Running Head: Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals

with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature

1

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
Emily Wallace
University of Colorado Denver

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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According to Autism Speaks (2016), Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex
disorder affecting brain development, which can be characterized by difficulties in social
interaction and verbal and nonverbal communication, and which often is accompanied by
repetitive behaviors. Current prevalence estimates for ASD are at 1 in 68 and rising (Autism
speaks, 2016). Though more research is needed to understand frequency, causes, and
treatment strategies, an increase in focus on positive behavior supports and early intervention
has resulted in more students requiring access to academic standards (Southall, 2013, p. 23). In
addition advancements in technology have expanded the way individuals access information
and have provided more tools and resources for students on the autism spectrum as well as to
their families and support team (Cafiero, 2012, p. 64).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) (2004), mandates a
free and appropriate education (FAPE) to all students, regardless of disability, and requires that
children be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE) possible. IDEA additionally
requires that general and special educators collaborate to bring general curriculum to all
students, including students with autism (Individuals with disabilities education improvement act,
2004).
Only 34.7% of students with Autism Spectrum Disorders spend at least 80% of their
school day in the general education classroom (Leko, Olson, & Roberts, 2015). A review of the
literature reveals that Assistive Technology may be able to help mainstream many of those
students into the general classroom, resulting in more exposure to the general curriculum, the
opportunity to develop more relationships, and a greater chance at reaching their academic and
social potential.

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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Definition of Assistive Technology
Assistive Technology (AT) helps individuals with disabilities complete tasks they would
not be able to complete on their own because of a visual, hearing, cognitive, or physical
impairment (Ennis-Cole & Smith, 2011). Ennis-Cole & Smith (2011) say that AT can be
categorized into high, mid, and low-level, with high-level AT including electronics, mid-level AT
being less complex devices such as projectors and calculators, and low-level AT referring to
simple visual supports, such as highlighters, photos, activity schedules, and picture
communication systems. AT under any of these categories can be used to improve the
communication, organization, motivation, academic skills, and attention of students with ASD
(Ennis-Cole & Smith, 2011, p. 87).
Hadadian and Weikle (2003) state, When a child has a disability or impairment, it may
be crucial that a variety of forms of technology become standard fare for improved learning
outcomes (p. 183). In many cases these tools make it possible for students with Autism
Spectrum Disorders to experience education in a more inclusive setting, within a general
education classroom, and without having to rely on the constant support of additional staff.
Assistive Technology has a long history of impacting the autism community. According to
Sze (2009), funding for AT for individuals with disabilities has been available since The
Education for the Handicapped Act in 1967, long before autism was a common occurrence. This
service was expanded with an amendment in 1986, which extended the range and ages of
students served, adding children 0-5 years old (Sze, 2009). Though early AT was very low-level,
Hadadian and Weikle (2003) recognized an increase in digital AT starting in the 1980s, when
computers began being used for social facilitation and speech and language development in
young children. Interactive CD-ROM software was introduced in the 1990s and improved
literacy education by providing supplemental material (Hadadian and Weikle, 2003).

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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Assistive Technology has continued to grow, and Cafiero (2012) shows how recent
advancements in technology have been wonderful support tools for children on the autism
spectrum, particularly when it comes to integrating students into the general education
classroom. Types of AT for individuals with ASD can be broken into two categories:
augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), and other (Cafiero, 2012). AAC technology
involves communication systems and supports communication and speech, often through the
use of speech-generating devices (SGDs), which can be simple handheld devices or
sophisticated computers (Cafiero, 2012). Much software has been created to support these
devices, and they are able to be customized to the individuals speech needs. Other AT devices
include computer software, assistive programs, social stories, video modeling, virtual
environments, and many more (Cafiero, 2012, p.65).

An Overview of Assistive Technology and Autism

Assistive Technology has been especially impactful for individuals on the autism
spectrum because of the unique needs of the autism community. Some difficulties frequently
shared by individuals with autism include difficulty with communication, behaviors, and with
affective and social learning (Firth, Francis, & Mellor, 2009). Additionally individuals with ASD
often experience sensory and motor differences and often have restrictive interests and difficulty
with flexible thinking (Southall, 2013). Technology can be an effective accommodation to ease
many of these difficulties. AT supports access to information and tools in a simpler and more
engaging format. Additional appeal of AT comes from the ability to be engaged in isolation and
eliminating the aspect of face-to-face communication, which is very frequently an uncomfortable
barrier for a person on the spectrum (Cafiero, 2012). This technology is also typically highly
visual, which Cafiero (2012) explains can be extremely motivating and incentivizing, can support
behavior plans, and can be used for socialization in an environment that supports reflection and

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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thoughtful interaction. For example many individuals with ASD use the Internet to access
information, interact with others, and find support. Autism-specific websites, as well as virtual
realities, allow individuals to communicate at their own pace, without the complexities of face-toface conversations that are generally difficult for individuals with ASD to understand, such as
reading facial expressions and body language (Cafiero, 2012). Lastly AT can be built at an
individual pace to support personal growth and needs (Cafiero, 2012). These traits of AT make it
a great option for supporting the unique needs of students on the spectrum.
Kimball, Kinney, Stromer, and Taylor (2006) came to a common conclusion when
researching AT and autism that, Children with autism may learn more rapidly when tasks are
presented by a computer rather than a teacher.

Addressing Specific Needs with Assistive Technology

Communication
Communication can be difficult for individuals with autism for a variety of reasons. Some
individuals never gain the ability to speak, some have limited verbal skills, and those who do
speak often find it challenging to interact with others in a meaningful way (McEwen, 2014). AT
can support many of these needs. For students who are not able to speak on their own, there
are personal communication devices (Cafiero, 2012). AT as simple as pictures can be used to
help students communicate, though today it is common for students to use personalized
computer devices, such as iPads, DynaVoxes, or customizable computer software.
These types of technologies typically begin with simple tasks, such as pressing a picture
of a cookie to indicate wanting a cookie, which can then progress to identifying different types of
cookies, building complete sentences by combining pictures, and eventually constructing
sentences to ask for a cookie authentically with words or by typing (Caferio, 2012). Because of
this, Cafiero (2012) suggests that literacy and communication go hand-in-hand. Though

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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effectiveness could be improved, communication devices are very common because language
development delays are often the first signs of ASD, and because the ability to communicate is
such a necessity (McEwen, 2015).
Another way to assist the communication needs of those with ASD is through social
stories. Social stories are short stories, typically visual, that help teach students with autism
about real life situations (Gray, 2010). These are often made digitally. Having students build their
own stories can help them find their voice and take ownership of their thoughts and feelings
(Guldberg, Lee, Parsons, & Parayska-Pomsta, 2015). The creation of stories is a great way for
students to explore communication while providing a product for other people to see into their
world. Guldberg, Lee, Parsons, & Parayska-Pomsta (2015) say that, Storytelling can be a
powerful means of expression especially for voices that may be difficult to hear or represent in
typical ways (pg. 249).

Motor Skills
It is common for students with autism to have difficulty with motor skills. Holding,
manipulating, or controlling objects can be a barrier when completing tasks (Firth, Francis, &
Mellor, 2009). For this reason, writing with a pencil is often not an option, especially in the early
stages of education. Additionally vision constraints may make it hard for students to see and
complete their work. While these difficulties are rarely eliminated by technology, AT can often be
an alternative way to complete the same tasks and to gain back confidence (Firth, Francis, &
Mellor, 2009). Pressing a button to activate an electronic voice is often a more attainable form of
communication than speaking or physically writing (Hadadian & Weikle, 2003). Furthermore
learning to press buttons, and having the motivation of a digital device helps expand basic
motor skills while also accessing the curriculum.

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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Assisting with physical needs like motor skills can start at a very young age (Hadadian &
Weikle, 2003). Hadadian and Weikle (2003) found that children as young as three to five months
of age were able to activate programs, toys, and communication by hitting a switch. Young
children can use technology to make choices about their learning, building in even more
opportunities for independence.

Behavior
Behavior shaping can be done using Assistive Technology, and according to Cafiero
(2012), systems can be designed and adapted to meet the needs of the individual student (pg.
69). Weikle and Hadadian (2003) had similar findings when they researched students with ASD
responding to technology incentives. When taping student behavior before and after a lesson,
they found that students were able to more easily participate in lessons with appropriate
classroom behavior when they were provided with assistive tools during class (Weikle &
Hadadian, 2003).
Much research on video modeling and autism has been done as well. Video modeling
involves watching a video of someone completing a task and then having students complete the
same task on their own (Ayres, Cihak, Fahrenkrog, & Smith, 2010). Self-modeling is when the
students themselves are taped completing the task (Ayres, Cihak, Fahrenkrog, & Smith, 2010).
This is frequently successful because students are viewing and copying positive behaviors that
they have already experienced, rather than putting the focus on eliminating negative behaviors.
Self-modeling has been very helpful in controlling behavior in students with ASD, especially
during times of change and transitions (Ayres, Cihak, Fahrenkrog, & Smith, 2010). Other
benefits of video modeling include controlled and consistent demonstrations, the ability to create
examples specialized to specific needs, and an increased likelihood of generalizing the skill
(Kimball, Kinney, Stomer, & Taylor, 2006).

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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Academics
Once students have access to the general classroom, AT can be used to help with
accommodations and modifications to the curriculum so that students with autism are able to
understand and complete work in a way that is meaningful to them, which helps reduce the
need for constant teacher support (Ennis-Cole & Smith, 2011). Southall (2013), explains that
tools as simple as digital textbooks can make it easier for students with visual needs or limited
motor skills. Similarly they can provide text and speech assistance (Southall, 2013). When other
deficits are addressed through technology, barriers come down and students have more direct
access to an equal education.

Social Skills
Emotion recognition can be very difficult for individuals on the autism spectrum, but
practice can help if done in a controlled, digital environment (Maurizio & Stefano, 2015).
According to Maurizio and Stefano (2015), Mind reading sometimes refers to the cognitive skill
of understanding another human being through body language and nonverbal skills. Tasks such
as recognizing eyebrow position, identifying facial features, and noticing the shape of a persons
mouth and eyes can be done with pictures on a computer (Maurizio & Stefano, 2015). This
practice develops invaluable skills that are often inherent to neurotypical people.
Using technology can also facilitate social interaction. Hadadian and Weikle (2003)
showed that many students with autism will experience deficits that may keep them from
interacting with their peers, such as physical and communicative impairments, but using
technology to play gives them more of an equal opportunity to engage. Research has shown
that computers can be great social facilitators for students with special needs (Hadadian &
Weikle, 2003).

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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Discussion
Though the use of AT can greatly support students with ASD, careful consideration and
planning must take place before technologies are introduced. If technology is not designed and
presented with very specific needs in mind, the implementation can often backfire, increasing
the risk of fear or failure (Firth, Francis, & Mellor, 2009). A distaste for the devices can create
additional barriers for a student with autism. Though a unique set of challenges is presented
when including individuals with ASD in the planning process, Firth, Francis, & Mellor (2009)
suggest it is a critical factor in the success of AT. They propose obtaining background
information on the client and developing a deep understanding of the cognitive capacities,
psychological and physical issues, the environment, communication needs, and the clients selfimage before choosing a technique or approach using AT (Firth, Francis, & Mellor, 2009).
Independence is another important factor to consider. Though many researchers find
that the use of AT reduces dependence, Kimball, Kinney, Stromer, & Taylor (2006) pose the
question, Is dependence merely shifted from adult to machine? Southall (2013) found many
benefits of inclusion including social interaction, academics, language skills, and developing a
sense of differences and compassion (pg. 30) but shares some of the same concerns about
dependence. The bells and whistles have the potential to reinforce negative behaviors and
create dependence that is difficult to change (Southall, 2013).
Lastly the responsibility of AT implementation is important to determine. Ennis-Cole and
Smith (2011) argue that incorporating AT for students with autism is a crucial part of a librarians
role, yet both Ayres, Cihak, Fahrenkrog, & Smith (2010), and McEwen (2014), conducted
research using classroom teachers and assistants to implement new technology into a students
routine, with the thought that this would keep the students environment most consistent.
Furthermore Kimball, Kinney, Stromer, & Taylor (2006) relied on parents and professionals

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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outside of school to introduce and maintain technology. The lack of an agreed upon best
practice could be problematic when choosing a route for individual students.
Though further research is necessary to understand all implications, benefits, and
potential consequences of Assistive Technology for students with Autism Spectrum Disorders,
current research overwhelmingly suggests that AT is beneficial for students transitioning into the
general classroom. These benefits must be accessed mindfully, however, in order to maximize
inclusion success.
Conclusion
In the 21st century, there are ample tools to support the needs of all. Though the needs
of students with Autism Spectrum Disorders are broad and varied, many of them can be
addressed through the use of Assistive Technology. Incorporating AT into the lives of individuals
on the spectrum, specifically into their school day, increases their access to the general
curriculum and gives them the opportunity to keep up academically with their classmates. That
opportunity additionally changes their environment from an isolated special education classroom
to a general classroom filled with their peers. This gives them the much needed time to expand
social skills and create friendships. Overall Assistive Technology can give students on the
spectrum an equal chance to learn alongside their peers and ultimately reach their potential.

Using Assistive Technology in the General Classroom to Support Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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Spectrum Disorders: A Review of the Literature
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