection of an enclosed vehicle. "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle
drivers and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
64
Figure 4.2 shows the proportion of total

MVC serious injuries among vulnerable
road users for 2007 to 2011. In 2007,
a total of 1,473 vulnerable road users
experienced serious injuries, representing
38.7 per cent of MVC serious injuries. By
2013 this number had decreased to 1,388
but the proportion of MVC hospitalizations
Figure
4.2
had increased to 45.7 per cent. Therefore,

similarly to fatalities, while the overall rate
of serious injuries from MVCs is decreasing
in BC, an increasing percentage of those
injuries are among vulnerable road users.
Motorcyclists had the highest burden
of MVC hospitalizations, followed by
pedestrians and then cyclists.
Proportion of Total Motor Vehicle Crash Hospitalizations,

by Vulnerable Road User Type, BC, 2007 to 2011
Percentage of MVC Hospitalizations
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Motorcycle Occupant
Cyclist
Pedestrian
Total Percentage among MVC Hospitalizations
Number of Vulnerable Road User Hospitalizations
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
18.0
20.2
21.3
22.3
21.7
5.6
5.7
6.1
6.9
7.8
15.2
14.9
14.0
14.9
16.2
38.7
40.8
41.4
44.1
45.7
1,473
1,498
1,435
1,460
1,388
Year
Notes: "Vulnerable road users" are those who use the road without the protection of an enclosed vehicle. "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle drivers
and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Discharge Abstract Database, Ministry of Health, 2007-2011. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health
65
Figure
Proportion of Population and Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

by Vulnerable Road User Type and Health Authority, BC, 2009-2013
4.3
Northern
Pop
6.3%
12.1%
2.1%
5.9%
Interior
Pop
16.0% 35.1% 25.5% 21.0%
Pop Population
Motorcycle
Cyclist
Pedestrian
Fraser
Vancouver Coastal
Island
Pop
Pop
Pop
24.7% 11.5% 10.6% 23.8%
16.6% 19.5% 25.5% 16.6%
Health Authority
Northern
Interior
Vancouver Coastal
Island
Fraser
BC Total
Population
282,826
721,190
1,110,349
748,797
1,637,014
4,500,175
Percentage of
BC Population
6.3%
16.0%
24.7%
16.6%
36.4%
Number of
Motorcyclist
Fatalities
21
61
20
34
38
174
Percentage of
Motorcyclist
Fatalities
12.1%
35.1%
11.5%
19.5%
21.8%
Number of
36.4% 21.8% 36.2% 32.8%
Percentage of
Cyclist Fatalities Cyclist Fatalities

1
2.1%
12
25.5%
5
10.6%
12
25.5%
17
36.2%
47
Number of
Pedestrian
Fatalities
17
61
69
48
95
290
Percentage of
Pedestrian
Fatalities
5.9%
21.0%
23.8%
16.6%
32.8%
Notes: Regional information presented is based on crash location. "Population" is the average population for 2009-2013. Population percentage is calculated based on the population of the health authority area. There were cases in
which health authority was unspecified, and these cases are excluded from this figure. "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia 2009-2013; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by
BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2015; and the Office of the Provincial Health Officer, 2015.
66
Number of
Pedestrian
Fatalities
61
95
69
48
17
290
Figure 4.3 shows the distribution of

motorcycle occupant, cyclist, and
pedestrian MVC fatalities that occurred in
the regional health authorities compared to
their proportion of the BC population for
20092013. Motorcycle occupant fatalities
were disproportionately high in Interior
and Northern Health, and comparably low
in Vancouver Coastal and Fraser Health.
Cyclist fatalities were disproportionately
high in Island and Interior Health, and
comparably low in Northern and Vancouver
Coastal Health. Among all the vulnerable
road user groups shown in Figure 4.3,
pedestrians were the closest to having a
proportionate distribution of fatalities to
population throughout the province.
One study in BC found that cyclists and
pedestrians had higher injury and fatality
rates than motor vehicle occupants when
compared using crude rate estimates for
the number of trips made (measured in
100million person-trips) or distance
travelled (measured in 100 million
kilometres). Specifically, from 2005 to 2007
cyclists had 1,398 injuries per 100 million
person-trips (compared to 713 for vehicle
occupants) and 264 injuries per 100million
kilometres travelled (compared to 72for
vehicle occupants). Cyclists also had
13.8fatalities per 100 million person-trips
(compared to 9.6 for vehicle occupants)
and 2.6 fatalities per 100 million
kilometres (compared to 1.0 for vehicle
occupants). Pedestrians had 392 injuries
and 14.7fatalities per 100 million persontrips and 196 injuries and 7.4 fatalities per
100million kilometres travelled.8
Measures to Promote Vulnerable

Road User Safety
There are many ways to increase the safety
of vulnerable road users. Infrastructure can
be adapted to suit the needs of all road users,
rather than focusing on vehicles. Many
jurisdictions (e.g., New York City10) have
made substantial changes to infrastructure,
and have considerably reduced MVC injuries
and fatalities (see Chapter 7). Another key
way to increase the safety of all vulnerable
road users is to shift the burden of legal

responsibility away from them and onto
vehicle drivers. Other jurisdictions have
incorporated this idea into their policies and
legislation, shifting laws to favour vulnerable
road users. For example, European countries
such as the Netherlands have implemented
strict liability laws, which put the liability for
cyclist injuries resulting from an MVC onto
the involved vehicle driver by default,11 and
Indian law has put liability on the vehicle
owner and required insurance to compensate
the victim of an MVC or their heirs regardless
of fault.12 Another example is in Ontario,
where the recently passed Making Ontarios
Roads Safer Act (effective September 1,2015)
includes increased fines for dooring cyclists
and a requirement that vehicle drivers
maintain a distance of at least one metre when
passing cyclists on highways.13
The remainder of this chapter will explore
challenges and opportunities to prevent
injury and death for motorcyclists, cyclists,
and pedestrians.
MOTORCYCLISTS
Fatalities and Serious Injuries
among Motorcyclists
According to the Insurance Corporation
of British Columbia (ICBC), motorcycles
represent approximately 3 per cent of
insured vehicles in BC, yet are involved
in about 11 per cent of MVC fatalities.14
Motorcyclists lack the protection and
safety features of an enclosed vehicle but
are travelling at high speeds with other
vehicles, a dangerous combination that can
create an increased risk of serious injury
and death. ICBC reports that in 2013 there
were 2,200 MVCs that involved at least one
motorcycle in BC. These MVCs resulted in
approximately 1,500 injured victims and
29 fatalities.15 Research in the United States
has found that per vehicle mile travelled,
motorcyclists have a 34-fold higher risk of
death in an MVC than people driving other
types of vehicles.16 Another US study found
that while 20 per cent of passenger vehicle
67
MVCs result in injury or death, 80 per cent

of motorcyclist MVCs did so.17
numbers and rates rose, plateaued, and

dropped over the time period shown, the
2002 and 2011 rates were very similar, at
15.0per100,000 population in 2002
and 14.6 per 100,000 in 2011.
Figure 4.4 shows the number and rate

per 100,000 population of motorcycle
fatalities in BC from 1996 to 2013. Both
the number and rate slowly climbed
between 1996 and 2005 followed by a
variable plateau period until 2009, and a
subsequent decline through 2012.
Similar to the findings presented in

Chapter2 of this report, the BC Ministry of
Justice reports that the fatality rate between
1996 and 2010 for motorcycle drivers under
age25 is about 15 times higher than the
fatality rate for those over age 25.3
Figure 4.5 shows the number and

rate per 100,000 population of MVC
hospitalizations of motorcycle occupants
from 2002 to 2011. While both the
Figure
Figure 4.6 shows the rates of motorcycle

occupant fatalities for 2009-2013, by sex
Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant Fatality

1.2
50
45
1.0
40
35
0.8
30
0.6
25
20
0.4
15
10
0.2
5
0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
23
22
25
25
29
28
32
33
44
47
40
48
39
47
36
38
24
29
Fatality Rate
0.59
0.56
0.63
0.62
0.72
0.69
0.78
0.80
1.06
1.12
0.94
1.12
0.90
1.07
0.81
0.84
0.53
0.63
0.0
Year
Notes: "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
68
4.4
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant Hospitalization

4.5
800
20
18
700
14
500
12
400
10
8
300
16
600
200
4
100
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
613
598
643
688
741
683
741
739
739
658
15.0
14.5
15.5
16.4
17.5
15.9
17.0
16.8
16.5
14.6
Year
Notes: "Motorcycle Occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
and age group. Male motorcycle occupants

were far more likely to experience an
MVC fatality than females. The burden
of MVC motorcycle occupant fatalities
was highest among males aged 16to65,
ranging between 1.65 and 2.06per 100,000

population, and a slightly lower occurrence for
males age 6675years of age at 1.26 fatalities
per 100,000. For females, the highest rate was
among those 46-55 years of age.
Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant

Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,
Figure
4.6
2.25
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.11
1.76
1.65
2.00
1.90
2.06
1.26
0.00
Female
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.13
0.51
0.21
0.00
0.00
BC
0.05
0.94
0.82
1.05
1.19
1.13
0.62
0.00
Age Group
Notes: "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. Data should be interpreted with caution due to small numbers. Rates are
calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
69
Figure 4.7 shows the hospitalization rates

per 100,000 population for motorcycle
occupants for 2007-2011, by sex and age
group. Male motorcycle occupants were far
more likely to be hospitalized as a result of
an MVC than females in all age groups. For
both sexes, there was a hill-shaped curve,
with the predominance of hospitalizations
occurring among both males and females
between 16 and 65 years of age. The highest
rate among men was 39.6 hospitalizations
per 100,000 population for those age 36-45,
and among females was 7.5 hospitalizations
per 100,000 for those age 46-55.
motorcyclists were observed in July and

August, while the lowest numbers were
found in November and December,18
likely reflecting the increased number
of motorcyclists on the roadways in the
summer months.19
Measures to Promote Motorcycle

Safety
While motorcyclists may be inherently
more prone to both MVC-related injuries
and fatalities as a result of not having the
protection of an enclosed vehicle, there
are many ways to increase the safety of
motorcycle drivers and passengers. In
2008, the BC Coroners Service Death
Review Panel on Motorcycle Fatalities
made a number of recommendations
pertaining to motorcycle safety education.
These recommendations included
promoting awareness of the safety value
of full-coverage riding gear, re-evaluating
motorcycle training school standards and
instructor certification, and educating
other drivers about vulnerable road users,
The causes of MVCs involving

motorcycles are similar to those of other
vehicles. On average for the period of
20082012, the top contributing factors
reported by police for MVCs involving
motorcyclists were speed (41.8 per cent),
distraction (33.2percent), and alcohol
(20.1percent).18 These motorcycle-related
MVC fatalities are also not distributed
evenly throughout the year. For 2008-2012
the highest numbers of fatalities among
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Motorcycle Occupant Hospitalization Rate,

4.7
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
Male
7.0
35.8
38.8
39.6
38.4
30.9
11.3
76+
8.5
Female
0.8
4.9
5.1
5.4
7.5
4.7
1.3
1.9
BC
4.0
20.7
21.9
22.3
22.8
17.8
6.2
4.7
Age Group
Notes: "Motorcycle occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. See
70
including information about the challenge

of seeing motorcyclists on the road and
the difficulty of assessing the speed at
which they are traveling.20 In 2012, the
provincial government addressed some of
these recommendations in new motorcycle
safety legislation.21 This legislation included
updated fines, updated requirements
for motorcycle drivers and passengers to
wear helmets that meet specified safety
standards,20 increased visibility of licence
plates, and a requirement that passengers
keep their feet firmly planted on the foot
pegs or floorboards of the motorcycle, or be
appropriately seated in a sidecar.3
Research has demonstrated that the
use of helmets by motorcyclists reduces
the occurrence of fatalities and injuries
and the severity of injuries when they
are sustained. A 2008 Cochrane review
found that motorcycle helmets reduce
the risk of fatality by 42 per cent, and
the risk of MVC-related head injury by
69 percent.22 Research on helmet use
and injury outcomes in Washington State
found that unhelmeted riders were three
times more likely to sustain head injuries
in an MVC than riders wearing helmets.23
It also found that among hospitalized
motorcyclists, unhelmeted motorcyclists
sustained more severe injuries, had longer
hospital stays (on average), and were more
likely to be re-admitted to hospital for
follow-up treatment, and/or to die from
their injuries.23 The study concluded that
helmet use is strongly associated with
reduced probability and severity of injury,
fewer motorcyclist fatalities, and reduced
economic impacts.23
carrying passengers, and nighttime

driving. These reports also recommend
several additional components specific to
motorcycles, such as the following:
Setting the minimum driving age for
motorcycles above the minimum driving
age for other vehicles.
Requiring a regular drivers licence before
becoming eligible for a motorcycle
licence.
Disallowing passengers.
Requiring a minimum number of hoursof-practice.
Advanced on- and off-road skill testing.
Requiring re-testing for any person who
wants to register a motorcycle who has
not had one registered in the recent past
(e.g., 5-10 years).20,24,25
In BC, new drivers and drivers in the BC
GLP must complete a graduated licensing
program for motorcycles similar to that for
other motor vehicles. However, currently,
drivers who have already obtained a fullprivilege drivers licence are eligible for
a full-privilege motorcycle licence after
a 30day learners stage.26 In 2010, BCs
Office of the Superintendent of Motor
Vehiclesnow RoadSafetyBCwithin
the Ministry of Justice proposed that this
30day period be extended to six months.27
To help increase safety for younger

motorcyclists, research supports graduated
licensing programs (GLPs) that allow new
motorcycle drivers to gain experience under
lower-risk driving conditions.24,25 Multiple
reviews and reports have suggested features
for licensing programs for motorcycles,
including several features common to
other GLPs, such as having three driver
stages (learner, novice, and full-privilege)
and having restrictions on speed, alcohol,
71
CYCLISTS
highways.30 Campaigns like the annual Bike

to Work Week and Bike to School Week
raise awareness of the environmental and
health benefits of cycling, and promote safe
cycle commuting by offering cycling skills
workshops and training materials.31,32,33
Similar to motorcyclists, cyclists do not

have the protection of an enclosed vehicle
in the event of an MVC, and so can be
very vulnerable as road users. Nevertheless,
according to BCs Motor Vehicle Act, cyclists
have the same rights and responsibilities as
drivers of vehicles.28

among Cyclists
In 2007 there were approximately 1,300
MVCs involving cyclists in BC, causing
approximately 1,300 injured cyclists and
10cyclist fatalities. By 2013 this had
increased to approximately 1,500 MVCs
resulting in approximately 1,500 injured
cyclists and 13 cyclist fatalities.r,34 This
represents an increase in cyclist-involved
MVCs of about 15 per cent over those seven
years.35
According to Statistics Canada data from

2011, the Victoria Capital Regional District
had the highest proportion of people who
reported commuting to work by bicycle
(5.9percent) of all Census Metropolitan
Areas in Canada.29 Kelowna also had a
relatively high bicycle use level at 2.6percent
of commuters, and Metro Vancouver followed
at 1.8percent.29 The provincial government
supports and promotes cycling because of its
environmental, economic, and health benefits,
with the goal of providing safe, accessible and
convenient bicycle facilities on the provinces
Figure
Figure 4.8 shows the counts and rates of

MVC cyclist fatalities between 1996 and
Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Fatality

0.30
14
12
0.25
10
0.20
8
0.15
6
0.10
4
0.05
0
Fatality Rate
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
6
10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.22
*
*
*
*
12
10
10
11
13
0.15
0.15
0.19
0.17
0.28
0.23
0.21
0.23
0.13
0.16
0.24
0.28
4.8
0.00
Year
Notes: "*" Indicates numbers less than five, and their associated rates. Data should be interpreted with caution due to small numbers. See Appendix B for
more information about these data sources.
Note that the figures 1,500 and 1,300 reflect ICBC data rounded to the nearest 100. ICBC data differ from police-reported data, as
police do not attend all MVCs, and not all MVCs are reported to police.
r
72
2013. While both the numbers and rates

were variable over the period, there was
an increasing trend in cyclist-involved
incidents. While there were only six cyclist
fatalities or 0.15 fatalities per 100,000
population in 1996, there were 13 fatalities
or 0.28 per 100,000 population in 2013.
The variation resulting from small numbers
makes it impossible to state whether these
show any definitive trend but it is clear that
the risk is not decreasing and has remained
steady in the context of a decrease in overall
MVC fatalities.
Figure 4.9 shows MVC-related cyclist
hospitalizations due to serious injuries over
the ten-year period from 2002 to 2011.
The numbers and rates are more stable
than for fatalities but indicate that both
increased over this period. In 2002 there
were 191 serious injuries, and a rate of
4.7 per 100,000 population; by 2011 the
number of hospitalizations had increased
to 237, and a rate of 5.3 per 100,000. This
represents an increase of 27.7 per cent in the
number of hospitalizations, or an increase of
12.8percent in the rate of hospitalizations
Figure
5.4
250
5.2
200
5.0
150
4.8
100
4.6
50
4.4
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
191
200
192
208
205
213
210
210
229
237
4.7
4.8
4.6
5.0
4.8
5.0
4.8
4.8
5.1
5.3
Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Hospitalization

4.9
4.2
Year
73
these higher rates may be linked to a larger

number of male cyclists or cyclists age 76
and up, or to greater risk-taking behaviour
or vulnerability.
per 100,000 population. Due to challenges

with available denominator data as discussed,
it is unknown whether the increases shown
in Figures 4.8 and 4.9 reflect an increase
in the number of cyclists and/or distances
cycled, or an increase in the absolute risk.
Figure 4.11 examines the 1,099 hospitalizations of cyclists in the most recent five
years for which there are data available. It
depicts the rate of cyclist-involved MVC
serious injuries for 2007-2011, by sex
and age group. Males had higher rates of
hospitalizations compared to females in all
categories. The highest rates among males
were between 16 and 55 years of age. Females
had much lower and more variable rates,
with the highest rate being among those
age 26-35 (4.0 serious injuries per 100,000
population). As noted with the fatality data,
this information should be interpreted with
caution since the total number of cyclists and
their age and sex are not known.
Figure 4.10 breaks down the 47 cyclist

fatalities in the most recent five years for
which there are data available. It shows
cyclist fatality rates resulting from MVCs
for 2009-2013 by sex and age group. Males
had much higher fatality rates per 100,000
population than women in all age groups
except 16-25years of age. The highest fatality
rate for male cyclists was among those aged
76 and up at 0.65per 100,000 population,
and the lowest was among those aged 16-25
at 0.07per100,000. Cyclist fatality rates
among females were highest among those
aged 36-45 at 0.19 per 100,000 population.
These patterns should be interpreted with
caution due to small numbers and since the
total number and demographic information
of cyclists in BC is currently not known.
As such, it is unknown the extent to which
Figure
4.10
In MVCs involving cyclists for 20082012,

the top contributing factors identified in
police reports differ somewhat to those
identified for other MVCs. Those MVCs
Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.26
0.07
0.40
0.45
0.46
0.34
0.34
0.65
Female
0.06
0.14
0.07
0.19
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.00
BC
0.16
0.10
0.23
0.32
0.23
0.21
0.17
0.28
Age Group
Notes: Data should be interpreted with caution due to small numbers. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. See Appendix B
for more information about these data sources.
74
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Cyclist Hospitalization

4.11
12
10
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
4.6
9.6
9.4
10.1
10.3
7.1
4.2
4.3
Female
1.3
2.0
4.0
1.9
2.5
3.1
0.7
0.1
BC
3.0
5.9
6.7
5.9
6.3
5.1
2.4
1.9
Age Group
Notes: Data should be interpreted with caution due to small numbers. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. See
website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry
of Health, 2015.
involving at least one cyclist were most

often attributed to motor vehicle drivers
being distracted (44.2 per cent) and failing
to yield the right of way (25.6 per cent).18
The third most common factor identified
in these reports was alcohol impairment
(18.6percent), however data do not indicate
whether the driver or cyclist was intoxicated.18
Similar to motorcycles, cyclist-involved
MVCs are not evenly distributed
throughout the year, but instead are more
concentrated during summer months.
Between 2008 and 2012, almost half
(46.8 per cent) of cyclist fatalities occurred

during the summer months from July to
September, when there is an increase in
the number of cyclists on the road.18,19
Time of day is also importantin 2007,
more than 30 per cent of cyclist MVCs
happened between the hours of 3 p.m. and
6 p.m (likely related to work and school
commuting).36 Lastly, some sections of
roadways are more prone to MVCs involving
cyclists than others. In 2007, more than half
(54.6 per cent) of all cyclist-involved MVCs
took place at intersections.36 Intersections
will be discussed in Chapter 7.
75
Measures to Promote Cyclist

Safety
The safety of cyclists is linked to all the pillars
of an SSA. This includes initiatives that
provide universal cycling safety training for
children, adults, and motor vehicle drivers;
those that have the potential to enhance
cycling infrastructure; consideration of allseason cycling infrastructure and roadway
maintenance (e.g., hazard removal); and
increased safety through legislation, reduced
motor vehicle speed limits, traffic calming
techniques, and increased enforcement.37
Figure 4.12 provides examples of several
measure that have been associated with
increased cycling safety. A few examples of
these include the following:
Designated bicycle travel routes, such
as protected cycling paths,38,39,40
painted cycling lanes41,42 and designated
residential road cycling routes.
Figure
4.12
Bike routes that do not require bicyclists

to ride between parked and moving motor
vehicles.38,43,44
Intersections and traffic signals
prioritizing cyclists.41,45
Reduced motor vehicle speeds, especially
speeds of 30 km/h and less.39,46,47
Removal of obstacles (e.g., bollards, street
furniture, streetcar and train tracks),
debris, and potholes from bike routes.43
Some jurisdictions that have successfully
implemented changes to infrastructure are
highlighted in Chapter 7.
Results of a survey of 1,402 Vancouver
residents who cycle highlight the importance
of roadway infrastructure and safety
on promoting cycling as a method of
transportation. The top five deterrents to
cycling identified were: an icy or snowy route;
roadways with high motor vehicle traffic
Sample of Infrastructure Measures

to Increase Cyclist Safety
Protected Cycling Path
Painted Cycling Lane
Intersection Prioritizing Cyclists
Notes: Photo credit for Protected Cycling Paths and Intersection Prioritizing Cyclists Ken Ohrn. Photo credit for Painted Cycling Lane BC
Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure. Reproduced with permission.
Sources: Protected Cycling Paths and Intersection Prioritizing Cyclists source Photographer Ken Ohrn. Painted Cycling Lane source BC
Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 (see: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/).
76
volume; a route where motor vehicles travel

above 50 km/h; a route with glass or debris;
and a route with risk from motor vehicle
drivers who do not drive safely near cyclists.48
As described earlier, other jurisdictions
in Europe, India, and even Canada have
successfully implemented policies and
legislation that increase responsibility on
vehicle drivers, as a motivator to drive more
safely around vulnerable road users and to
provide legal protection for cyclists in the
case of an MVC.
When MVCs do happen, helmets are an
effective measure to protect cyclists from
head injuries. The BC Motor Vehicle Act
states that all cyclists, including cycle
passengers, must wear approved bicycle
safety helmets.49 A Cochrane review
published in 2009 concluded that bicycle
helmet legislation protects against head
injuries for cyclists.50 In BC in 2007, cyclists

involved in MVCs while wearing helmets
were less prone to severe head injury than
those who were unhelmeted at the time of
the MVC. For cyclists injured in MVCs
in BC that year, the most severe type of
injuries incurred were head injuries, present
in 14.9per cent of unhelmeted cyclists,
compared to 11.8 per cent of cyclists who
had been wearing helmets.36 Safe Kids Canada
has reported that the influence of adults is an
important consideration in whether or not
children wear bicycle helmets.51 One US study
concluded that a combination of legislation
and education may be more effective at
increasing bicycle helmet use among children
than education alone.52
Other measures include education, universal
cycling safety training, high-visibility
clothing, legislative penalties, and increased
enforcement.37
Cyclists involved in MVCs while wearing

helmets were less prone to severe head
injury than those who were unhelmeted
at the time of the MVC.
77
PEDESTRIANS
done to prevent pedestrian fatalities. BC

has not achieved the clear decreases in
pedestrian fatalities that other jurisdictions
have, such as those who have been on track
to meet the targets agreed upon in the
2002 European Conference of Ministers of
Transport, including Luxembourg, Portugal,
France, Denmark, Switzerland, Netherlands,
Germany, Latvia, and Norway.53

among Pedestrians
According to ICBC, there were
approximately 2,200 MVCs involving at
least one pedestrian in BC in 2013. These
MVCs resulted in 2,300 injured pedestrians
and 52 pedestrian fatalities.35 Children and
seniors are especially vulnerable subgroups
and will be the topic of specific analysis in
the next two sections.
Figure 4.14 shows the number and

rate of pedestrian-involved MVC
hospitalizations from 2002 to 2011. The
number fluctuates over the years, starting
in 2002 with 565 serious injuries and a
rate of 13.8per100,000 population, then
decreasing to 493 hospitalizations and a
rate of 11.0 per 100,000 in 2011. This
represents a 12.7percent decrease in the
number of pedestrian hospitalizations and
a 20.3percent decrease in the rate per
100,000 of pedestrian hospitalizations.
Figure 4.13 shows the number and rate of

pedestrian-involved MVC fatalities from
1996 to 2013. The number of pedestrian
fatalities has fluctuated year-to-year over
these 18 years, hitting a low of 40 fatalities
in 2002 and a peak of 74 in 2003 and
2004. Fluctuations in the fatality rate per
100,000 population aligns closely with
the yearly changes in the counts; however,
there is not an obvious downward trend in
either the absolute number of pedestrian
fatalities or the rate of fatalities per 100,000
over time. This suggests that more can be
Figure
Most pedestrian injuries and fatalities are

associated with the motor vehicle driver
and/or the pedestrian performing at
least one unsafe action at the time of the
crash.4,54 For the period of 20082012,
Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Fatality

2.0
80
1.8
70
1.6
60
1.4
50
1.2
1.0
40
0.8
30
0.6
20
0.4
10
0.2
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
2013
71
50
65
64
53
54
40
74
74
66
65
72
56
58
58
57
65
52
Fatality Rate
1.8
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.3
1.3
1.0
1.8
1.8
1.6
1.5
1.7
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.1
0.0
Year
78
4.13
Figure
4.14
16
600
550
14
500
12
450
400
10
350
300
250
6
200
150
100
2
50
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
565
534
539
534
567
577
547
486
492
493
13.8
12.9
13.0
12.7
13.4
13.4
12.6
11.0
11.0
11.0
Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Hospitalization

Year
website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of
Health, 2015.
the top contributing factors reported by

police in their reports for MVCs with a
pedestrian fatality were pedestrian error/
confusion (31.0 per cent), distraction of
the driver or pedestrian (29.3 per cent),
alcohol (19.0percent), driver failing to
yield the right of way (9.5percent), and
speed (8.8percent).18 Pedestrian distraction,
including texting or talking on a cell phone
while crossing the street, has been found to
increase the risk of pedestrian MVCs.4,55
Vulnerable Pedestrians: Children

Analyses show that children and older
adults are at a heightened risk of MVC
involvement and of serious injury or fatality
when involved in an MVC.56,57,58,59
Children, and especially younger children,
may lack the cognitive, attentional, and
perceptual skills and abilities needed to
navigate the road system safely.56 MVCs were
the leading cause of death (at 29 per cent)
among BC child deaths in 2009 reviewed
s
by the BC Coroners Service Child Death

Review Unit.s,60 In 2009, the European
Conference of Ministers of Transport noted
that transportation systems had not been
designed with child safety in mind, as
children have limited concentration and
ability to evaluate risk and are spontaneous
and impulsive.57 Many children, especially
those under age 11, do not have the capacity
to use roadways safely on their own.56,61
Vehicle design, roadway design and driver
conduct should take into account the
tendency of children to misjudge the speed
of oncoming traffic and a potential lack of
parental supervision or inability for parents
to intervene.60
Research shows that child pedestrians are
most often struck during the day during clear
weather, and that most are struck midblock
as opposed to at intersections.62 Further,
most children are struck while walking,
not playing, and of those who were struck
while playing, most were not playing in the
street.62 Younger children are particularly at
The BC Coroners Service Child Death Review Unit defines children as those under age 19.
79
risk for back-over incidents, when a car

backs over someone, often in a residential
driveway. This is due to both their earlier
stage of cognitive development and their
smaller stature, which makes it more
difficult for drivers to see them;60 however,
older children have also been shown to
be at risk of these incidents.63 According
to one Canadian study, 3.4 percent of
severe pedestrian injuries among children
under age 14 from 1994 to 2003 were
the result of back-over MVCs.63 Of these,
49(33.1percent) involved a vehicle backing
out of a driveway.63 In BC, 12 percent of
child pedestrian injuries between 2003 and
2008 occurred in residential driveways;
all vehicles involved were pickup trucks
or sport-utility vehicles.64 These statistics
underscore the importance of roadway and
vehicle design, including the need for greater
anticipation and accommodation of children
in residential settings and increased visibility
around and behind vehicles, such as vehicles
equipped with sensors and/or backup
cameras.
80
Vulnerable Pedestrians: Older

Adults
Analyses of pedestrian fatalities and serious
injuries highlight the burden suffered by
older adult pedestrians. Older pedestrians are
among the most vulnerable and experience
the highest rate of MVC fatalities in BC. The
fatality rate for pedestrians aged 76 and up is
more than two times the MVC fatality rate
for pedestrians age 66-75.18 Due to age-related
changes, older people are more likely to have
visual, cognitive, and/or physical challenges
that compromise their ability to cross
roadways safely or to cross them before the
walk phase ends. Older pedestrians may also
be frail and therefore less able to withstand
the physical force of an MVC, resulting in
more serious injuries and a greater likelihood
of fatality.59,66 According to the US Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention, increased
fatality among older adults is not due to
increased crash rates, but rather, to increased
susceptibility to injury and resulting medical
complications.65
According to BC Stats, adults age 65 and

up comprised 16.4 per cent of the BC
population in 2013, and this proportion
is expected to grow to 24.7 per cent by
2036. This proportion is greater than the
projected proportions of children and
youth combined for 2036 (those age 0-14
are projected to be 13.7 per cent of the
BC population, and youth age 15-24 are
projected to be 10.1 per cent of the BC
population).67 The proportion of the BC
population age 80 and over is expected to
almost double in the same timeframe, from
4.4 to 8.4 per cent.67 Because of the aging
BC population, there will be an increasing
number of particularly vulnerable road
users in the coming years.
As shown in Figure 4.15, among MVC
pedestrian fatalities in BC 2009-2013, both
males and females age 76 and up had the
highest rate of fatalities per 100,000 population,
at 6.9and 3.1 per 100,000 population,
respectively. Males had a higher fatality rate
per 100,000 than females for most age groups.
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Fatality

4.15
(with 95% CI)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.5
1.4
1.2
0.6
1.3
1.4
1.6
6.9
Female
0.3
1.1
0.9
0.4
1.1
1.1
2.4
3.1
BC
0.4
1.3
1.0
0.5
1.2
1.2
2.0
4.7
Age Group
Notes: Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. There were nine cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and these
cases are excluded from this figure. Cases with missing sex data have been included in total rates. See Appendix B for more information about these data
sources.
81
In examining pedestrian hospitalizations due

to MVCs for 2007-2011, the data continue
to show the vulnerability of older adults,
but also a somewhat different picture than
fatality rates. As shown in Figure 4.16, on
average for 2007-2011, the hospitalization
rate was highest among adults age 76 and
up, for both males and females, at 24.9 per
100,000 population and 24.5 per 100,000,
respectively. The data for both males and
females show a U shaped distribution
between 16 and 76 years of age, with the
lower rates occurring between 26 and
55years of age. The lowest hospitalization rate
for both sexes was for children and youth age
0-15years, at 6.8per 100,000 for males and
6.1 per 100,000 for females.
are safe for all road users; encouraging

vehicle adaptations to prevent MVCs with
pedestrians and to protect them in the
event of an MVC; and educating all road
users about safe road user behaviour. Public
education to improve knowledge and to
help bring about changes in pedestrian
behaviour (e.g., wearing bright clothing,
lights, and reflectors to increase visibility to
drivers; crossing at marked crosswalks; and
staying alert and attentive to traffic) is an
important component of pedestrian safety.1,4
It is also crucial to educate drivers about
the vulnerability of pedestrians (e.g.,how
to watch for pedestrians, especially at
intersections; the importance of driving with
lights on and obeying speed limits; and how
all road users can share the roadways safely,
especially in residential areas.4,68,69
Measures to Promote Pedestrian

Safety
In an attempt to improve pedestrian safety,

the provincial government has worked with
municipalities to install countdown signals at
crosswalks and to extend pedestrian crossing
times in areas that have a high proportion
of elderly pedestrians.70 However, a study
As with cyclists, some ways to reduce the

number of MVC-related pedestrian fatalities
and serious injuries include modifying
roadways, especially intersections, to
prioritize pedestrians; ensuring speed limits
Figure
Motor Vehicle Crash Pedestrian Hospitalization


(with 95% CI)
4.16
30
25
20
15
10
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
6.8
20.5
11.6
11.1
11.4
11.9
14.8
24.9
Female
6.1
12.7
7.9
6.6
8.9
12.0
18.6
24.5
Age Group
Notes: Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. There were fewer than five cases in which sex was unknown, and these
cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
82
in the city of Toronto found that installing

pedestrian countdown signals increased the
amount of pedestrian MVCs, potentially
due to drivers and pedestrians hurrying in
response to the signal.71
Other jurisdictions are improving pedestrian
safety by modifying speed and roadways. For
example, New York Citys Safe Streets for
Seniors pedestrian safety initiative focuses
on infrastructure and engineering changes
to improve safety, including shortening
crossing distances, increasing crossing times,
restricting vehicle turns, and narrowing
roadways.72 Another example is Japans
promotion of people-first walking spaces
and safe walking areas, created through
infrastructure improvements to sidewalks
and intersections, as well as improved
pedestrian lighting and the development
of pedestrian overpasses.73 In London,
England, the introduction of 20 mph (about
32 km/h) speed zones was associated with
a 41.9percent reduction in MVC-related
pedestrian injuries and fatalities, with the
greatest reductions found among young
children.74
Suggested measures to specifically address
child pedestrian MVCs include reducing
childrens exposure to vehicle traffic;
increasing parental supervision; providing
road safety education and training for
children (from their parents as well as within
the school system), parents, and drivers;56,62
promoting enhanced vehicle safety features
(e.g., backup cameras and sensors); and
designing infrastructure that separates child
pedestrians from vehicle traffic, and provides

safe play areas for children that are away from
roadsides.57,60,75 Efforts to promote the safety
of children in Japan include installing pushbutton traffic lights and other improvements
along school walking routes.73 The European
Conference of Ministers of Transport
suggests that pedestrian safety education for
children begin in kindergarten and continue
through primary and secondary school.57
Here in Canada, the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police (RCMP) recommend that
parents teach their children safe pedestrian
behaviours through role modeling.68
A recent report from the Child Death
Review Unit of the BC Coroners Service
found that the environmental risk for
child pedestrian injuries is reduced in
neighbourhoods with traffic calming
features such as speed humps, traffic circles,
restrictions on traffic volume, and lower
speed limits. Safe speed is crucial to child
pedestrian safety. Child pedestrians involved
in MVCs were seven times more likely to be
hospitalized when struck by vehicles traveling
an average of 50 km/h compared with
average vehicle speeds of 30 km/h. Indeed,
research suggests that lower motor vehicle
speeds (i.e., 30-40 km/h) promote pedestrian
safety. MVCs may be more easily avoided at
lower speeds, and where pedestrian-involved
MVCs do occur at lower speeds, injury
outcomes are less severe.56
Safe speeds will be discussed further in
Chapter 6, and roadway infrastructure will
be examined in Chapter 7.
Child pedestrians involved in MVCs were

seven times more likely to be hospitalized
when struck by vehicles traveling 50 km/h
compared to those traveling 30 km/h.
83
SUMMARY
Promoting the safety of road users
including vulnerable road usersis a critical
component of a safe roadway system.
Unfortunately, there has not been the same
decrease in MVC fatalities for vulnerable
road users compared to vehicle occupants.
The MVC fatality rate for motorcyclists
increased between 1995 and 2005, followed
by notable decreases after 2009. There
has been an increase in MVC fatality and
serious injury rates among cyclists over
the last several years, with men being
disproportionately more affected. Pedestrian
MVC fatalities and serious injuries have
fluctuated over the years but do not show a
clear downward trend. In addition, cyclists
and pedestrians in BC have higher rates
of fatalities and serious injuries compared
to vehicle occupants when measured on a
per trip or kilometres travelled basis. Both
children and older adults are especially
84
vulnerable as pedestrians. Regional

distribution among health authority areas
shows that compared to the distribution
of the BC population, MVC motorcycle
occupant fatalities occur disproportionately
in Interior and Northern Health, with
proportionately fewer in Vancouver Coastal
and Fraser Health. Cyclist fatalities in
Interior Health and Island Health were
disproportionately large compared to their
population size, while Vancouver Coastal
and Northern Health had disproportionally
fewer cyclist fatalities. Pedestrian fatalities
were distributed more in proportion to the
BC population. A variety of measures to
enhance road safety for each vulnerable road
user type are being implemented here and
abroad, such as strengthened licensing for
motorcycle drivers and incorporating cyclist
and pedestrian safety into roadway policy
and design.
The next chapter will investigate road user
behaviour and conditions in BC.
Chapter 5: Road User Behaviour and Conditions
Chapter 5
Road User Behaviour and Conditions

INTRODUCTION
The holistic vision of road safety and the
safe systems concepts described in Chapter
1 of this report focus on improving the
entire system. One of the main tenants of
a Safe System Approach (SSA) is that the
road system should accommodate human
error, since road user behaviour and all
human behaviour by nature is unpredictable
and prone to error.2 Driver conditions
and behaviour are a crucial component
of an SSA, including, but not limited to,
improving road safety through education,
awareness, and enforcement measures. As
shown in Chapter 3, the road user group
with the greatest number and proportion
of motor vehicle crash (MVC) fatalities and
serious injuries is drivers, and, in many ways,
drivers can do the most to prevent MVCs
and/or to reduce their severity.
This chapter explores four main aspects
of driver behaviour, including distracted
We each use the roads within

a collective public system where
the risks we take can affect
someone else.
driving, substance-based impairment due

to alcohol and other substances, cognitive
or physical impairment, and high-risk or
aggressive driving, and measures that may
be effective at reducing their prevalence.
Speed and speeding will be discussed in
Chapter 6.
To drive on public roads in BC, drivers
must abide by the rules set out in the Motor
Vehicle Act.3,4 Driver training, testing, and
licensing, along with vehicle registration
and licensing, auto insurance, and the
administration of driving records are all
provided by the Insurance Corporation
of British Columbia (ICBC).4,5 When
drivers violate the rules of the road, police
can issue tickets and impose sanctions
(e.g.,driving prohibitions and suspensions)
and/or lay criminal charges,4 as outlined in
the Criminal Code of Canada.3,4 There are
laws related to distracted driving, impaired
driving, and high-risk or aggressive
driving, and sanctions for drivers who
violate these laws.
add driver image
N. Arason, No Accident:
Eliminating Injury and Death on
Canadian Roads 1(p.101)
85
DISTRACTED ROAD USERS

Distracted Driving
Distracted driving is when a drivers attention
is diverted to an object, activity, event, or
person not related to driving. The distraction
can include a wide range of non-driving
activities, such as eating and drinking,
smoking, personal grooming, adjusting the
stereo, interacting with passengers, using a
vehicle navigation system, and any use of
cellular phones (both handheld and handsfree) or other electronic devices.6,7 Distracted
driving results in a loss of visual and cognitive
attention, decreased decision-making abilities,
reduced awareness, and poorer driving
performance, which then leads to an increased
risk of driver error, near-crashes, and MVCs.8
The recent proliferation of electronic devices,
including cell phones and smartphones, has
led to an increasing problem with distracted
driving around the world.7 New legislation
introduced in 2010 in BC prohibits the use
data indicate that cellphone conversations place

demands upon the driver that
differ qualitatively from those
of other auditory/verbal/vocal
tasks commonly performed
while operating a motor vehicle.
Even when cell-phone drivers
direct their gaze at objects in
the driving environment, they
often fail to see them because
attention has been diverted to
the cell-phone conversation.
D.L. Strayer, F.A. Drews,
Cell-phone-induced driver
distraction, Current Directions
in Psychological Science 11
86
of handheld devices while driving. While

distracted driving is not limited to the use of
electronic devices,9 the increasing problems
related to use of electronic devices while
driving will be the focus of the discussion
presented here.
Some forms of driver distraction are less
problematic than others. For example,
conversations with passengers can be less
hazardous than phone calls when driving.
This is because passengers are aware of
the driving environment and can adjust
their speech, tone, and conversation as
appropriate. Passengers can also assist in
watching for driving hazards. A person
on the other end of a phone conversation
is not aware of the driving environment
and accordingly is unable to adjust the
conversation. Compared to passengers,
people calling a driver tend to speak in
longer stretches with fewer pauses.10 Cell
phone conversations have been shown to
divert attention from the roadway to the
conversation.11 Studies have shown that
using a handheld device while driving can
reduce driver ability to process as much
as half of the visual information on and
around the roadway.6,12 While hands-free
devices may appear to require less attention
from a driver, research has found that the
use of hands-free and handheld devices
requires similar amounts of cognitive
attention.12,13,14 The use of any form of
electronic device has been shown to increase
both the risk of driver error and of MVCs.13
The Burden of Road User

Distraction in BC
On average in recent years, one-third of all
MVC fatalities in BC had distraction as a
contributing factor.15 As shown in Table 5.1,
overall, from 2008 to 2012 there was an
increase in the number of distraction-related
MVCs recorded but a decrease in the number
of related fatalities. The lower number of
distraction-related MVCs shown in 2011
likely relates to the legislation introduced
in 2010 that prohibits the use of handheld
devices while driving.
Table
Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crashes and Fatalities,

by Year, BC, 2008 to 2012
5.1
YEAR
NUMBER OF
DISTRACTION-RELATED MVCs
DISTRACTION-RELATED
MVC FATALITIES
2008
5,902
91
2009
5,714
99
2010
6,289
102
2011
6,038
79
2012
6,201
80
Notes: "Distraction-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in the crash had any one of the contributing factors: use of
communication/video equipment, driver internal/external distraction, and/or driver inattentive. Data are based on police reports from
police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g.,
vehicle design or roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 2008-2012 (March 2014).
Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
Table 5.1, the steep decrease in number and

rate from 2010 to 2011 may be related to
the 2010 legislation prohibiting the use of
handheld devices while driving.u Despite
these improvements, the proportion of
MVCs involving driver distraction that result
Figure 5.1 shows the total number,

proportion, and rate of distraction-related
MVC fatalities for 2004 to 2013.t This
figure shows that the number and rate of
distraction-related fatalities per year has
been decreasing since 2005. Similar to
5.1
Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

500
3.0
450
2.5
400
350
2.0
300
250
1.5
200
1.0
150
100
0.5
50
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
440
452
402
411
354
363
364
292
280
269
Number of Distraction-related MVC Fatalities
76
114
85
98
91
99
102
79
80
77
Distraction-related MVC Fatality Rate
1.8
2.7
2.0
2.3
2.1
2.2
2.3
1.8
1.8
1.7
Distraction-related Proportion of Fatalities
17.3
25.2
21.1
23.8
25.7
27.3
28.0
27.1
28.6
28.6
Figure
0.0
Year
Notes: "Distraction-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: use of
communication/video equipment, driver internal/external distraction, and/or driver inattention. Data are based on police reports from police-attended
motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway
design). See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
t
u
Comparable distraction-related hospitalization data are currently unavailable.

These data include all types of road user distraction leading to fatal MVCs, not just handheld devices.
87
in a fatality has increased, growing from

17.3percent in 2004 to 28.6 per cent in
2013; this suggests that distracted driving
remains an important area for targeted
programming. In fact, ICBC reports that
in 2013, distraction surpassed speed as the
top contributing factor to MVC fatalities
reported by police.16
Figure 5.2 shows distraction-related MVC

fatality rates per 100,000 population in BC
between 2009-2013 by age group and sex.
These data show that males have a higher
distraction-related fatality rate than females
for all age groups except those age 0-15.
This figure also shows that distractionrelated MVC fatality rates were highest
among those age 76 and up for both males
and females (6.5 and 3.7 per 100,000
population, respectively). However, since the
data presented show who suffered the fatality
rather than the distracted party in the MVC,
these data may reflect other factors (e.g.,an
older adult may have been less likely to
survive the impact of the MVC).
A lack of driving experience and a greater
tendency to use electronic devices may make
new and/or younger drivers particularly
vulnerable to distracted driving (or to being
distracted as pedestrians or other road user
types).17,18 However, some studies have found
that the increased risk of MVCs for people
who use cell phones while driving is similar
Figure
Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality


(with 95% CI)
5.2
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.3
3.1
2.1
2.5
2.9
2.3
2.8
6.5
Female
0.4
1.8
1.2
1.1
1.6
1.2
1.6
3.7
BC
0.3
2.4
1.6
1.8
2.2
1.8
2.2
4.9
Age Group
communication/video equipment, driver internal/external distraction, and/or driver inattentive. Victim may or may not be the distracted person involved in
the crash. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. There were five cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and these
cases are excluded from this figure. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported
emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about these data
sources.
88
for drivers under age 30 compared to those

over age 30, and may even be higher for
middle-aged drivers.12
Figure 5.3 presents further analysis of
distraction-related MVC fatality rates in
BC from 2004 to 2013, by sex. Over these
10 years, there was a notable increase in
2005 followed by a gradual reduction over
time, resulting in a slight decrease in the
rate of distraction-related MVC fatalities.
For males there was a small increase, from
1.9per100,000 population in 2005
to 2.0per 100,000 in 2013. Among
females there was an overall reduction
of 26.7percent, from 1.5 per 100,000
population in 2004 to 1.1per 100,000 in
2013. The rate for females showed greater
year-to-year fluctuation than the rate for
males.
Overall, Figures 5.2, 5.3, and related
literature show that distracted driving is a
problem for road safety for road users of all
ages and sexes.
Figure
Measures to Prevent and Reduce

Distracted Driving
While there is a growing body of research
that examines distracted driving, with a
focus on the use of electronic devices, there
is little research on what interventions are
most effective in preventing and reducing
distracted driving.19 Given this, there is
a variation in policies across jurisdictions.
Some countries have banned use of all
electronic devices, whereas others have
focussed legislation on handheld devices,
while allowing hands-free devices. Other
countries (e.g., Sweden) focus their efforts on
public education about the risks of distracted
driving, recognizing that prohibiting the
behaviour will not eliminate cell phone use.19
As of January 2012, every Canadian
jurisdiction except Nunavut had introduced
some form of distracted driving legislation
banning the use of handheld electronic
and/or communication devices. BC,
Saskatchewan, and the Yukon have also
Age-standardized Distraction-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

5.3
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Male
1.9
3.2
3.0
2.6
2.5
2.6
2.4
2.1
2.1
2.0
Female
1.5
1.7
0.8
1.5
1.1
1.5
1.6
1.0
1.0
1.1
BC
1.7
2.5
1.9
2.1
1.8
2.0
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.6
Year
communication/video equipment, driver internal/external distraction, and/or driver inattentive. Victim may or may not be the distracted person involved in
the crash. Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. There were 14 cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and
these cases are excluded from this figure. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors
reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about
these data sources.
89
banned the use of hands-free devices for

drivers in graduated licensing programs
(GLPs).20 Distracted driving penalties assessed
by individual jurisdictions range from fines of
$0-1000 and 0-4 demerit points.20
BCs distracted driving legislation, Use of
Electronic Devices while Driving (Part 3.1
of the Motor Vehicle Act), came into force
on January 1, 2010.21 Violators of this
legislation are subject to a fine of $167 for
talking, texting, or emailing, and a penalty
of three points on their drivers licence.18,22
The legislation was accompanied by a public
awareness campaign that included 10 fixed
signs at international border crossings and
travel routes near international airports;
messages on 45 variable message signs on
highways throughout the province; and
television, movie, newspaper, and billboard
ads, among other promotional efforts.21(See
Figure5.4 for an example of the related signage.)
In the first 11 months after BCs distracted
driving law took effect, police reported
more than 32,000 distraction-related
infringements. Further to this, police served
37,393 tickets for distracted driving in 2011,
which increased to 44,875 in 2012.23 An
Figure
5.4
observational study comparing cell phone

use in Victoria, BC, before and after the
legislation was passed, suggested that the use of
electronic communication devices did decline
after the legislation came into effect, although
there were limitations to this study.v,21
In 2014, the Canadian Council of Motor
Transport Administrators conducted an
observational study of electronic handheld
device use in Canada by counting use at
intersections when vehicles were stopped.
The study revealed that 5.5 per cent of
drivers in BC used a handheld device while
driving, which was above the overall national
average of 4.4 per cent. This included
5.4percent of urban drivers and 6.2percent
of rural drivers using handheld devices while
driving, both above the national averages of
4.6and3.5percent, respectively.24
In 2013, the BC Association of Chiefs of
Police called for tougher penalties for distracted
drivers, such as doubling the $167fineto$334
and confiscating cell phones from repeat
offenders.25 A BC public opinion poll
published in March 2013 found that
70percent of those surveyed support these
measures.25
Electronic Device Warning Signage
Notes: These roadway signs were introduced in BC in 2010 with the new distracted driving legislation. Reproduced with permission.
Source: BC Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 (see: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.0/).
Two limitations to this study were that the sample was not representative, and it only counted cell phone use if the device was
being held up to the drivers ear.
90
Overall, despite new legislation, distracted

driving is still contributing to a sizeable
portion of MVC serious injuries and
fatalities, and will continue to be a key
topic for improving road safety. Research
evaluating the efficacy of various approaches
to preventing distracted driving would
benefit BC and other jurisdictions in
achieving further progress on this issue.
SUBSTANCE-BASED IMPAIRMENT
Substance-based impairment includes both
alcohol impairment and drug impairment
(both legal and illegal drugs). Even in small
amounts, alcohol and other psychoactive
substances can impair driving performance.26,27
The risk of an MVC increases with the amount
of alcohol and other drugs consumed and from
combining alcohol and other drugs.28,29,30
These substances include alcohol,
prescription medication, over-the-counter
medications (whether their use is legal or
illicit), and illegal drugs.
Effects of Impairment
The effects of medications on driving ability
vary by medication, and effects can include
sleepiness, impaired vision, dizziness,
decreased reaction time, fainting, and/or
difficulty concentrating.31,32 Prescription
and over-the-counter medications such as
benzodiazepines,33 opioids, antihistamines,
and cough and cold remedies may
impair cognitive function and/or driving
performance.31,34,35 Any symptoms or
effects may also be worsened when multiple
medications are taken concurrently or are taken
in conjunction with alcohol or other drugs.36,37
Alcohol and other drugs also have an array
of effects. Depressants and barbiturates can
reduce motor coordination and reaction
times, cause blurred or double vision, and
impair depth perception.36 Stimulants such
as amphetamines and cocaine may lead
to overconfidence and aggressive, high-risk

driving.36 Hallucinogens (e.g., ecstasy, LSD,w
psilocybin mushrooms) may distract drivers
by distorting their perceptions or causing
hallucinations.36 Cannabis is currently
the most commonly used illegal drug in
Canada and in BC,38 although with the
legalization of medical marijuana it may also
be used legally by some people for medical
purposes. Evidence shows that cannabis
causes impairment of the psychomotor skills
needed to drive safely,39 and reduces a drivers
attention span and ability to concentrate.
Observational studies estimate that drivers
impaired by cannabis have a two- to three-fold
higher risk of being involved in an MVC.36,40
Cannabis used in combination with alcohol
may lead to greater impairment compared to
using either of these substances alone.41,42
Alcohol Impairment
Alcohol is a depressant and affects judgment,
which can lead to poor decision-making
and reckless driving. Research has found
that alcohol consumption increases both
the probability of an MVC occurring and
the probability that an MVC will result in a
fatality or serious injury.43 The risk associated
with driving while impaired has clearly been
shown to increase as blood alcohol content
(BAC)x (also known as blood alcohol
concentration) increases.
In BC, drivers are considered impaired by
alcohol and can face administrative sanctions
if they have a 0.05 BAC or higher (50 mg of
alcohol per 100 mL of blood).44,45 Canadas
Criminal Code sets the legal limit for drivers
at 0.08 BAC, meaning that drivers who have
a BAC over 0.08 are committing a punishable
criminal offence.46 BAC is typically
determined through breath testing, because
the amount of alcohol in a persons breath
has been shown to directly correlate with the
amount of alcohol in a persons blood, and
alcohol breath testing is readily available for
roadside use by enforcement officers.
w
x
LSD is lysergic acid diethylamide and is also known as acid.

Blood alcohol content measures the amount of alcohol in a persons body in milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood.
91
Drug Impairment
Figure 5.5 illustrates the relative risk of a

driver-fatal MVC based on a drivers BAC.
While this graph provides a general guide,
it is important to note that alcohol impacts
and impairs people differently. Many factors
(e.g.,sex, weight, genetics, food consumption)
can influence the effect alcohol has on a
person. This figure illustrates that the risk
of an MVC resulting in a driver fatality
is increased among younger people even
without impairment. Drivers age 1519 have
a 5.3times greater risk and those age 20-29
have a 3.0 times greater risk of dying in an
MVC compared to those age 30 and up. For
all age groups, the relative risk of a driverfatal MVC is much higher when a driver is
impaired by alcohol. A driver age 30 and up
has 5.8 times the risk of being killed in an
MVC at a level of 0.05BAC and 16.5 times
the risk at a level of 0.08BAC compared to
having a 0.00BAC. Compared to drivers
age30 and up with a 0.00BAC, drivers age
20-29 have a 17.5 times greater risk of a
driver-fatal MVC at 0.05BAC and 50.4 times
greater risk at 0.08 BAC, while those age
1519 are at 30.4 times the risk at 0.05 BAC
and 86.9times the risk at 0.08 BAC.
Figure
Other than alcohol, most drugs are only

measurable through a blood sample. Urine
or saliva samples may also be used, but such
tests may not always reflect the amount or
concentration of drugs in the blood, so blood
samples are considered the gold standard
for drug impairment testing.1 Zero-limit
laws that make it illegal for people to drive
with any measurable level of illegal drugs in
their bodies may be problematic because it
penalizes someone for having a detectable
level of drugs in their blood (not always a
sign of impairment) rather than for impaired
driving. For example, in the case of cannabis,
cannabinoids may be detected in the body
beyond when the driver would be impaired.48
Another approach is to make it illegal to
drive solely based on evidence of drug
impairment, as determined by policeadministered sobriety tests. A sobriety test
may be used by police officers in Canada
if the officer suspects impairment.1 A field
sobriety test includes specific tests or tasks to
Relative Risk of Fatal Motor Vehicle Crash,

by Blood Alcohol Content Level and Age Group
5.5
200
180
0.05 BAC Level of
Impairment
160
0.08 BAC Level of

Impairment
(criminal threshold
for impairment)
Increase in Risk
140
120
100
86.9
80
60
Age Group
50.4
40
5.3
20
1519 years
30.4
3.0
2029 years
17.5
1.0
30+ years
16.5
5.8
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
Blood Alcohol Content (mg/100ml)

Source: Reproduced with permission and based on data from Keall MD, Frith W, Patterson TL. 2004. The Influence of Alcohol, Age and Number of Passengers on
the Night-time Risk of Driver Fatal Injury in New Zealand.47 Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
92
determine impairment, including the walk

and turn test, the one leg stand test, and
the horizontal gaze test.1 Two drawbacks
to sobriety tests are that they are subjective,
and can be insensitive to moderate
impairment.50,51,52
In summary, there are multiple challenges
with assessment and enforcement of drugimpaired driving. Identifying effective
roadside drug testing mechanisms53and
determining appropriate, evidencebased
limits for driving (such as for
Tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] in the
bloodstream) would simplify and clarify
drug-related traffic laws and related
enforcement.
studies show that there are significant percentages of

young people of driving age who are confused or unaware
that driving while under the influence of prescription
or illegal drugs like cannabis can also seriously affect
their driving capabilities. Among young drivers, the high
driving problem is rapidly becoming comparable to the
drunk-driving problem and it needs to be addressed with
as much urgency.
Relaxed attitudes towards drugged driving are part of the
problem. Its just not considered as dangerous as drunk
driving, neither by teenagers nor their parents.
Partnership for a Drug-Free Canada, Drugs and Driving 49
The Burden of Road User

Impairment in BC
The Canadian Council of Motor Transport
Administrators reports that other than
alcohol, the substances most commonly
detected among Canadian drivers are
cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines, and
antidepressants.54 In 2012, a random
survey of 2,513 vehicles was used to gather
information on the prevalence of alcohol
and drug use (illegal drugs and commonly
abused legal drugs) among drivers in BC.55
This survey found that 6.5 per cent of
surveyed drivers had been drinking, down
from 9.9 per cent in the 2010 version of the
survey. Further, only 0.9 per cent of drivers
had a BAC over the 0.08 criminal limit,
down from 2.2 per cent in 2010.55 This same
survey showed that 10.1 per cent of drivers
tested positive for drug use, up from the
7.2 per cent reported in 2010.56 The most
common drugs reported were cannabis and
cocaine.55 A researcher reviewed two recent
Canadian studies, including one in BC, and
estimated that 11 to 12 per cent of drivers
admitted to hospital following an MVC had
been using cannabis. This research further
estimated that 4 to12 per cent of MVC
fatalities and/or injuries in Canada involve
cannabis-impaired driving.40
93
Figure 5.6 shows the number of impairedrelated MVC fatalities in BC from 1996 to
2013. It shows that although there has been
variation from year to year, the number and
rate of impaired-related MVC fatalities has
generally decreased from 1996 to 2013, with
the rate in 2013 being just over one-third
of the rate in 1996. The lowest count and
rate was in 2012, at 57 and 1.3 fatalities
per 100,000 population, respectively. This
improvement likely reflects both a culture
change in attitude towards impaired driving
and the Immediate Roadside Prohibition
(IRP) program introduced in 2010 (see
next section for further detail). These
improvements are successes for BC; however,
this figure also shows that impairment is
still a factor in nearly one-quarter of MVC
fatalities in BC in recent years.
MVC fatality rate for both males and

females decreased over these 18 years, from
5.8to2.3per 100,000 population for males,
and from 2.1 to 0.4 per 100,000 for females.
The relative decrease shown is greatest
among females; the female rate declined by
81.0percent, while the male rate declined
by 60.3 per cent.
Further analyses of impaired-related MVC

fatalities are presented in Figure 5.7, which
shows the age-standardized rate per 100,000
population from 1996 to 2013 by sex.
This figure shows that the impaired-related
The larger proportion of fatalities in the

1625 age group may in part be associated
with a greater tendency of this agegroup
toward risk-taking behaviour and
experimentation with alcohol and other
Figure
Figure 5.8 shows the impaired-related

MVC fatality rates by sex and age group for
2009-2013. Much like other analyses by sex
presented in this report, across almost every
age group males have at least double the
fatality rate of females. The highest impairedrelated MVC fatality rates identified for
both sexes are in the 16-25 age group, at
6.3fatalities per 100,000 population for
males and 2.4 per 100,000 for females.
Impaired-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

5.6
450
3.5
400
3.0
350
2.5
300
2.0
250
200
1.5
150
1.0
100
0.5
50
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
469
429
429
409
396
394
457
448
440
452
402
411
354
363
364
292
280
269
Number of Impaired-related Fatalities
150
133
136
106
102
122
123
111
125
140
131
144
112
106
127
75
57
63
Impaired-related Fatality Rate
3.9
3.4
3.4
2.6
2.5
3.0
3.0
2.7
3.0
3.3
3.1
3.4
2.6
2.4
2.8
1.7
1.3
1.4
Impaired-related Proportion of Fatalities
32.0
31.0
31.7
25.9
25.8
31.0
26.9
24.8
28.4
31.0
32.6
35.0
31.6
29.2
34.9
25.7
20.4
23.4
0.0
Year
Notes: "Impaired-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: alcohol involvement, prescribed medication, and/or drug involvement
listed. Victim may or may not be the impaired person involved in the crash. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize
human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Sources: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 1996-2013; population estimates are from the BC Stats website,
94
4.0
500
Figure
Age-standardized Impaired-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

5.7
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Male
5.8
5.3
5.5
4.4
4.0
4.8
4.8
4.3
4.8
4.7
5.1
5.3
4.0
3.6
4.3
2.5
2.2
2.3
Female
2.1
1.5
1.4
1.1
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.1
1.3
2.3
1.4
1.5
1.1
1.3
1.6
0.9
0.4
0.4
BC
4.0
3.4
3.5
2.8
2.6
3.1
3.1
2.7
3.1
3.5
3.3
3.4
2.5
2.4
2.9
1.7
1.3
1.4
Year
Notes: "Impaired-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: alcohol involvement,
prescribed medication, and/or drug involvement listed. Victim may or may not be the impaired person involved in the crash. Age-standardized rates are
calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. There were 28 cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and these cases are excluded from this
figure. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather
than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Figure
Impaired-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

5.8

(with 95% CI)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.3
6.3
4.8
3.2
3.0
2.4
0.9
1.1
Female
0.2
2.4
1.1
1.3
0.7
0.3
0.2
0.4
Age Group
Notes: "Impaired-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: alcohol involvement,
prescribed medication, and/or drug involvement listed. Victim may or may not be the impaired person involved in the crash. Rates are calculated using
age- and sex-specific population numbers. There were fewer than five cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and these cases are excluded from
this figure. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error
rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
95
drugs (including binge drinking), and a lack

of awareness of the effects these substances
can have on driving ability and decisionmaking.57,58,59 Younger drivers are involved in
a disproportionate number of alcohol-related
MVCs, even with low BAC,60 as shown
in Figure 5.5. Gender-related factors may
include the greater propensity for men to
drink alcohol than women,61 in conjunction
with their tendency to drive more miles,
engage in riskier behaviour, and overestimate
their ability to drive while impaired.57
These analyses have shown that alcohol
impairment currently forms the largest
proportion of known impairment-related
MVC fatalities. Further, they have shown
that males and younger individuals have the
most of these fatalities. These observations
are important considerations to keep in
mind when developing strategically targeted
actions to prevent and reduce impaired
driving and related fatalities and serious
injuries.
Measures to Prevent and Reduce

Substance-based Impaired
Driving
Jurisdictions have used a variety of measures
to curb the use of alcohol and other drugs
among drivers. While the majority of these
initiatives focus on alcohol, many of the
principles apply to preventing impairment
due to other substances as well. The
following are six leading strategies to prevent
impaired driving and to reduce its impact.
1. Increase Public Education and Awareness

Programs designed to prevent and reduce
impaired driving have been shown to be
effective at reducing alcohol-related MVCs
and associated costs when they combine
multiple components, including public
awareness and education, legislation, and
enforcement.62,63 Research shows that highquality, high-intensity public education
advertising campaigns on drinking and
driving, especially when conducted in
conjunction with high-profile enforcement
efforts, have contributed to reductions
96
in alcohol-related MVC fatalities and

injuries, and that the public benefits of such
campaigns outweigh the costs.63
One example of a public education
campaign is BCs CounterAttack program.
CounterAttack is a partnership between the
provincial government, ICBC, and police
agencies that began in 1977 with the goal
of reducing the number of alcohol-impaired
drivers on the road.64 Education and
enforcement have been key components in
CounterAttack, which, along with other road
safety improvements and safety initiatives
introduced over time, has contributed to
a significant reduction in the number of
alcohol-related MVC fatalities and injuries
throughout the province.64 Recently there has
been an increased focus on public education
against drug-impaired driving, especially
among youth groups like Partnership for a
Drug-Free Canada.49
2. Limit Access
Some interventions that limit access to
alcohol have been shown to be effective in
reducing the likelihood that people will
drive while impaired by alcohol. Measures
can include raising the cost of alcohol
(e.g.,higher alcohol taxes) to create economic
barriers;65 prohibiting and/or limiting the
sale of alcoholic drinks in restaurants, shops,
and service stations along roadways, which
creates logistical barriers;66 and requiring
training programs for servers of alcoholic
beverages to limit access to alcohol by
intoxicated people.67 Studies have shown
decreased alcohol-impaired MVC fatalities
associated with increased economic barriers
to accessing alcohol65 and training servers to
limit access to intoxicated people.67
3. Lower Legal Limits for Alcohol

Evidence demonstrates that legal limits of
0.08 BAC or lower have been effective at
reducing alcohol-related MVC fatalities
and injuries, and that lowering the limit
to 0.05 BAC can achieve further harm
reduction.43,67,68 Countries around the world
have implemented legal limits on BAC for
motor vehicle drivers: legal BAC limits in

Europe range from 0.000.08, with many
European countries having limits of 0.00
or 0.02, and the most common legal limit
being 0.05 BAC.66 Studies show that even
BAC levels below 0.05 increase the risk of
having an MVC161 and of a fatal MVC.47
Graduated licensing programs (GLPs)
that include requirements for 0.00 BAC
at all times for new drivers have proven
to be an effective measure to reduce the
risk of alcohol-related MVCs and MVC
fatalities in Canada, the United States, and
worldwide.43,69,70,71,72,73 In BC74 and most
other Canadian jurisdictions,75 drivers in
a GLP must maintain a 0.00 BAC while
driving. Currently in BC, this requirement
for new drivers is lifted upon completion of
the GLP program,76 which typically occurs at
about the same time as young drivers reach
the provincial legal drinking age (19 years).77
According to recent Canadian data, upon
reaching legal drinking age, young drivers
have an immediate increase in alcoholrelated MVCs78,79 and criminal alcoholimpaired driving (BAC over 0.08 or refusal
to provide a sample),79 with increases being
seen in MVC-related serious injuries80
and fatalities81 among males. One study
showed that the high number of MVC
fatalities in Canada does not meaningfully
decline until after the age of 25 years.82
Data presented in this chapter show that
in BC, the impaired-related MVC fatality
rates are highest among those age 16-25.
One strategy to address this is to extend
BAC restrictions for new drivers beyond
the provincial legal drinking age.83 This
approach has been implemented in Ontario,
New Brunswick, and Quebec until a driver
is 21 or 22 years of age;84,85,86 in Nova Scotia
for the first two years after graduating the
GLP; and in Manitoba for the first five years
of driving, including the time spent within
the GLP.87,88
4. Increase Enforcement Checkpoints and

Testing
Sobriety checkpoints, where drivers are
stopped and checked for impairment, have
been found to be very effective in deterring
impaired driving and reducing alcohol-related
MVC fatalities and injuries.67,89 High-visibility
checkpoints and public awareness of both the
checkpoints and the consequences of being
caught can heighten drivers perception of
risk.67,89 In general, sobriety checkpoints can
be either random, where all drivers stopped
are given breath tests, or selective, where
police must have reason to suspect the driver
has been drinking before a breath test can be
requested.67 Under Canadian law, police must
have reasonable suspicion to believe that a
driver is affected by alcohol before they can
request a sample for an approved screening
device, such as a breath test.90 A 2002 research
review found that both random and selective
breath testing at sobriety checkpoints resulted
in decreases in alcohol-related MVCs.89 Indeed,
evidence suggests that random checkpoints
may be more effective at identifying and
deterring drivers from drinking.91,92 Other
countries have introduced further measures.
For example, police in Australia conduct
alcohol blood testing for drivers admitted to
hospital for injuries incurred in MVCs.93 In the
Netherlands, it is also common policy for police
to test drivers involved in MVCs for alcohol.89,94
Although driving while impaired by
psychoactive substances is a criminal offence
in Canada,95 detecting the use of many kinds
of drugs among drivers is considerably more
difficult than detecting the use of alcohol. Some
research suggests that saliva or oral fluid-testing
may become a viable option for detecting
drivers under the influence of cannabis,
but there are currently challenges with this
method.53
5. Increase Penalties
The United Nations recommends penalties be
part of a comprehensive strategy to deter people
from driving while impaired.66 In BC, when
97
police determine that a driver is impaired

by alcohol (based on blood or breath test
to determine BAC) or drugs (based on a
roadside sobriety test or a drug recognition
evaluation), they may seize the persons
drivers licence, issue a driving prohibition
to remove driving privileges for up to 90
days, and impound the drivers vehicle for up
to 30days.96 BC implemented Immediate
Roadside Prohibitions (IRP) for alcohol
impaired driving in 2010.y Based on a sampling
of drivers in June 2012, it was determined
that the IRP program was associated with a
44percent decrease in drivers with a BAC over
0.05, and a 59percent decrease in drivers
with a BAC over 0.08.97 Several studies have
provided compelling evidence that this new
IRP approach to dealing with drinking and
driving in BC has been successful.98,99 Failing
or refusing a breath test can also lead to
criminal charges; a conviction may result in
longer-term driving prohibitions and other
penalties.96 Administrative licence suspension
or revocation for alcohol-impaired drivers
has been shown to reduce MVC injuries
and deaths.100 A US study showed that
immediate penalties are more effective than
delayed penalties at reducing fatal MVC
involvement.101 There is also evidence
that licence suspension can reduce repeat

offences,102 although studies show that
some offenders continue to drive without a
licence.103,104,105
6. Deter Repeat Offenders

A 1995 research review from the Canadian
Traffic Injury Research Foundation estimated
that approximately 35-40percent of
drivers killed in impaired-related MVCs
have previously been arrested for driving
while impaired.106 In BC, drivers with
alcohol- or drug-related driving prohibitions
or convictions may also be referred to the
Responsible Driver Program (see sidebar:
Responsible Driver Program). An ignition
interlock may also be used to deter repeat
offenders. An ignition interlock is a breathtesting device connected to a vehicles
ignition system that is intended to prevent
an alcohol-impaired person from driving
the vehicle. An ignition interlock requires
a breath test from the driver before the
vehicle will start and randomly when the
vehicle is in operation; if a breath sample
tests positive for alcohol, the interlock
prevents the vehicles engine from starting,
or, if the vehicle is in operation, the device
The Responsible Driver Program

The Responsible Driver Program (RDP) is a remedial program for drivers
with alcohol- or other drug-related driving prohibitions or convictions.
Program participants are referred to either classroom education or group
counselling sessions where they learn about the effects of alcohol and other
drugs on driving ability. Such programs, which have been implemented in
numerous Canadian and international jurisdictions, have been shown to
reduce the risk of repeat alcohol- and other drug-related driving offences
and motor vehicle crashes.110 RoadSafetyBC refers BC drivers to the RDP
based on their driving records, and program participants are assessed to
determine their fitness to drive.111,112
IRPs for impaired drivers were temporarily suspended in 2011 after a BC Supreme Court judge ruled that the program in part
violated constitutional rights. Related legislation was amended and the suspension was lifted in May 2012.
y
98
repeatedly instructs the driver to turn off

the vehicle.107If instructions are ignored, an
alarm on the device will sound.107 In 2009 in
BC, the Ignition Interlock Program became
mandatory for those caught driving while
impaired by alcohol and those with certain
alcohol-related driving prohibitions. The use
of ignition interlocks has been associated with
reduced recidivism as long as the interlock is
installed, but evidence reviews published in
2004 and 2011 found no long-term benefit
after the device was removed.108,109
PHYSICAL OR COGNITIVE
IMPAIRMENT
Safe operation of a motor vehicle requires
reliable sensory, cognitive, and motor
functions. In addition to impairment from
substance use, drivers can also be subject
to physical impairment or cognitive
impairment, as is the case with medicallyat-risk drivers and drivers impaired by
drowsiness or fatigue. Individuals whose
mental or physiological conditions may
compromise their ability to drive safely
are at increased risk of MVC involvement
and resulting serious injury or fatality.113
Detecting these forms of impairment may
be difficult and relies heavily upon selfawareness; self-detection; and/or feedback
from a drivers friends, family, and medical
professionals.
Medically-At-Risk Drivers
Medically-at-risk drivers are drivers who may
be impaired due to medical conditions that
impede their ability to drive a vehicle safely.
Driving is a complex task that requires a
combination of vision, cognitive, and motor
functions.114 Individuals with impaired
vision may lack the ability to perceive
visual details necessary for safe driving. For
example, visual field impairments, loss of
contrast sensitivity, loss of depth perception,
double vision, and visual perceptual
difficulties, all impair a drivers ability to
identify risks on the road and operate a
motor vehicle safely on roadways.114,115

Cognitive function includes executive
decision-making, memory, attention,
language, problem-solving, and judgment.114
Cognitive impairments may reduce a drivers
ability to react appropriately to situations on
the road, to recognize risky situations, and to
make quick decisions, as well as to recognize
problems with his or her own driving
ability. A drivers cognitive function may
decline for a variety of reasons; for example,
because of medical conditions such as
stroke, traumatic brain injury, degenerative
diseases (e.g.,dementia), or effects of past
substance use.114,116 A driver must also have
sufficient physical motor function to perform
many complex movements quickly and
precisely in order to safely operate a vehicle.
Physical impairment that impedes muscular
movements and/or sensory functions
(e.g.,medical conditions) lowers a drivers
level of control and/or ability to react and
adapt to the roadway.114,117
Older adults are a growing portion of the
BC population and are more likely than
younger adults to be medically at risk.
While many older adults may be skilled
and experienced drivers, changes related to
aging can make driving more challenging.118
Some changes can include slower reaction
times; reduced range of motion; sensory
impairments (e.g., loss of peripheral vision,
blind spots, contrast sensitivity problems);
and cognitive declines (e.g.,reduced ability
to divide attention between two concurrent
driving tasks).6,119,120,121,122 The likelihood of
dementia and chronic conditions increase
with age,121,123,124 which may then lead to
a combination of cognitive impairment
and substance-based impairment from
99
medications. For example, in 2004

about 75percent of seniors were taking
medication regularly,125 including
those that may adversely affect driving
performance (such as antidepressants and
benzodiazepines).119 Even given this, the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) reports
that, based on data from Britain, the
Netherlands, and Spain, the number of
crashes per1,000 drivers actually decreases
with age, to age75.126 The reason for this
is unclear, and aggregate data may not
account for older drivers who still have a
registered vehicle and/or a drivers licence
but no longer drive. Importantly, agerelated frailty makes older adults more
susceptible to injuries and fatalities if they
are involved in an MVC.126,127,128 One
challenge experienced by older drivers in
BC is that individuals who might otherwise
choose to retire from driving may lack
affordable, accessible, and suitable forms of
alternative transportation, particularly in
more rural and remote communities.129
Sleep-Related Driver Impairment

Driving ability is negatively affected by
fatigue, drowsiness, and other forms of
sleep-related impairment.z Fatigue can set in
because of the repetitiveness or monotony
of driving or during long periods of
driving without a break.130 Driver fatigue
is a recognized issue worldwide.43 Sleeprelated impairment may also result from
lack of sleep due to lifestyle factors, hours
of employment, sleep disorders,131,132 or the
use of alcohol or medications with sedative
effects.130,133 Australian research has found
that after 17 to 19 hours of being awake, a
drivers performance was comparable to the
performance of alcohol-impaired drivers with
0.05 per cent BAC.134
Sleep-related impairment can lead to
dangerous driver behaviours, such as
straying from the correct lane,135 speeding
or driving at inconsistent speeds, making
frequent lane changes, failing to abide
Although fatigue, drowsiness, and other forms of sleep-related impairment may be defined separately, they are also sometimes
used interchangeably; hereafter, fatigue will be used as a catch-all term for forms of sleep-related impairment, unless otherwise
specified in the literature cited.
100
by road signs and traffic lights, and

braking suddenly.130 Fatigued drivers may
also nod off or experience periods of
microsleep; although these may last only
a few seconds, a drivers ability to control
the vehicle is compromised.132 Ultimately,
driver fatigue can lead to sleeping
unexpectedly, resulting in complete loss of
control of the vehicle with potentially fatal
consequences.
In a 2011 poll, 18.5 per cent of Canadians
surveyed reported having fallen asleep
or nodded off even for a moment while
driving in the previous 12 months. Of
these respondents, 40.3 per cent had done
so once, 29.2 per cent had done so twice,
and 30.5 per cent reported having done
so three or more times.136 Table 5.2 shows
the number of fatalities with sleep-related
impairments as contributing factors for
MVC fatalities for 2008-2012. The most
common contributing factor was falling
sleep, which accounted for 53 fatalities
and 3.2 per cent of all MVC fatalities
over those five years. The second most
Table
5.2
common contributing factor was extreme

fatigue, accounting for 29 fatalities and
1.8 per cent of MVC fatalities during
that period.57,132,137 Fatigue is difficult to
measure, and it is likely that its role in
MVCs is underreported since it relies on
a drivers disclosure of fatigue to police
attending the MVC.
Due to the small number of MVC
fatalities attributable to physical and
cognitive impairment in BC, it is not
possible to analyze age- and sex-specific
sleep-related impairment data. However,
research suggests that drivers under age
25 and males (especially young males)
are particularly prone to fatigue-related
MVCs.57,137 Commercial vehicle drivers
are also at increased risk of fatigue-related
MVC involvement.130 In fact, a 2009
road safety survey in Canada of heavy
commercial vehicles found that 8 per cent
of drivers self-reported driving when tired
or fatigued, and about 31 per cent had
fallen asleep or nodded off when driving
at least once in the last year.aa,138
Number and Proportion of Sleep and Medication Impaired-related

Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Impairment Type, BC, 2008-2012
NUMBER OF
FATALITIES
PROPORTION OF
FATALITIES
Extreme Fatigue
29
1.8%
Fell Asleep
53
3.2%
Extreme Fatigue & Fell Asleep
0.5%
SLEEP IMPAIRMENT TYPE
Note: Fatigue and falling asleep are self-reported. Victim may or may not be the impaired person involved in the crash. Data are based on police
reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic
factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, 2008-2012; prepared by BC Injury
This was a random sample, but it captured a very small sample size of commercial truck drivers (N=67). Therefore, these data
should be interpreted with caution.
aa
101
Measures to Prevent and Reduce countries in Europe require mandatory

Physical or Cognitive Impairment medical fitness testing at age 70.141
Preventing Medically At-Risk Driving
Determining whether an individual is unfit
to drive is a complex process that requires
collaboration between individuals, medical
professionals, and licensing agencies. In
Canada, each province and territory has its
own laws and policies to determine whether
a driver is fit to drivesome require doctors
to report unfit drivers to licensing bodies,
some have mandatory medical exams, while
others do not have such mechanisms in
place.1 Due to the potential for declining
cognitive functioning (e.g., Alzheimers or
other types of dementia), many jurisdictions
have policies regarding testing of fitness to
drive specific to age. For example, many
In BC, drivers who have a known or

possible medical condition relevant to
their driving ability, commercial drivers,
and drivers 80years and up are required to
complete a Driver Medical Examination
Report.115,142 If this exam results in the
identification of potential physical or
cognitive impairment that may affect
driving ability, drivers are referred by
RoadSafetyBC for further assessments.
Each year, RoadSafetyBC assesses the
medical fitness to drive of nearly 150,000
BC drivers143 using a variety of assessment
tools. For example, an assessment may
include a vision test, a driving evaluation,
and/or a DriveABLE cognitive assessment
(see sidebar: DriveABLE Assessments in BC).
DriveABLE Assessments in BC
RoadSafetyBC is responsible for making drivers licensing
decisions based on the effect(s) of a medical condition
on a persons ability to drive. When RoadSafetyBC
receives a report of a driver with cognitive impairment
from a physician, family member, police officer, or
other individual, that driver may be referred for further
assessments. For some, further assessments may entail
a DriveABLE cognitive assessment to measure driving
ability.139 About 1,500 BC drivers are referred for a
DriveABLE assessment each year.142
The DriveABLE in-office computerized assessment
evaluates a drivers attention, judgment, decision-making,
motor skills, and memory.ab,140 If they fail, they have an
opportunity to take an onroad evaluation. Results are
submitted to RoadSafetyBC, where an adjudicator or
nurse case manager reviews all of the information and
makes a licensing decision.139
ab
The DriveABLE assessment is a computerized program and it has been criticized by some seniors advocates as being unfair for
older drivers who may not be comfortable using computers.
102
Each year, these assessments result in the

cancellation or denial of driving privileges
for about 4,000drivers (2.7 percent of cases
assessed), and the restriction or reduction of
about 2,500 drivers (1.7percent of cases).143
In BC, under the Motor Vehicle Act, a variety
of medical professionals (e.g., physicians,
registered psychologists, optometrists,
ophthalmologists, and nurse practitioners)
are required to report an individual whose
driving ability may be impaired by a medical
condition to the Superintendent of Motor
Vehicles, if they have already told the
individual to stop driving and he/she fails
to do so.114,144,145,146 The reporting role is a
challenge for many health professionals.
Of Canadian physicians surveyed in
2003, more than 45 per cent reported
that they did not feel confident assessing
their patients fitness to drive, nor did they
consider themselves the most qualified people
to do so.147 About three-quarters felt that
the requirement for them to report a patient
as an unsafe driver was a conflict of interest
and also damaging to the physician-patient
relationship.147 However, the majority of
physicians also felt that it was important to
report unsafe drivers in order to protect public
health, and that they would benefit from
training on how to talk to patients about the
need to stop driving.147
Preventing Sleep-Impaired Driving

When determining how to address issues
regarding sleep-related impairment, the
OECD and European Conference of
Ministers of Transport consider night-time
driving restrictions an effective means of
preventing fatigue-related MVCs among
young drivers.57 Evidence suggests that
teaching drivers to recognize the signs of
sleep-related impairment may be more
effective at reducing fatigue-impaired driving
than recommending that drivers rest after a
given number of hours behind the wheel.148
However, as many drivers continue to drive
fatigued even when they know the risks,
UK researchers have suggested that public
awareness campaigns challenge the belief
that a journey is important enough to
risk driving in a severely fatigued state, as
well as focus on changing attitudes among
high-risk populations and pre-drivingaged youth.133 Although sleep is the only
real antidote to fatigued driving, road
infrastructure that alerts drivers when they
cross a highway line (e.g., shoulder
and/or centre line rumble strips) and secure
highway rest areas (to encourage breaks)
may also be effective at reducing fatiguerelated MVCs.149 Rumble strips and other
road safety infrastructure are discussed
further in Chapter 7.
103
HIGH-RISK DRIVING
High-risk driving is driving a vehicle
aggressively or in a way that may harm
property or another person. High-risk
drivers also refer to individuals who
incur more driving violations than average
drivers.1 High-risk driving may include
risk-taking behaviour or outright hostile
behaviour toward another individual.150
Drivers with previous licence suspensions
and multiple atfault crashes are more
likely to cause future crashes and have a
much higher crash risk compared to other
drivers.1
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police
(RCMP) identify high-risk driving as one
of the top three road safety concerns in
BC, along with seat belt use and impaired
driving.150 High-risk driving includes
driving behaviours such as failing to yield,
ignoring traffic-control devices, following
too closely, speeding, and improper
passing.151 Table5.3 shows the proportion
and number of MVC fatalities with highrisk driving behaviours as contributing
factors. Speeding is the most common highrisk driving behaviour,and was a factor in
Table
5.3
34.9 per cent of MVC fatalities. The next

highest contributing factor was failing to yield
the right-of-way (8.5 per cent) followed by
ignoring a traffic-control device (5.2percent),
improper passing (3.4 per cent), and following
too closely (0.8 per cent). Speed will be
discussed in more detail in Chapter 6.
Road rage is an extreme form of driver
aggression that typically results from high
levels of driver frustration, stress, anger,
and hostility.152,153 It has been defined as
an over-reaction of aggressive thoughts,
behaviours, and emotions of a driver
targeted at a victim in response to a road
related incident.154 A study of a sample of
Ontario residents found that just under
half of respondents reported having
experienced road rage directed at them,
most commonly shouting, cursing, and/or
gesturing at other drivers, and more than
7 per cent reported being threatened with
personal injury or damage to their vehicle.
About one-third of respondents admitted
to shouting, cursing, and/or gesturing at
other road users, and 2 per cent admitted to
threatening to hurt someone or to damage
their vehicle. This study found that males,
younger respondents, higher income earners,
Toronto residents, and never married
Number and Proportion of High-risk Driving-related

Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, by Behaviour Type, BC, 2008-2012
HIGH-RISK DRIVING
BEHAVIOUR TYPE
NUMBER OF
FATALITIES
PROPORTION
OF FATALITIES
Following too Closely
14
0.8%
Improper Passing
56
3.4%
Ignoring a Traffic-control Device
86
5.2%
Failing to Yield Right-of-Way
141
8.5%
Speeding
577
34.9%
Notes: Victim may or may not be the high-risk driver involved in the crash. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
104
respondents were most likely to admit

to shouting, cursing, and making rude
gestures.155 High-risk driving behaviours are
frequently associated with youth,150 male
youth in particular,57,58,154,156,157 and research
from Canada and other jurisdictions has
also found road rage to be a behaviour
predominantly exhibited by younger
males.154 According to a study of road rage
incidents reported in Canadian newspapers
between 1998 and 2000, 96.6 per cent of
perpetrators were male, with an average
ageof 33.158
The primary mechanism by which many
jurisdictions deter and penalize high-risk
driving behaviour is the demerit point
system.1 In this system, points are assigned
based on traffic violations with increasingly
severe financial penalties with increasing
points.1 The majority of European Union
countries, the US, and Canada use this
system.1 In BC, there may also be penalty
points imposed when police issue a ticket
to a driver for committing a traffic offence.
Each year, fees are assessed and billed to
drivers, who pay premiums based on the
number of points they were assigned in
the assessment period.159 However, there
is currently a lack of research supporting
the sustained success of demerit point
programs.1
In addition to penalty points in BC, ICBC
penalizes high-risk drivers with the Driver
Risk Premium if they have one or more
driving-related Criminal Code convictions;
one or more Motor Vehicle Act convictions
of 10 points or more; one or more excessive
speeding convictions; or two or more
roadside suspensions/prohibitions.160 Another
way to keep high-risk drivers off the road
is to restrict the sale of vehicle insurance.1
For optimal effect, programs must be
implemented in conjunction with consistent
police enforcement and public education.1
SUMMARY
Road user behaviours and impairment
have a significant impact on road safety.
Impairment includes road user distraction;
substance-based impairment (alcohol and
other drugs, including prescription and
over-the-counter medications); physical or
cognitive impairment (this includes medically
at-risk drivers, age-related cognitive or sensory
impairments, and driving while fatigued),
and high-risk driving. As discussed in this
chapter, males are at increased risk for motor
vehicle crash (MVC) fatalities related to
some of these behaviours and conditions,
particularly distracted driving, substanceimpaired driving, and high-risk driving.
Further, impairment-related MVC fatalities
are overwhelmingly experienced by youth
age 16-25, especially males. Recognizing and
addressing problematic driver behaviours and
impairment can help to improve the health
and safety of all road users. Strategies that
combine public education and awareness,
legislation and enforcement, and penalties
for unsafe behaviours can help to reduce
the burden of MVCs and related injuries
and fatalities on BC roads. For maximum
effectiveness, such strategies should focus on
higher-risk populations, such as young and
new drivers, male drivers, commercial drivers,
and those who are medically at-risk.
The next chapter will investigate the role of
safe speeds in promoting road safety in BC.
105
106
Chapter 6: Safe Speeds
Chapter 6
Safe Speeds
INTRODUCTION
Speed is the top road safety problem in many
countries.1 Globally, it is an aggravating
factor in the severity of all motor vehicle
crashes (MVCs) and the causal factor in
about one-third of fatal MVCs.1Safe speed
is one of the four pillars of a Safe System
Approach (SSA) and is closely linked
with the other pillars. Interventions to
prevent speeding or reduce the severity of
speed-related MVCs focus on road user
behaviour, roadway engineering, and vehicle
modifications. This chapter provides an
overview of speed in BC, including relevant
laws, enforcement, and trends. It examines
the burden of speed-related MVCs in BC in
relation to serious injuries and fatalities. The
chapter concludes with a discussion about
options for speed management in BC.
Speeding in BC includes driving faster
than the designated speed limit and driving
too fast for the conditions (which may
be lower than a posted limit). Excessive
speeding is defined in the BC Motor Vehicle
Act as driving more than 40 km/h over
the speed limit.3 Default speed limits in
BC are designated in the Act as 50 km/h
in municipalities and 80 km/h outside of
municipalities.3 The speed limit near schools
and playgrounds is 30 km/h when signs are
present and within specified hours. While
these speed limits are static and applicable
on all roads in BC, both municipalities
and the Minister of Transportation and
Infrastructure have legislated power to
modify speed limits.4 For example, some
highways in BC have speed limits as high as
120 km/h, while some municipalities have

sections of road with a 30 or 40 km/h speed
limit.7
Speed impacts MVCs in two main ways.
First, when a vehicle travels at a higher
speed, the time for a driver to react decreases
but the distance required to stop increases,
which results in more MVCs occurring.1,5 In
fact, the risk of an MVC involving a serious
injury increases exponentially with the
speed of the vehicle, doubling with each five
kilometres per hour in travel speeds above
60 km/h.6 Second, when MVCs do occur,
higher speeds mean greater kinetic energy5
and result in greater physical force of impact
and increased severity of crashes,1,7 resulting
in an exponentially increased risk of a serious
injury or fatality.8 Research underscores the
susceptibility of vulnerable road users to
injuries and death that is directly attributable
to vehicle speeds: 90 percent of pedestrians
speed is the number one contributing factor to

fatalities in car accidents in the province. The faster you
go, the less likely youll walk away from a crash. Anything
we can do to reduce speed in turn reduces the number of
needless tragedies on our roads and highways.

Cpl. Jamie Chung, Langley RCMP E Division Traffic
Services, as quoted in BC Ministry of Public Safety and
Solicitor General, Government Set to Target B.C.s Worst
Speeders 2
107
survive when struck by a vehicle travelling

30 km/h, but only 20 per cent survive when
struck at 50 km/h.1
In addition to its negative impact on road
safety, speeding impedes traffic flow and
increases fuel consumption, emissions, and
traffic noise. It also impacts on quality of
life in related areasfor example, residents
may fear speeding vehicles and not feel safe
walking or cycling in their communities.1
Despite these potential consequences, people
continue to drive fast, speed limits are
sometimes set above the survivable speed for
the related roadway type, and roadways do
not always encourage drivers to travel at a
safe speed.1
One of the main reasons people speed is
because driving faster is perceived to result
in shorter travel times;1 however, few studies
have examined how much time is actually
saved by speeding. Preliminary findings
from one study found that time saved was
negligiblean average of only 26 seconds
per day, based on 106 drivers over 3,049
driving hours.9 Others may speed because it
gives them a sense of freedom or excitement.1
Drivers may also not fully understand the
physics and relative risks of speed rates.
SPEED BEHAVIOUR IN CANADA

AND BC
Evidence suggests that Canadians do
recognize that speeding is dangerous and
that they associate speed with risk of
collision, injury, and death.10 Despite this
awareness, a 2005 national survey found
that 71percent of Canadians reported
speeding on occasion or frequently, a
trend mirrored in other Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) countries.1 Additionally,
61percent of Canadians reported receiving
at least one speeding ticket in their lives,
and indicated that the top reasons for
108
speeding were to avoid being late, because

they thought the speed limits were too low,
or because they were not paying attention to
how fast they were travelling.10 This survey
found that speeding tickets were correlated
to self-reported speeding, and that British
Columbians reported that they have received
more speeding tickets per capita than other
Canadians.10
In BC, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
(RCMP) and municipal police both enforce
traffic laws, including speed limits. For
traffic violations involving speeding, police
issue tickets ranging from $138 to $483. In
addition to the immediate fine, drivers incur
penalty points that may result in further
financial costs. Excessive speeding carries
the consequence of vehicle impoundment,
as well as the driver incurring the Driver
Risk Premium (for more information visit
the Insurance Corporation of BC [ICBC]
website at www.ICBC.com).11 Integrated
Road Safety Units (IRSUs) are groups of
police officers from multiple jurisdictions
who work across municipal borders to
address specific dangerous driving
behaviours, including speeding. IRSUs
concentrate on traffic enforcement to prevent
serious MVCs, rather than responding to
MVCs that have already occurred.12
According to RoadSafetyBC, police issue
approximately 10,000 tickets per year for
excessive speeding in BC.13 Results from the
2011 BC Drivers Public Attitude Survey
showed substantial increases in public
perceptions of both police commitment to
traffic enforcement and the likelihood of
being caught while speeding, from 2010 to
2011. In 2011, 41 per cent of respondents
felt that police were very committed
to enforcing traffic laws, (compared to
18percent in 2010), and the percentage
who reported that it was very likely to be
caught if driving more than 20 km/h over the
speed limit increased by 97 per cent between
2010 and 2011.14
BURDEN OF SPEED-RELATED
MVCS IN BC
In BC from 2006 to 2013, speed was the top
contributing factor cited in police reports
for police-attended MVCs in which there
was a fatality. Only in 2013 was this factor
surpassed by driver distraction.ac,15
As shown in Figure 6.1, over the last 18 years
the number of MVC fatalities overall has
decreased substantially, from 469 in 1996 to
269 in 2013. The number of speed-related
fatalities was highest in 2002 and 2005 (at
183 and 181, respectively) and has been
generally decreasing since 2005, down to
78 in 2013. Similarly, the speed-related
proportion of MVC fatalities has been
decreasing in recent years and reached its
lowest proportion in 2013, at 29.0 per cent.
Figure
Since 1996, a number of road safety programs

and initiatives have been developed in BC
that have likely impacted the trends shown
here. For example, a photo radar program was
introduced in BC in 1996, and likely accounts
in part for the reduced the number of speedrelated fatalities over the three years following
its implementation (1997 to 1999). However,
in 2001, the program was cancelled, and this
cancellation likely accounts in part for the
subsequent increase in speed-related fatalities
500
5.0
450
4.5
400
4.0
350
3.5
300
3.0
250
2.5
200
2.0
150
1.5
100
1.0
50
0.5
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
469
429
429
409
396
394
457
448
440
452
402
411
354
363
364
292
280
269
Number of Speed-related MVC Fatalities
171
157
153
139
155
165
183
161
146
181
146
167
133
133
113
98
100
78
Speed-related MVC Fatality Rate
4.4
4.0
3.8
3.5
3.8
4.0
4.5
3.9
3.5
4.3
3.4
3.9
3.1
3.0
2.5
2.2
2.2
1.7
Speed-related Proportion of Fatalities
36.5
36.6
35.7
34.0
39.1
41.9
40.0
35.9
33.2
40.0
36.3
40.6
37.6
36.6
31.0
33.6
35.7
29.0
Speed-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

6.1
0.0
Year
Notes: "Speed-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: unsafe speed,
exceeding speed limit, excessive speed over 40 km/h, and/or driving too fast for conditions. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor
vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design).
See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Source: Fatality data are from the Police Traffic Accident System, Business Information Warehouse, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia,
1996-2013; population estimates are from the BC Stats website, April 2015. Prepared by BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit, 2014; and
Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
As noted in earlier chapters of this report, these contributing factors are based on police reports from police-attended MVCs, so
they emphasize human factors rather than other systemic factors.
ac
109
(this program will be further discussed later

in this chapter). Impoundment rules and
penalties for excessive speeding violations
that came into effect in September 201016
may explain at least part of the reduction in
speed-related fatalities from 2010 onward.
Figure 6.2 shows the distribution of speedrelated MVC fatalities by road user type
on average for 2009-2013. While these
data do not indicate who was at fault
(i.e.,whether the driver fatalities were those
who were speeding), they do show that
drivers represented the largest proportion
of speed-related fatalities at 49.6 per cent.
This figure shows that vulnerable road users
are heavily impacted by speed as well, with
motorcyclists, pedestrians, and cyclists
making up a total of 19.9 per cent of speedrelated fatalities.
Figure 6.3 displays the average speed-related
fatality rates per 100,000 population by
sex and age group for 2009-2013. These
numbers show that individuals age 1625
had the highest speed-related fatality rates
Figure
6.2
among the age groups, and that the rates

decrease until age 65 for females and until
age 75 for males. Research indicates that
young drivers are likely overrepresented in
MVCs due to a variety of factors, many of
which may contribute directly or indirectly
to speed-related fatalities, such as lack of
driving experience, lack of maturity, statusseeking and risky behaviour, increased
likelihood of driving while impaired, and
not wearing a seat belt.17,18,19 This figure also
shows that males had higher speed-related
fatality rates than females across all age
groups.
Figure 6.4 shows age-standardized speedrelated fatality rates by sex from 1996 to
2013. This figure shows that males have had
a consistently higher speed-related fatality
rate than females across these 18 years
often double or triple the female rate. The
male rate shows increases in 2002, 2005,
and 2007, which are not seen in the female
rate for those years; in fact, in comparison
to males, the rate for females has remained
relatively stable across the 18-year period
Proportion of Speed-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

Passenger Vehicle
Passenger
29.5%
49.6%
15.1%
Motorcycle Occupant
Passenger Vehicle
Driver
4.4%
0.4%
Other
1.0%
Cyclist
Pedestrian
occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. "Speed-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of
the contributing factors: unsafe speed, exceeding speed limit, excessive speed over 40 km/h, and/or driving too fast for conditions. Data are based on police
reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors
(e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
110
Figure
Speed-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatality

6.3

(with 95% CI)
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.7
6.9
4.6
3.8
3.3
2.2
1.6
2.8
Female
0.4
3.5
1.6
1.3
1.1
0.8
1.2
0.6
Age Group
Notes: "Speed-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: unsafe speed, exceeding
speed limit, excessive speed over 40 km/h, and/or driving too fast for conditions. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. There
were fewer than five cases where the age group was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. Data are based on police reports from
police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle
design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
Figure
Age-standardized Speed-related Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population,

by Sex, BC, 1996 to 2013
6.4
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Male
7.0
6.0
6.0
5.3
5.6
6.1
7.1
6.1
5.3
7.1
5.2
5.7
4.4
4.7
3.6
2.7
3.1
2.6
Female
2.0
2.1
2.0
1.7
2.1
2.1
1.9
1.8
2.0
1.9
2.0
2.1
1.6
1.2
1.4
1.7
1.5
1.1
BC
4.5
4.1
4.0
3.5
3.9
4.1
4.5
4.0
3.6
4.5
3.6
3.9
3.0
3.0
2.5
2.2
2.3
1.8
Year
Notes: "Speed-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: unsafe speed,
exceeding speed limit, excessive speed over 40 km/h, and/or driving too fast for conditions. Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991
Census population. There were 33 cases where the age group and/or sex was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. Data are based on
police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic
factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
111
According to a Canadian survey about

speeding, male drivers reported receiving
twice as many tickets during their life as
female drivers (4.6 tickets compared to
2.3tickets).10 Female drivers were found
to be most often classified as cautious
drivers, meaning they speed less often and
have a negative opinion of speeding, while
58 per cent of male drivers reported that
they drive over the speed limit frequently.
The same survey found that females may
feel pressured to drive at a higher speed
than they prefer in order to avoid aggressive
drivers and to keep up with traffic.10
Speed and Impairment
shown, with only a minor decline since

2007. This has resulted in the gap between
males and females narrowing over time. Both
sexes reached their lowest rate in 2013, at
2.6 per 100,000 population for males and
1.1 per 100,000 for females. Programming
targeted at males may help to further lower
the related rate.
Table
6.1
Table 6.1 shows the number of speed- and

impairment-related fatalities for 20092013
in BC. In this five-year period there were
326 MVC fatalities in which speed (and
not impairment) was the contributing
factor identified in police reports, and
another 196fatalities in which speed
and impairment were both contributing
factors.20 This demonstrates that speed and
impairment are key factors in road safety
and that related interventions may be most
efficient if they focus on both factors.
Number and Proportion of Speed- and Impairment-related

Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities, BC, 2009-2013
NUMBER OF
FATALITIES
PROPORTION OF
MVC FATALITIES
Impairment-related
(speed not a factor)
232
14.8%
Speed-related
(impairment not a factor)
326
20.8%
Both impairment- and

speed-related
196
12.5%
Total
(impairment- and/or speed-related)
754
48.1%
CONTRIBUTING FACTOR
Notes: "Impaired-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: alcohol
involvement, prescribed medication and/or drug involvement. Victim may or may not be the impaired person involved in the crash. "Speed-related"
fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in a crash had any one of the contributing factors: unsafe speed, exceeding speed limit,
excessive speed more than 40 km/h above speed limit, and/or driving too fast for conditions. Data are based on police reports from police-attended
motor vehicle crashes; therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design,
roadway design). See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
112
MANAGING SPEED LIMITS

Education, speed limits, enforcement,
legislation, roadway design, and vehicle
design all help to manage speed, but it also
requires active awareness and responsibility
of drivers. Speed limits are an important
mechanism to achieve appropriate speeds
on roadways and to enable appropriate
interventions for drivers who drive at unsafe
speeds.1 Road safety requires that speed
limits be appropriate for the roadway design
and for the types of crashes that may occur,
including the types of road users that are
likely to be involved in those crashes; that
drivers abide by posted limits and account
for road and weather conditions in their
driving; and that vehicle design assists drivers
in maintaining safe speeds. Research shows
that when speed is reduced, the number of
crashes and the severity of injuries are both
lowered and overall road safety is improved.8
This section reviews the importance of speed
for road safety, how speed limits are set, and
mechanisms used to control and/or monitor
speed.
Speed Limits and Road Safety

Speed limits are designed to limit vehicle
speeds for road user safety. There is an
existing and expanding body of research
showing a clear relationship between safe
speeds and road safety. Vehicle safety
features that are designed to protect
vehicle occupants in the event of an MVC
(e.g.,vehicle crumple zones, air bags, and
seat belts) work best at low or moderate
speeds and cannot completely offset the
physics at play in high-speed MVCs.1
Vulnerable road users are even more
susceptible to death and serious injury in
high-speed MVCs. Research shows that
pedestrians have a 10percent risk of dying
when hit at 30 km/h, but an 80per cent risk
of dying when hit at 50km/h.1 Evidence
shows that to reduce serious injuries and
fatalities among pedestrians, vehicle speed in
urban areas and other areas with pedestrian
activity should be 30 km/h or below.1
Evidence has shown that reducing the

average speed of traffic reduces the number
of MVCs, as well as the number and severity
of MVC-related injuries that occur over the
road length where the speed was reduced.21
For example, the Nilsson Power Model,
validated with Swedish and international
data, provides estimates for the changes in
MVCs resulting in injury, serious injury, or
fatality associated with changes in speed.
Overall, this model shows that when the
mean speed of traffic is reduced, the number
of crashes and the severity of injuries
decrease. Conversely, when the mean speed
of traffic increases, the number of crashes
and the severity of injuries will increase.22,23
The model has been adapted to recognize
the greater safety gains from decreasing
higher speeds compared to low speeds.24,25
Additionally, a recent 20-year time series
study in London, England demonstrated
that introducing 20 mph zones (32 km/h)
reduced MVCs and associated injuries and
fatalities. In this study, introduction of these
lower speed zones was associated with a
42percent reduction in road fatalities.26
Studies have shown that raising speed limits
increases the number of MVCs that involve
injuries and fatalities.27 In the 1980s, several
US and European jurisdictions increased
their speed limits; a review of 18studies
showed that almost every one of these
increases were paralleled by increases in
MVC fatalities.28 Reviews of the results of
If government wants to develop a road transport system

in which nobody is killed or permanently injured, speed
is the most important factor to regulate.
R. Elvik, P. Christensen, A. Amundsen, Speed and Road
Accidents: An Evaluation of the Power Model 22
113
the 1995 repeal of US federal speed limit

controls found an overall rise of 3.2percent
in fatal MVCs attributable to increased speed
limits29 and a 36 to 37 per cent increase
in fatalities on rural interstate highways.30
Similarly, research from Australia found
that raising the speed limit from 100 to
110km/h resulted in a 24.6 per cent increase
in MVCs with injuries.31 In addition,
research shows speed limit increases have a
broader impact on the roadway system in a
speed spillover effect, whereby vehicle speeds
increase on nearby roadways where limits
were not increased. This is demonstrated by
increased fatalities on adjacent roadways after
speed limit increase.32,33,34
In July 2014, the Ministry of Transportation
and Infrastructure (MoTI) increased speed
limits on 1,300 kilometres of rural highways
in BC, and created a new maximum speed
in BC of 120 km/hour (see Figure 6.5).35
This took place despite widespread concern
from related experts, including medical
professionals, various health authorities, the
Provincial Health Officer, police chiefs, the
RCMP, the BC Trucking Association, the
BC Cycling Coalition, RoadSafetyBC in
the BC Ministry of Justice, and a selection
of university researchers.36 In a study of
Figure
ambulance calls for road trauma, researchers

found an 11.1 per cent increase in road
trauma calls in the six months following the
increased limits.37 The study was not able to
determine whether increases were isolated
to roads where speed limits increased or if
it was a rise across all roads in the province;
therefore, the researchers suggest that this
issue continue to be monitored and be more
comprehensively evaluated.37
In June, 2015, the MoTI introduced changes
to the Motor Vehicle Act, supported by new
highway signage throughout the province
requiring drivers to move into the right lane
to let drivers travelling at higher speeds pass
(see Figure 6.5). The focus of this initiative
is to provide legal provisions and public
messaging to prevent vehicles travelling at
lower speeds from impeding other, faster
drivers, and to clarify language in legislation
to allow police to enforce this provision
among slower drivers.35
While evidence clearly supports the road
safety benefits of lower speed limits, lowering
speed limits is not enough to change driver
behaviour. Research shows that when a
speed limit is lowered by 10 km/h, the actual
average speed on the road decreases by only
Sample of Signage in BC
6.5
New maximum
speed limit in BC
Keep Right
signage
Notes: These roadway signs were introduced in BC in 2014 and 2015. Reproduced with permission.
114
3 to 4 km/h.1(p.100),8 Therefore, to achieve the

optimal outcomes, lowered speed limits need
to be accompanied by education, changes to
infrastructure, and enforcement.1
Setting Speed Limits

Around the world, most countries set speed
limits according to the classification of
roads. Most speed limits are representative
of the fastest speed at which drivers of light
vehicles can travel safely with ideal road
conditions.1 They typically range from
30 to 50 km/h on urban roads and from
70 to 110km/h on rural roads and main
highways, depending on roadway design.1
A number of international jurisdictions
allow higher speeds (e.g., Bulgaria, US
states such as Montana and Texas) or
unlimited speed (e.g., Germanys autobahn)
on sections of their highway systems.38

Notably, Germany has a comparatively
low MVC fatality rate of 4.4 per 100,000
populationad,39 despite their unlimited
autobahn speeds. The autobahn has been
specially designed for fast-moving vehicles
(e.g., there are no opportunities for head-on
or right-angle MVCs, and pedestrians and
cyclists are not permitted).38,40 Germany also
has comprehensive road safety policies,39
including an aggressive goal to reduce MVC
fatalities by 40 percent under the motto
each traffic death is one too many.41
Further, licensing processes in Germany
are more extensive than in BC, requiring
attendance at mandatory classes,42 success
in both theoretical and practical exams,43
and additional licensing requirements for
different licence classification levels.43 They
also have national speed limits on other
roads;39 and very strict autobahn driving
rules enforced by the specialized autobahn
police force, who are trained and equipped
with specialized vehicles.38
Types of Speed Limits

Most speed limits are static and unchanging;
however, speed limits can also be subject to
advisories, be variable, or be dynamic.
Advisory speeds are used by some
jurisdictions (including BC) on sections of
road that suggest a lower speed limit due to
conditions or design (e.g., corners). These
advisory speeds are often recommended
speeds that are not enforced, as is the case in
BC.44 Enforcement can often be difficult due
to the challenges inherent in the locations
where advisory speeds are posted.1
Variable speed limits are speed limits that
are different from the overall speed limit
for an area, based on considerations of the
roadway, driver, and/or vehicle. Sections
of road might be set at lower speed limits
depending on the season (e.g., winter), time
of day (e.g., nighttime), weather conditions
ad
This is a crude rate, calculated based on 3,648 MVC fatalities in a population of 82,302,468 in 2010.
115
(e.g., fog), the environment around the

roadway (e.g., school zones, parks), the type
of driver (e.g., young or novice), or type of
vehicle (e.g., heavy vehicles, commercial
vehicles). While variable limits are set
based on a specific factor or condition,
they are consistent in their application. In
BC, variable speed limits are used in park
and school zones, on some highways at
night, and where MVCs involving wildlife
are common. Other jurisdictions also use
variable speed limits.45 Many countries have
different speed limits for heavy trucks and
buses on rural roads, with some countries
preventing these vehicles from exceeding
those limits through the use of mandatory
speed limiters1 (for more information, see
Chapter 8).
Dynamic speed limits are speed limits
activated based on specific conditions as they
happen.1 For example, when traffic volume
is heavy or the weather conditions are poor,
a dynamic speed limit will be activated and
displayed on a digital sign. Germany uses
dynamic speeds on highways to reduce speed
limits when weather is poor.1
Determining Speed Limits

Speed limits are set using various
methodologies. In BC, the Motor Vehicle
Act establishes a 50 km/h speed limit within
municipalities and 80 km/h outside of
municipalities. The 85th percentile method
is used to determine a highways regulatory
Table
6.2
speed limits, which range from 50 to

120km/h. The 85th percentile method
sets the speed limit as the speed under
which 85per cent of drivers travel.44 This
method does not reflect the more advanced
understanding of the risks associated with
higher speeds or the mix of road users,
and does not consider the full roadway
system.1(p.94) Speed limits can also be set
based on the survivable speed, type of road
(e.g.,windy roads with many private access
roads or driveways would have a lower speed
limit).8 In practice, jurisdictions around the
world use a mixture of these methods.8
Speed is a key determining factor in the
potential to survive an MVC. Table 6.2
outlines the maximum speeds that humans
can survive given a particular scenario and
road type. For example, 30 km/hr is the
survivable speed for vulnerable road users
such as pedestrians and cyclists, and so speed
limits of 30 km/hr would be safest for local
neighbourhood roads and other mixed use
roads where vulnerable road users are not
protected via infrastructure.
In addition to these established methods
for setting speed limits, two additional
approaches are emerging. The first is to use
an SSA, which focuses on setting speed
limits in conjunction with modifications
to infrastructure to reduce the severity of
MVCs.1 This technique emphasizes changing
both speed limits and the environment
instead of just relying on one part of the
Survivable Speed and Road Type,

by Road User and Motor Vehicle Crash Type
ROAD USER AND

MVC TYPE
SURVIVABLE SPEED
TYPICAL ROAD TYPE WHERE

SURVIVABLE SPEED LIMIT
LIKELY TO APPLY
30 km/hr
Local and other mixed use roads where

vulnerable road users are not protected
50 km/hr
Minor and major roads where side-impact

MVCs are possible, especially with intersections
Vehicle occupant in a
front-impact MVC
70 km/hr
Minor and major roads where

front-impact MVCs are possible
Vehicle occupants in MVC with

no frontal or side impact
100 km/hr
Major roads that are designed so that

neither front- nor side-impact MVCs are possible
Vulnerable road user

(pedestrian or cyclist) involved MVC
Vehicle occupant in a
side-impact MVC
Sources: Adapted from: Arason N. 2014. No Accident: Eliminating Injury and Death on Canadian Roads; 62 and Tingval C, Haworth N. 1999. Vision Zero-An
Ethical Approach to Safety and Mobility.63
116
larger road system to create safe roads. The

second approach includes setting a speed
limit that poses lower risk to road users,
based on assessment of the combined risk
of traffic speed, traffic volume, the different
types of vehicles, road user types on the road,
and the relevant infrastructure.1
SPEED CONTROL AND

ENFORCEMENT
Some methods of speed control discourage
speeding among drivers (such as increasing
driver awareness and enhancing or
expanding driver education), while some
can actually prevent them from speeding.
Others integrate speeding deterrence and
enforcement. The conventional method
for speed limit enforcement in BC is
roadside ticketing by enforcement officers.
As technology has advanced, alternatives
to this conventional speed control method
have been developed, and some of them are
used in BC. Some alternatives include speed
reader boards (or radar speed signs), speed
cameras, section control, vehicle design, and
roadway design.
Speed Reader Boards

Speed reader boards (or radar speed signs)
are signs on the side of the road that
display the speed of passing cars, calculated
using radar, and they are used around the
province.46 A study in Fredericton, New
Brunswick revealed that up to four years
after installation in school zones, these signs
were effective at reducing average speeds.47
In a Canadian driver attitude survey,
72percent of Canadians were supportive of
the wider use of these roadside signs.10
a ticket. This method removes the positive

reinforcement of speeding (by preventing the
driver from getting to their destination more
quickly), provides immediate feedback for
the driver, and allows the enforcement officer
to explain to the driver what they have done
wrong. Further, vehicles that have different
speed limits (e.g., trucks that have lower
limits) can be identified.
Speed Cameras
Speed cameras, also known as photo radar,
detect when a vehicle is speeding using laser
or radar technology and photograph the
speeding vehicle. Tickets are then issued to
the owner of the vehicle based on registration
information obtained from the photographed
licence plate. Speed cameras are used all
over the world (e.g.,the Netherlands, New
Zealand, Australia, France, and the UK).1
There are many ways that speed cameras
can be deployed. They can be fixed at
one location or be mobile (which makes
enforcement unpredictable and broadens
deterrence); they can be operated by trained
personnel or have automated functionality;
they can be used on different types of
roadways; they can be visible or hidden; and
they can have different speed enforcement
thresholds.48 The effectiveness of speed
cameras has been widely studied1 since they
were first introduced in Norway in 1988.49
According to a 2009 Cochrane Review,
Roadside Speed Violation Tickets

Speed limits are most often enforced in BC
through conventional speed control, which
usually includes one law enforcement officer
who measures the speed of a vehicle using
a radar or laser speed measurement device
and another who stops the vehicle to issue
117
speed camera technology consistently

resulted in speed reductions, although the
studies reviewed had some methodological
weaknesses, leading to less conclusive
findings for reducing MVC injuries and
fatalities. The review recommended that
speed camera programs consistently collect
and report on data for follow-up periods
after implementation.50
In March 1996, the BC provincial
government implemented a speed camera
(photo radar) program that included
30mobile units, each consisting of a law
enforcement officer and camera inside an
unmarked vehicle on the roadside. The
program initially followed established
guidelines regarding placement of the
units, which were deployed in areas that
had high MVC rates or where complaints
regarding speed were common. Enforcement
thresholds were set at the 85th percentile,
which was typically 11 km over the posted
limit. Vehicle owners were mailed violation
tickets beginning in August 1996. Fines
ranged from $115 to $173, with the
higher amounts for speeding in school
and construction zones. Public support
for the program was fairly high when first
implemented, and a review of the BC photo
radar program showed it did demonstrate
successful outcomesin seven months,
speeding vehicles in deployment sites
decreased by 50 per cent. Within the first
year of the program, daytime speed-related
MVCs were reduced by 25 per cent, and
there was a 17 per cent reduction in daytime
speed-related MVC fatalities.49 However,
after some time, location restrictions were
relaxed, and in November 1997, fines were
increased to a range of $115 to $460. Public
opinion changed as the program developed
a reputation as a revenue generator for
government rather than as a road safety
initiative, and the program became a
platform issue in the next provincial election.
In June 2001, the program was cancelled by
the newly elected government, after just five
years.51 The implementation and subsequent
cancellation of the program likely account
for a component of the MVC-related fatality
trends shown in Figure 6.1, in which the
118
number and rate of speed-related MVC

fatalities decreased from 1996 to 1999 but
increased to the highest recorded number
and rate in 2002.
Section Control
Section control, also known as point-topoint speed enforcement, average speed
enforcement, and time-over-distance
cameras, has been used in some countries
since the late 1990s and works by measuring
the average speed of a vehicle on a section
of road. The average speed is calculated
based on the length of the section of road
and the time it takes the vehicle to travel
through that section, as determined by timestamped photographs taken of the vehicle
as it enters and leaves the section.52 Section
control is designed to facilitate reduction
of speed across a whole section of road,
rather than just one spot (as with speed
cameras).53 It is usually implemented across
a section of road measuring 2 to 5 km. It
can be operated 24hours a day, resulting
in a greater likelihood of speeders being
caught,54 and enforcement can be set for any
given threshold to allow for small or large
variations in speed.55
In 2008, the OECD reported that section
control was in use in the Netherlands,
Switzerland, Australia, the UK, Austria,
and the Czech Republic.1 A 2012 review
of international literature on section
control found that this method of speed
control resulted in increased compliance
with posted speed limits, reduced speeds,
reduced levels of excessive speeding, and
decreased speed variability among vehicles.
The comprehensive review included
consultations with Australian, New Zealand
and international stakeholders. This work
resulted in 34 best practice recommendations
to guide implementation efforts, including
operational technology, legislation,
public education, evaluation, and privacy
recommendations.56 Another international
literature review in 2012 associated this
technology with decreased rates of MVCs, as
well as reduced related fatalities and serious
injuries. Other positive impacts included
improvements in traffic flow and decreased

emissions. The researchers also found that
section control had high public acceptability.
While the review reported that the
technology is expensive, its high reliability
led the researchers to conclude that the
reduction in social and economic costs from
MVCs meant a positive cost-benefit ratio.57
Controlling Speed with Vehicle

Design
Intelligent speed adaptation (ISA) is a
vehicle technology where speed limits are
communicated to the vehicle either via
electrical signals from a beacon/transmitter
attached to roadside infrastructure or via
GPS (global positioning system) technology,
and then the technology intervenes if
the driver is speeding.58 There are two
main types of ISA. The first variation is
informative, which alerts the driver
that they are exceeding the speed limit
through a visual, auditory, or physical cue
(e.g.,vibration or upward pressure on gas
pedal). The second type of ISA is a speed
limiting variation in which the driver is
prevented from driving faster than the limit
through the use of engine and braking
systems in the vehicle. Both alerting and
speed limiting ISA systems have override
functions in place for situations that require
a faster speed.58 Both types of ISA can be
voluntary, in which the driver would elect
to use the device, or mandatory, where the
ISA would be activated at all times based on
the discretion and policies of government or
private companies.1
The European Transport Safety Council
is a strong advocate for ISA technology,
stating that it will result in safer roads, and
is cost-effective and reliable.1,59 The speed
limiting type of ISA has been found to be
more effective at reducing speeds, but the
informative type has been found to be more
acceptable to drivers.58 Countries around
the world have trialed ISA with a variety
of results, including the UK, Sweden, the
Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Hungary,
France, and Australia.1,58 In a review of
international research, researchers found
Most automobiles are capable

of going two to three times faster
than the highest speed limits in
Canada.
Eliminating Injury and Death
on Canadian Roads 62(p.179)
that the benefits of ISA include a reduction

of 5 km/h or more in average speeds, and
reductions in speed violations.58 Results of
simulation research in the UK estimate that
if speed-limiting ISA fittings were mandatory
on all vehicles, and were supplied basic speed
limit information, an estimated 20per cent
of injury MVCs and 37 per cent of fatal
MVCs could be prevented in the UK.60
ISA trials in Sweden (using informative
ISA) project reductions in serious MVCs
by 20percent.1 A 2010 review identified
some challenges with this technology,
including driver frustration, closer vehicle
following, increased travel time, uncertainty
of compliance/use of the system, and
uncertainty of consumer acceptability.61
Controlling Speed with Roadway

Design
Overall, the majority of drivers will drive at
a speed that they consider reasonable and
safe. Evidence suggests that if a set speed
limit is higher or lower than the speed a
driver perceives as appropriate for the road,
most drivers will ignore the posted limit.7
This reinforces the need to design roadway
features that communicate the appropriate
and safe speed.
There are a number of road features used in
BC and other jurisdictions, especially in areas
with high pedestrian and cyclist activity,
to reduce speeds and speed-related MVCs.
Intentional elevations in a roadwayspeed
humps and raised pedestrian crosswalksare
effective roadway features.8 Speed humps
119
SUMMARY
are elevations that are usually the height of

the pedestrian curb and span a residential
roadway,8 and the shape and width can vary.
Evidence shows that speed humps reduce
speed where they are installed, reduce MVCs
with injuries by an estimated 41per cent,
and reduce traffic volume where installed
without increasing MVCs on neighbouring
roads without speed humps.8 Raised
pedestrian crossings are similar to speed
humps because the driver must slow down
to transverse the elevated plane. They have
been estimated to reduce injury MVCs by
42and65 per cent, compared to regular
marked crosswalks and no crosswalks,
respectively.8 Another way to modify the
roadway is to make it narrower; for example,
by widening the sidewalk pavement at
intersections, which encourages cars to
slow down.27 Rumble strips installed across
the stretch of roadway approaching an
intersection can also be used to warn drivers
to slow down, and they have been shown
to reduce injury MVCs by 33 per cent in a
review of international studies.27
Improving road safety through roadway
design and vehicle design will be discussed
further in Chapters 7 and 8, respectively.
120
Speed is one of the Safe System Approach

pillars, and driving at unsafe speeds is a
leading concern for road safety in BC. The
number and rate of speed-related motor
vehicle crash (MVC) fatalities have been
decreasing in recent years, but speed remains
a top police-reported contributing factor
to MVC fatalities and serious injuries.
Males of all ages and youth age 16-25 are at
greatest risk for speed-related MVC fatalities.
Speed limits are one key strategy to manage
roadway speed; as the mean speed of traffic
is reduced, the number of crashes and the
severity of injuries decline, but when the
mean speed of traffic increases, the number
of crashes and the severity of injuries
usually increases. Ongoing monitoring
and evaluation of impact on MVCs and
associated serious injuries is needed to ensure
speed increases in 2014 in BC do not have
adverse effects on road safety and health. It
is essential that speed limits are appropriate
for the road type and condition; safe for all
road users, especially vulnerable road users;
and enforced, so that drivers are more likely
to follow them. Enforcement of speed limits
is a key element of maintaining safe speeds.
Conventional roadside ticketing is effective
at reducing speeds and provides immediate
feedback to the offender. Other promising
speed control mechanisms are speed cameras
and section control, which automatically
issue penalties for speeding. Technology such
as speed reader boards, as well as vehicle
design mechanisms (e.g., intelligent speed
adaptation, which alerts drivers when they
are above the speed limit), and roadway
designs (e.g., rumble strips, speed humps)
can help control driver speed by providing
information about a drivers travelling
speed relative to the speed zone and road
type. Fundamentally, there is a need to
ensure that the road systemincluding
vehicle and roadway featuresreflects
survivable speeds for road users, and
encourages driving at safe speeds.
safe roadways in promoting road safety in BC.
Chapter 7: Safe Roadways
Chapter 7
Safe Roadways
INTRODUCTION
In addition to safe road user behaviour
and safe speeds, safe roadways are a crucial
component of road safety. In fact, some
evidence indicates that the most effective way
to reduce trauma to road users is through
better designed roads and vehicles.1 Roadway
design includes highway lane separation,
guard rails, paved shoulders, rumble strips,
roundabouts, roadway lighting, and
more.2 Within a Safe System Approach
(SSA), safe roadways are roads and related
infrastructure that are designed around road
users, encourage safe driving behaviour, and
anticipate road user error.3 In addition to
reducing roadway traumas, safe roadways
are important for public health and healthy
living. Urban planning, transportation
infrastructure, neighbourhood density,
and the development of safe environments
for schools, parks, and other amenities
influence how people behave, including
their choice of transportation, their

opportunities to exercise, and their access to
healthy food and clean air and water.4 Safe
roadways are an integral part of safe, active
communities.
This chapter examines roadways in BC and
how they are developed and governed. It
explores roadway locations, including urban
roads, highways, and rural and remote
areas, and then looks at the environmental
factors that affect road safety, including
infrastructure, road type and location, and
roadway conditions. The chapter concludes
with a presentation of road safety measures
in BC and international best practices that
have been shown to reduce motor vehicle
crash (MVC) fatalities and serious injuries.
The terms "road" and "roadway" are used
interchangeably and refer to the open way
for vehicles and people to travel, and may
include only the strip used for travel (usually
paved or gravel) or may encompass related
features such as the shoulder and sidewalk.
121
RESPONSIBILITY FOR ROADWAYS

IN BC
ROADWAY TYPES AND LOCATIONS

IN BC
In 2013, BC had approximately 71,100km

of public road, 67.8 per cent of which was
paved (48,200 km), and 32.2 per cent
unpaved (22,900 km).5 Responsibility for
roadways in BC is complex and lies with
multiple bodies, including municipal,
provincial, and federal governments.
BC has a highly complex system of

roadways, ranging in scale from small
roadway systems to large multi-lane
highways. The evolution of roadways and
modern roadway infrastructure in Canada
favours vehicles over other, more vulnerable,
road users,1,14 even though most roadways
in BC are frequented by multiple types
of road users. MVC injuries and fatalities
are influenced by the type or design of
roadways, and there are different best
practice safety measures for different types
of roadways. Types of roadways explored in
this section include small roadway systems,
highways, and intersections.
Municipalities are responsible for roadway

and traffic pattern design, and maintaining
streets and roads within their boundaries.8
Highways fall within provincial jurisdiction,9
and some projects are supported by a
cost-sharing agreement with Transport
Canada.10 The Ministry of Transportation
and Infrastructure (MoTI) is responsible
for developing transportation networks,
providing transportation infrastructure
and services, administering related acts and
regulations, and developing and applying
transportation policies.11 MoTI contracts
out road maintenanceservice providers are
hired to remove snow, mow roadside grass,
remove brush, and repair pavement, among
other tasks. MoTI retains responsibility
for marking road lines and managing
avalanches.12 The Ministry of Forests,
Lands and Natural Resource Operations
(MFLNRO) is primarily responsible for
Forest Service Roads in BC.13 Parks Canada
manages roads in national parks, and Public
Works and Government Services Canada
manages a portion of the Alaska Highway in
Northern BC.9 First Nations communities
manage roads on reserves.
Small Roadway Systems

In both urban and rural communities in BC,
small roadway systems are designed for local
traffic. They are composed of sometimes
complex networks of local roads (roads
giving access to individual land use such
as residences15), minor roads (roads that
connect residential and service areas15), and
major roads (roads that connect activity
centres, residential areas, and service
areas15). These roadways typically have
lower speed limits than larger roadways
such as highways, but they also have a high
density of intersections and private access
driveways, which can be problem sites for
MVC injuries and fatalities.16,17,18,19 These
systems are the ones most heavily used by
multiple road users, especially vulnerable
The BC Healthy Built Environment Alliance

The BC Healthy Built Environment Alliance (the Alliance) was formed in 2008 and is supported by the
Provincial Health Services Authority. The Alliance brings together public health and design professionals to
aid in learning and development for the emerging field of healthy built environments. It includes municipal
governments, the provincial government, health organizations, related professional associations (e.g., planning and
landscape architecture), non-government organizations, researchers, and community champions.6 The Alliance
aims to understand the health impacts of the built environment, increase communication and collaboration
between involved professional groups, and develop supporting tools and resources.7
122
road users such as pedestrians and cyclists, as

well as children and seniors.
Intersections
An intersection is an area where two
or more roads cross each other.20 Types
of intersections range from single stop
sign intersections to urban signal-lightcontrolled intersections, to complex freeway
interchanges. Intersections represent one of
the most complex traffic situations that road
users encounter, because they require all road
users to pay attention and respond to the
movements of vehicles and other road users,
as well as adherence to traffic signals.21
MVCs commonly occur at intersections
because there are many potential points
of conflict between vehicles, in addition
to those between vehicles and pedestrians
and other road users (see Figure 7.1).21 In
addition, these MVCs are potentially more
severe because they often involve a side
impact, for which vehicles typically offer less
protection than a head-on collision,22 and
because some vehicles may speed up in order

to reach or cross the intersection before the
traffic light turns red.21
According to the Insurance Corporation of
British Columbia (ICBC), for 20092013,
there was an average of 83,000 MVCs
at intersections each year, making up
31.9percent of MVCs in BC during that
time. These intersection MVCs resulted in
an average of 53,000 injuries (67.1percent
of the provincial total) and 74 fatalities
(26.2per cent of the provincial total)
peryear.16 Intersections are a particular
concern for pedestrians; for 2008-2012,
an average of 40 per cent of all pedestrian
fatalities occurred at intersections.17
Figure
7.1
Potential Conflict Points at Intersections
Conflict Types
Crossing (16)
Travel paths intersect
Diverging (8)
Same direction travel paths that
move away from each other
Converging (8)
Different direction travel

paths that come together to
travel in the same direction
Notes: "Intersection" includes both common roadway intersections and junctions of intersecting highways.
Source: Adapted from City of Chilliwack. Roundabouts FAQs.23
123
Figure 7.2 shows the number and rate

of MVC fatalities at intersections from
1996 to 2013. This figure shows an overall
declining trend over these 18 years, with
some fluctuations in both rates and counts.
Notably, there were increases in MVC
fatality rates at intersections from 2000 to
2004, in 2009, and from 2010 to 2013, but
considerable decreases in the interim years.
The latest increase is particularly concerning
since improvements and innovations in
intersection infrastructure and vehicle design,
and successes in other areas of road safety,
have occurred during these years.1
cyclists, and motorcyclists) accounted

for more than half (53.3 per cent) of all
fatalities at intersections.
Figure 7.4 shows the fatality rates
for MVCs at intersections involving
pedestrians, broken down by age group
and sex. As shown, older adults are much
more likely than other age groups to be
fatal victims of MVCs at intersections
as pedestrians. The higher rates for older
males and females is likely due to agerelated difficulties at intersections, such as
longer crossing times due to slower walking
speeds,24 as well as age-related frailty,25
making impacts more likely to cause death.
Figure 7.3 shows the proportion of MVC

fatalities at intersections by road user
victim category for 2009-2013. As shown
here, 31.4percent of MVC fatalities
at intersections were pedestrians, and
30.6percent were drivers. These two groups
were followed by motorcycle occupants
(15.4percent) and passengers (14.6 per cent).
Together, vulnerable road users (pedestrians,
Figure
Going forward, BCs 10-year transportation

plan, BC on the Move, released in 2015,
pledges $30 million over the next three
years to improve intersection safety
throughout the province and has identified
three priority projects in Kelowna, Terrace,
and Vernon.26
Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities at Intersections,

3.5
500
450
3.0
400
2.5
350
300
2.0
250
1.5
200
150
1.0
100
0.5
50
0
Number of MVC Fatalities at Intersections
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
469
429
429
409
396
394
457
448
440
452
402
411
354
363
364
292
280
269
113
89
105
96
83
86
95
94
118
103
79
78
67
85
62
66
77
0.0
79
Intersection Fatality Rate
2.9
2.3
2.6
2.4
2.1
2.1
2.3
2.3
2.8
2.5
1.9
1.8
1.5
1.9
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.7
Intersection Proportion of Fatalities
24.1
20.7
24.5
23.5
21.0
21.8
20.8
21.0
26.8
22.8
19.7
19.0
18.9
23.4
17.0
22.6
27.5
29.4
Year
Notes: "Intersection" includes junctions of intersecting highways. See Appendix B for more information about these data sources.
124
7.2
Figure
Proportion of Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities at Intersections,

7.3
Passenger Vehicle
Passenger
Passenger Vehicle
Driver
14.6%
30.6%
Motorcycle Occupant
15.4%
Other
1.4%
6.5%
31.4%
Cyclist
Pedestrian
occupant" includes motorcycle drivers and passengers. Intersection includes junctions of intersecting highways. See Appendix B for more information
Figure
Pedestrian Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population for Motor Vehicle Crashes
at Intersections, by Sex and Age Group, BC, 2009-2013
7.4
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0-15
16-25
26-35
36-45
46-55
56-65
66-75
76+
Male
0.1
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
3.6
Female
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.7
1.5
1.7
BC
0.1
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.5
1.0
2.5
Age Group
Notes: "Intersection" includes junctions of intersecting highways. Rates are calculated using age- and sex-specific population numbers. There were fewer
than five cases where age group and/or sex was missing, and these cases are excluded from this figure. See Appendix B for more information about these
data sources.
125
Highways
Highways are major roadways that are
designed for large volumes of traffic,
including commercial transport vehicles,
moving intra-provincially, inter-provincially,
and/or internationally. Larger highways are
often called freeways or expressways because
speed limits are typically higher than on
local roads.27 In 2013, over 7,000 km of
BCs 71,000 km of public roads were part
of the National Highway System (nationally
identified inter-provincial and international
routes that support trade and travel).5 In
BC for 2008-2012, 32.9 per cent of MVC
fatalities, where the posted speed limit was
known, occurred on highways with a posted
speed of 90 km/hr or above.17 Since vehicles
travel at higher speeds on highways, they
are associated with greater forces of impact
during an MVC, and therefore a greater
potential for serious injury and death. Many
highways in BC are in rural and remote
areas, especially in northern regions of the
province. MVCs in these areas have unique
issues related to their remote locations (this
will be explored further in the following
section) and concerns such as contact with
wildlife, which will also be discussed later in
this chapter.
Rural and Remote Areas

Rural roads span large and geographically
diverse areas, and present a road safety
challenge for many road users in BC. They
are not as frequently travelled, are not as
close to maintenance infrastructure as urban
roads,15 allow vehicles to travel at higher
speeds, and are farther from emergency
services and hospitals. Resource roads, which
are one- or two-lane, gravel roads in remote
areas built for commercial access to natural
resources (e.g., forests, petroleum, minerals),
also pose challenges because of the mixed use
and variable road safety enforcement.28
A report by Transport Canada found that
while more injuries resulting from MVCs
occurred in urban areas compared to rural
areas, more MVC fatalities occurred in
rural areas.2,29 MVCs are more commonly
126
fatal in rural areas because of relatively high

travel speeds, increased interaction between
non-commercial and commercial vehicles,
longer emergency response times, and further
distances to hospitals.29 The Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development
recommends that rural roads have their own
road safety strategy because of their unique
risk.30
Research that examined MVC-related serious
injuries and fatalities in rural and urban areas
in BC found that there is a disparity between
rural and urban areas, with rural populations
having two to three times the risk of death
after an MVC and a similar increased risk
for hospitalization following an MVC.31 This
disparity was even greater when taking into
account socio-economic status (SES). In this
research, those with the lowest SES were also
living in rural areas, resulting in a complex
relationship between geography, SES, and
MVC fatalities.31 Research about rural MVCs
in Alberta revealed that rural and urban
fatality rates also vary by age, with children
being more vulnerable; rates were five times
higher for rural children and three times
higher for rural youth compared to their
urban counterparts.32
ROADWAY ENVIRONMENTAL
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO MVCS
IN BC
Environmental conditions affect the ability
of road users to safely navigate the roadway.
Roadway design can also be a contributing
factor, such as sharp or blind corners.
Changes in conditions can quickly reduce
the safety of a roadway, so it is important
for roadways to be designed and maintained
with the surrounding landscape in mind,
including potential weather conditions and
the presence of wildlife.
For the five-year period of 2008-2012, police
reports noted one or more environmental
contributing factors to MVCs in
23.7percent of MVC fatalities in BC.33
Figure7.5 presents fatal crashes with at least
Figure
one environmental condition identified

in police reports as a contributing factor
to the MVC. It shows that road condition
(e.g.,ice, snow, slush, or water on the road)
contributed to 56.3per cent of these and
weather (e.g.,fog, sleet, rain, and snow)
contributed to 35.0percent; these were the
top two contributing factorsae reported by
police among these MVCs.
Top Five Environmental Contributing Factors

in Fatal Motor Vehicle Crashes, BC, 2008-2012
7.5
250
200
150
100
50
0
Road
Condition
Weather
Sunlight
Glare
Animal
Road/
Intersection
Design
220
137
23
23
21
Percentage among
Environment-related MVC Fatalities
56.3
35.0
5.9
5.9
5.4
Environmental Factor
Notes: "Road condition" includes ice, snow, slush, and/or water on the road. "Weather" includes fog, sleet, rain, and snow. "Animal" includes both domestic
and wild animals. "Road/intersection design" includes locations an attending police officer believes consistently present a problem, such as roadway curves,
limited sign distance, inadequate lanes or lane width, sight distance obstruction, or traffic control issues. Data are based on police reports from
police-attended motor vehicle crashes (MVCs); therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g.,
vehicle design, roadway design). Percentages will not add to 100 as less common factors are not shown, and MVCs can have more than one contributing
factor assigned. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
In many cases these factors are related, but they are documented as separate contributing factors. For example, during snowfall,
snow may be a weather condition (due to reduced visibility) and/or a road condition (due to snow on the road); once snow stops
falling but has accumulated on the ground it would be a road condition only.
ae
127
Road and Weather Conditions
Figure 7.6 depicts the number and rate

of MVC fatalities with one or more
environmental contributing factors cited in
police reports from 2001 to 2012. Overall,
the rate of environment-related MVC
fatalities decreased slightly over this period;
however, the number of environmentrelated MVC fatalities did not decrease
during this time. Therefore, environmentrelated MVC fatalities have not kept pace
with decreases in MVC fatalities overall in
BC, and as a result, MVC fatalities with
environmental contributing factors are
an increasing proportion of total MVC
fatalities. The figure shows that the number
of environment-related MVC fatalities has
fluctuated during this time, which may
reflect year-to-year variation in weather
conditions (this will be explored further in
the next section).
7.6
In BC, rain and snow are common, annual

occurrences that have important impacts on
road safety. Rain may cause hydroplaning
and can reduce driver visibility because of
the rain falling on the windshield, rainwater
being sprayed from or splashed by trucks
and other vehicles, and the related humidity
Number of Environment-related Motor Vehicle Crash Fatalities,

BC, 2001 to 2012
2.5
Number of Environment-related Fatalities
500
450
350
1.5
300
250
1.0
200
150
100
0.5
50
0
2.0
400
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
394
457
448
440
452
402
411
354
363
364
292
280
Number of Environment-related
MVC Fatalities
85
92
75
85
91
85
86
79
79
77
73
83
Environment-related Fatality Rate
2.1
2.2
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.0
2.0
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.8
Environment-related Proportion
of Fatalities
21.6
20.1
16.7
19.3
20.1
21.1
20.9
22.3
21.8
21.2
25.0
29.6
0.0
Year
Notes: "Environment-related" fatalities are deaths where one or more vehicles involved in the crash had any of the contributing factors:
obstruction/debris on the road, roadway surface defects, artificial glare, previous traffic accident, roadside hazard, site line obstruction, road/intersection
design, sunlight glare, animal, weather, road condition, visibility impaired, road maintenance/construction, sign obstruction, domestic and wild animal,
insufficient traffic controls, and defective/inoperable traffic control device. Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes, so
contributing factors reported emphasize human error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). See Appendix B for more
128
Figure
A variety of events such as weather, MVCs,

or natural disasters such as forest fires can
make road conditions less safe or unsafe
for driving. Weather affects road safety
in multiple ways. Among other things, it
influences peoples travel decisions, the kind
of transportation they will use, the visibility
of roadways, the types and scale of potential
road hazards, and the quality of the contact
the vehicle has with the road.
that fogs windows. Water on the road can

also freeze, resulting in black ice that can
cause tires to lose traction entirely but is
very difficult for drivers to detect. In general,
drivers behave more cautiously when it rains,
but MVC rates still increase, which indicates
that changes in driver behaviour in response
to the rain are not sufficient to maintain the
same level of road safety in wet weather as in
dry conditions.34
Research in the US examining the effect
of snow on MVCs in the US between
1975 and 2000 found that while MVCs
causing property damage and/or injuries
increased when it snowed, the number of
fatal MVCs actually decreased.35 This is likely
because there are fewer drivers on the road,
and because drivers may lower their speed
compared to dry conditions but not enough
to completely prevent a crash. At the same
time, research indicates that the first snow
of the season results in an increase in MVC
fatalities, while subsequent snows do not have
the same impact.35 In addition to rain and
snow, low sun positioning, wind, and fog
may also impact road conditions and reduce
visibility, increasing the potential for MVCs.36
Wildlife
Highways in BC cut though many wildlife
habitats. In BC, wildlife are involved in
one out of every 25 MVCs,16 and there
is an average of 9,900 MVCs involving
animals, both wild and domestic, each
year.16 According to the Wildlife Accident
Reporting System (WARS), a system
administered by MoTI that tracks MVCs
involving wildlife on numbered highways,
more than 109,000 wildlife MVCs have
been reported on BC highways since 1978,
over 90 per cent of which involved elk,
moose, bears, and deer. Some wildlife,
such as deer, prefer to travel along
open areas close to coverqualities of
many BC highways.37 In addition, some
animals might be attracted to highways
to access salt licks, mineral deposits that
accumulate on roadsides, through natural
occurrence or through the use of deicing
compounds.38 While there are some
measures in place to prevent vehicle-wildlife
interactions, BC roadways would benefit
from further preventive initiatives related
to roadway design. (See discussion in next
section for further details.)
129
ROAD SAFETY MEASURES FOR

ROADWAYS IN BC
There are currently a number of road safety
initiatives in BC that focus on roadway
design and infrastructure improvements,
each targeting the challenges associated with
specific types of roads.af Infrastructure has
a crucial role in public health, not only in
ensuring the safe interaction of roadway
users, but also in promoting safe, active
transportation options. This includes nonmotorized transportation, such as walking
and cycling, as well as mass transit, such as
buses and trains. Some citiessometimes
called smart growth citiesare being
designed or improved with these modes
New York City is Making Safer Streets

The New York City Department of Transportation has been
Making Safer Streets, the title of their 2013 publication, by
implementing innovative road design solutions to make roadways
safer for all road users, focusing on vulnerable road users. The
underlying design principle for their successful initiatives is
creating clarity of traffic flow for all road users and reducing the
potential of unexpected movements of road users.
They report that their most successful initiatives do the following:
Planners and engineers in many

cities talk increasingly about the
road diet, which involves improving
the safety of pedestrians and cyclists
by eliminating lanes of traffic and
providing more space for people...
The road diet, and the many road
design features that can accompany
it, communicates that travel space is
for all types of road users.
Canadian Roads1(p.123)
By addressing issues of complexity,

confusion, lack of visibility of
vulnerable street users, and excessive
vehicular speeds which are most likely
to cause death or severe injury, the
projects highlighted in this [report]
reduce the risk of crashes.
New York City Departmentof
Transportation, Making SaferStreets42
Make the street easy to use by accommodating road users

desired travel paths and simplifying their movements.
Create safety in numbers to increase the visibility of
vulnerable road users.
Make the invisible, visible by assuring different types of road
users can see each other.
Choose quality over quantity by prioritizing and designating
road space according to use.
Overall, the work to adapt the citys existing road infrastructure
has reduced traffic fatalities in the city by 29.5 per cent and
combined fatalities and serious injuries by 28.7 per cent between
2001 and 2012.42
For more information about specific road infrastructure initiatives underway, see http://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/driving-and-transportation/driving/publications/
road-safety-strategy.pdf.
af
130
of transport in mind, resulting in people

tending to drive less, own fewer vehicles,
and walk more.39,40,41 Alternative modes of
transport offer health benefits to individuals
as well as the larger population: fewer
vehicles on the road means reduced MVCs,
traffic noise, and air pollution; and active
transportation offers health benefits from
increased physical activity.
This section explores road safety initiatives
for mixed use roadways, intersections, and
highways, as well as initiatives to address
road and weather conditions, wildlife, and
resource roads. Some road safety initiatives
are presented that focus on cyclists or
pedestrians, but many are applicable to both
of these vulnerable road user groups.
Road Safety Initiatives for Mixed

Use Roadways
Public Transportation
The World Health Organization highlights
the importance of giving priority to
highoccupancy public transit, such as city
buses, light rail, or trains, in order to reduce
overall vehicle distance travelled per capita
and thus reduce MVC risk.43 These public
transit options are also safer compared to
personal transportation (see Chapter 3 for
further discussion). In BCs Lower Mainland,
the Sky Train (light rail) system operates
2.6million trips per year with more than
11,000 riders daily, and is being expanded to
serve more outlying areas.44 Another public
transportation option is the high-occupancy
bus system. These have been implemented in
cities in North America, Australia, Europe,
and South America. A study of 26 cities with
varying bus rapid transit systems identified
key lessons for successful systems (indicated
in part by ridership and travel time savings),
including priority right-of-way for buses;
service to high traffic areas; accommodation
of multiple modes of active transportation;
rapid service, and more.45 Another review
demonstrated that well-designed and

communicated systems with busways (lanes
reserved for buses) lead to reductions in
MVC fatalities and injuries, depending on
the systems design and implementation.46
Traffic Calming
According to Transport Canada, traffic
calming is the modification of a roadway
and its design in a way that is intended to
reduce traffic and/or decrease speed. Safety
can also be increased by implementing
changes that aim to minimize the negative
impacts of vehicle use, reduce traffic
volume, change drivers behaviours,
lower speeds, and reduce conflict between
road users with improved conditions for
pedestrians and cyclists.48 Traffic calming
can be focused on fixing isolated parts of a
roadway (e.g.,an intersection with a high
volume of complaints or high incidence of
MVCs), or implemented across a broader
area. Examples of traffic calming include the
creation of one-way, one-lane streets; the
addition of roundabouts designed to protect
pedestrians and cyclists; and the addition
of speed humps, rumble strips, low speed
limits, and more.49,50
Ensuring implementation of a number of safety measures

when road infrastructure projects are designedand
facilitating their implementation during construction with
earmarked fundingcan produce important safety gains
for all road users. This is particularly true when road design,
construction and maintenance are underpinned by a Safe
System approach, i.e., where allowances are made that can
help compensate for human error, and roads and roadsides
are built in such a way that their physical characteristics
minimize potential harmful consequences to all.
World Health Organization, Global Status Report on Road
Safety 2013: Supporting a Decade of Action ag,47
ag
The World Health Organization has sourced this information from a 2008 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development document entitled Towards Zero: Ambitious Road Safety Targets and the Safe System Approach.
131
There are several specific types of trafficcalmed roads. For example, environmental
streets use a variety of built elements,
usually aesthetically rendered, to calm and
slow traffic, and encourage driver attention
(such as planter boxes, pedestrian refuges
on road crossings, and raised pedestrian
crosswalks). Urban play streets are
residential streets designed for play rather
than vehicles and only residential vehicles
are permitted to drive (at very low speeds)
on them.50 Two analyses of studies in a
variety of European countries show these two
traffic-calming techniques reduced injury
MVCs by 35 per cent (studies in Denmark,
Norway, Germany, Sweden, France, and
Great Britain) and 25 per cent (studies in
Norway, Germany, The Netherlands, and
Denmark), respectively.50 Another trafficcalming approach most commonly used
in commercial centres is the inclusion of
pedestrian streets, which are roads for
pedestrian use (and often bicycles) that
are closed to motor vehicle traffic.50 A
collection of European studies (Sweden,
Norway, Finland, Denmark, and Great
Britain) together have shown an estimated
60percent reduction in MVCs resulting
from the introduction of pedestrian streets.50
Most traffic calming is on minor streets in
residential areas.48 Traffic-calmed areas in
North America can be more accommodating
of the other activities that take place on
the road including playing, walking, and
socializing. Traffic calming also helps to
address public health issues associated with
traffic noise, and low rates of walking,
cycling, and transit use.48 Encouraging active
transportation (e.g., walking or cycling to
work or school) and making it a safe, viable
option works both to improve health and
to reduce the number of vehicles on the
road, which then has further road safety and
environmental benefits.
Cycling Infrastructure
Infrastructure that is designed with cycling
in mind offers considerable safety benefits to
this group of vulnerable road users; indeed,
132
countries with more extensive infrastructure

for bicycles have lower cyclist fatality
rates than those with less cyclist-related
infrastructure.51
Because concerns about safety deter many
people from cycling,52,53,54 the introduction
of safer infrastructure can make a population
feel more comfortable making at least some
of their travel by bicycle. This is important
because cycling has many benefits if those
trips would otherwise be made by motor
vehicle: increased physical activity for the
individual; reduced traffic congestion, noise,
air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions;
and fewer vehicles on the road at risk of
being involved in an MVC.55,56,57 Some
examples of cycling infrastructure that have
been associated with reduced injury risk
were discussed in Chapter 4 (e.g., protected
cycling paths,58,59,60 painted cycling lanes,61,62
and bike routes that do not require bicyclists
to ride between parked and moving motor
vehicles58,63,64).
Changes in infrastructure to increase the
safety and comfort of cyclists have been
implemented around the world. For example,
the comprehensive networks of cycling
routes in Germany and the Netherlands
have helped to protect riders from exposure
to vehicles.65 A series of European studies
shows that protected cycling paths and
painted cycling lanes may decrease all injury
MVCs and cycle-involved injury MVCs.
They also showed that intersections continue
to stand out as a risky section of road.50
Protected cycling paths are considered safer
than cycling lanes, more inclusive of all
cyclists despite their skill level, and better
at attracting cyclists.66 New York City has
focused on improvements to their cycling
infrastructure, building over 470miles of
cycling lanes with parking-protected paths,
improvements to increase visibility in
mixed use road spaces, and bicycle signals.
Between 2000 and 2012, the city measured
a 72.4percent overall decrease in the risk of
serious injury for cyclists and a 288 per cent
increase in cycling trips for the same period.42
Oregon has a law that requires one per cent
Road Safety Initiatives for

Intersections
Roundabouts
of their highway fund to be spent on bicycle

and pedestrian infrastructure,67 and the
state government has developed a long-term
plan and has inventoried roads to measure
progress towards all roads accommodating
cyclists and pedestrians.68
In BC, some work underway by MoTI
has potential benefits for cyclists, such as
the identification of provincial highway
cycling routes through the use of signs
and pavement markings (for example, see
Figure7.7), and a cycling policy that requires
new and upgraded provincial highways
to be adapted for cyclists.69 Some work
includes initiatives with partners such as
municipal governments to construct new
cycling infrastructure through the BikeBC
program,70 including separated bike lanes
introduced by the City of Vancouver in the
downtown area in 2010.71
Figure
7.7
Roundabouts are circular intersections that

do not have electronic signals or stop signs,72
and they are becoming more popular in
North America.72 BC has had a policy in
place since 2007 that requires roundabouts
to be the first option for new intersections,73
and municipalities across the province
are contributing to the growing number
of roundabouts in BC. In a roundabout,
traffic moves counter-clockwise around
an island in the centre,72 and entering
vehicles must yield to those already in the
roundabout.74 Roundabouts force drivers
to reduce their speed when they move
through the intersection, improving road
safety for all users.72 They also improve safety
by enhancing driver alertness; since traffic
lights do not provide timing instructions,
drivers must actively make choices about
proceeding into the roundabout.1 Further,
they improve traffic flow, reduce idling, and
lower the number of side-impact collisions.75
In addition, roundabouts reduce the severity
of MVCs and related injuries when they
occur because they almost completely
Example of Provincial Highway Cycling Routes Signage
Note: Reproduced with permission.

133
eliminate head-on collisions.74 Based on

a pre/post evaluation of the installation
of 24 roundabouts in eight states in both
urban and rural settings with both single
lane and multilane models and replacing
both stop sign and signaled intersections,
the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety
in the US estimated that the roundabouts
reduced MVCs by 39 percent overall, injury
MVCs by 76 per cent, and fatal MVCs by
90 per cent.76 Another study that observed
the number of MVCs before and after
installation of roundabouts on high-speed
rural roads found that the average injury
MVC rate was reduced by 89 per cent, and
fatal MVCs were reduced by 100 per cent
(for the duration of post-installation data
collection, which averaged 5.5 years).77
However, research from Belgium suggests
that roundabouts may result in more injury
crashes and more severe crashes for cyclists
compared to signaled intersections.78
Similarly, emerging research from Denmark
suggests that roundabouts may not benefit
cyclists and may even increase injury but that
some variations may be safer; for example,
roundabouts that are larger (20-40 m centre
island diameter), have a high central island
(2 m or more), or have a separate cycle path
where cyclists yield to cars.79
Red Light Cameras

If a traffic light is red when a driver enters
the intersection, he or she has run the red
light. Driving through red lights is dangerous
because it often leads to side-impact
collisions, which are frequently more severe
than other types of MVCs at intersections,80
and because it can often lead to pedestrians
and cyclists being hit. Red light cameras are
one option that helps to improve road safety
by deterring drivers from driving through red
lights. Red light cameras photograph vehicles
that travel through an intersection when the
light is red and issue a ticket to the registered
vehicle owner or driver.
A red light camera program, called the
Intersection Safety Camera Program, was
introduced in BC in 1999. It began with
30operational cameras rotating through
134
120sites throughout BC, and was expanded

in 2011 to 140 sites all with digital
cameras in place at all times. Tickets from
this program are issued to the registered
vehicle owner. Revenue from the program
is distributed to all municipalities in BC,
regardless of whether they have cameras
installed.81 This program reduced the number
of red light runs at those intersections by
38percent after six months.82
International reviews of the effectiveness of
red light cameras in reducing MVCs and
related injuries and fatalities have varied.
A Cochrane review of the topic found that
while red light cameras are effective in
reducing the number of MVCs resulting in
fatalities or any level of injury, evidence is less
conclusive as to whether the total number
of MVCs is reduced or if specific types of
collisions are reduced.83 A study of 99 US
cities looked at the per-capita rate of red light
running and MVC fatalities and found that
cities with red light cameras had an overall
24 per cent lower rate of red light running
and a 17 per cent lower rate of MVC
fatalities.84
Research also suggests that other types of
preventive measures could be used to reduce
red light running and to encourage drivers
to follow the rules of the road, rather than
penalizing behaviour after it happens.
Preventive measures include increasing signal
visibility, addressing intentional violations,
and eliminating the need to stop (where
appropriate). Examples of specific measures
are signal warning signs, choosing appropriate
signal cycle lengths including all-red
clearance intervals, and using roundabouts
instead of signaled intersections.85
Intersection Design for Pedestrians

Many measures can be introduced to
enhance the safety of existing intersections.
Additionally, the safety of new intersections
would be improved by prioritizing
vulnerable road users in their design. A
number of measures have been shown to be
effective at reducing the number of vehicles
striking pedestrians at intersections and
other pedestrian crossings. Some include

modifying the physical attributes of the
crossing to protect pedestrians, such as
installing sidewalks, adding refuge islands,
raised medians, and pedestrian overpasses.
Some are aimed at speed reduction (as
discussed in Chapter 6), such as rumble
strips in front of intersections, speed humps,
and raised pedestrian crossings.50 Other
measures control road user behaviours in
intersections and are also effective at reducing
MVCs, such as prohibiting vehicle right turns
on a red light and improving lighting.86
Another effective measure is the pedestrian
scramble or scramble intersection, which
has a period of exclusive pedestrian crossing
at signaled intersections during which
pedestrians can cross in any direction,
including diagonally. They are most
effective in busy pedestrian crossings and
at intersections that have many conflicts
involving turning vehicles. Scramble
crossings have been shown to be effective at
Figure
7.8
reducing pedestrian and vehicle conflicts at

intersections and generally receive positive
support.86 In a review of international
studies, protected crossing signal phases
that prohibit other traffic movements
during pedestrian crossing phases have been
shown to reduce pedestrian injury MVCs
by 30percent.50 A pedestrian scramble
was implemented at an intersection in
Richmond, BC, in 2011 (see Figure 7.8).h,87
Another measure to improve pedestrian
safety at intersections includes leading
pedestrian intervals, which are signals
that allow pedestrians to begin crossing the
street three to seven seconds before vehicles,
increasing their visibility for drivers and
reducing pedestrian MVCs.88,89 Another
example is signal-controlled pedestrian
crossings, which are activated by pedestrians.
A review including European and Australian
studies found that both full signals and
flashing light crosswalks reduced pedestrianinvolved injury MVCs by 20 to 49 per cent
compared to not having crosswalks.50
Example of a Pedestrian Scramble
Notes: Photo credit The City of Richmond, BC. Reproduced with permission.
Source: The City of Richmond, BC.
The City of Richmond received mostly positive feedback about the scramble in the first year. Notably, in the first year after
installation, the city adjusted the signalling at the intersection to resolve concerns over the safety of visually impaired pedestrians
using the crosswalk, and concerns over traffic delays due to the initial no-right-turn-on-red signalling.
ah
135
Other basic measures, such as installing

four-way stop signs, have been shown to
reduce MVCs by 45 per cent in a review of
international research.50 A review of studies
from eight North American, European,
and Middle Eastern countries found that
modifying intersection signals to adapt
their signal length to traffic volume instead
of a pre-set time interval led to reduced
MVCs by 15 to 33 per cent, depending on
the type of intersection.50 Further, a review
of international studies determined that
allowing right turns on a red light increased
injury MVCs in right-turn accidents by
around 60 per cent.50

Highways
While some road safety initiatives can apply
both to highways and other roads, highways
have unique characteristics that result in
different MVC trends and a need for relevant
MVC countermeasures; therefore, building
safe highways and assessing their safety
requires specific tools and initiatives. MoTI
oversees highway planning and considers
highway safety performance throughout the
process.90 In March 2015, MoTI launched
a 10-year transportation plan titled BC on
the Move. The plan includes commitments
to repair and improve the condition of

highways, bridges and side roads, and to
improve highway safety through a variety
of initiatives, such as funding the Road
Safety Improvement Program, improving
intersection safety, and improving roadside
worker safety.26
Barriers
Roadway barriers have the potential to
reduce the number of single-car and head-on
MVCs. Barriers can be installed either on
the centre of the road (median barriers), or
on the side of the road (guardrails). Median
barriers are intended to separate lanes of
traffic travelling in different directions and
are designed to reduce head-on collisions.92
Barriers come in three general categories:
rigid, semi-rigid, and flexible. The type used
depends on the types of vehicles that use the
road, the potential severity of the MVCs, and
the roadway geometry.92 Rigid barriers are
often made of concrete, are effective, and are
easy to maintain. However, they are costly
to install and have the potential to cause
more severe injuries on impact due to their
rigidity.92 More flexible barriers (e.g., steel or
wire) are also available, and some areas of BC
have cable barriers. They reduce the number
of injuries related to MVCs,50 absorb more
Case Study: Road Health

RoadHealth is a road safety campaign in Northern Health that was developed in 2005 and is designed to
raise awareness that motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are a public health issue. It was propelled by the 2000
commitment to Canadas Vision 2010, which had a goal of reducing MVCs by 30 per cent by 2010.29 It
includes a coalition of partners: WorkSafe BC, Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, Royal Canadian
Mounted Police, Northern Health, BC Coroners Service, Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure, BC
Forest Safety Council, the Ministry of Forests, Lands and Natural Resource Operations, and Commercial
Vehicle Safety.91
RoadHealth was developed because the MVC-related serious injury and fatality rates in Northern Health
are more than twice the provincial average. These higher rates result in a huge cost to the health care and
insurance systems and have negative consequences for individuals, families, and communities.91 RoadHealth
includes $120,000 in community road safety grants, road safety campaigns, the report Crossroads: Report on
Motor Vehicle Crashes in Northern BC, and a strategic plan for improved road safety in northern BC.91
136
energy than rigid barriers, and reduce impact

force.92 In BC, concrete median barriers are
most common, and there are approximately
2,100 km of barriers currently installed.93
Research shows that median barriers on
divided highways reduce fatalities from
MVCs by about 40 per cent and injuries by
30 per cent.50
Guardrails impact the number of injuries
and fatalities in MVCs that involve driving
off the road. Installation of some types of
guardrails reduces damage to vehicles and
injury severity, especially when they are
installed in places where the vehicle would
otherwise hit a tree or rock face, or drive off
a steep slope. However, researchers suggest a
smaller reduction in injury severity when the
guardrails are installed to prevent a vehicle
from hitting a signpost or ditch.50
Rumble Strips
Rumble strips are used to prevent roadway
departure, commonly referred to as driving
off the road.93,94 Rumble strips are a series of
ridges and grooves in the pavement usually
located at the centreline or outside edge of
Figure
7.9
a lane or series of lanes, which cause distinct

noise and vibrations that warn a driver when
their car leaves the designated boundaries of
their lane.94 They help to direct the drivers
attention to safely recovering the drifting car
before leaving the roadway or moving into
oncoming traffic.94 They can also provide
drivers with cues as to the location of road
lines when visibility is reduced by rain, fog,
or snow.94 Rumble strips installed on the
centreline help to prevent head-on MVCs,
and side-swipes caused when drivers cross
over the centrelines in their vehicle.94 BC
uses grooved rumble strips on the shoulders
and centrelines of many highways (see
Figure 7.9).95 MoTI began using shoulder
rumble strips in 1996 and has installed
over 5,000 km of them in BC. MoTI also
installs centreline rumble strips on rural
twolane, three-lane, or four-lane highways
in nopassing zones.95
Rumble strips are low cost, require little
maintenance, and do not damage or
significantly alter the structure of the
roadway surface. ICBC estimates that
centreline rumble strips could reduce the
number of MVCs by 29.3 per cent when
Selection of Rumble Strips
Notes: These photos are cropped to feature the rumble strips. Reproduced with permission.
137
Road Safety Initiatives Related to

Road and Weather Conditions
installed on undivided rural highways.96 A

2009 study of the impact of rumble strips
on MVCs in BC showed that shoulder
and centerline rumble strips significantly
reduced serious MVCs; MVCs resulting
in injuries were reduced by 18.0 per cent,
and on undivided rural highways with both
centerline and shoulder rumble strips, MVCs
were reduced by 21.4 per cent (for off-road
right, off-road left, and head-on collisions).96
For cyclists, rumble strips can have safety
benefits (e.g., deterring vehicles from
driving into cyclists from behind; however,
where cyclist infrastructure is not separated,
rumble strips can be dangerous and an
annoyance).97,98 Gaps in rumble strips appear
on BC highways to allow cyclists to avoid
obstacles on the shoulder, and rumble strips
are often not installed at intersections and
driveways to allow cyclists to turn safely.99
Figure
7.10
Salting, sanding, and snow clearance can

improve road safety.50 Winter tires are
specifically designed for cold weather and
slippery conditions and work to improve
traction.100 The BC Motor Vehicle Act
provides definitions and explanations
pertaining to the use of winter tires. In 2014,
MoTI updated winter tire requirements and
expanded their winter driving awareness
campaign101 (see Chapter 8 for further
discussion of winter tires). Regulatory and
warning signs are also posted on roads that
inform drivers when it is required to drive
a vehicle with winter tires or chains on
indicated roadways (see Figure7.10).102
MoTI has an environmental sensing network
with 167 stations throughout the province
in areas where winter weather has the most
potential to create problems for road safety.
These stations collect weather, avalanche,
and frost data to help forecast avalanches and
assist in decision-making regarding highway
maintenance.103 MoTI also hosts a website,
DriveBC, which contains up-to-date weather
information and live web-camera feeds
from these stations. It also provides weather
information from Environment Canada
about local conditions and forecasts,103 and
provides weather-related driving tips.104
Regulatory Signs for Winter Tires
Note: Reproduced with permission.

138
Road Safety Initiatives Related to

Wildlife
A number of different methods are used in
BC to mitigate vehicle crashes with wildlife,
including fencing, wildlife warning signage
and wildlife passage structures.106
BC has more than 450 km of wildlife
fencing, which is among the most of any
North American transportation agency.107
Wildlife fencing installed on both sides of
the highway has been shown to be 97 to
99 per cent effective in reducing MVCs
involving wildlife in BC.107 International
research is varied regarding the effectiveness
of wildlife fences in reducing MVCs.
Wildlife fences can disrupt animal migration
patterns and access to food and often move
animal crossings to the end of the fenced
roadway. Installing tunnels that pass under
the highway along with game fencing is one
way to allow animal migration, while better
protecting animals and reducing MVCs.50
Since 1987, MoTI has constructed over
30 wildlife passage structures to provide
safe passage for wildlife across highways.
Wildlife passages can be incorporated into
other structures such as stream crossings.
To date the majority of these structures are
underpasses. Studies have shown that these
corridors are well-used by wildlife.37
Wildlife warning signs are used to alert
drivers to animals in the area, such as deer,
moose, bison, wild horses, and badgers.
Signs are the most commonly used safety
method in this instance because they are
easy to install and maintain and are an
inexpensive option.107
MoTI also uses a seed mix to reseed
roadsides after construction that includes
plants that are less attractive to wildlife.37
Research from Sweden shows that clearing
brush and other plants from the side
of the road reduced wildlife MVCs by
20percent.50
The Wildlife Collision Prevention Program

The Wildlife Collision Prevention Program (WCPP) was
formed in 2001 in response to the increasing number of
motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) involving wildlife inBC.
The WCPP was formed as a partnership between the
Insurance Corporation of BC and the BC Conservation
Foundation. It promotes awareness of wildlife MVCs,
driver education, and research and implementation of
collision mitigation techniques.105

Resource Roads
Resource roads are currently governed by
multiple acts, making it difficult for road
users to easily be aware of and understand
the rules governing these roads, as well as
creating difficulties for managing these
roads. MFLNRO is working to bring
resource roads under one new piece of
legislation, the Natural Resource Road Act.108
139
SUMMARY
This project aims to eliminate inconsistencies

in how resource roads are managed, with
rules similar to those on public roads, and
to recognize and reflect that people use the
same roads for different activities. (Chapter 9
will discuss the use of resource roads to access
some First Nations communities.) Under
the new act, the province and WorkSafe BC
will support driver education on the use of
resource roads, monitor driver behaviour, and
carry out enforcement (when necessary).28
140
Safe roadways are a critical componentof

road safety and form one of the fourpillars
of a Safe System Approach (SSA).
Evidence shows that roadway design is
one ofthemost effective ways to prevent
motor vehiclecrash (MVC) fatalities and
serious injuries.Roadway planning, design,
and maintenance are shared municipal,
provincial and federal responsibilities, and
have wide-reaching effects on human and
environmental health. InBC, intersections
are especially dangerous forvulnerable
road users, such as pedestrians and cyclists,
while highways are especially hazardous in
rural and remote areas, where speeds are
higher and the emergency response times
are longer. Other major roadway concerns
are weather such as rain and snow, and
especially in rural areaswildlife interactions
on highways. Important interventions that
address both intersection and highway design
to support safer driving practices include
roundabouts, red light cameras, highway
barriers, rumble strips, cycling infrastructure,
and wildlife fencing and corridors.
safe vehicles in promoting road safety in BC.
Chapter 8: Safe Vehicles
Chapter 8
Safe Vehicles
INTRODUCTION
Safe vehicles form another of the four
pillars of the Safe System Approach (SSA)
to road safety. A safe vehicle is designed to
prevent motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) and
reduce the severity of an MVC if one does
occur.1 Three key components of vehicle
safety are vehicle design standards, vehicle
technologies, and vehicle maintenance.
These components reflect the SSA principle
that road safety is a shared responsibility
among manufacturers, regulators, and road
users, among others.2 Consumer demand
and industry regulation have led to vehicle
safety improvements over the past century.3
Safety improvements have generally included
enhancements to vehicle design and
materials, the introduction of technologies
that help drivers avoid MVCs, and in the
event of an MVC, greater protection to
vehicle occupants from serious injuries and
fatalities through better safety features.
This chapter provides an overview of the
role that vehicles play in MVCs in BC, a
discussion of vehicle safety standards in
Canada and BC, a review of developments in
vehicle safety technologies and design, and
then briefly explores vehicle maintenance
and modifications.
MOTOR VEHICLE SAFETY

STANDARDS IN CANADA AND BC
In Canada, the federal government regulates
the safety of new and imported motor
vehicles, while provinces and territories
regulate and enforce vehicle licensing,
operation, after-market modifications, and
maintenance within their jurisdictions.4
In BC, the Motor Vehicle Act and related
regulations set out safety and equipment
requirements for personal and commercial
vehicles, including vehicles of unusual
size, weight or operating characteristics.5,6
Among other things, these requirements
include specifications related to headlights,
brakes, emissions, seat belts, child restraint
systems, and vehicle maintenance and
inspection.5,6
Vehicle safety in Canada (including child
passenger safety and commercial vehicle
safety) falls primarily under the jurisdiction
of Transport Canadas Road Safety and
Motor Vehicle Regulation Directorate (the
Directorate).7 The Directorate is governed
by the Motor Vehicle Safety Actlegislation
that regulates both manufacturing and
importation of vehicles and vehicle
141
An estimated 16,000 to 17,000 vehicles are being imported

into Canada every year that may not meet current safety
standards, because they are 15 years of age or older, and so
the Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standards do not apply.
equipment.8 The Directorate is also

governed by the Motor Vehicle Transport
Act, which regulates safety and operating
standards for extra-provincial motor carrier
activities.7,9 Transport Canadas other
vehicle safety responsibilities include vehicle
manufacturing, vehicle safety features and
technologies, vehicle importation, and
vehicle recalls.10 Transport Canada also
regulates the manufacturing and importation
of child car seats, and promotes public
awareness and education about their use.11
The Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
(CMVSS) are set out in the Motor
Vehicle Safety Regulations. These standards
include more than 60 performance-based
safety standards that address vehicle crash
avoidance, crashworthiness, and occupant
protection.12,13 These include elements such as
seat belts,14 side and front impact protection,
and child seat safety requirements.13
However, the CMVSS only apply to vehicles
up to 14 years of age; those 15years of age or
older can be imported into Canada without
meeting motor vehicle safety standards. This
is resulting in an estimated 16,000 to 17,000
vehicles per year being imported into
Canada that may not meet current safety
standards,13 including standards regarding
seat belts, child seat anchor points, fuel
system integrity, and rollover protection.
These older vehicles also often have
outdated technologies; for example, firstgeneration air bags (those installed before
1996) have been found to cause injury
and death because they were not designed
for a wide range of driver heights and
weights, and were designed specifically for
head-on MVCs.15 Researchers have outlined
142
a number of concerns regarding older

vehicles, including the greater likelihood
of technical defects when compared to
newer vehicles.2 This is less of a problem
in the United States, where the US Federal
Motor Vehicle Safety Standards apply to
vehicles up to 25 years of age and newer.16
According to their website, Transport
Canada is monitoring the risk and may
consider regulatory change.13
Some imported vehicles are a concern for
road safety (even if they are relatively new
models) because they are not designed for
local roadways, such as right-hand drive
vehicles. Right-hand drive vehicles were not
designed to be compatible with the Canadian
road system (e.g., headlight angles, line of
sight issues when passing other vehicles or
making left turns) and have been associated
with a 39 to 60 per cent increased risk of
MVC compared to left-hand drive vehicles
in BC.17 An estimated 200 right-hand drive
vehicles are imported into BC each month.13
While importation standards are set by the
Canadian federal government, territories and
provinces can impose restrictions on vehicles
allowed on their public roads through their
registration and insurance requirements.18
THE ROLE OF VEHICLES IN MVCS

IN BC
Vehicle design can reduce the risk of injuries
and fatalities for all road users, including
vulnerable road users.19 The vital role of
vehicle safety is emphasized by its inclusion
in both the British Columbia Road Safety
Strategy: 2015 and Beyond 20 and Canadas
Road Safety Strategy 2015.21
Vehicle Types
Road users in North America use a wide
variety of vehicles. These vehicles vary
by type (e.g., size, weight, design), safety
features (e.g., inclusion of crash avoidance
technologies and crash protection
technologies), age, and condition. According
to the 2009 annual Canadian Vehicle
Survey, there were about 2.7 million
registered vehicles in BC.ai,22 The vast
majority of these (94.5percent) were
light vehicles, weighing less than 4,500kg,
which include cars, station wagons, vans,
sport-utility vehicles (SUVs), and pickup
trucks.22,23 The remaining 5.5 percent
consisted of about 130,000 medium
vehicles, weighing 4,500 to 14,900 kg,
and 17,000 heavy vehicles, weighing
15,000 kg and over.22 According to the
Insurance Corporation of British Columbia,
approximately one-quarter of insured
Figure
vehicles in 2009 (about 675,000 vehicles)

were commercial vehicles.24 These include
vehicles such as taxis, passenger and delivery
vans, emergency response vehicles, buses,
and semi-trailer trucks, among others.25
Figure 8.1 shows the proportions of
MVC fatalities in BC over time from
2008 to 2012, by vehicle type. Passenger
car occupants had the largest proportion
of fatalities over this five-year period,
consistently representing over 40 per cent of
occupant fatalities. This actually indicates an
under-representation among MVC fatalities,
given that the vast majority of vehicles on
the road are light vehicles, as described
earlier in this chapter. Truck and tractors
(including pickup trucks) were the vehicles
involved in the second highest proportion of
MVCs fatalities during this timean overrepresentation compared to their proportion
of the vehicle fleet in BC.

by Vehicle Type, BC, 2008 to 2012
8.1
120
Proportion of Fatalities
100
80
60
40
20
0
2008
2009
2010
2011
Panel Van
6.2
4.8
5.7
3.1
2012
6.3
Sport-utility Vehicle
9.0
8.8
9.7
8.3
17.1
Motorcycle
13.5
16.0
12.0
16.7
11.7
Truck and Tractor
15.2
17.0
18.1
25.0
22.0
Passenger Car
54.3
51.4
54.2
46.1
41.0
Other
1.7
2.0
Total Fatalities
289
294
299
228
205
Year
Note: "*" Indicates rates based on numbers less than five. Vehicle type recorded refers to the vehicle the victim was in. "Truck and tractor" includes pickup
trucks, single and combined unit light and heavy duty trucks, and tow trucks. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
ai
The Canadian Vehicle Survey excludes certain vehicle types, such as buses, motor homes, and motorcycles.
143
Vehicle Crash Incompatibility

The broad range of vehicle types on
the road contributes to vehicle crash
incompatibility, when the different shapes,
sizes and conditions of the vehicles, and
frame-to-frame misalignment. Figure 8.2
illustrates the difference in vehicle sizes and
incompatibilities between various vehicles.
Vehicle crash incompatibility is determined
by a number of vehicle features, including
a vehicles front height, stiffness, size, and
weight. In MVCs involving multiple vehicles,
the occurrence of injuries and fatalities is
higher among occupants of smaller vehicles
than those of larger vehicles.27 Research
also suggests that the large weight and size
of SUVs and light trucks increases the risk
of injury to other road users involved in
MVCs. For example, a study conducted
by the National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration in the United States looked
at MVCs involving vehicles of multiple
weights and sizes and found that there was
greater risk of death for pedestrians struck by
drivers of SUVs, vans, and large pickup trucks
compared to those of passenger cars.28
Figure
8.2
The 2009 annual Canadian Vehicle Survey

found that among light vehicles (vehicles
weighing less than 4.5 tonnes), vehicle
crash incompatibility in Canada has
increased in the last 15 years.29 As depicted
in Figure 8.3, this survey found that there
are more large personal vehicles on the
road in Canada, with the proportion of
cars decreasing from 60.5 to 55.4 per cent,
while the share of SUVs doubled from
6.9to 12.8percent. Additionally during
this time, sub-compact vehicles and minicompact vehicles, both very small vehicle
types, have been introduced,30,31,32,33,34
resulting in even more pronounced vehicle
crash incompatibility.
The consequences of vehicle crash
incompatibility in an MVC can be
lessened by changing components of either
vehicle.35 Some measures that have been
shown to improve safety during MVCs
with vehicles of different types, such as
greater side strength, greater stiffness and
improved side air bags in smaller vehicles,
as well as less rigidity and improved frontend crash absorption in larger vehicles.36
Vehicle Crash Incompatibility

Car versus Small Truck
Car versus Large Truck
Car versus Minivan
Small Car versus Large Truck
Notes: For illustration purposes only.

Sources: Adapted from Moradi R, Setpally R, Lankarani H. 2013. Use of Finite Element Analysis for the Prediction of Driver Fatality Ratio Based on Vehicle
Intrusion Ratio in Head-On Collisions.26
144
Figure
Distribution of Light Vehicles,

by Body Type, Canada, 2000 and 2009
8.3
2000
(16,642,140 vehicles)
SUV
2009
(19,755,915 vehicles)
Van
Pickup Truck
Other
16.1%
Station
Wagon
2.5%
SUV
Pickup Truck
6.9%
0.8%
13.2%
12.8%
Van
Station Wagon
3.5%
60.5%
Car
Car
15.2%
12.8%
Other
0.3%
55.4%
Note: Light vehicles are those with a gross vehicle weight less than 4.5 tonnes. "Other" includes straight trucks, tractor-trailers, and buses. This sample does
not include motorcycles, buses, off-road vehicles, or special equipment such as snowplows.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Natural Resources Canada. 2011. Canadian Vehicle Survey 2009: Summary Report.29 This figure is a reproduction and
adaptation of an official work that is published by the Government of Canada, and the reproduction has not been produced in affiliation with, or with the
endorsement of, the Government of Canada.
VEHICLE DESIGN AND SAFETY

TECHNOLOGY
Research suggests that vehicle safety
improvements, particularly those that
increase vehicle crashworthiness, have
prevented hundreds of thousands of MVCrelated fatalities and countless injuries
around the world.3 For example, in the
UK, motor vehicle safety improvements are
thought to have been the most significant
factor in reducing MVC-related serious
injuries and fatalities in recent decades.37
or expected human errors and to mitigate

the resulting injuries and fatalities. Further,
while vehicle design can increase safety for all
road users, the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development has specified
that vehicle design that improves protection
for both vehicle occupants and pedestrians
could reduce risks, especially for older road
users, who are generally more vulnerable to
injury and death resulting from MVCs.19
Safety is among the top priorities for people

purchasing new vehicles (along with price
and fuel efficiency).38,39,40 One study found
that the top three priorities for Canadians
when buying a vehicle were vehicle price
(29per cent), safety (15.6 per cent), and fuel
consumption (13.2 per cent).40 A wide range
of motor vehicle safety technologies exist
and more are emerging. These include crash
avoidance technologysystems that helps
drivers avoid MVCsand crash protection
systemstechnology that protects all road
users in the event of an MVC. These systems
work together to compensate for normal
145
Crash Avoidance Technologies
Improved Lights
Crash avoidance technologies, also known as

collision avoidance systems and active safety
systems, warn a vehicle driver and/or
intervene to avoid or reduce the severity
of an impending MVC. Crash avoidance
technologies range from assisting drivers
to stay alert to their surroundings, to
assuming control of the vehicle to prevent
a crash if a driver is not responding
appropriately (e.g., auto-braking).41
Overall, crash avoidance technologies are
crucial to road safety because they mitigate
many human factors that can lead to an
MVC, whether they are underlying issues
such as a medical condition, specific
incidents such as impairment or fatigue, a
moment of distraction, or an assortment
of other common human conditions and
behaviours.42
Daytime running lights (DRLs) are vehicle

headlights that come on automatically when
the engine is started. Their purpose is to
increase the vehicles visibility to oncoming
traffic during daylight hours.43 All new
vehicles imported into or sold in Canada
after December 1, 1989, must have DRLs.4
Nova Scotia is the first and only province to
require that all road users (including visitors
and vehicles that are not subject to the
CMVSS) use DRLs or low-beam headlights
during daylight hours.4 Research in the US
has found a relationship between DRLs and
MVC rates, where DRL-equipped vehicles
were involved in fewer multiple-vehicle
crashes and had lower rates of MVCs than
vehicles without DRLs.44,45
Several new crash avoidance technologies

are being developed and offered by car
manufacturers,42 in most cases as optional
add-ons for vehicles rather than being
standard inclusions in new vehicles.
Conversely, as these technologies continue
to advance, associated costs can be reduced,
allowing for broader accessibility and
distribution. This section will explore a few
key crash avoidance technologies related to
lighting, lane use, speeding, braking, and
pedestrian detection.
146
Adaptive headlights point in the direction

the vehicle is going rather than simply straight
ahead, which helps a driver see around curves
in the dark.46 Adaptive headlights have been
shown to reduce injury claims for insured
vehicles.46 In a US study, researchers found
that adaptive headlights could prevent up
to 142,000 MVCs each year (2 per cent of
total MVCs), including 29,000 injury MVCs
(about 4per cent of total injury MVCs) and
nearly 2,500fatal MVCs (about 8 per cent of
total fatal MVCs).47 Adaptive headlights are
not currently required by Transport Canada
on new vehicles.
Lane Use
Speed and Vehicle Distance
Several technologies are currently under

development and already in use that
assist drivers to stay in their lane or to
change lanes with enhanced safety. Lane
departure warning systems monitor the
position of the vehicle relative to the lane
boundary.48 The system delivers a warning
to the driver if the vehicle appears to be
drifting or unintentionally departing from
its lane (e.g., due to driver inattention)48,49
so that the driver can correct the vehicles
course50 and thus prevent lane departure
crashes. Among surveyed drivers, some
reported false warnings and many said the
system was annoying, raising concerns
that drivers may turn off or tune out
the system.46 However, research in the
US found that lane departure warning
systems could be relevant in preventing
up to 179,000 MVCs each year, including
37,000 injury MVCs (about 6 per cent
of total injury MVCs) and 7,529fatal
MVCs (about 24 per cent of total fatal
MVCs).47 Other US research estimates that
lane departure warning systems have the
potential to reduce the number of MVCs
by 8 per cent in the US each year.51
Most vehicles are designed and manufactured

to reach and travel at speeds that greatly
exceed survivable speeds for road users,
common roadway conditions, and common
speed limits of public roadways.53 As
an alternative to limiting the maximum
achievable speed of a vehicle, speed-related
crash avoidance technologies have been
developed. These include intelligent speed
adaptation (ISA), adaptive cruise control,
forward collision warning systems, and
speed limiters for heavy trucks or commercial
vehicles including public transit buses.
ISA detects when a driver is travelling over
the posted speed limit based on electrical
signals from a beacon/transmitter attached
to roadside infrastructure, or via GPS
technology.54 It either audibly or visually
warns the driver they are speeding, or it
assumes control and limits the speed of the
vehicle to prevent speeding. UK research has
estimated that if ISA fittings that prevented
vehicles from travelling over the posted limit
were mandatory on all vehicles, an estimated
20per cent of injury MVCs and 37 percent
of fatal MVCs could be prevented.55
Lane keep assist is a type of lane departure

warning system that helps a driver by
controlling the vehicle to ensure it stays
within its lane.50 Research from Europe
suggests that lane keep assist has the
potential to reduce MVC fatalities by
15percent.52 Lane change assist ssystems
monitor the area immediately around and
behind the vehicle to assist drivers when
changing lanes. If the system detects a
vehicle in the adjacent lane, it alerts the
driver to the presence of the other vehicle.
Research in the US estimates that side
view assist (a type of lane change assistance
technology) has the potential to reduce
MVCs by as many as 395,000 each year
(7per cent of total MVCs), including
20,000 injury crashes (3 per cent of total
injury MVCs) and 393 fatal crashes
(1percent of total fatal MVCs).47
147
Adaptive cruise control works in

conjunction with regular cruise control
(technology that maintains a consistent
speed without using the gas pedal),
automatically slowing the vehicle in heavy
traffic to maintain a safe following distance
from the vehicle in front and accelerating to
maintain the preset cruise speed when traffic
allows.56 Forward collision warning systems
was developed to avoid potential rearend collisions.57 The system monitors the
distance toand the relative speed ofthe
vehicle in front and alerts the driver when
it senses an increased risk of an MVC due
to the vehicle ahead slowing or stopping.58
Some of these systems are also equipped
with autonomous braking features that slow
the vehicle if the driver fails to respond in
time.50 Forward collision warning systems
have proven effective in reducing crashes and
insurance claims in the US.46
Speed limiters are another vehicle
technology that can prevent speeding, and
some countries prevent heavy trucks and
buses from exceeding speed limits through
the use of mandatory speed limiters. These
speed limiters are installed in the engine and
prevent excessive speed.59 Speed limiters are
commonly required on heavy trucks and
buses in the European Union but less so in
Canada and the US.60 Speed limiters are
required on commercial trucks in Ontario
and Quebec but not in BC.61
Safe Braking
In addition to vehicles assisting drivers to
slow down or stop based on the detection of
excessive speeds or unsafe vehicle distances,
advancements in braking technologies can
also help braking take place more safely.
Electronic Stability Control (ESC) helps
a driver maintain control by preventing
skidding under most driving conditions,
including on icy, slushy, and snowy roads.62
ESC monitors the drivers use of the brake
pedal, and, when steering direction does not
match vehicle direction, ESC applies brakes
148
to one or more wheels and/or reduces engine

power to regain control.63 In 2011, ESC became
mandatory in Canada for all new vehicles
sold in Canada.63 It can also be installed as an
after-market addition in older vehicles.
Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) also
increase safety during braking. They do this
by automatically modulating the pressure
in the braking system to prevent the brakes
from locking and allowing the driver to
retain control of the steering while braking
hard.64 ABS became standard equipment on
most vehicles sold in Canada in the 1980s
but is not compulsory.65
Brake assist systems automatically apply
brakes fully when the system detects panic
braking, in order to prevent a crash or reduce
the severity of an MVC.66 Preliminary
results from a German study suggest that
autonomous braking systems reduce injuries
by one-third and fatalities by 44 per cent for
pedestrians involved in frontal MVCs.67 In
the European Union, brake assist systems
have been compulsory for new vehicles since
2009,68 but they are not currently required
for vehicles in Canada.
Avoiding Pedestrians and Cyclists

Pedestrian active detection systems in
vehicles use the combination of cameras
and radar sensors to monitor obstacles in
front of a vehicle, and have been shown to
be effective in detecting pedestrians.69 The
radar measures how far away the obstacle is,
while images from the camera are analyzed
by image-recognition software to determine
the nature of the obstacle. If the analysis
determines the obstacle to be a pedestrian,
the vehicles brakes are automatically
applied. Some systems are cooperative, in
that the pedestrians and other road users
wear a sensor that communicates with
the mechanism on the vehicle.70 These
systems are not yet required on vehicles
in Canada but are available from some
manufacturers.71,72
Crash Protection Technologies

In addition to new and emerging
technologies where vehicles assist in
preventing MVCs, there have also been
advancements in crash protection, which
can prevent serious injuries and fatalities of
road users when an MVC does happen. This
is primarily achieved through vehicle design
that maintains passenger compartment
integrity during a crash and absorbs crash
forces away from passenger areas; holds
vehicle occupants in place during a crash
using restraints; and cushions vehicle
occupants with air bags.
Crashworthiness is a measure of a vehicles
structural ability to physically deform in the
event of an MVC, while maintaining a space
for occupants that allows them to survive
crashes within a reasonable threshold of
MVC severity.73 Occupant crash protection
includes features designed to maximize
survivability in a crash, based on human
tolerance to physical forces.14,74 This requires
having a stiff yet deformable structure with
crumple zones to absorb the force of a
serious crash from any direction, as well as
fuel tank protection, and appropriate interior
padding and energy-absorbing materials,
among others.73 Research in the US has
shown that improving crashworthiness
through vehicle design has contributed to
reduced MVC-related injuries and fatalities.3
In addition to protecting vehicle occupants,
vehicle safety features are increasingly being
developed to protect other road users when
they come into contact with vehicles
particularly vulnerable road users such as
cyclists and pedestrians.75,76
Passenger Restraints
Seat belts are a key contributor to the
reduction in MVC injuries and fatalities
seen over the past 30 years.77 In BC, the use
of seat belts by motor vehicle occupants has
been mandatory since 1977.aj,6,78 Seat belts
are typically a combination of a lap belt and
aj
Air bags, collapsible steering columns, padded

dashboards, reinforced beams and doors, stronger seats
and anchorages, and head restraints, have all transformed
todays car, light truck and van into safer vehicles. At
the moment of a collision, these safety devices all work
together to preserve the life space of the occupants.
Transport Canada, Seat Belt Sense 14
a shoulder belt or harness, although older

vehicles may only contain a lap belt. They are
designed to restrain drivers and passengers
in the event of an MVC, preventing them
from hitting the inside of the vehicle,
colliding with other vehicle occupants, or
being thrown from the vehicle.78 Technology
for seat belts now also includes seat belt
pretensioners that can tighten the seat belt
in the event of an MVC to eliminate slack.79
Seat belt load limiters absorb crash energy
and reduce belt-induced injuries through
the tightening and extension of the seat belt
during the crash.79,80
In BC, the use of approved restraints for
child passengers up to 18 kg has been
legislated since March 1985, and booster
There are currently exemptions to this law under Division 32 of the Motor Vehicle Act Regulations.
149
seat laws for older and more fully grown

children came into effect in July 2008.81
The type of child seat used is based on age,
weight, and height of the child. An American
study found a 59 per cent decrease in the
risk of injury among children age 4-7 when
a booster seat was used instead of a seat belt
alone.83 Booster seats help protect children
who have outgrown child safety seats but
who are not yet tall enough to use adult seat
belts safely by raising them to a height where
the lap belt sits across their hips rather than
their abdomen, and the shoulder belt fits
across their chest and shoulder rather than
across their neck.84 While Transport Canada
regulates child safety seats, regulations
regarding their use in BC are determined by
the provincial government.82 (See Chapter3
for more information about seat belts and
child safety seats.)
Overall, seat belt use is crucial to road safety,
and seat belts save an estimated 1,000 lives
in Canada each year.14 Seat belt use results in
a 51 per cent reduction in the risk of fatality
from an MVC, and a 67 per cent reduction
in this risk when combined with air bags.77
150
Air Bags
Air bags are a vehicle safety device designed
to inflate instantly in an MVC to protect
the occupants inside the vehicle85and in
some cases vulnerable road users outside of
the vehicle86by cushioning them from hard
surfaces. Air bags can be located in a variety
of locations inside and outside of the vehicle,
but are most typically front and side air bags
found inside the vehicle.86
Front air bags are typically installed inside
the steering wheel and dashboard of a
vehicle and prevent the drivers and front
passengers heads from contacting these hard
surfaces if they are thrust forward suddenly
in an MVC.87 They are designed to be
supplementary to seat belts.88 The National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration in
the United States estimates that air bags
saved 8,369 lives from 1975 to 2001.89
Passenger air bags have shown to be
effective at reducing fatalities for frontseat passengers.90Modern vehicles provide
both head and chest protection, with the
combination of a head and torso bag or
some form of head curtain, while older

systems typically only offer chest protection.
Advanced front air bags provide similar
protection for the drivers and front
passengers heads but use a dual inflation
system that deploys the air bags at varying
pressure levels, depending on the severity of
the crash, the size of the occupant, and how
close the occupant is to the air bag.79
Side air bags are installed in the side door of
the vehicle or the seatback and can provide
protection to the head, chest, and torso for
vehicle occupants involved in side crashes.79
Evidence has shown the safety benefits
of side air bags, as well as the additional
protective effects of head-protecting side air
bags.91,92,95 Research from the US estimates
that torso-only side air bags reduce the
risk of fatality in an MVC by 26percent,
while full side air bags, which also protect
the drivers head, reduce the risk by
37percent.93 Another study from Australia
estimated that between 2001 and 2010,
side air bags that protect the head and torso
reduced the odds of MVC-related death and
injury by 21.6percent overall.94
Safety Technology and

Socio-economic Status
Research shows that the benefits of new
vehicle designs and emerging safety
technologies and innovations may not be
equally shared among sub-populations
with different socio-economic statuses
(SES). Lower SES can create financial
barriers to accessing newer models of
vehicles, which thereby makes it more
difficult for vehicle road users to benefit
from emergent safety technologies. For
example, one US study concluded that
there is a robust positive association
between a vehicle owners SES
(determined by the median household
income and percentage of residents
with a high school diploma for a set
postal code) and the safety of household
vehicles. Specifically, the study found
that postal code areas with a lower SES
were more likely to have older vehicles,
and fewer vehicles with a good or
acceptable vehicle safety rating (based
on Insurance Institute for Highway
Safety ratings).96
Research shows that lower socio-economic status

is associated with owning older vehicles and
vehicles with lower safety ratings.
151
VEHICLE MAINTENANCE AND

MODIFICATION
passenger vehicle owners

are largely left on their own to
maintain their vehicles properly,
including ensuring that the brakes
on them work, despite the fact that
an unsafe vehicle introduces risk
into the system for all road users.
Vehicle Maintenance
Road safety necessitates that vehicles
be maintained and be in good working
condition to allow a driver to navigate and
respond to roadway conditions and events
appropriately. Good vehicle maintenance
includes the consideration of vehicle
condition and age.
Canadian Roads 53 (p.82)
Vehicle Condition
In BC, like most Canadian provinces,
vehicle owners are responsible for the
maintenance of their vehicles;53 however,
there is no provincial practice to ensure that
vehicle owners conduct appropriate vehicle
maintenance, other than the possibility
of police ordering a safety inspection on
a vehicle they believe may be defective
or unsafe.97 Many jurisdictions in North
Figure
America98 and around the world require

regular vehicle safety inspections, often as a
condition of insuring the vehicle.53
On average for 2008-2012, 5.6 per cent of all
factors reported by police for MVC fatalities
in BC were related to vehicle condition.100
As shown in Figure 8.4, the top four vehicle-
Top Four Vehicle Condition Contributing Factors

in Fatal Motor Vehicle Crashes, BC, 2008-2012
8.4
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage among Vehicle
Condition-related Fatalities
Tire Failure/
Inadequate
Brakes Defective
Windows Obstructed
Headlights
Defective/Out
52
12
56.5
13.0
8.7
7.6
Vehicle Condition Factor

Notes: Data are based on police reports from police-attended motor vehicle crashes (MVCs); therefore, contributing factors reported emphasize human
error rather than other systemic factors (e.g., vehicle design, roadway design). Percentages will not add to 100 as less common factors are not shown, and
MVCs can have more than one contributing factor. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
152
related factors contributing to fatal MVCs

during this time period were tire failure or
inadequacy, defective brakes, obstructed
windows, and defective headlights. Among
these, tire failure or inadequacy was the most
common factorappearing in 56.5percent
of fatal MVCs with vehicle-related
contributing factors. However, the technical
failure of a vehicle is generally listed as a
contributing factor only when an attending
police officer can be certain of the factsuch
as after a sudden or obvious event (e.g., tire
blow out);2 therefore, it is likely that vehicle
condition as a contributing factor to MVCs
is underreported.2
The Automotive Industries Association
of Canada estimates that at any given
time there are approximately two million
vehicles on Canadas roads that require
brake servicing.101 Some jurisdictions have
vehicle inspection programs to improve
road safety through the identification of
mechanical issues. (See Sidebar: AirCare).
In Pennsylvania, an annual safety inspection
program costs vehicle owners an average of
$16 to $23. The program aims to identify
and remove unsafe vehicles from the road,
and a review of the program estimates that
it is successful in saving 127 to 187 lives
each year. This same review also found that
overall, US states that have vehicle safety
There is no question that a vehicle that is maintained and

working properly (e.g., properly inflated tires, tires with
adequate tread depth, working brakes and adequate brake
linings, fully functioning and optimized lights, steering
component integrity, properly functioning suspension,
adequate seat belts, fuel tank strength, etc.) is a vehicle that is
better able to avoid crashes and better able to protect vehicle
occupants and other road users in the event of a crash.
N. Arason, J. Siemens, E. Desapriya, Vehicle Safety
Standards in Canada 2
inspection programs had less fatal MVCs

compared to those that do not.102
Tires play a significant role in vehicle
safety, including adequate tread, tire
pressure, and appropriateness for the
weather or road conditions. Proper tire
pressure ensures even contact between
the tires and roadway, allowing for a
good grip.103 This reduces MVCs caused
by skidding and inadequate braking
distance.103 Tire pressure monitors are
devices available for some vehicles that are
mounted on the wheels to monitor the air
pressure in each wheel and signal the driver
when the tire pressure is too low.4,104
AirCare
AirCare was a program that required vehicle owners
to pass an emissions test before being insurable in
some parts of BC. While it focused on air quality
and environmental health, it mandated vehicle
maintenance. The program was terminated in 2014
to allow for program evaluation and planning of
its future direction.99 Previous to AirCare, BC had
a mandatory vehicle inspection program that was
terminated in 1983.98 These programs demonstrate
that it is possible to require vehicle maintenance.
153
Using appropriate tires for the weather

conditions is important. Winter tires (also
called snow tires) have been shown to
improve traction, cornering, braking and,
perhaps most importantly, stopping distance
compared to all-season tires.105 Effective
September 21, 2015, the Motor Vehicle Act
and its Regulations have been amended
to clarify the definition of winter tires and
traction devices such as chains, including
when and where they must be used.106 Snow
tires and tire chains are not mandatory
across BC, but they are required on certain
road sections during the winter months (see
Chapter 7 for further discussion of weather
and road conditions).
Figure 8.5 depicts the age distribution of

vehicle fleets among light vehicles, and
medium and heavy trucks in Canada in
2009. As shown, approximately 20percent
of both vehicle types are three years old or
younger. Light vehicles were more likely
to be 3-9 years old than medium or heavy
vehicles, and medium or heavy vehicles were
more likely to be more than 9years old.
According to the provincial-level analysis
of this survey, nearly 10 per cent of the
2.5million light vehicles registered in BC
were pre-1991 models.22 One US study
found a significant association between
socio-economic status and vehicle age,
crash test ratings, and safety features such
as electronic stability control and sideimpact air bags, whereby lower income
individuals and families were at increased
risk.96 A separate US study found that
people with lower education (a proxy
indicator for socio-economic status) were
2.4 times more likely to die in an MVC
than people of higher education status in
1995 and 4.3 times more likely in 2010.107
Research in the US and New Zealand has
found that teenagers and other young
Vehicle Age
There is currently a considerable mixture
of older and newer vehicles on the road.22
The age of vehicles can impact their general
condition and is a factor in maintenance
for optimal road safety. Research has
demonstrated that occupants of vehicle
models that are 14 or more years old are at
about three times the risk of MVC-related
injuries than occupants of newer vehicles.2
Figure
Age Distribution of Vehicle Fleets

by Vehicle Type, Canada, 2009
8.5
Light Vehicles
(19,755,945 total)
More than 9
Years Old
6,156,488 vehicles
Medium and Heavy Trucks

(755,217 total)
Less than 3
Years Old
156,013 vehicles
Less than 3
Years Old
3,688,609 vehicles
18.7%
20.6%
31.2%
39.5%
50.2%
Between 3 and 9
Years Old
9,910,847 vehicles
39.9%
More than 9
Years Old
293,619 vehicles
Between 3 and 9
Years Old
305,585 vehicles
Notes: Light vehicles are those with a gross vehicle weight less than 4.5 tonnes, medium trucks are those 4.5 to 15 tonnes, and heavy trucks are those
more than 15 tonnes. This sample does not include motorcycles, buses, off-road vehicles, or special equipment such as snowplows. The total number of light
vehicles listed above (19,755,945) does not equal the sum of light vehicles by age (19,755,944). This discrepancy is replicated from the source document.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Natural Resources Canada. 2011. Canadian Vehicle Survey 2009: Summary Report.29 This figure is a reproduction
and adaptation of an official work that is published by the Government of Canada. The reproduction has not been produced in affiliation with, or with
the endorsement of, the Government of Canada.
154
After-market modifications like

raising vehicle heights and/or
installing bull bars increase
the risk of MVCs occurring, and
increase the severity of injuries
to other road users when MVCs
do occur.
drivers tend to drive older vehicles with low

crashworthiness and without crash avoidance
technologies.108,109
Vehicle Modification
Modifications to a motor vehicle by its
owner, commonly referred to as aftermarket modifications, often do not comply
with the safety standards outlined in the
CMVSS. After-market modifications
may also contribute to premature failure
of steering and braking components and
reduce the effectiveness of safety features
when they are incompatible with modified
vehicle height and weight.110 However,
some after-market modifications, such as
the addition of safety features like back-up
cameras, increase the safety of a vehicle. As
will be discussed in this section, common
modifications that increase the severity of
MVC outcomes include raising the vehicle
height with lift kits110,111 or oversized tires,111
and installing bull bars.2,112,113
After-market modifications that increase
vehicle height may increase the risk of
MVCs by limiting the drivers ability to
see pedestrians, lower vehicles, and head,
tail and signal lights. Headlights on raised
vehicles are no longer at the right height for
optimal visibility, and can also distract or
visually impair other drivers.110,111 Oversized
tires can also rub the suspension, fender,
frame, and steering arm components of a
vehicle, decrease the vehicles turning radius,

and adversely affect the drivers ability
to control the vehicle.114 Canadas Road
Safety Strategy 2015 identified concerns
with raised vehicles, noting an associated
reduction in braking performance and
stopping distance, and their significant
risk to other road users in the event of an
MVC, particularly pedestrians. It explains
that when a vehicle is raised, pedestrians
can be more seriously injured because
they contact the rigid frame of the vehicle
rather than the hood, and it recommends
consideration of regulations by provinces/
territories to limit or prohibit this
modification.115
Bull bars, also known as bush bars or crash
bars, are rigid metal bars affixed to the
front of a vehicle (often an SUV or truck)
to protect the vehicle and its occupants
in case of collision with a wild animal.113
They are designed for use particularly in
rural areas but are also used for aesthetic
reasons.113 Bull bars have been associated
with increased severity of MVCs and MVCrelated injuries for the vehicle occupants
and road users that the bull bars collide
with.2,112,113 Canadas Road Safety Strategy
2015 also highlighted the risk of rigid bull
bars, since they concentrate blunt force
and increase injury severity to pedestrians
when struck, and recommended
provincial/territorial regulation prohibiting
their installation.115
155
COMMERCIAL VEHICLE SAFETY
SUMMARY
A commercial vehicle can be any vehicle

registered with a business and used
to transport goods and/or passengers,
including trucks, taxis, and buses.25
In 2014, there were 739,000 insured
commercial vehicles in BC.116 BC currently
has policies and programs in place to
improve commercial vehicle safety. Private
and commercial vehicle inspections are
performed by authorized and qualified
mechanics, and an audit system exists to
ensure compliance.117 In addition, the
Enhanced Licence Plate Removal Program
imposes requirements before re-licensing
when vehicles are found to have defects,
including defects in steering, wheels, tires,
and brakes, among others.118
The concept of safe vehicles is one of the

Safe System Approach (SSA) pillars and
it is fundamental to road safety. The top
vehicle-related contributing factors to motor
vehicle crashes in BC, including tire failure
and defective brakes or headlights, are all
related to poor vehicle maintenance. Moving
vehicles pose an inherent risk on roadways,
but vehicle design offers opportunities to
increase road safety for vehicle occupants
and vulnerable road users alike. Vehicle
safety standards fall under both federal and
provincial jurisdictions. The wide variety
in vehicle designs on our roads can result
in vehicle crash incompatibility. Crash
incompatibility generally puts occupants of
smaller vehicles, well over half of Canadas
vehicle fleet, at disproportionate risk of
injury or death. After-market vehicle
modifications such as bull bars and increased
vehicle height can create and/or exacerbate
vehicle crash incompatibility. Many vehicles
have important crash avoidance mechanisms
such as daytime running lights and electronic
stability control; most have crash protection
technologies such as passenger restraints
and air bags; and some newer vehicles have
additional features such as lane keep assist,
pedestrian detection, and intelligent speed
adaption. Older vehicles generally do not
offer these benefits to road users and this
likely disproportionately affects people of
lower socio-economic status.
Research suggests that a number of

new safety technologies could have
a significant impact on reducing the
number of MVCs involving large trucks.
For example, some of these technologies
include blind spot detection, forward
collision warning, lane departure warning,
and ESC. Together, these tools could
reduce the number of crashes involving
large trucks by an estimated 28per cent
each year.119 In addition, side underride
guards in large trucks could reduce injury
risk in about three-fourths of crashes
that produced serious injury or fatality.120
Underride guards are steel bars extending
downward from the back or sides of large
trucks to prevent smaller vehicles from
moving underneath the trucks trailer in
an MVC.121
156
The next chapter will explore road safety

and the pillars of an SSA among Aboriginal
people in BC.
Chapter 9: Road Safety and Aboriginal People in BC
Chapter 9
Road Safety and Aboriginal People in BC

The Provincial Health Officer would like to thank the First Nations Health Authority for contributing to the
development of this chapter.ak
INTRODUCTION
Many improvements have been made in
the health status of Aboriginal people in
BC in recent years; however, many still
experience poorer health outcomes than
other BC residents, including higher rates
of injuries and mortalities due to motor
vehicle crashes (MVCs).1 Indeed, the average
age-standardized fatality rate for MVCs
for Status Indians (see sidebar: Aboriginal
Terminology) in BC is higher than for other

residents.2 This chapter uses the safe system
framework described in Chapter 1, including
a Safe System Approach (SSA), to explore
road safety and MVCs while focusing
specifically on Aboriginal peoples in BC.
It presents data regarding serious injuries
(hospitalizations) and fatalities resulting
from MVCs, and discusses best practices in
community programming that draws upon
community strengths to reduce the burden
of MVCs on Aboriginal peoples in BC.
Aboriginal Terminology
Aboriginal peoples are the descendants of the original inhabitants of North America. The terminology used to refer
to Aboriginal peoples in Canada has varied over the years. The Constitution Act recognizes three groups of Aboriginal
people: Indian, Inuit, and Mtis.3
The term Indian is still used when referring to legislation or government statistics, although First Nations
has largely replaced Indian as the terminology preferred by many Aboriginal people in Canada. The term Status
Indian refers to those who are entitled to receive the provisions of the Indian Act, while Non-Status Indians are
those who do not meet the criteria for registration or who have chosen not to be registered. First Nations refers to
both Status Indians and Non-Status Indians. First Nations peoples are often members of a First Nations band. The
Inuit are a distinct population of Aboriginal people. They live primarily in Nunavut, the Northwest Territories, and
northern Labrador and Quebec.4 The term Mtis consists of people of mixed First Nations and European ancestry
who identify themselves as Mtis, and are distinct from First Nations peoples (Indians), Inuit, and non-Aboriginal
peoples. Most Mtis live in Alberta, Saskatchewan, or Manitoba.
In January 2013, the Federal Court of Canada ruled that both Mtis and non-Status Indians are considered
Indians under the Constitution Act, which is a new interpretation, and the implications of this ruling have yet to be
determined. The federal government has appealed this decision, and the Supreme Court of Canada has agreed to
hear the case.5
This report uses the term Aboriginal unless describing data pertaining specifically to Status Indians.
Data for this chapter were developed through different processes than the other chapters in this report, and data differ in the
sources and years presented. See Appendix B for more information.
ak
157
ABORIGINAL PEOPLES IN BC AND

MVCS
The historic and current context of
Aboriginal people is important in
understanding and interpreting related
MVC data, and for determining effective
community responses to improve road safety.
Aboriginal people today experience inequities
in the social determinants of health;1,6 a
problem rooted in the ongoing legacy of
colonization, systemic discrimination, and
abuses experienced through residential
schools.1 The Social determinants of
health are the cultural, social, economic,
environmental, and individual contexts and
conditions that impact health and shape
lifestyle choices, both directly and indirectly.7
Lower socio-economic status (SES), limited
health resources, inter-generational trauma,
and the remoteness of many Aboriginal
158
communities in BC, can all play a role in

the higher rate of MVC fatalities among
Aboriginal people. Nevertheless, Aboriginal
people show great resilience despite
the challenges they face: communities
are reclaiming culture, increasing selfdetermination, and working to build
wellness into the future.
Road safety is one part of balanced, healthy
communities. For many Aboriginal people,
health is holisticit focuses not only on the
emotional, mental, spiritual, and physical
balance of an individual, but also on the
relationship of that individual with their
environment and their community.8 Wellness
activities and programming in Aboriginal
communities that are focused on the social
determinants of health have the potential
to contribute to improved road safety.1,9,10
Many Aboriginal people already experience
high levels of trauma and grief,11 and MVC
fatalities and serious injuries add to this.
Profile of Aboriginal Peoples in BC

According to the 2006 Census, there
were 196,075 self-identified Aboriginal
people living in BC, which represented
approximately 4.8 per cent of the total
BC population at that time. Of these
individuals, 129,580 identified as First
Nationsal (66.1percent), 59,445 identified
as Mtis (30.3 per cent), 795 identified
as Inuit (0.4percent), and 6,255
identified with multiple or other groups
(3.2percent).12
Figure 9.1 shows the distribution of
Aboriginal people living in BC in 2006
across the regional health authorities. As
this figure indicates, Aboriginal people
live in locations that are somewhat evenly
distributed across the health authority
areas, with a slightly smaller proportion in
Vancouver Coastal Health (12.5percent)
and the largest proportion in Northern
Health (24.5 per cent).
Figure
9.1
Distribution of the Aboriginal Population,

Fraser
Northern
19.4%
24.5%
Island
20.7%
Interior
22.9%
Vancouver
Coastal
12.5%
Note: Aboriginal population includes persons of self-reported Aboriginal identity residing in BC including North American Indians, Mtis, Inuit, Treaty
and Status First Nations. These proportions are additive and include both the on-reserve and off-reserve Aboriginal population.
Source: Statistics Canada, 2006 Census data, provided by BC Stats. Prepared by the Office of the Provincial Health Officer, 2015; and Population Health
Individuals were identified as North American Indian in accordance with Statistics Canada terminology, but will be discussed
here as First Nations.
al
159
While Aboriginal people are fairly evenly

distributed throughout BC (Figure 9.1)
there is variation in the proportion of the
population they comprise within health
authority areas. Figure 9.2 shows the
proportion of Aboriginal people within the
total population of each health authority.
As this figure demonstrates, the greatest
proportion of Aboriginal people is in
Northern Health, at 16.6 per cent, and
there were much lower proportions in Fraser
and Vancouver Coastal (2.5 per cent and
2.3percent, respectively).
Tripartite Initiatives for Injury

Prevention
The Government of Canada, the
Government of British Columbia, and
the First Nations Leadership Council
have now entered into a collaborative
tripartite partnership in order to more
effectively provide health services to First
Figure
Nations peoples in BC.13 This has created

opportunities for more equal, cooperative,
and strategic partnerships that aim to
narrow the social and economic gaps for
First Nations in BC, including reducing
deaths and injuries due to MVCs.
A growing number of important agreements
and accords set the priorities, goals, roles,
and responsibilities of this partnership,
including the Transformative Change Accord:
First Nations Health Plan in 2006.10 The
Tripartite First Nations Health Plan was then
signed in 2007,13 committing the tripartite
partnersam to focus on a number of specific
health actions for health promotion and
disease and injury prevention. Two action
items within this Plan focus on prevention of
death and injury due to MVCs:
Action Item 13: Improve First Responder
programs in rural and remote First
Nations communities.
Aboriginal Population as a Percentage of the Total Population,

9.2
20
18
16
Per cent
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Percentage of Total
Northern
Interior
Island
Fraser
Vancouver Coastal
16.6
6.3
5.5
2.5
2.3
Health Authority
Note: Aboriginal population includes persons of self-reported Aboriginal Identity residing in BC including North American Indians, Mtis, Inuit, Treaty and
Status First Nations. These proportions are additive and include both the on-reserve and off-reserve Aboriginal population.
Source: First Nations Health Council. Regional Profiles of First Nations Communities According to Current Provincial Health Authority Regions.60 Prepared by the
Office of the Provincial Health Officer, 2015; and Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
am
Inclusion in the term tripartite partners has evolved and expanded over time; at the time of publication, this term includes
a broad range of content experts, partners, and organizations, including the federal and provincial governments, First Nations
Health Authority, BC Association of Aboriginal Friendship Centres, Mtis Nation BC, Aboriginal services providers, and more.
160
Action Item 14: Develop an informational

campaign to increase awareness about seat
belt use and safe driving.10
The tripartite partners are responsible for
developing strategic methodologies that allow
for systemic change in injury prevention
and health promotion for First Nations
communities in BC.14 The First Nations
Health Authority (FNHA) has now taken a
regional approach15 to develop regional health
and wellness plans with BC First Nations in
order to establish agreed-upon roles, priorities,
and approaches to regionally relevant work,
including health promotion and disease and
injury prevention as appropriate.16
Aboriginal Road Safety Data

There are several challenges in examining data
related to MVCs among Aboriginal people in
BC. Data for MVCs related to Mtis, Inuit,
and non-Status Indians are not currently
available. Among data that are available
and used in this report (see Chapter1 and
Appendix B), Aboriginal identity is captured
differently; the Vital Statistics Agency and
Discharge Abstract Database (DAD) use
Status Indian data,an while the BC Coroners
Service captures Aboriginal identity
information that is inclusive of Mtis, Inuit,
and First Nations peoples.ao Furthermore,
some aspects of the health and well-being of
Aboriginal people in BC have been studied
more than others. Among studies of the
social determinants of health and health
outcomes, researchers have employed different
measurements, standards, and definitions
of Aboriginal peoples. Therefore, there
are challenges in conducting comparisons
between data sources and in establishing
trends across time. This presents difficulties in
understanding injury patterns and trends for
all Aboriginal residents, and subsequently, in
planning injury prevention initiatives.
Lastly, many Aboriginal people in BC live

in rural/remote and reserve communities
that are accessible only by resource roads
(e.g.,forestry roads).17,18 These resource roads
are not included in police Traffic Accident
System (TAS) data. As such, fatality data
presented in this chapter are derived from
BC Vital Statistics Agency data (rather than
TAS data, like the other chapters of this
report). This allows the inclusion of fatalities
due to MVCs on all roads as well as offroad vehicles (e.g., snowmobiles, all-terrain
vehicles [ATVs]), but does not allow analyses
of contributing factors to the MVCs as with
TAS data.
Despite these challenges, several initiatives
are currently underway to support enhanced
data regarding of the health and wellbeing
Individuals are identified as Status Indian residents in the DAD if they are classified as such in any the following sources:
Health Canadas Status Verification File, Vital Statistics, and the Status Indian entitlement files from the BC Medical Services Plan
database.
ao
Aboriginal identity is determined from the information gathered during a coroners investigation, including information
provided by the next of kin.
an
161
of Aboriginal people in BC, and these

initiatives will likely enhance MVCrelated data specific to Aboriginal people
in BC. For example, as a response to the
lack of injury data in First Nations and
Inuit communities, the First Nations and
Inuit Health Branch (FNIHB) of Health
Canada supported the development of the
Aboriginal Community Centered Injury
Surveillance System (ACCISS), including
national consultations.21 This initiative was
informed by the principles of ownership,
control, access, and possession (OCAP)
(see sidebar: OCAP Principles).22 The
Secwepemc Nation in BC has implemented
this model in an injury surveillance and
prevention program.23 Also, the Aboriginal
Administrative Data Standard (AADS),
which came into effect in 2007, was created
to ensure that ministries and their affiliated
agencies are consistent in how Aboriginal
identity information is collected24 (although
it has not been adopted by all organizations
or government ministries).
In addition to these systemic

improvements to the availability of data
related to Aboriginal health and wellbeing, in 2007, FNIHB formed the
First Nations and Inuit Children and
Youth Injury Indicators Project Task
Group. This is a federal group with
representation from the Assembly of
First Nations, which developed a list
of injury indicators for First Nations
and Inuit children and youth to inform
policy and monitor the health of First
Nations and Inuit children, youth,
and their families. Indicators across all
injury areas were identified, including
the following that will be pertinent for
monitoring MVC-related health and
well-being in the future:
Age and sex of First Nations road users
involved in MVCs (including cars,
ATVs, and snowmobiles) and road user
type (driver, passenger, pedestrian,
and/or cyclist).
OCAP Principles
The principles of ownership, control, access, and possession (OCAP), help First Nations communities
and academic institutions establish research partnerships that protect the rights of First Nations peoples.
These principles ensure that the rights of indigenous peoples are protected in research and information
management, as these rights have not always necessarily been protected. OCAP principles honour the goals
of Aboriginal self-determination and self-governance in research and information.
Ownership: The collective ownership, by a community or group, of their cultural knowledge, data, and
information.
Control: The right of First Nations communities to control all aspects of the research process from
planning to management of information.
Access: The right of First Nations communities to have access to all data and information on them
regardless of where it is held. In practice, this can be achieved through standardized protocols.
Possession: The physical control of data, a mechanism by which ownership can be asserted and
protected.
First Nations Centre, Ownership, Control, Access and Possession19 and First Nations Information
Governance Centre, The First Nations Principles of OCAP 20
162
Number of First Nations children and

youth seriously injured or killed who were
not wearing a helmet while riding ATVs,
snowmobiles, and/or bicycles.
Proportion of First Nations youth
enrolment and completion of driver
education coursesskills for car,
snowmobile, boat, and ATV drivers
(e.g.,courses in the community or within
50 km of the community).25
Number of MVCs involving First Nations

children and youth, by type of vehicle and
crash circumstances.
Proportion of proper use of child vehicle
restraints (car seats and booster seats).
Number of seriously injured First Nations
child and youth occupants who were not
wearing a seat belt.
The extent to which indicators are being

used will vary as communities determine
their own data collection methods, which
means that communities will have varying
levels of data to draw upon when developing
community programming. With more
community-based activities underway to
collect more accurate, timely, and inclusive
injury data, Aboriginal people will have
information in order to better plan and
implement programs that will help to reduce
MVC rates.
163
ABORIGINAL MVC FATALITIES AND

SERIOUS INJURIES IN BC
MVCs are a significant cause of injuries and
death for Aboriginal people in BC, and are
typically higher than for non-Aboriginal
people.2 The following section explores MVC
fatalities among Status Indians in BC, and
considers variables including health authority
area, sex and age, and region.
MVCs were responsible for the largest number
of deaths due to external causes among
Aboriginal people in BC between 1992 and
2002.2 During this time period, the agestandardized fatality rate (ASFR) for MVCs
for Aboriginal people was nearly four times
higher than the rate for other BC residents
(38 per 100,000 Status Indians, compared to
10 per 100,000 other residents).2
Figure 9.3 shows that between 1993 and
2006, the ASFR for MVCs for Status
Indians decreased by 45.8 per cent, from
34.7per100,000 Status Indian population
to 18.8per100,000. However, the ASFR
for Status Indians remained more than

double that of other residents of BC
in 2006, at 18.8 and 7.1per100,000,
respectively.
Children and youth make up a larger
percentage of the BC Aboriginal population
compared to the non-Aboriginal population,
with 28.0percent age 0-14 compared
to 16.5 per cent of other residents, and
18.2percent age 15-24 compared to
12.9percent of other residents.26 Unlike
other leading causes of death such as cancer
and heart disease, which more typically
impact older populations, injuries, such
as those resulting from MVCs, have a
large impact on younger populations.
Therefore, it is important to consider the
high proportion of young Aboriginal people
when interpreting the higher rates of MVCs
for Aboriginal peoples. Summary measures
of premature death are potential years of
life lost (PYLL) and PYLL standardized
rate (PYLLSR), which help to account for
population age differences by explicitly
weighting deaths that occur before a standard
baseline age of 75.
Age-standardized Motor Vehicle Crash

Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians
and Other Residents, BC, 1993 to 2006
Figure
9.3
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Status Indian (SI) Fatality Rate
34.7
46.8
37.3
34.0
28.5
38.1
24.6
21.2
29.4
26.8
36.1
23.3
18.8
18.8
Other Residents (OR) Fatality Rate
13.1
12.7
11.4
10.7
10.2
9.9
9.0
9.0
8.8
10.3
9.5
9.5
9.6
7.1
Number of SI Fatalities
39
51
48
43
38
46
35
30
34
32
50
36
30
27
Number of OR Fatalities
440
444
415
398
385
381
353
363
345
422
397
399
415
307
Year
Notes: Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: BC Vital Statistics Agency, data as of January 2, 2008. Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
164
Figure 9.4 presents PYLLSRs, showing

the rate of PYLL per 100,000 standard
population, and comparing specific causes
of death for the Status Indian population
and other BC residents for 2002-2006. For
all specific causes of death except cancer,
Status Indians have higher PYLLSR than
other BC residents. MVCs are the third
Figure
9.4
highest PYLLSR for Status Indians at

842.5per100,000more than double that
of other residents.
In addition to a higher burden of MVC
fatalities, Aboriginal people in BC also
experience higher rates of hospitalization
for serious injuries resulting from MVCs
Potential Years of Life Lost Standardized

Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians and
Other Residents, by Cause of Death, BC, 2002-2006
1,131.6
Circulatory System Diseases
563.0
1,087.4
Cancer
338.2
Suicide
Cause of Death
1,160.8
842.5
Motor Vehicle Crashes
827.0
303.8
Digestive System Diseases
788.2
143.5
Infectious/Parasitic Diseases
774.9
139.8
Accidental Poisoning
601.4
218.1
Respiratory System Diseases
533.0
140.7
Chronic Liver Disease/Cirrhosis
493.0
68.4
Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Disease
Status Indians
457.3
67.9
Other Residents
387.7
Ischemic Heart Disease
281.3
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Potential Years of Life Lost Standardized Rate per 100,000 Population

(with 95% CI)
Note: Potential years of life lost (age under 75 years) standardized rate is calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. See Appendix B for more
Source: BC Vital Statistics Agency, data as of January 11, 2008. Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of
Health, 2015.
165
Analysis by Region
compared to other residents. As shown in

Figure 9.5, for 2004/2005-2006/2007,
MVCs and cyclist crashes were the third
leading specific cause of hospitalizations
for external causes for Status Indians, at
214.7hospitalizations per 100,000 Status
Indian population, (after falls, and adverse
effects, misadventure and post-operative
complications).
As shown in Chapter 2 of this report, in

BC, the number of MVC-related fatalities
varies by region, and this is true for the
distribution of MVC fatalities for Aboriginal
people as well. Figure 9.6 shows that
the ASFR was higher for Status Indians
than for other BC residents across the
regional health authorities. The highest
ASFR for Status Indians was in Interior
Health at 35.9per100,000 Status Indian
population, while the rate for other residents
in Interior was less than half of that, at
15.7per100,000.
The disparity among these rates has been

observed elsewhere in Canada as well;
a Calgary-based study of major trauma
between 1999 and 2002 found that Status
Indians were at nearly four times higher
risk of sustaining an MVC injury than the
general population. The study also found
that MVCs accounted for the overwhelming
majority of deaths as a result of a severe
injury in both Status Indian and non-Status
Indian groups. The researchers speculated
that this could be due to environmental
factors, including road conditions on
reserves; social factors, such as driving
behaviours, seat belt use, or number of car
occupants; lifestyle factors involving frequent
highway driving; and vehicle factors, such as
vehicle maintenance.27
Figure
9.5
As shown earlier in this report, Interior

Health and Northern Health have higher
proportions of MVC fatalities than their
respective proportions of the BC population.
Since Interior Health (shown in Figure9.6
with a large difference between StatusIndians
and other residents) and Northern Health
(whichhas a smaller difference) are both
rural/remote areas, these data suggest that the
differences in MVC rates between Aboriginal
peoples in BC and other residents have more
complex causes than simply geographical
Age-standardized Hospitalization
Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians and
Other Residents, by External Cause, BC, 2004/2005-2006/2007
597.7
External Cause of Hospitalization
Falls
335.8
Adverse Effects, Misadventure,

and Post-Operative Complications
340.9
237.3

and Bicycle Crashes
214.7
125.8
206.5
Assault
42.7
Status Indians
172.9
Self-Inflicted
Other Residents
35.6
463.9
All Other External Causes
236.0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700

Notes: "All other external causes" includes poisoning (accidental), other transport, fire/flames and hot substances (burns), and drowning/submersion.
Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. Data analysis is based on Harvard Codes. See Appendix B for more information
Source: Discharge Abstract Database, Ministry of Health Services 2004/2005-2006/2007; data accessed April 2008. Prepared by Population Health
166

Rate per 100,000 Population for Status Indians
and Other Residents, by Health Authority, BC, 2002-2006
Figure

(with 95% CI)
9.6
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Interior
Northern
Fraser
Vancouver
Coastal
Island
BC Total
Status Indian (SI) Fatality Rate
35.9
26.1
20.2
18.6
18.0
24.6
Other Residents (OR) Fatality Rate
15.7
20.7
8.4
5.2
7.0
9.2
Number of SI Fatalities
50
47
28
21
29
175
Number of OR Fatalities
535
259
602
282
261
1,940
Health Authority
Notes: Age-standardized rates are calculated using Canada 1991 Census population. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: BC Vital Statistics Agency, data as of January 02, 2008. Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of
Health, 2015.
differences. Furthermore, the higher rates of

MVC fatalities among Status Indians is also
demonstrated in urban areas.
Figure 9.7 shows the variation in PYLLSR
for MVCs among Status Indians by regional
Potential Years of Life Lost Standardized Rate per 100,000

Status Indian Population due to Motor Vehicle Crashes,
by Health Authority, BC, 2002-2006
Figure
9.7
Potential Years of Life Lost

Standardized Rate per 100,000 Population
health authority for 2002-2006. The highest

burden for Status Indians was again found
in Interior Health at a rate of 1,088 per
100,000 Status Indian population, while
the lowest rate was found in Vancouver
Coastal Health at 597 per 100,000. During
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Years of Life Lost
Interior
Fraser
Northern
Island
Vancouver Coastal
1,088
1,002
787
754
597
Health Authority
Note: Potential years of life lost (age under 75 years) rate calculated using Canada 1991 Census population.
Source: Provincial Health Officer. 2009. Pathways to Health and Healing: 2nd Report on the Health and Well-being of Aboriginal People in British Columbia.
Provincial Health Officers Annual Report 2007. Chapter 4 Data File.28 Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of
Health, 2015.
167
Analysis by Sex and Age

As discussed in Chapter 2 of this report,
males are generally at increased risk for being
involved in an MVC because they tend to
engage in more risky behaviours, such as
driving after drinking or not wearing a seat
belt, and because they drive more kilometres
per year than females, thereby increasing
their exposure to risk.29,30,31,32,33,34 Compared
to other BC residents, between 1991 and
9.8
Figure 9.8 presents fatality rates among

Status Indian children age 1-4 years. It
shows that for 1992-2006, MVCs were the
leading cause of death for this group, with
a rate of 5.6 per 100,000 population. This
rate was nearly four times higher than the
rate for other BC children 1-4 years of age
(1.5per100,000).
Fatality Rate per 100,000 Population among Children

Age 1-4 Years for Status Indians and Other Residents,
by Cause of Death, BC, 1992-2006
5.6
1.5
Homicide
Cause of Death
2001, the PYLL rate for Status Indian males

was over three times higher than the rate
for other male BC residents: 20.8 per 1,000
population compared to 6.1 per 1,000.35 For
female Status Indians, the rate was almost four
times higher, at 9.0 per 1,000 compared to
2.3per1,000 for other female BC residents.35
this same period, the provincial PYLLSR

for MVCs among Status Indians overall was
reported to be 840per100,000, compared
to 340per100,000 for other residents.28
Figure
In 1992-2006, MVCs were the

leading cause of death for
Status Indians age 1-4 years.
4.5
0.7
Other External Causes
1.0
Diseases of the Respiratory

System
1.0
4.0
4.0
Other Natural Causes
3.4
2.2
Accidental Drowning (Including

Water Transport)
2.8
1.7
Congenital Malformations and

Chromosome Abnormalities
2.8
2.9
Exposure to Fire/Burns
2.3
0.4
Diseases of the Nervous System
0.9
Certain Infectious and

Parasitic Diseases
0.7
Status Indians
Other Residents
2.3
1.7

Notes: Rates are calculated using age-specific population numbers. See Appendix B for more information about this data source.
Source: BC Vital Statistics Agency, data as of June 19, 2008. Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations, Ministry of Health, 2015.
168
SAFE SYSTEM APPROACH

Application of an SSA to road safety
is consistent with Aboriginal health
perspectives in that it views road safety
as a holistic system of road users, speeds,
roadways, and vehicles, rather than an
MVC being viewed as an isolated product
of one persons behaviour. It also offers a
framework from which to explore why the
rates of MVC injuries and fatalities among
Aboriginal people are higher than for other
residents. Examination of the pillars of
an SSA in Chapters 3 to 8 of this report
apply to Aboriginal people in BC overall,
but the following section offers additional
considerations with respect to these pillars
and how they relate to Aboriginal people in
BC.
Safe Road Users

Substance-based Impairment
As is the case in many marginalized
populations, some Aboriginal individuals
struggle with addictions to alcohol and other
drugs. For Aboriginal peoples, historical
events such as colonization, residential
schools, and the systemic loss of culture and
traditions, as well as lower socio-economic
status, can act as contributing factors to
substance use.36 In 2009, a report by the BC
Provincial Health Officer showed that for the
five-year period of 2002-2006, 41 percent
of MVC fatalities among Status Indians
were alcohol-related, which was over twice
the proportion of other BC residents at
19percent.1 However, it is now known that
due to a systematic underreporting of alcohol
involvement in MVC fatalities, these levels
are higher than previously reported for all BC
residents, including Aboriginal residents.
There is also a difference in MVCs with
alcohol impairment between Aboriginal
populations who live on reserve and
ap
aq
those who live off reserve in BC.ap In BC,

44.2percent of Registered (Status) Indians
live on reserve.26 According to the Insurance
Corporation of British Columbia (ICBC),
for 2003-2007, 39.3 per cent of MVC
fatalities that occurred on reserve in BC
involved alcohol impairment, compared
to 26.4 per cent of related fatalities that
occurred off reserve.37 In fact, for on-reserve
MVC fatalities, alcohol impairment was the
leading contributing factor, just ahead of
speed at 37.5 per cent and well ahead of not
using a restraint at 21.4 per cent.37 A survey
of Aboriginal youth in BC found that while
the proportion of off-reserve Aboriginal
youth who reported engaging in alcoholimpaired driving was fairly stable from 2003
to 2008 (at 5 and 6 per cent, respectively),
the rate for youth who lived on reserve
increased from 8 per cent in 2003 to
17percent in 2008.38
Alcohol impairment and MVCs among
Aboriginal people has also been studied
in other provinces. A 2005 Alberta study
of First Nations drivers age 18-29 years
found that patterns of use and attitudes
regarding alcohol were strongly influenced
by the community context. Factors that
contributed to drinking and driving cited by
young drivers included normalization of the
behaviour in the community; role modeling
of risky drinking and driving behaviour in
the home; poverty; unemployment; and
poorly maintained rural roads. The study
also highlighted factors that deterred First
Nations youth from drinking and driving,
such as the trauma of seeing family and
community members killed or injured. The
researchers recommended that drinking and
driving interventions consider the effect
of community norms, social realities, and
peer relationships.39 Results from a threeyear study in Saskatchewan from 2003 to
2005 comparing MVCs involving alcoholimpaired driversaq showed that MVCs with
alcohol as a contributing factor were almost
A reserve is land set aside by the federal government for the use and benefit of a First Nation.
In this study, "impaired" is defined as blood-alcohol content (BAC) 0.08 or higher.
169
three times more likely to occur on reserve

than off reserve. MVCs involving drivers who
were drinking, but not legally impaired, were
4.8 times more likely to occur on reserve
than off reserve. The study also identified
additional factors in on-reserve MVCs, such
as younger drivers, older vehicles, lower seat
belt use, and poorer road conditions.6
Restraint Use
were not restrained, and 19 (29.2percent)

were restrained.ar,40 Although not directly
comparable, this estimate is approximately
double the estimate for MVC vehicle
occupant fatalities across BC provided
in Chapter 3. It is possible that being
unrestrained accounts for at least some of
the higher rates of MVC serious injuries and
deaths among Aboriginal people compared
to other residents in BC.
The importance of restraint use and the

associated reductions in MVC fatalities and
serious injuries has been explored earlier
in this report. Data regarding MVCs and
restraint use among Aboriginal people
in BC are limited; however, two recent
studies have reported some applicable data.
A recent review of restraint use among
Aboriginal people in BC found that of the
65 Aboriginal occupants who died in MVCs
between 2003 and 2005, 30 (46.2percent)
Figure 9.9 shows a selection of the results

of a survey of youth in BC, with a focus
on Aboriginal youth. According to survey
responses, rates of seat belt use increased
among Aboriginal youth both on and off
reserve between 2003 and 2013.38 This
indicates that seat belt use is improving
among Aboriginal youth in BC; however,
youth living on reserve report lower levels of
always wearing a seat belt than those living
off reserve at all three points in time.
Figure
Percentage of Youth On- and Off-reserve Who Always Wore a Seat Belt
When Riding in a Vehicle, BC, 2003, 2008, and 2013
9.9
Percentage Who Always Wore Seat Belt
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2003
2008
2013
On-reserve
35
50
59
Off-reserve
49
63
73
Year
Source: Adolescent Health Survey, McCreary Centre Society, 2003, 2008, 2013. Prepared by Population Health Surveillance, Engagement and Operations,
ar
The remaining 16 (24.6 per cent) had unknown restraint use. This review had issues with underreported data so caution should
be used when interpreting results.
170
Safe Speeds
Data are somewhat limited in examining
Aboriginal people and speeding behaviours
in BC. Some investigations have compared
on- and off-reserve speeding behaviour
within BC among all residents and found
they are quite similar; for example, according
to ICBC police-reported data for 20032007,
37.5percent of on-reserve MVC-related
fatalities involved speeding, compared to
37.2 per cent of off-reserve MVC fatalities.37
Excessive speed for condition was cited in
44percent of Aboriginal child deaths in 2007
according to the Child Death Review Unit,
BC Coroners Service.41
Safe Roadways
There are several considerations related to
safe roadways that impact MVC rates and
road safety strategies for Aboriginal people
in BC, such as use of rural/remote roads,
reserve roads, and socio-economic factors.
In BC, many First Nations communities
and reserves are located in rural and remote
areas,42 and a considerable proportion of
the Status Indian population in BC live
on reserve.26 As discussed in Chapter7
of this report, rural and remote roads
present numerous challenges related to
road safety, including, but not limited to,
greater response times and farther distances
required to travel for emergency services.43,44
Furthermore, rural living can necessitate
longer travel distances to carry out daily or
weekly activities and involve rougher roads
and terrain41,45all of which expose rural
residents, including Aboriginal people, to
more risk.
Roads leading to and on reserves have
varied governance structures and different
parties are responsible for maintenance
than for other roads in BC.46 Some rural
and remote reserve communities are only
accessible by resource roads (e.g., forestry
roads).17 These communities share resource
as
roads with industrial traffic (such as logging

trucks), and industries are responsible
for road maintenance on those roads.18
However, since resource roads are built
for industries to access natural resources,
they are not built to the same standards as
public highways,47 and are typically only
maintained by industry when in use.18
The Natural Resource Road Act project,
led by the Ministry of Forests, Lands and
Natural Resource Operations, aims to
reduce inconsistencies in the management
and administration of resource roads by
creating a single framework to govern all
of BCs resource roads. This project has the
potential to increase safe access to remote
First Nations communities in BC through
consolidated and updated legislation.as
The new legislation would consolidate
11separate pieces of legislation.48
While research related to reserve roads in
BC is limited, the Saskatchewan study that
compared MVCs on off-reserve roads with
those on on-reserve roads from 20032005
found that the key factors for MVCs
occurring on reserves included poor road
conditions and high-crash intersections.6
Safe Vehicles
Despite improvements in many of the
social determinants of health, Aboriginal
people in BC still face lower levels of
educational achievement, higher levels of
unemployment, and are more likely to earn
income under $20,000 per year.1 Lower
socio-economic status negatively influences a
personsability to own a new car or a car with
up-todate safety features and technologies.49
Furthermore, lower socio-economic status
and a lackof vehicle maintenance facilities
in rural and remote areas or on reserves
may also create challenges for properly
maintaining a vehicle.44 The Saskatchewanbased study of Aboriginal people involved in
MVCs found that compared to off-reserve
MVCs, on-reserve MVCs were more likely
to involve a vehicle 20 years old or older.6
Information on the Natural Resource Road Act project can be found at www.for.gov.bc.ca/mof/nrra/.
171
First Nations communities of Northern BC are spread across a massive geographic area, and
many are only accessible by resource roads, which are poorly maintained and rarely policed. Crashes
involving wildlife are also more common on so-called bush roads. Inadequate vehicle maintenance
is not only related to poverty but to the reality that many smaller, remote communities have no
mechanical services available. Gravel and forest service roads are rough, and increase the likelihood
of mechanical breakdown for all vehicles. It has been noted that on reserve especially, vehicles may
be overloaded, seat belts are not utilized, and children [are] not properly secured in child safety seats.
Access to the nearest town which acts as a service centre to the First Nations community can be a
challenge for many First Nations peoples who dont own a reliable vehicle.
D. Bowering, Crossroads: Report on Motor Vehicle Crashes in Northern BC 44
PREVENTING MVCS IN
ABORIGINAL COMMUNITIES
Interventions designed to improve rates for
Aboriginal populations will need to consider
the inequities in the social determinants
of health, rural and remote factors, as
well as the legacy of colonization. For
example, initiatives designed to promote
community health, emotional well-being,
self-determination, and empowerment have
the potential to result in positive, measurable
effects on many health outcomes, including
reduced injury and death due to MVCs.
The US Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention have an online resource for
promoting road safety among American
Aboriginal peoples (American Indians
172
and Alaskan Natives). These resources

and evidence-based recommendations are
aimed at tribal governments and health care
professionals with the aim of addressing seat
belt use, child safety seat use, and impaired
driving in tribal communities.50
In BC, the best opportunity for engaging
communities in developing culturally
appropriate, evidence-based, datainformed MVC prevention programs and
initiatives is through the FNHA, Aboriginal
organizations, and the work underway
by the Tripartite partners. Leveraging the
work of Tripartite partners and supporting
work in the Tripartite First Nations Health
Plan action items identified earlier in this
chapter has the potential to strengthen health
partnerships and improve road safety among
Aboriginal communities.
Best and Promising Practices for

Road Safety among Aboriginal
Peoples
Several reviews have examined best practices
in injury prevention interventions among
Aboriginal peoples.51,52,53 All of these reviews
identified a lack of rigorous research or
evaluation of injury prevention activities
among Aboriginal peoples. One of these
reviews by the Public Health Agency of
Canadas Canadian Best Practices Portal
(CBPP) team identified elements of success
for a select number of Aboriginal injury
prevention interventions based on anecdotal
evidence gained in the literature or by key
informants.at,51 A selection of these elements
of success include:
1. Adapt to local cultures and values. Do
not assume a program developed for
non-Aboriginal communities will work in
Aboriginal communities.
2. Work in close partnership with
communities and with organizations that
have a clear understanding of Aboriginal
culture and values.
Case Study: Safer Nations-Injury Prevention Video

Contest
Community-produced videos are one way to engage
communities in important health and safety topics. In 2012,
the First Nations Health Authority held a video contest with
an injury prevention theme to inspire communities to be
creative in the promotion of injury prevention from their own
perspectives. Nine communities participated, with public
service announcement style videos and topics ranging from
ensuring seat belt use, proper child car seat use, warnings not to
text while driving, bike safety, being injury-free communities,
and being safe in sweat lodge ceremonies. Many videos
incorporated traditional culture and teachings, and involved
children, youth, and Elders.54
3. Assure project outcomes (e.g., resources)

meet the communitys needs.
4. Involve Elders in safety program
development and delivery.
5. Use instructors that are familiar with and
have knowledge of the communities they
work with.
6. Consider the costs of recommended
injury prevention programs and support
participant communities in obtaining any
recommended resources (e.g., helmets).
7. Address community injury prevention
priorities.51
at
A 2008 review of injury prevention programs

in Aboriginal communities in BC by the
found that injury prevention activities are
occurring throughout BC.53 They found
that injury prevention is rarely delivered as a
single, stand-alone program. In seven out of
18 programs (38.9 per cent) it was a smaller
component of a larger initiative, suggesting a
broader holistic approach to programming.
Despite this, the review underscored the
need for more injury prevention initiatives
aimed at Aboriginal people.53
The evaluation criteria were not defined by Aboriginal communities, who may define best practices differently.
173
[T]here are deep underlying factors such as individual and institutional

racism, racial segregation, income inequalities, access to social and
economic resources, and stress associated with belonging to a minority
group that contributes to multiple disparities. Increasing seat belt use is
important, but so is insuring equal access to education and health care,
enforcement of fair housing laws, and community development efforts that
address these deep underlying causes of many health disparities, including
rates of traffic-related injuries.
D.W. Schlundt, Reducing Unintentional Injuries on the Nations
Highways: A Literature Review, Journal of Health Care for the Poor and
Underserved 29
Expertise and capacity related to injury

prevention has been building in Aboriginal
communities,54 and evaluations of approaches
and related effectiveness of injury prevention
programs by communities could leverage
lessons learned in order to help establish best
practices within communities. Lessons learned
can also be shared with other communities to
maximize efficiencies and limited resources,
although what works well in one particular
First Nation or Aboriginal community will
not necessarily be as effective in another.16,52
174
Addressing Challenges in Road

Safety for Aboriginal Peoples
Contextual factors are often at the root of
many risk-taking behaviours, including
alcohol-impaired driving and lack of
seat belt use. A focus on system- and
community-level interventions helps
individuals reduce these risk-taking
behaviours while acknowledging that
there are larger social and economic
determinants at work.
Child Passenger Safety

Aboriginal communities in BC vary in
their capacity to deliver child passenger
safety programming, based on location and
size of the community, access to resources,
and the number and ages of children in
the community; however, a number of
initiatives are underway to increase access
to information about child car seats.55
Studies have shown that child passenger
safety initiatives have improved road safety
in Aboriginal communities. For example,
studies published in 1992 and 2002
reviewed the 1988 Navajo Nations child
occupant restraint laws and public education
campaign and found an increase in seat belt
use and decreased hospitalizations among
children due to MVCs.56,57
ICBC supports a program that helps
increase child passenger safety through
increased and improved use of car seats.
It is geared specifically towards Aboriginal
communities and is delivered through the
Child Passenger Safety Network.au They
provide child passenger safety educator
training to community members and
staff, community education and awareness
sessions, assistance with child seat loaner
programs, and information about subsidized
child passenger restraint programs. Resources
and education delivered through the
Child Passenger Safety Network are often
cofunded by First Nations communities for
local programming. In 2014, six training
sessions were held, five with First Nations
communities and one with people who
work with high-risk communities with a
total of 30 student participants. This focus
on capacity building within First Nations
communities has resulted in a growing
number of First Nations Child Passenger
Safety Educator Instructors who are trained

and have the ability to certify educators. In
2015, review sessions will be held for certified
child seat educators with an opportunity to
refresh skills and get information on current
issues, concerns, and products.58
In 2012, the FNHA created a guide
called the First Nations Child Seat Share
Cooperative, which provides First Nations
communities with the knowledge needed
to effectively develop and operate a car
seat share cooperative (CSSC) program. A
CSSC program is a sharing program that
provides culturally appropriate education and
access to safe child seats. The guide includes
information on ways to manage the lending
of car seats, how to handle liability concerns,
and other information necessary to start and
operate a CSSC program.55
Northern and Rural Road Safety

The RoadHealth regional task force was
created in 2005 to focus on motor vehicle
injuries, road safety, and driver education in
northern BC communities. Partners in the
RoadHealth initiative include ICBC, the
RCMP, WorkSafeBC, the BC Ambulance
Service, BC Forest Safety Council, and
related provincial government ministries.av,59
In October 2006, RoadHealth held a First
Nations and Roads Summit that focused
on engagement, awareness, and initiatives
in First Nations communities in northern
BC.59 Summit participants identified actions
and next steps to improve road safety,
which included increasing education and
awareness among industry and First Nations
communities, clarifying jurisdictional
issues, improving road maintenance, and
approaching road safety as a public health
issue.59
The Child Passenger Safety Networks goal is to empower Aboriginal communities with tools to ensure all residents are traveling
in vehicles as safely as possible.
av
Partners from the provincial government include representatives from the following organizations: Ministry of Forests, Lands
and Natural Resource Operations; Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure; and BC Coroners Service.
au
175
SUMMARY
Aboriginal people experience inequities in
the social determinants of health, which
play a large role in the elevated rates of
motor vehicle crash (MVC) fatalities and
serious injuries among Status Indians and
other Aboriginal peoples in BC. Speed,
substance-based impairment, and not using
restraints, were among the top contributing
factors for MVCs involving Aboriginal
people, which is similar to the situation
for the broader population. For Aboriginal
people living rurally or on rural reserves,
additional contributing factors have
been identified, including longer driving
distances for day-to-day activities, longer
distances from emergency health services,
lack of rural and remote road maintenance,
and, for some, economic and geographic
barriers to acquiring newer vehicles and
maintaining older vehicles. Efforts to
address MVCs among Aboriginal people
176
must be contextualized within historical

and present-day systemic health, economic,
and social realities, which in turn have roots
in colonialism, discrimination, and the
social determinants of health. Approaching
road and vehicle safety using a Safe System
Approach and a population health approach
is necessary to broaden the response to MVCs
beyond addressing individual behaviours.
Many First Nations communities are working
to better understand and prevent MVCs
through innovative and collaborative
programs addressing issues such as child
vehicle occupant safety. The Tripartite
partnership in BC presents an opportunity
to collectively address these issues, with the
common goal to reduce the rates of MVCs
among Aboriginal people in BC.
The following chapter presents
recommendations for improving road
safety and reducing the burden of injuries
and fatalities for all British Columbians,
including Aboriginal people.
Chapter 10: Discussion and Recommendations
Chapter 10
Discussion and Recommendations

DISCUSSION OF KEY FINDINGS
This report explored road safety and motor
vehicle crashes (MVCs) in BC and examined
the related burden of serious injuries and
fatalities experienced in our province. This
report employed a safe system framework
with four pillars (safe road users, safe speeds,
safe roadways, and safe vehicles) informed
by a combination of a population health
approach, a public health approach, and
a Safe System Approach (SSA). Using this
framework, this report explored how to
best promote health and prevent injuries
and fatalities resulting from MVCs in the
population as a whole and highlighted
subpopulations that face a greater burden of
MVC serious injuries and fatalities based on
health authority region, road user type, sex,
and age group.
The SSA entails a modern view of road
safety, in which MVCs are seen as systemic
failures, and related deaths and serious
injuries are considered preventable through
systemic interventions. This is a broad and
comprehensive view of road safety that
highlights not only the users of the road
but the roadways they use, the vehicles they
operate, and the speed and manner in which
they operate them. By taking steps to reduce
the number and severity of MVCs we can
prevent related serious injuries and fatalities
and enhance the health of all road users in BC.
Compared to the MVC fatality rate
per100,000 population in other
countries in the same year, Canada was
ranked 15th (together with France) out
of 36jurisdictions. Leaders in road safety

(Iceland, the UK, Norway, Denmark, and
Sweden) had fatality rates between 2.8 and
3.0 per 100,000half that of Canada.
Comparisons based on MVC fatality
rate per billion vehicle kilometres show
similar results: Canada ranked 13th out
of22jurisdictions at 5.9 fatalities per billion
vehicle kilometres, while leaders (Iceland,
Norway, Denmark, Ireland, Sweden, and the
UK) had rates between 2.9 and 3.6 fatalities
per billion vehicle kilometres.
In BC in 2011, there were about 432,000
people involved in an MVC, 292 MVC
fatalities, and 3,038 MVC serious injuries.
In 2012, the MVC serious injury rate for
BC was slightly below the Canadian average
for all provinces at 444.5 per 100,000
population (the average among the provinces
was 475.3 per 100,000). With respect to
fatalities, the BC rate (6.2per100,000) was
slightly above the 6.0 per 100,000 average
among Canadian provinces, but notably
higher than Ontarios rate of 4.2per100,000
population, and is more than double the rate
of the worlds best performers.
In the last two decades there have been
many successes in road safety, and
reductions in MVC injuries and fatalities
in BC. This is particularly notable given
the increase in population size and in active
drivers licences in BC, and the associated
increase in road traffic volume over the
same period. Data from the years analyzed
show that despite these successes, there are
still hundreds of MVC-related fatalities and
thousands of related serious injuries occurring
in BC each year.
177
Some populations in BC face a higher

burden of MVC-related serious injuries and
fatalities than others. Comparing regional
health authorities in 2012, 15.9 per cent of
the BC population lived in Interior Health,
but 38.8 per cent of MVC fatalities occurred
there, while 24.7 per cent of the population
lived in Vancouver Coastal Health, but only
12.5 per cent of MVC fatalities occurred
there. Overall, there have been decreases
in the age-standardized rates per 100,000
population of MVC fatalities and serious
injuries for both males and females over the
last decade. While the rates were higher for
males at all points in time, there has been a
greater decrease in the rates for males over
time, narrowing the gap between males and
females in recent years. Males also had higher
rates of fatalities and serious injuries per
100,000 than females across all age groups,
with the rate for males 16 to 65 years old
being at least double that for females in the
same age group. Analyses based on age group
presented in this report showed that the
highest MVC fatality and serious injury rates
per100,000 population were among those
age 16-25 and age 76 and up.
Analyses in this report examined various
road user types and their respective burden
of MVC fatalities and serious injuries.
Vulnerable road users are those who do
not have the protection of an enclosed
vehicleincluding pedestrians, cyclists,
and motorcyclists. More than one third
(38.7percent) of MVC serious injuries in
2009 were among vulnerable road users. This
increased to 45.7per cent in 2013. Almost
one third (31.7 percent) of MVC fatalities
in 2009 were vulnerable road users. This
increased to 34.9 per cent in 2013. Among
vulnerable road users, the highest proportion
of fatalities was among pedestrians, while the
highest proportion of hospitalizations was
among motorcyclists. Cyclist data and related
trends are more challenging to compare
because we lack comprehensive data on how
many British Columbians cycle and how many
trips and kilometres they travel by bicycle.
178
Speed, impairment, and distraction were

the top contributing factors recorded by
police for fatal MVCs in BC between 2008
and 2012. The number and rate of MVCs
per 100,000 population with these factors
have improved in recent years. However,
the proportions of MVC fatalities with
speed or distraction as a contributing factor
have increased, demonstrating unequal
progress compared to impairment and other
causes of MVC fatalities. Analyses of these
contributing factors by sex and age group
showed that while the gap has narrowed
over time, males have consistently more
speed-related MVC fatalities per 100,000
population than females, with the highest
rates among males from age 16 to 45. The
distraction-related MVC fatality rate is also
highest among males (particularly those
age 76 and up), although the rate decreased
slowly from 2005 to 2013. Among females,
the trend was also decreasing slowly, but with
greater year-to-year fluctuations than the
male rate. Similarly to MVC fatalities related
to speed or distraction, the number and rate
of impaired-related MVC fatalities have
declined overall but were consistently much
higher among males both over time and
across all age groups, with the highest levels
among males from age 16 to 35.
The examination of roadways and MVC
fatalities in this report showed that roadway
type and location have an impact on MVC
fatality rates. The highest potential for
collisions between vehicles, and between
vehicles and vulnerable road users, occurs at
intersections. Highways are also hazardous
due to the high speeds at which vehicles
travel. There are multiple challenges for
road safety on rural/remote roads, which are
often highways, due to high travel speeds
combined with longer emergency response
times and further distances to health
care services. For 2008-2012, about onequarter of MVC fatalities had one or more
environmental contributing factor identified
on police crash reports; road condition and
weather were the most frequently reported
among them. A number of safety measures

focusing on roadway design are explored
in this report, including traffic-calming
methods, cycling infrastructure, intersection
design, and more. Improving roadway
design will be particularly important as
the population and the number of active
drivers in BC continues to increase, creating
additional volume on roadways in BC.
This report also examined the role of vehicles
and vehicle design in MVCs and related
serious injuries and fatalities. Among fatal
MVCs with one or more contributing factors
related to vehicle condition, police reports
identified tire failure/inadequacy as the
most-often reported contributing factor by
far. Vehicle modifications (such as raising
vehicles or adding bull bars) can pose road
safety hazards, including the creation and/or
exacerbation of dangers related to vehicle
incompatibility. However, the extent to
which vehicle design and modifications
are contributing to MVCs in BC is only
partially understood, because data currently
do not capture all relevant vehicle design
factors, such as if the involved vehicles had
crash avoidance or protection technologies
or if vehicle incompatibility was an issue.
Road safety measures focusing on vehicle
design explored in this report include crash
avoidance technologies (e.g.,improved lights
and braking systems, pedestrian and cyclist
avoidance systems) and crash protection
technologies (e.g., passenger restraints,
air bags). Vehicle maintenance is also an
important component in ensuring vehicle
safety. Research findings related to socioeconomic status (SES), link lower SES and
ownership of vehicles that are more likely to
have lower safety ratings and fewer standard
safety features such as side air bags and
electronic stability control.
Aboriginal peoples wellness in relation to
road safety was explored by considering the
overall burden of MVC fatalities and serious
injuries among Aboriginal peoples in BC,
aw
as well as exploring the role of safe road user

behaviours, safe speeds, safe roads, and safe
vehicles in Aboriginal communities.aw The
ongoing legacy of colonization has direct and
indirect influences on serious injuries and
fatalities among Aboriginal peoples. In BC,
Status Indians have a higher age-standardized
MVC fatality rate than other residents;
however, this gap has decreased over the
last 20 years. MVC fatality rates among the
Status Indian population were highest in
Interior and Northern Health Authorities.
Similar to other BC residents, among Status
Indians, males experience the greatest burden
of MVCs as measured by Potential Years
of Life Lost. For First Nations peoples on
reserve, alcohol impairment, speed, and
not using a restraint were the top recorded
contributing factors to MVC fatalities
identified in available data. Some initiatives
for improving road safety in Aboriginal
communities are already underway, and
communities across the province continue
to make progress in designing and
implementing injury prevention programs
tailored to their needs. The First Nations
Health Authority is well positioned to
support and help expand these efforts.
Overall, this report identified many
achievements in road safety and related
improvements in rates of MVC fatalities and
serious injuries in BC. At the same time, data
showed that little progress has been made in
reducing the number of MVCs overall, and
in decreasing mortality and serious injury
among vulnerable road users. Improving
road safety in BC requires a comprehensive
approach that promotes health by increasing
safety for all road users. It also requires
safe speeds, safe vehicles, and safe roadway
designs to prevent MVCs from occurring,
and to reduce their severity when they do
occur. This can be achieved by
Increasing viable public and active
transportation options to reduce traffic
volume.
Challenges to data analyses regarding Aboriginal peoples in BC and road safety are described in Chapter 9.
179
Enhancing the safety of roadway

sections known to pose increased risks
(intersections, highways, and
rural/remote roads).
A. Viable alternatives to vehicle use must be

meaningfully supported at the provincial
level through infrastructure, related
services, and policies for all communities.
Addressing top human contributing

factors (speed, impairment, and
distraction).
B. Public health and the pillars of a Safe System

Approach should be considered in all road
policy and programming initiatives.
Emphasizing the protection of more

vulnerable road user groups (pedestrians,
cyclists, and motorcyclists).
C. The health and protection of vulnerable

road users should be at the forefront of
policy and programming decisions.
Targeting populations most burdened

by MVC injuries and fatalities (children,
seniors, males, Aboriginal peoples, and
those in rural/remote communities).
D. Due to the complexity of road safety

governance in BC, there is a need for
strong collaboration, partnerships, and
communication, between and across
multiple levels of government and
nongovernment organizations, to make
roadways safer for British Columbians.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Governance related to road safety and
MVCsis complex, and there has already
been considerable collaboration and work
done in BC and Canada to improve road
safety. International comparisons indicate
that a 50percent reduction in the number
of fatalities and serious injuries resulting
from MVCs in BC is an achievable
intermediate public health goal as we work
toward the British Columbia Road Safety
Strategy: 2015 and Beyond vision of having
the safest roads in North America and
the ultimate goal of zero traffic fatalities
(Vision Zero).1 With new technologies
and innovative infrastructure available,
Vision Zero is an achievable goal, and as
such, pursuit of this goal is a responsibility of
public health and road safety partners.
Based on the framework and data presented
in this report, the Provincial Health Officer
has identified key areas for action to improve
road safety and related public health
outcomes in BC. These recommendations
have four underlying principles:
180
It is within the context of these

four principles that the following
28recommendations are proposed, with
the aim of leveraging and expanding upon
existing programs and successes, enhancing
road safety, and improving related health
outcomes in BC.
A Strategic Approach to Road

Safety in BC
International comparisons provide examples
of substantial safety improvements that can
be made by adopting a road safety paradigm
in which there is shared responsibility across
the full system, including its designers.2,3 This
requires shifting the way that we think about
road safety, as well as making the safety of
road users a key priority for BC. Increasing
road safety also means ensuring that active
transportation, public transportation, and
other alternatives to personal vehicles are
viable options within and across all BC
communities. Not only does this reduce
the number of vehicles on the road, and
subsequently the number of MVCs,3 but
it also encourages physical activity and

supports healthy lifestyle choices and healthy
communities. A shared responsibility for
increasing road safety necessitates intersectoral and inter-ministerial collaboration,
in particular between the Ministry of Health,
Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure,
Ministry of Justice, municipalities, police, and
health authorities in BC.
3. Employ the principles of a Safe System

Approach in all relevant policies and
programs in BC. This approach considers
road users, safe speeds, safe roadway
design, and safe vehicle design in
strategies and initiatives, and considers
motor vehicle crash fatalities and serious
injuries as systemic failures that are
inherently preventable.
1. Support the BC Road Safety Strategy, and

work collaboratively across all levels of
government and with non-government
partners to achieve Vision Zero, including
having the safest roads in North America
and work[ing] toward an ultimate goal
of zero traffic fatalities as laid out in
the provincial strategy, British Columbia
Road Safety Strategy: 2015 and Beyond.1
This should include ensuring the related
steering committee and working groups
have sufficient resources to achieve their
mandates.
4. Focus provincial strategies, programs,

and policies regarding roadways and
infrastructure on the health and
safety of vulnerable road users, and
increase opportunities for safe, active
transportation and public transportation.
This should include commitments
to develop vulnerable road user and
active transportation-friendly plans for
each region of BC. This also includes
modifying intersections and other
roadway infrastructure according to
evidence-based safety designs to increase
the visibility of vulnerable road users,
increase traffic flow clarity, and better
protect cyclists and pedestrians through
methods such as prioritizing sidewalks,
bicycle lane networks, and crosswalks.
By focusing on increased protection of
vulnerable road users, the health and
safety of all road users can be improved.
2. Establish and resource an independent

Centre for Excellence in Road Safety
in BC to work in collaboration with
the steering committee and working
groups for the BC Road Safety Strategy.
A multi-agency governance committee
should be created to support this centre,
with authority to ensure that road safety
data are made available to researchers,
including data from the Insurance
Corporation of British Columbia, the
Ministry of Health, BCAmbulance
Service, and more. This centre should be
university based with a priority mandate
to collect, analyse, and house provincial
and community-level data related to
all aspects of road safety and motor
vehicle crashes, with the overall goal of
improving the health and safety of road
users in BC. The mandate would include
collecting data to support the assessment
of both systemic and human factors,
identifying and addressing data gaps and
limitations, and creating more efficient
linkages between databases to facilitate
meaningful and timely analyses.
Safe Road Users

Road user behaviour is a traditional area
for interventions for road safety and has the
potential to reduce the number of MVCrelated serious injuries and fatalities with
additional support. Improving road safety
by addressing human factors and risk-taking
behaviours requires collaboration between
many partners, in particular, the Ministry of
Health and Ministry of Justice.
5. Establish a more consistent approach
to education, enforcement, and related
penalties for the top three contributing
factors in motor vehicle crash injuries and
fatalities in BC: impairment, distraction,
181
and speed. This includes expanding

penalties and legal consequences for
driver distraction and speeding to be
commensurate with penalties for alcoholimpaired driving (e.g., penalties incurred
with the Immediate Roadside Prohibition
Program), and increasing the visibility of
enforcement for all three factors.
6. Extend the required zero (0.00) blood
alcohol content for new drivers beyond
completion of the Graduated Licensing
Program, to age 25.
7. Continue to reduce alcohol-impaired
driving through expansion and
evaluation of policies and strategies that
limit the availability of alcohol as per
recommendations in the report, Public
Health Approach to Alcohol Policy: An
Updated Report from the Provincial Health
Officer.4 This includes evaluating the
impact of increased access to alcohol
introduced in BC in 2013,5 and taking
action as needed to adjust that access
through increased prices and lower
density of places that sell alcohol. This
strategy should also include introducing
random breath testing and implementing
best practices for introducing and using
ignition interlocks.
8. Improve capacity to identify impaired
driving. This requires collaboration
between researchers, law enforcement,
and government and non-government
partners to develop objective measures to
assess impairment from all types of drugs.
This should include support for research
to better understand the impact of the
use of all types of drugs on driving ability
(e.g., prescription drugs, over-the-counter
medications, and illegal drugs).
9. Support existing campaigns and increase
public awareness of the laws designed to
eliminate the use of cell phones and other
handheld devices while driving. Preventing
driver distraction should include emphasis
on education and awareness of the dangers
of this behaviour to complement related
increased penalties.
182
10. Develop a strategy to assist individuals

with physical, cognitive, and/or visual
impairmentwhether due to age or
other factorsto be safe road users with
ongoing independence and mobility in
their communities. This should include
improving and enhancing the processes
for referrals for assessments and related
follow-up, and a focus on identifying,
developing, implementing and promoting
appropriate transportation alternatives.
Safe Speeds
Speed is the largest contributing factor to
MVC fatalities in BC, and vehicles travelling
at unsafe speeds should be a priority to
focus immediate efforts and resources on, in
order to reduce speed-related fatalities and
serious injuries. These recommendations
highlight the need for an evidence-based,
health and safety-first approach to setting
speed limits that would increase safety for all
road users. Reducing speed-related serious
injuries and fatalities requires collaboration
between the Ministry of Health, Ministry
of Justice, Ministry of Transportation and
Infrastructure, and local governments.
11. Set speed limits throughout the province
based on roadway type, with consideration
of the most vulnerable road users who
frequent each type of roadway and the
associated survivable speed for those road
users during a motor vehicle crash. This
includes monitoring and assessing the
impacts of any increases in speed limits
introduced, in addition to other policy
changes that may result in increased
speed, and appropriate corrective action to
safeguard the health of BC road users.
12. Amend the Motor Vehicle Act to reduce
the default speed limit on roads within
municipalities and treaty lands from
50km/h to a maximum of 30 km/h
(the survivable speed for pedestrians
and cyclists). This approach is consistent
with road use best practices and increases
consistency in speed limits across the
province.
13. Establish appropriate speed limits for

road and weather conditions and increase
related driver awareness and education.
This should include reduced speed limits
as needed during winter weather and
related road conditions.
14. Implement electronic speed management
province-wide. This could include
speed cameras, point-to-point speed
control, or other speed monitoring
technologies. The program should be
transparent in the selection of locations
and in the use of revenue generated. Any
revenue generated should be allocated to
funding additional road safety programs
including a Centre for Excellence in
Road Safety. Further, the program
should be implemented starting in areas
identified by communities as high risk
and supported by road safety data where
available.
Safe Roadways
There have been many improvements to
roadway infrastructure in BC over the
last few decades; however, further work
is required to improve the health of road
users while meeting the growing demands
of the population, including greater access
to public transit and increased safety and
opportunities for vulnerable road users.
Rural and remote areas face additional
challenges (e.g., longer emergency response
times, less public transit, and more wildlife
interactions) that must be considered
when working to enhance roadways in
BC. Improving the safety of BCs roadways
requires collaboration between many
partners, particularly the Ministry of
Health, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of
Transportation and Infrastructure, and local
governments.
15. Ensure that roadways in BC are
safe for all road users by prioritizing
pedestrian and cyclist health and safety
in road and intersection design. This
includes evaluating and improving
existing intersections and roadways

as appropriate. New or improved
infrastructure should be evidence based
and may include overhead lighting,
improved traffic light timing, restricted
turning behaviour, raised pedestrian
crosswalks, protected pedestrian crossing
phases, protected bicycle paths and
bicycle lane networks, public transit-only
lanes, protection of roadside workers
such as emergency response personnel,
and other design elements.
16. Continue to increase the safety of
highways and rural and remote roads
by implementing and/or expanding
evidence-based road safety technologies
and methods that can reduce motor
vehicle crash fatalities and serious
injuries. This should include increased
installation of rumble strips and barriers,
improved weather warning systems,
greater prevention of conflicts with
wildlife, and more efficient systems for
identifying and responding to crashes in
rural/remote areas.
Safe Vehicles
Some motor vehicle crashes in BC are
directly attributable to vehicle design
or condition (e.g., defective tires, brake
failure). Innovations and improvements in
vehicle design and engineering can prevent
motor vehicle crashes from occurring and
prevent fatalities and serious injuries of
road users when they do occur. Improving
road safety through safer vehicles in
BC requires collaboration between the
Insurance Corporation of British Columbia,
the Ministry of Transportation and
Infrastructure, and Transport Canada.
17. Collaborate with car manufacturers
and encourage them to promote safety
features that align with evidence-based
best practices. This should include the
expansion of safety features that come
standard in new vehicles (e.g.,pedestrian
detection), and mechanisms to
183
prevent unsafe driving behaviour

(e.g.,technology that assists drivers in
maintaining safe speeds or in detecting
roadway dangers).
18. Implement a vehicle safety testing
program in BC that requires regular
basic vehicle safety checks (e.g., oftires,
brakes, steering) as a condition of
vehicle insurance, and offers incentives
to British Columbians to acquire
safety technologies (e.g., installation of
speed limiting devices and breathalyzer
ignitions). This program should be
based on model examples of vehicle
maintenance programs in other
jurisdictions and should be cost neutral
to vehicle owners by offsetting the
required costs with commensurate
reductions in insurance fees.
19. Increase the safety of vehicles
imported into Canada and BC by
requiring vehicles up to 25 years old
to meet safety standards (up from
the current 15 years) and eliminating
the importation of right-hand drive
vehicles into the province.
20. Regulate and set limits on the kind
of vehicle modifications allowed in
BC. This includes, but is not limited
to, restricting how high a vehicle can
be raised and prohibiting bull bars in
urban areas.
21. Collaborate with professional
associations to reduce motor vehicle
crashes involving commercial vehicles.
This includes implementation of
new crash avoidance and safety
technologies, evaluation and
improvement of processes for
monitoring vehicle maintenance, and
improved monitoring and regulation of
driver conditions and behaviours such
as driver fatigue.
184
Road Safety for Aboriginal

Communities
The creation of the First Nations Health
Authority in BC and their leadership in
the development of regional wellness plans6
present a prime opportunity to facilitate
First Nations community-driven solutions in
partnership with the provincial and federal
governments, other health authorities,
Aboriginal organizations, and industry. These
recommendations will require resources,
meaningful partnerships, and commitment
from stakeholders in order to reduce the
disproportionate burden of motor vehicle
fatalities on Aboriginal peoples in BC.
Improving road safety for Aboriginal peoples
requires collaboration between the Ministry
of Health, Ministry of Transportation and
Infrastructure, Ministry of Justice, Ministry
of Aboriginal Relations and Reconciliation,
and the First Nations Health Authority.
22. Following principles of ownership,
control, access, and possession (OCAP),
support the development of communitydriven research on motor vehicle crash
fatalities and serious injuries, including
their associated risk factors and
appropriate interventions for Aboriginal
peoples in BC.
23. Continue to support the First Nations
Health Authority to develop an
Aboriginal injury prevention strategy that
has key targets for improving road safety.
This strategy should include improving
first responder programs in rural and
remote First Nations communities, and
increasing awareness about seat belt use
and safe driving. Related actions should
include the development and evaluation
of community-based injury prevention
priority initiatives and related educational
materials in Aboriginal communities,
and support for the evaluation of
existing injury prevention initiatives to

assess cultural relevancy and use of best
practices.
24. Implement the Aboriginal
Administrative Data Standard in
organizations that collect motor vehicle
crash and related data, including the
Insurance Corporation of British
Columbia for traffic claims data; police
for Traffic Accident System data (policerecorded data); and health authorities for
hospitalization data.
Education, Awareness, and

Enforcement
Knowledge and awareness about road
safety and the consequences of unsafe road
use allow all road users to make informed
choices about their behaviour, while
enforcementand the visibility of that
enforcementencourages adherence to safe
road use standards and practices. Improving
road safety education, awareness, and
enforcement through policies about vehicles
in BC requires collaboration between the
Ministry of Health, Ministry of Justice,
Ministry of Education, local governments,
police, and related community groups.
25. Using evidence-based best practices,
reinvigorate road safety campaigns for
road users, with particular emphasis
on the populations with the heaviest
burden of motor vehicle crash fatalities
and serious injuriesincluding males,
people age 16-25 and 76andup,
Aboriginal peoples, and those in
rural and remote communitiesand
targeting specific health and safety
concerns. This may include both the use
of traditional methods such as school
seminars and mainstream media, and
modern methods such as social media.
Campaigns should be coordinated at

local, regional, and provincial levels, and
should target topics based on regionaland community-level road safety issues,
including restraint use, alcohol and/or
drug impairment, speeding, vehicle
maintenance, and others. Education
should focus on knowledge about health
promotion and injury prevention, such
as an understanding of survivable speed,
rather than solely on awareness of related
penalties.
26. Use a healthy communities approach to
increase road safety among all schoolaged children and youth, particularly
with respect to pedestrian and cycling
safety. This should include re-launching
bicycle safety education initiatives
through community programs and
services, such as sponsoring annual
bicycle rodeos, promoting walk/bike to
school weeks, and more.
27. Develop a comprehensive education
plan for youth that leverages the stages
and requirements of BCs Graduated
Licensing Program with the goal of
increasing education and training about
the top contributing factors to motor
vehicle crashes: speed, impairment, and
distraction.
28. Increase public education and awareness
of the risks and consequences of speed,
road user distraction, and all forms of
impaired driving, and expand related
enforcement efforts. This should include
awareness of the increase in injury
severity as speed increases; the dangers
of using handheld devices while driving;
the array of impacts that result from
impairment from alcohol and other
substances such as legal and illegal
drugs (e.g., marijuana, prescription
medication); and the dangers of
cognitive impairment and fatigue.
185
Update on Road Safety Governance and Leadership for Recommendations

Organizational changes within government can further complicate the already complex governance of road
safety in BC, but they may also enable opportunities for new and innovative approaches and potential
collaborations. After content for this report was finalized, the BC Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General
was re-established, and RoadSafety BC was moved under this ministry.ax While some of the recommendations
presented in this chapter have a clear provincial ministry lead, others will require co-leadership and/or crossministry partnerships. It is recommended that leadership for this reports 28 recommendations be as follows:
Lead Organization
Recommendations
Ministry of Public Safety and Solicitor General (PSSG)
#1, #2, #5, #6, #7, #8, #10
Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (MoTI)
#13, #16, #18, #20, #21
Shared between PSSG & MoTI
#14
Ministry of Health (MoH)
#22, #23, #24
Insurance Corporation of BC (ICBC)
#9, #25, #26, #27, #28
Transport Canada
#17, #19
Shared between PSSG, MoTI, MoH, ICBC, and local governments
#3, #4, #11, #12, #15
CONCLUSION
Road safety in BC is a critical public health
issue. There have been many successes in
road safety in BC over the last few decades,
including advancements in vehicle design,
roadway design, and road user behaviour.
Despite the growth in the population and the
associated stress on roadway systems in the
province, the result of these improvements is
that the numbers and rates of motor vehicle
crash (MVC) fatalities and serious injuries
have decreased. However, preventable MVC
fatalities and serious injuries still occur in
BC and the overall decline has not kept pace
with other jurisdictions. In addition, some
populations experience a disproportionate
burden of MVC fatalities and serious
injuries, and specific contributing factors

(e.g., distracted driving) are associated with
an increasing proportion of MVC fatalities.
Furthermore, there has not been proportionate
and meaningful declines in death and serious
injuries for vulnerable road users.
We know that BC could achieve lower
death and injury rates and that enhancing
road safety will not only avert preventable
mortality and morbidity but also foster
more active and ecologically friendly
transportationimproving both human and
environmental health. The recommendations
offered in this report aim to address
challenges to road safety while building upon
our current successes. Any preventable death
or serious injury is unacceptable, including
those that occur as the result of an MVC.
Since this reorganization took place after this report was finalized, it is not reflected in discussions regarding governance over
roads and road safety.
ax
186
Appendix A: Glossary
Appendix A
Glossary
A
Aboriginal people
The descendants of the original inhabitants of North America. The terminology used
to refer to Aboriginal people in Canada has varied over the years. The Constitution Act
recognizes three groups of Aboriginal people: Indian, Inuit, and Mtis. See also: First
Nations, Inuit, Mtis, and Status Indians; and sidebar Aboriginal Terminology in Chapter 9.
Active transportation
All human-powered forms of travel, such as walking, cycling, using a wheelchair, inline
skating, skateboarding, skiing, canoeing, etc.1 Walking and cycling are most popular and
can be combined with other modes of travel, such as public transit.2
Adaptive cruise control
A vehicle technology that works in conjunction with regular cruise control to

automatically slow the vehicle in heavy traffic to maintain a safe following distance from
the vehicle in front, and to accelerate to maintain the preset cruise speed when traffic
allows.4 See also: cruise control.
Adaptive headlights
A vehicle technology that points the vehicles headlights in the direction the vehicle is
going rather than straight ahead. This helps a driver see around curves in the dark.5
Advanced front air

bags
These air bags provide similar protection for the driver and front passenger as regular
air bags but use a dual inflation system that deploys the air bags at varying pressure
levels depending on the severity of the crash, the size of the occupant, and how close the
occupant is to the air bag.3 See also: air bag.
Age-standardized rate
The summary of age-adjusted death rates by age and sex, which have been standardized
to a 1991 Canada Census standard population for the purpose of rate comparisons
between sexes, different time periods, or different geographic locations. The agestandardized fatality rate per 100,000 population is the theoretical number of deaths
that would occur per 100,000 population if the specific population had the same age
structure as the standard population.
Air bag
A vehicle safety device designed to inflate instantly in a motor vehicle crash to protect
the vehicle occupants6and in some cases vulnerable road users outside of the vehicle
from injury or death by cushioning them from hard vehicle surfaces. They are designed
to supplement seat belts. See also: advanced front air bags.
Alcohol impairment
In BC, a driver is considered impaired by alcohol when they have a blood alcohol
content (BAC) level of 50 milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood.7 In Canada,
it is a criminal offence to operate a motor vehicle with a BAC of 80 milligrams of alcohol
per 100 millilitres of blood or higher.8 See also: blood alcohol content, impairment.
187
Anti-lock braking
systems
A vehicle technology that increases safety during braking by automatically modulating

the pressure in the braking system to prevent the brakes from locking. This allows the
driver to retain control of the steering while braking hard.9 This technology became
standard on most vehicles sold in Canada in the 1980s but is not compulsory.10
Blood alcohol content

(BAC)
A unit of measurement for the amount of alcohol in a persons body. It is measured

as milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood. It can be measured with a breath
sample or a blood sample.7 See also: alcohol impairment.
Brake assist
A vehicle technology system that automatically responds to panic braking by applying

the brakes fully in order to prevent a crash or reduce the severity of a crash.11
Bull bars
Rigid metal bars affixed to the front of a vehicle (often a sport-utility vehicle or truck),
usually as an after-market modification to protect the vehicle in case of collision,
especially with a wild animal.12
Cognitive impairment
The reduced ability to operate a vehicle due to inadequate mental function. This could
result from a variety of conditions such as age, illness, fatigue, and/or disability. See
also:impairment.
Commercial drivers
People who drive as part of their core business activity and often receive related special
training.13 Examples of commercial drivers include bus drivers, taxi drivers, couriers,
emergency vehicle drivers, and drivers of heavy commercial vehicles.14 Commercial
drivers are different than occupational drivers. See also: occupational drivers.
Commercial vehicles
A commercial vehicle can be any vehicle registered with a business and used to transport
goods and/or passengers. Examples of commercial vehicles include trucks, taxis, buses,
ambulances, and dump trucks.14
Contributing factors
The events and circumstances that are perceived to have contributed to a motor vehicle
crash (MVC). In this report, these are factors that an attending police officer records in
an accident report after an MVC,15,16 and they fall within four broad categories:
(1) human conditions, e.g., distraction of a driver or other road user, driver inattention,
driver impairment; (2) human actions, e.g., driver error, speeding, failing to yield right of
way; (3) environmental conditions, e.g., road conditions, weather, wild animals; and
(4) vehicle condition, e.g., defective tires, defective brakes.15,16
Crash avoidance
technologies
A vehicle system that warns a driver and/or intervenes in driving to avoid or reduce the
severity of an impending motor vehicle crash. They range from assisting drivers to stay
alert to their surroundings to assuming control of the vehicle to prevent a crash if a driver
is not responding appropriately (e.g., auto-braking, auto-steering).17 Crash avoidance
technologies are also known as collision avoidance systems and active safety systems.
188
Crashworthiness
Crashworthiness is a measure of a vehicles structural ability to physically deform in the

event of a motor vehicle crash, while maintaining a space for occupants that allows them
to survive crashes within a reasonable threshold of crash severity.18
Cruise control
A vehicle technology that maintains a consistent speed without using the gas pedal.19 See
also: adaptive cruise control.
Daytime running lights
Vehicle headlights that come on automatically when the engine is started. Their purpose
is to increase the vehicles visibility to oncoming traffic during daylight hours.20 All new
vehicles imported into or sold in Canada after December 1, 1989, must have daytime
running lights.21
Distracted driving
Occurs when a drivers attention is diverted to an object, activity, event, or person

not related to driving. It can include a wide range of non-driving activities, including
eating and drinking, smoking, personal grooming, adjusting the stereo, interacting
with passengers, using a vehicle navigation system, and any use of cellular phones
(both handheld and hands-free) or other electronic devices while driving.22,23 It is not
attributable to a medical condition or impairment.24 See also: road user distraction.
Distraction
See road user distraction.
Drug impairment
The reduced ability to operate a vehicle due to the consumption of legal drugs (such as
medications) and illegal or illicit drugs. See also: impairment.
Electronic stability
control
A vehicle technology that helps a driver maintain control by preventing skidding under
most driving conditions, including on icy, slushy, and snowy roads.25 Electronic stability
control (ESC) monitors the drivers use of the brake pedal, and when the steering
direction does not match vehicle direction, ESC applies brakes to one or more wheels
and/or reduces engine power to regain control.26 In 2011, ESC became mandatory for all
new vehicles sold in Canada.26
Environmental streets
Roadways that use a variety of built elements, usually aesthetically rendered, to calm and
slow traffic, and encourage driver attention (e.g., planter boxes, pedestrian refuges on
road crossings, raised pedestrian crosswalks).27
First Nations
A collective term used to identify Aboriginal people who are often members of a First
Nation band or tribe. First Nations refers to both Status Indians and Non-Status Indians.
The term First Nations has largely replaced the term Indian as the terminology preferred
by many Aboriginal people in Canada; however, Indian is still used when referring to
legislation or government statistics. See also: Aboriginal people, Non-Status Indians, Status
Indians.
189
Forward collision
warning systems
A vehicle technology designed to help prevent rear-end collisions28 by monitoring the

relative speed of the vehicle in front and the distance between the two. The system alerts the
driver when it senses the vehicle ahead slowing or stopping and there is a risk of a motor
vehicle crash.29
Heavy vehicle
The largest vehicle weight/size class, but the weight/size varies by source (as noted in
related discussions in this report). Heavy vehicles include both straight trucks (engine
unit and flatbed that cannot be detached), tractors (a cab accompanied by a detachable
trailer),30 and in some cases includes public buses.15 These vehicles are generally used for
commercial purposes. See also: light vehicle, medium vehicle.
High-risk driver
Drivers who drive in an aggressive manner or in a way that may harm property or
another person and who may display risk-taking behaviour or hostile behaviour toward
another individual.31 They can also be identified as drivers with high numbers of driving
violations compared to average drivers.32
Highway
Major roadways that are designed for large volumes of traffic (including commercial
transport vehicles) moving intra-provincially, inter-provincially, and/or internationally.
Larger highways are often called freeways or expressways, and speed limits are typically
higher than on local roads.33
Ignition interlock
A breath-testing device to measure blood alcohol content that is connected to a vehicles

ignition system to prevent an alcohol-impaired person from driving the vehicle. The
device requires a breath test from the driver before the vehicle will start and randomly
when the vehicle is in operation. If a breath sample tests positive for alcohol, the
interlock prevents the vehicles engine from starting, or if the vehicle is in operation, the
device repeatedly instructs the driver to turn off the vehicle.34
Immediate Roadside
Prohibitions
A BC program that enables police officers to seize an alcohol-impaired persons drivers

licence, issue a driving prohibition to remove driving privileges for up to 90 days, and
impound the drivers vehicle for up to 30 days.35
Impairment
The reduced ability to operate a vehicle due to one or more causes, including consuming
alcohol, consuming drugs (legal, illegal or illicit), inadequate cognitive function, or
inadequate physical function. See also: alcohol impairment, cognitive impairment, drug
impairment, and physical impairment.
Intelligent speed
adaptation
A vehicle technology that detects when a driver is travelling over the posted speed limit
based on electrical signals from a beacon/transmitter attached to roadside infrastructure
or via global positioning system (GPS) technology.36 It either audibly or visually warns
the driver they are speeding or assumes control of limiting the speed of the vehicle to
prevent speeding.
Intersection
An area where two or more roads cross each other.37 In this report it is categorized as a
roadway type.
190
Inuit
A distinct population of Aboriginal people that lives primarily in Nunavut, the

Northwest Territories, and northern Labrador and Quebec. See also: Aboriginal people.
Lane change assist
A vehicle technology that monitors the area immediately around and behind a vehicle to
assist a driver when changing lanes. If the system detects a vehicle in the adjacent lane, it
alerts the driver to the presence of the other vehicle.38
Lane departure
warning systems
A vehicle technology that monitors the position of a vehicle relative to the lane
boundary.38 The system delivers a warning to the driver if the vehicle appears to be
drifting or departing from its lane (e.g., due to driver inattention),38,39 so that the driver
can correct the vehicles course,40 and thus prevent lane departure crashes.
Lane keep assist
A type of lane departure warning system that helps a driver by controlling the vehicle to
ensure it stays within its lane.40 See also: lane departure warning systems.
Leading pedestrian
intervals
Signal timing that allows pedestrians to begin crossing the street before vehicles (usually
by 3-7 seconds), with the purpose of increasing pedestrian visibility and thus reducing
pedestrian motor vehicle crashes.41
Light vehicle
The smallest vehicle weight/size class, but the weight/size varies by source (as noted in
related discussions in this report). Light vehicles generally include cars, station wagons,
vans, sport-utility vehicles, and small pickup trucks.30 These vehicles may be used for
personal or commercial purposes. See also: heavy vehicle, medium vehicle.
Local roads
These roads are the lowest functional road class,42 and are usually used by light vehicles,
cyclists, and pedestrians. Definitions of local roads vary; for example, roads giving access
to individual land use such as residences42 or roads without a centre line.43 See also: major
roads.
M
Major roads
These are roads with a higher functional road class than local roads, and a lower class
than highways. They are usually the roads that connect activity centres, residential areas,
and service areas.42 See also: local roads.
Medium vehicle
The mid-sized vehicle weight/size class, but the weight/size varies by source (as noted
in related discussions in this report). Medium vehicles are usually straight trucks (an
engine unit and flatbed that cannot be detached)30 but can also include sport-utility
vehicles, pickup trucks, and vans. These vehicles may be used for personal or commercial
purposes. See also: light vehicle, heavy vehicle.
Mtis
A distinct people of mixed First Nation and European ancestry who identify themselves
as Mtis, and are distinct from Status Indians, Inuit, and non-Aboriginal people. Most
Mtis live in Alberta, Saskatchewan, or Manitoba. See also: Aboriginal people.
Motorcycle
A motor vehicle that runs on two or three wheels, and has a saddle or seat for the driver
to sit on.44
191
N
Non-Status Indians
People who identify as First Nations but either do not meet the criteria for registration
as a Status Indian under the Indian Act or who have chosen not to be registered. See
also:Aboriginal people, Status Indians.
Occupational drivers
Drivers who are required to drive for work-related purposes, but driving is not their
principal occupation. They are not necessarily professional drivers, and they have
generally not received related specialized training or testing. Examples of occupational
drivers include community health professionals, and workers in retail, wholesale, and
service industries.13 Occupational drivers are different than commercial drivers. See
also:commercial drivers.
Painted cycling lanes
Designated cycling lanes located directly adjacent to a motor vehicle roadway and
indicated with painted lines.46,47 See also: protected cycling paths.
Pedestrian
A person on foot or the equivalent, such as using a wheelchair, stroller, or walker.48 In

this report, pedestrians also include people travelling on skateboards, roller skates, and
more.
Pedestrian scramble
A type of signalized intersection designed to protect pedestrians by providing an exclusive

pedestrian crossing phase. Pedestrians can typically cross the street in any direction,
including diagonally.32
Pedestrian streets
Roads strictly for pedestrian use (i.e. closed to vehicles), and usually located in a busy
commercial area.49
Physical impairment
The reduced ability to operate a vehicle due to physical functioning. This could result
from a variety of conditions such as age, illness, and/or disability. See also: impairment.
Protected cycling paths
Designated paths for cyclists that are protected from motor vehicle traffic by a buffer
space or physical barrier, such as curbs or bollards (short posts that divide traffic).46,47
See also: painted cycling lanes.
Red light camera
Cameras affixed to traffic lights that automatically photograph vehicles that travel
through an intersection when the light is red, in order to issue a violation ticket.50
Reserve
Refers to a First Nations reserve, which is a piece of land owned by the Government
of Canada and set aside for use by a First Nations band.45 People, services, objects, or
events, such as motor vehicle crashes, occurring within this land are recognized as onreserve.
192
Resource roads
One or two lane, gravel roads in remote areas built for commercial access to natural
resources such as forests, petroleum, and minerals. They also include Land Act roads and
special-use permit roads.51
Road
In this report, road and roadway are used interchangeably and generally mean the open
way for vehicles and persons. A road may include only the strip used for travel (usually
paved or gravel) or may encompass related features on the right-of-way such as the
shoulder or sidewalk. See also: highway, local roads, resource roads, rural roads.
Road rage
An extreme form of driver aggression and high-risk driver behaviour that typically results
from high levels of driver frustration, stress, anger, and hostility.52,53 It is an overreaction
of aggressive thoughts, behaviours, and emotions of a driver targeted at a victim in
response to a road-related incident.54
Road user
Anyone using a roadway. This includes but is not limited to pedestrians, cyclists,
motorcyclists, vehicle drivers, and bus occupants.55
Road user distraction
When a road users attention is diverted to an object, activity, event, or person not
related to the road. It can include a wide range of activities, such as eating and drinking,
smoking, personal grooming, interacting with other people, using a navigation system,
and any use of cellular phones (both handheld and hands-free) or other electronic
devices.22,23 See also: distracted driving.
Roadway
See road.
Roadway departure
The act of driving off the portion of the road intended for motor vehicles, usually
unintentionally.56
Roundabouts
Circular intersections that do not have electronic signals or stop signs,57 in which traffic
flows around a center traffic island.49
Rural roads
A road, often a highway or major road, located in an area outside of a municipality.58
Safe System Approach
An approach to understanding road safety that is guided by the concepts that road
systems should be designed to accommodate inevitable human error and should
account for the limitations of the human body to withstand physical force, and that the
responsibility for road safety is shared across the system by users, designers, and policy
makers.59 There are some variations of this approach, but the four main pillars examined
in this report are safe vehicles, safe speeds, safe roads, and safe road users.
Sobriety checkpoints
A temporary roadway cordon established by road authorities to check drivers licences

and/or vehicle safety, and to evaluate drivers for alcohol impairment. Sobriety
checkpoints are also known as roadblocks. See also: blood alcohol content, impairment.
Speed camera
A device that uses laser and radar technology to detect when a vehicle is speeding and
takes a photograph of the speeding vehicle in order to issue a penalty to the vehicle
owner.61
193
Speed hump
A speed-reducing device consisting of an artificial elevation, usually the height of the

pedestrian curb, that often spans a residential roadway.49 Speed hump designs can vary, as
can the terminology referring to them; some researchers distinguish specifically between
speed humps and speed bumps, while others use them interchangeably.62
Speed limiters
Devices installed in a vehicles engine to prevent excessive speed.63 They are most
commonly used in heavy commercial vehicles.
Speeding
Speeding in BC includes driving faster than the designated speed limit and driving too
fast for the conditions (which may be lower than a posted limit). Excessive speeding is
when an individual drives at a speed more than 40 km/h over the speed limit.60
Status Indians
People who identify as First Nations and who are entitled to receive the provisions of and
have registered under the Indian Act.64 See also: Aboriginal people, Non-Status Indians.
Survivable speed
The maximum vehicle travelling speed at which the human body is likely to survive
impact from a motor vehicle crash if it should occur. Vulnerable road users have lower
survivable speeds than vehicle occupants.32,65
Traffic calming
The modification of a roadway and its design in a way that is intended to improve road
safety, especially for vulnerable road users, by reducing and slowing the flow of traffic in
the area. Safety is increased by implementing changes that aim to minimize the negative
impacts of vehicle use, reduce traffic volume, change drivers behaviours, lower speeds,
and reduce conflict between road users with improved conditions for pedestrians and
cyclists.66 Examples of traffic calming modifications include changes to the road layout,
creation of one-way streets, addition of roundabouts, addition of speed bumps, and more.67
Underride guards
Steel bars extending downward from the back or sides of large trucks to prevent smaller
vehicles from moving underneath the trucks trailer in a motor vehicle crash.68
Urban play streets
Residential roads designed for non-vehicle road use, including play, rather than vehicles,
and where only residential vehicles are allowed.49
Vehicle crash
incompatibility
The mismatch of vehicle designs (shapes, sizes, and conditions), which makes safety
features less likely to function optimally during a motor vehicle crash (MVC), thereby
resulting in a greater likelihood of serious injury or fatality to some vehicle occupants in
the event of an MVC (usually the smaller vehicles occupants).69
194
Vehicle kilometres
An estimate of traffic volume calculated by multiplying the number of vehicles on the

road by the distance travelled. The distance travelled can be determined by odometer
readings, traffic counts, household surveys, and/or fuel sales.70
Vulnerable road user
Any road user who does not have the protection of an enclosed vehicle, and is therefore
at heightened risk of injury or fatality related to a motor vehicle crash.71 This generally
includes pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists.72
195
196
Appendix B: Data Sources Technical Appendix
Appendix B
Data Sources Technical Appendix

The BC Injury Research and Prevention Unit provided most of the analyses presented in this report, as well as this technical
appendix. The Provincial Health Officer would like to thank the Unit for their contributions in these capacities.
To examine motor vehicle crashes (MVCs)

in BC, this report uses data from multiple
sources that have been compiled and
analyzed by the BC Injury Research and
Prevention Unit (BCIRPU), with additional
analyses and work by the Population Health
Surveillance, Engagement and Operations
team at the BC Ministry of Health. Data
sources are introduced in Chapter 1 of
this report and additional information is
presented here.
DATA SOURCES
BC Vital Statistics
The BC Vital Statistics Agency registers
events such as births, deaths, and marriages
in BC and provides a range of vital
statistics-related products and services to
meet public needs. Data entered into the
mortality database consist of injury event
classifications, region of residence, unique
identifiers, place of injury occurrence, nature
and cause of injury, anatomical location,
pre-event circumstances, manner of death,
and toxicology reports. BC Vital Statistics
uses the World Health Organizations
International Statistical Classification
of Diseases (ICD) codes (Version 10) to
present data, including death data. MVCs
are associated with the following codes:
V02-V04, V09, V12-V14, V190-V196,
V20-V79, V803-V805, V820-V821,
V823-V890, V899, Y850.
BC Vital Statistics data regarding MVC
fatalities were used in this report in
Chapter9 for analyses of causes of death

and MVCs among Status Indians (and other
residents) in BC, because Traffic Accident
System data (discussed later in this chapter)
do not include information about Aboriginal
identity. For the years presented in this
report, Status Indian residents of BC were
those identified in any of the following three
sources: Health Canadas Status Verification
File; Vital Statistics birth and death
registrations; or the Status Indian entitlement
files from the BC Medical Services Plan
database.
Discharge Abstract Database

The Discharge Abstract Database (DAD),
housed at the Ministry of Health, records
detailed patient information, including ICD
Version 10 diagnostic codes (listed earlier)
that describe the causes and types of injury
for transport-related incidents. The database
includes all transport injuries with a road
motor vehicle (this excludes non-road
motor vehicles such as trains, planes, and
boats). The DAD only reflects data for those
persons who were admitted to hospital for an
overnight stay that did not result in death,
and the record ends when the patient is
discharged from hospital. The DAD does not
include emergency room data or fatalities. If
the patient is transferred to a new facility, a
new record is created at that facility.
Hospitalization is used in this report as a
proxy indicator for a serious injury. Serious
injury (hospitalization) data include acute,
rehabilitation, and surgery cases that required
at least one overnight stay in the hospital.
197
To avoid multiple counts of the same injury,

when a patient was hospitalized more than
once during a fiscal year (e.g., re-admitted,
transferred to another hospital), only the
first admission was counted. Fatalities that
occurred in hospital as a result of a serious
injury were excluded from serious injury
counts. Typically, DAD data are reported by
fiscal year. The hospitalization data in this
report are depicted by calendar year (based
on the admission dates) so as to be consistent
with the fatality data sources. Further,
there are many reasons beyond decreasing
MVCs that could contribute to decreasing
hospital admission rates over time, such as
advancements in related technologies
(e.g., improved diagnostic and treatment
technologies).
DAD Road User Definitions

Pedestrian: any person involved in an
accident who was not at the time of the
accident riding in or on a motor vehicle,
railway train, streetcar, or animal-drawn
or other vehicle, or on a pedal cycle or
animal. This includes people walking,
riding in a stroller, working on the side
of the road (e.g., changing a tire) rollerskating, skiing, sledding, or those riding a
scooter, skateboard, or wheelchair.
Motorcycle occupant: anyone riding a
motorcycle, including motorcycle drivers,
and passengers.
Cyclist: any person riding on any land
transport vehicle operated solely by
pedals; this includes bicycles, tricycles,
and unicycles, but excludes motorized
bicycles.
Other road user: includes occupants
of animal-powered transport on roads
governed by the Motor Vehicle Act, railway
trains, streetcars, industrial, agricultural,
or construction vehicle, and unknown or
unspecified vehicles.
198
DAD Vehicle Definitions

Passenger vehicle: includes cars, trucks,
sport-utility vehicles, commercial
vehicles, and heavy trucks, and excludes
motorcycles.
Motorcycle: a two-wheeled vehicle with
one or two riding saddles and sometimes
with a third wheel for the support of a
sidecar. This includes mopeds, motor
scooters, motorcycles, motorized bicycles,
and speed-limited motor-driven cycles.
This excludes motor-driven tricycles.
Pedal cycle: any land transport vehicle
operated solely by pedals, including
a sidecar or trailer attached to such
a vehicle. This includes bicycles and
tricycles, and excludes motorized bicycles.
Business Information Warehouse

The Business Information Warehouse
(BIW) is part of the Insurance Corporation
of British Columbia (ICBC) and contains
information about BC, including the
number of active BC drivers licences, the
number of registered vehicles over time, and
the number of people involved in MVCs.
Data from the BIW were used in this report
to examine driver populations. The BCIRPU
has reported the data by health authority
region for this report. Therefore, the data in
this report are not presented by the typical
regions used by ICBC when reporting.
Further, ICBC data regarding number of
crashes will differ from police-reported data,
as police do not attend all MVCs.
Traffic Accident System Database

The Traffic Accident System (TAS)
database is also part of ICBC, and contains
information from the Traffic Accident
Reporting Form (MV6020) completed by
police at the scene of an MVC. TAS road
user and vehicle definitions are based on
ICBCs Traffic Accident Reporting Police
Procedures Manual. The TAS contains

detailed information related to the crash
itself such as contributing factors (e.g., speed,
alcohol use, distraction, weather); type of
victim (e.g., driver, passenger, pedestrian);
and outcome (e.g., death, major injury,
minor injury). In the TAS, a fatality is
defined as a road user who dies from injuries
resulting from an MVC within 30 days of
the incident. This includes only MVCs that
occur on roadways where the Motor Vehicle
Act applies and excludes roads where the Act
does not apply, (e.g., forest service roads,
industrial roads, and private driveways).
Fatal victims of off-road snowmobile
accidents, and vehicle-involved homicides or
suicides are also excluded from the database.
Therefore, the number of MVC fatalities
reported in the TAS is lower than what is
reported by the BC Vital Statistics Agency.
The TAS data have been reconciled with BC
Coroners data, Royal Canadian Mounted
Police data, and other police data. The
reconciliation of TAS data with Coroners
Service data is limited to basic information
regarding the death (e.g., date of the MVC,
date of death, age and sex of the victim, total
number of fatalities), and does not include
confirmation of contributing factors to the
MVC noted by police. Discrepancies in
definitions may exist between these data sets.
When police complete the MVC reporting
form they assign contributing factors, which
are any factors the attending officer perceives
to have directly contributed to the MVC.
Up to four contributing factors may be
attributed to each vehicle or driver involved
in the MVC. As such, the fatal victim is not
necessarily the perpetrator of the policeidentified contributing factor. For example, if
alcohol impairment was a contributing factor
in an MVC where a pedestrian was killed by
a vehicle, either the pedestrian or the vehicle
driver may have been the impaired person in
the MVC. Contributing factors assigned by
police typically focus on human contributing
factors and other factors related to the Motor
Vehicle Act, rather than providing a broader
systemic focus on contributing factors that
emphasize the potential for prevention and
harm reduction through vehicle design,

roadway design, and appropriateness of speed
limits.
This report derives fatality data from the
TAS. It does not use serious injury data from
the TAS because, due to a 2008 legislation
change, police are no longer required to
attend all non-fatal MVCs. Since police do
not fill out police reports for MVCs they
do not attend, the TAS injury data from
2008 onward do not accurately reflect MVC
injuries in BC. In this report, distracted
driving is defined using three TAS codes:
34(Communication/Video Equipment);
85(Driver Inattentive); and 86(Driver
Internal/External Distraction).
TAS Road User Definitions

Pedestrian: any person not in or upon a
motor vehicle or other road vehicle. This
includes a person afoot, sitting, lying, or
working upon a roadway or land, and
a person in or operating a pedestrian
conveyance (e.g., baby carriage, pushcart, push-chair, roller-skates, scooter,
skateboard, wheelchair). This excludes a
person boarding or exiting a vehicle, and
a person jumping or falling from a motor
vehicle in transport.
Motorcycle occupant: anyone riding a
motorcycle, including motorcycle drivers
and passengers.
Cyclist: anyone riding on any land
transport vehicle operated solely by
pedals. This includes bicycles, tricycles,
and unicycles but excludes motorized
bicycles.
Other road users: occupants of animalpowered transport on roads governed by
the Motor Vehicle Act and of railway trains.
TAS Vehicle Definitions

Motor vehicle: any mechanically or
electrically powered device, not operated
upon rails, upon which or by which any
person or property may be transported
199
or drawn upon a highway. Any object

such as a trailer, coaster, sled, or wagon
being towed by a motor vehicle is
considered a part of the motor vehicle,
including such devices detached while
in motion, or set in motion by a motor
vehicle, such as during pushing. Also,
the load, including occupants, upon
or in the motor vehicle, or upon or in
the device being towed or pushed, is
considered part of the motor vehicle.
This includes, but is not limited to an
automobile such as a car, bus, truck,
van, or motorcycle; a motorized bicycle
or scooter; a trolley bus not operated
upon rails; construction machinery;
farm and industrial machinery such as a
road roller, tractor, army tank, highway
grader, or similar devices equipped with
wheels or threads; and special motorized
devices such as snowmobiles, swamp
buggies, or similar devices.
Passenger vehicle: includes cars, trucks,
sportutility vehicles, commercial
vehicles, and heavy trucks, and excludes
motorcycles.
Commercial vehicle: includes heavy
vehicles, such as trucks, trailers, tractors,
buses, and construction vehicles.
Motorcycle: includes mopeds, limited
speed motorcycles (power-assisted
bicycles), scooters, and tricycles (threewheeled motorcycles).
Other vehicles: includes all-terrain
vehicles, buses, recreational vehicles,
motor homes, and general construction
vehicles, as well as animal-drawn
vehicles driven on roads governed by
the Motor Vehicle Act.
Cycle: a vehicle operated solely by
pedals and propelled by human power.
This includes bicycles, tricycles, and
unicycles. This excludes bicycles,
tricycles and unicycles when being
towed by a motor vehicle.
200
WorkSafe BC MVC-related
Insurance Claim Data
WorkSafe BC is responsible for
educating employers and workers about
the Occupational Health and Safety
Regulation1 (a regulation under the Workers
Compensation Act) and for monitoring their
compliance with the regulation. WorkSafe
BC also works with employees and their
employers to provide return-to-work
rehabilitation, financial compensation,
health care benefits, and a range of other
services when they experience work-related
injury or disease. For this report, WorkSafe
BC provided data on the number of MVCrelated insurance claims and the costs of
the claims paid by WorkSafe BC. They also
provided information about the age and sex
of the claimants.
CAUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF

DATA
Data analyses presented in this report
provide information that is the most current
available at the time of developing the
report, and great efforts have been made to
ensure the data and associated methodologies
used are accurate and reliable. However, like
all data sources and methodologies, there
are some limitations that necessitate caution
when interpreting results.
Among databases, including those used
in analyses for this report, misclassified,
unspecified, and missing values are an
inevitable limitation.2 Additionally, for
live databases like DAD and TAS, data
may change over time, due to reporting
corrections, adjustments, and reconciliation
of data.
There are also some limitations and gaps
in data available, which limits some of the
methodologies employed in this report.
There is currently no data source that
provides a reliable and province-wide

count of active cyclists and pedestrians
in BC to provide a denominator for
motorcyclists, cyclists, and pedestrians in
BC; therefore, in this report rates for these
groups are calculated based on the overall
BC population. Thus, it is very likely that
the resulting MVC fatality and serious
injury rates greatly underestimate the
risk and burden of injuries and fatalities.
Also, as identified earlier regarding TAS
data, since the contributing factors to
MVCs with fatalities reported in TAS
are assigned to MVCs (rather than road
users), this report is not able to indicate
whether a fatal victim of an MVC is at
fault or whether the victim was associated

more generally with the MVC. This allows
for presentation and discussion of the
subpopulations experiencing the burden
of MVCs, but limits the ability to examine
sub-populations that are causing the
MVCs. Lastly, this report presents the rates
together with the raw numbers (counts)
of fatalities and serious injuries in order
to account for the growing population of
BC. However, rates can be misleading for
small populations: small populations with
few fatalities or injuries may appear to have
large year-to-year variability, but in reality
have very small differences in the number of
fatalities in those years.
201
202
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BC Ministry of Justice. Motorcycle safety the rider and the gear

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2.

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Copies of this report are available from:

Office of the Provincial Health Officer

Back cover, roundabout photoPhoto credit: Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure,

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

Chapter 2: MOTOR VEHICLE CRASHES IN BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Chapter 3: DRIVERS AND PASSENGERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Chapter 4: VULNERABLE ROAD USERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

Chapter 5: ROAD USER BEHAVIOUR AND CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Chapter 6: SAFE SPEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Chapter 7: SAFE ROADWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Chapter 8: SAFE VEHICLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

Safety Technology and Socio-economic Status. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Chapter 9: ROAD SAFETY AND ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Chapter 10: DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Appendix A: GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

List of Figures and Tables

List of Figures and Tables

List of Figures and Tables

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

List of Figures and Tables

List of Figures and Tables

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

List of Figures and Tables

2014-2016 Report Contributors and Reviewers (Alphabetical)

Dr. Sandra Allison

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

Dr. Ronald Chapman

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

Past Report Contributors (Alphabetical)

Dr. David Bowering

Mary Anne Arcand

Dr. Elizabeth Brodkin

Dr. Gillian Arsenault

Dr. Beth Bruce

Dr. Najib Ayas

Dr. Shelina Babul

Dr. Peter Barss

Dr. Ross Brown

Dr. Ronald Chapman

Dr. Naomi Dove

Dr. Cecile Lacombe

Dr. Shaun Peck

Dr. Roy Purssell

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

Dr. Diane Rothon

Dr. Shannon Waters

Dr. Veerle Willaeys

PHO Report Team

Wendy Vander Kuyl Data analysis

Barb Callander Copy editing and referencing

Sophia Baker-French Research and editing

Tim Anderson Graphic design

Leanne Davies Research and editing

Dr. Bonnie Henry

Adrienne Munro Research and editing

Dr. Evan Adams

Stacy White Research and editing

Dr. Eric Young

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report

SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS

Provincial Health Officers Annual Report