Study Guide IEEE ILP Satellite Communications An IEEE/EAB Individual Learning Program Prepared for the Educational Activities Board of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. by Tim Pratt rast 938 4989 25250 00034345,{©1980 by The lstute of Elecieal and Electroies Engineer. oe Alleighsreered. No part ofthis book maybe reproduced ia ay form or by any meas without permisionin ‘iting fom the publser Printed inthe United States of Ameria Cone layout andillusteation by Lisa A. Marcy blshed by the Inetitte of Eectveal and Electronics Engineers. In. 115 Hoes Lise, PO Bor 331 Piscataway, NJ 08855-1351ait Sestion 1: ait 2 Section: Usit Uns § Usit 6 Usie 7 Section 3: Use 8 Usit 9 Appendix ‘Appencin? ‘Appendix 3 ‘Appendix ‘Appendix Satellite Communications Table of Contents fotroduction ‘Satetites As Spacecran The Space Segment ‘The Space Segueat 2 Communications via Sate Link Design Aaalog and Digs! Commesicaton Techies Mabtiple Access Coding Techniques fr improved Peifornance The Ground Segment -..eseeseeeesesesessersesesseeee Earth Stations ‘Propagation Stl Earth Pathe Modulation Theor Baseband Digal Transmission The Supebet Receiver Probability Theory Sampling ad Quantization Page ca a 3 a2 18 13 166 UNIT 4 inRoouc’ Suelite Communications i 3 mature technology wi Sion in as. Every dap ling uf telephoe tase caried by sought them by exiles. Trent years lites aod malons of people watch Toe origi of satelite comauicaons canbe iaced back fo an atc written in Wireterr Wold fn 1045 by Arthur C Clarke, who was io Brisa’ Roval Ar Force atthe ine, Clatke sugested that a9 aca soc ould be lacie iat ori wl a radius of #2242 km and would always tetseissbove ibe sane sean en casth, We sow cll thi geonttiooary aie, apd sich satlites are the backbone ofthe worlds ote fg ‘ommunicatioe over Joey distances 1a 1945 a geostationary sulelite was scence fc, because there ere co fockets powerfl caoush to achieve the 17,00) ag tency aceded lor injection ia low ears orbic Then a 1957 SPUTNIK 1 was avocied bythe USSR sad the ea ol aetes ad begun, The fe eeccatoneey eet as SYNCOM I, lsuoched by the United States from Cape Caoaveral in 1263, 1a 4963 2 ueely ened ineroaional tlie tclecommusicaions consrtiva, Ines, nuached the est season ‘eleconsuncaons satelite INTEUSAT I, ‘The rapid developmest of satelite commusieion technology Satelite Communications Begins cover the pat rent tne years wae driven ty several facors Ta space progr led to ibe development of more powerful rocket thick could pce larger and beaver stlles uve geonaionsey orbit. The value of Satellites for ransoceaie couusieatios aod ‘clevsion was realized, andthe fst actworks were ‘tablished by lteit for woridwide telephone ls, Domestic systems followed, istribuig television to comtnenal ress 30d rovidig unk telephone routes, fo 168 there we hundeeds of {e0sationary stelites ia obi, sersing amos every country om ‘ar. To this day, satelite comsmunsationsremaias the only acvity by man ie space which bas produced a sigufcane Ginacial eta forthe huge invesmen in spate esearch ‘The Gist ive telecon signals to be set eos the Allaslic were, aasmited ‘om Aadover, Maine via the TELSTAR satelite. (©: Goonhily Downs a SW England and Pleumcir-Badou a France ‘x lly 10,196, the day that TELSTAR, sas laueched. The event was cased fre (Brith television. TELSTAR I vas is 2 medium. earth orbit wath tual silly between ear uations of sboxt (oeny minutes The eanb satoas wad rere lage. with 60° apertures and besmmidths of 1% 59 sccuratetachieg of the satelite: vas necessary. The satelite was picked op on the secood past at Goonhilly afer a polaer problem a the UX station was corrected and several exchanger of TY siguls folowed ia occeediog pases Why se satelies for telephone and tcleisin inks? Satelite ste broadcast communications devices they ranma bit sinsls over awide aes, sometines over orethird of ibe earths surface “The major advantage ofa satelite communications system ovet ‘ther forms of log distance communication lak i that one satelite ca smulaseousy reach hundred of ear sais. The broadeast capably has been widely exploited inthe United Slates and many ober luge countries for disibetion of tckeson signals The api rom bl lesion nthe United States in the 19705 nas caused lrg ybe vali of satelite ks Co deiver TV programs to thousands of cable TV companies rcogh eae ewclng ‘wansponder. Optical fiers aad teresa merowave links pevide point-to-poit commusicitions with data rates and apacics similar to those provided by a ae, Opi bers may ota be lower in cot than 3 sacle ak {or such applications, but must fest be established betweea speciic pons Its the Nexbly and tres capable of satites that ake them atiractve lor many sppestions ‘08 Now read Chapter 1 the tet gives a brie istry of satelite communications Table 1.4 shows listing of communications satelite ie obit 2d plaaned 3 of 1984,“Satelite Communications shi age vse fom the United Stato | Figure Lt shows the Lok aso at Figure 10.0 pages 70987 I shows the festions ofthe worll's communication sates, yon ae untae wth what a sali oaks tb, eer Figure 120m page £7 and Figure 39. page or. “These gre show soe of the ote sles. More satelites ate shown in Figures 325 amd 324. ges 9 sind 90. “atmost eveyone inthe United States wit be elie der seem ia many yards, more corey noun a5 eth ation antennas. so Look at Figures 9.1 and 9 on pages 85 ond 356 hich show some lage cath station antennas. ‘REVIEW OF UNIT recs att you hve leased how satelic communication sared, how i expanded very rapidly inthe 1968 (a tn ae vt ached naar in the 198%. You have sea some pictores of communications stlits and aan are ant expec ead of toe ol the applications or stlite communication tems and why satlites Grothe preferred choice for television signal distribution Soteiite Communications SECTION 1 SATELLITE AS SPACECRAFT UNIT 2 THE SPACE SEGMENT I intaooucTion fe units? and 3 ofthe ILP you wil ara abou satellites as spacecraft-unmanaed vehicles in omit round the tant which provide the wt commision lik a space. ‘++ Here are some ofthe topies you will sted + syty asatelite stayin odie + Which bits ar wel for communications purposes + wy the geonymeheonous obits so widely sed + which sete ar ia low earth obit + How io calculate the look angles af geostationary satelite + How suet launched Chapter 2 of the text deals with orbits and lunches and conias moce mathematical detail on obits than we SeeeSca im hs ICP Chapter 3 desribessatliter aad the commuricaionssstems they carey and aso CTstuses some ofthe problems of keeping aa unmanned sem operating correctly thousands of miles out in spe for many yor. 2.1 ORBITS Understanding how a comaurcatons satelite says in orbit, and bow oat itthece. requires some knowledge Ml onbual mechanics, The laws of orbital mechaniee were developed by astcogomers centuries ago by Gheerotons af the planets aad stars. Two soteeth-celur astoaomers, Kepler and Neaton, were the fist (© Crpl the mation af the planets. Kepler spent mot of is Le obsersing the movement of planets around the Sau and deduced his avs empirically At aboot the same tie, Nevin derived the same results mathematical. “The essential mathematics for determining obits are presented ia Section 2.1, Chapter 2 of he text. The resus besowe very complested aod the [ll derivations are oot included in he tex. For our porposes in his ILP, we Sit concenteate on the factors which are important for communications saeites, especialy those in scetationary obit SATELLITE ORBITS Let begin by esewing he most important features of seit ris A gates wit ied os eH has a suliemly high clocks and is above the earths souphere, Asa stele moves in a cured path i experiences a changin she direction (and possibiy the Speed) of ts movie. Tai change in eloiy mean thatthe seit i accelerating and acceleration reveals tht se Gnostancedforee acts onthe satelite. Gravity supplies this ceter-seking(cetegetl force needed to Sonsany torn the stelle towands the Earth = otbersize would sped off in 3 sraight fine. The hey (0Sateite Commonics ssfally eablishing a tequieed ea 1848 et of the spacecrafl slot ring th vac ene ‘ve wil alk sbost launches ater \e GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT sete is oe particular ori which is woe side sed for commumatio saelies. Thisis tbe geonencivonous iin which the satelite i he plaoe of he car's equator aod makes one rian sbow te center of Be ‘in exaly 2 hours, Saintes ua #ccond: (a sideresl dey, Under hese condo the sselite Base se aguas velogy asthe earth and wl appear oe ationary above oae specie pon on he equator The iin the sa tobe geoationa, The ort pri i aot hours becouse we Ueze 2 Rout 9 be (ie "Soph of a day-A day isthe average elapsed tie between suness, which includes 3 con ths rowationavouad the sua, The sun spear to cee 3 sinues aad 36 seconde (on average) Inter than Ct ne fas forthe earth ae once on at Low EARTH ORBITS Seite are not aways in geostationary obit 1 Suneilance slic: snd not commucicaions stellt, «he majority of stlies arent, because they are earth Suneilance saeites ae usally placed ia ow bits, us above the atmosphere, wth altudes ofa few hundied Silometers. If stelle bas an ae of es than 300 km, it wil be slowed down by ellison with molecules {oom be eats atmosphere an, unless velociy & peradically boosted, ill move fuer into the e=i's Staosphere and eveatully bara p. Low cath orbit satlites have eeisl periods of about 9D minutes aed therefore, appear (ors and seta the ly js ste sua ad moon do, but more olen. I requires much less toergy from the lack vebile to rach a Low Earth Orbit (LEO) than the geosatonary orbit, and costs much {ets too, However for communications purpons the constant appearance and disappearance of the saelites ‘The area of the art's surface sen bya low orbit satelite it ‘much les thon the azen seen bya geouationay satelite. Tis ‘neane thatthe earth stations communicaling via a LEO satelite most be euch cose together than fra geosaionary satelite, adhe range between them quite limited, Low earth orbits Low earth orbits are used for earth suvedlance “satelier. Miltary see Tnchde abseration wih visible and ‘nfeared light electronic signal gathering aod storeantlorvard conansications (Ch ystems are used for earth resooree studies, weather obsenaton,aapaion, ‘and energency beacon locaton whea, vera cath, Survellaace satellites are ely in inclined bis so that a he ah rns the satellie pases overall of jig suilace in sueemsie pau. Sometimes 4 polar bit is used which lakes de sacle ovr the aon aad ‘out poles. Many ofthese LEO catelies ‘any Coanmutieatons systems which are ‘designed in the same way 26 those fot geostationary stele, The aio Siferences are that low orbit satlites Rave broad beam, low gui antennas and satelite the shorter distance fom stelle 10 ‘anh station revalsia # smaller pa Ir you ace not lotereted ia the mathematics of orbital les. mechanics, ship to Section 22 on page 22 ofthe text If ou alow the math, ead Seton stating o page ‘The cave stelite commusicatons tests with the TELSTAR, ind RELAY satellies used medium ori slits with aitdes of several thousand klometes, and mtoal visbity berwees ‘arth stations of about twenty minutes. The problems of aching ‘ese satellites, and Bandiag over beiveea them. wakes the feovtationary version more popular for commusiations However if reakime commucicton i 91 requved, “store and onward" operation 3 posit and theres renewed interest LEO satelies forthe porpoe, CALCULATING ORBITS. Look at Figure 22 on page 13 of he et. Te shows the general form of 2 satelite ori [Note thatthe earih coats independently ofthe satelite oie ‘hich complicates the problem of finding out wherein the ky youook fo “he eels uf sume very invhed sams forween pages 1 and 2 xn be umecarized ftom Saeites aos in epi obis wih be earch tone feu of he ellie. Tiss Kepler's es Taw of plaveiry ‘Dov: he ori cla, bb oc of be elie ae coincident athe carbs cestr “The time tatza forthe satelite 19 move ace round its orbit is called the orbital period. The orbital period Tependsom the datancee the sai from be cater of be earth ats rst itt pat called the apogee of terre), This is Kepler's thind lon The shape of the ofits deiged by its eccenrcty. Eecetecy sa (Bestee of te eiffecace beween the otis spogee aad is penge (the post of closest proach so the ear). deal orbic has eqval apogee aod prises ands defined by is radius from the czoter ofthe earth, The period of ao litical orbit is defined ia Equation 230 ofthe te, page 16, forthe geometry shown i Fgute 24 Look at Figure 2.4 and Equation 230 ‘The parameter ia Equation 230 is Kepler constant snd ha value 39861592308 L's ‘The satelite doesnot Bave a constant veloc iits orbit is elliptical. moves slowest at spogce and fastest at perigee Kepler's secoad law expiis ihe elaoaship, “The eliptical obi is eseaially saionuy in space, based on Johann Kepler Coordinates referenced fo celestial poias gy a sar. Howser, the carh touates wikia the ori, so the Wack ofthe satelite projected ono the ears surface ones around the globe ashe fart urs Jobann Kepler was 4 Corman ‘Sstonanch ho ned om 571901. Fie anbicd the sutiaw of he planet ftom decane the postions ot Seccessalcoumasicaon wa 3 elie usta requies 4 many yeas and dovied thee lve (6 Gecucatorees 2 ERASE Paks erent the say Bs CSpot for he snl, and whe fave general ce of Sst lw aes hat al whi are eines, ee ine ti panier cede oil elements wih a pavindoal cee, eg hem FRE aktiea td sclaiosip lide sodlonptndeco 3 ove fous. His secand law ses tat SEcEvounee Geo bo eal denen and sable he pie cee ot etal eatin apts rogac you ca Gd ut whe and whretolok for egal tine, Tht means hat an obing temeiie ‘aap an move fers perigee then at Motes Ha thud lw sales Dat Be Mowe of Ge. ori period & preporioes tothe thee power of he Solent aor ais His Gangs were Ider confireed aleatialy by estos wings te of grav 2n ibe cant uasaome mat Paes fete sv sew answer these questions om tbe Get part of Section 2 of ell. 1. athe eats rxatioal pero: (0) Bis mins ees (6) hrs mins Osees (2s Sins S6sces 2a sateliesis placed an orbit wth ude les than han 200 bn does (@) fallback tocar (0) fyolfito outer space (havea circular orbitSattite Commun 4. The apogee alam seit ih. pot when the satelite (0), closet tothe carta : (farthest fom the eat (9) closest tothe sun (2) farthest oon tbe sun 4. The periges ofa obits the point when the satelite is (2) closes tothe ear ()octbet trom tbe earth (0) closextothe sus (2) artes ome hes A stele is in acral obit wth an ahitde of 200 km. the earth's asf 6370 km, she perio of te obit () sr ins (©) 88 mins (© %0a%is © mins 5 Assatelite isin an eiptical orbit wih an apogee alte of S00 km and a peige tude of 100 ken. Foe the earth radi value of 6370 kn. is the orbital period () 88mg (0) 105 in (9 2 ovins (©) 10min SELECTING AN ORBIT CComausicaton va alow earth orbit satlie clearly wh more difiult-valess noa-dirctional antennas are ssed-than via a geostationary satelite. Tb gestatonar orbit is therefore very inpatan snd very widely weed {or communication. tba the folowing characteris “The rostatonary ofits zea inthe equatorial plane with he east's center asthe center ofthe ctl we ake the earth's orbial period as 2¢ hours the rae ofthe orbit is 2.22 km A stellite ina geosationary orbit remsis stationary athe sky above pec point o the earth's equator. Froma geostationary positon, a atelitecan“see aloe one third of the earth's surface, REVIEW ‘Any satellite which it in obi round the eath travels along an elite path in space wth the earth atone foes Satelite Communications The clcoaion of he orbit parameters, andthe leation the sei taion, requires koomledge of sie parameters called the otal elements rg the obi wt respect tue Suteies in any ori except geostationary appeae to eve aerss the sky sad mst be tacked by the earth Communication selves ae wualy in geostationsey obit. The geostationary orbit icicle inthe plate of the ex's equsto a an stude of 33872 km, Al geostationary saelites are in hs ori A satelite in geowstionary obit appears to be feed above pont on the equator It appears to be faed 9 2 point inthe sky wea ened from an earth sation. Now answer these questions on section 22 f the ILP 1. lsthe plane ofthe geostationary xi (2) nthe earth's equatorial pase () Through he and S poles (@) athe earth's orbit plane around the sua A. Istheabitude of geostationary satelite wih 26 hour period () srk (0) 353708 (© 38m (© enn 8. The exact period ofa tly geostationary satelite one sidereal day, 23s Sémins and 4ecs, What i the slide of satelite wth hit period? (@) 35704 ©) 35795 (9 357m (© 359904 10, Ifa geostationary satelite moves away fom the earth to as aitude of 42.442 km, co an obserer a the equate, wll he satelite appear to (2) dat tovardsthe eat (©) det towards the west (0) remain ststonsryiathe kySeletite Communications 12 LOOK ANGLES ve point inthe shy occupies by a sateie ae teen frm ages earth sation i delned bys fok anges Look savies are usually given fa wimuth and clestion coordzates at show ia Figure 25, rage az of tne we Zrouth aogle (A2) is measured round the horizon, starting st cov and going throuth ext Elevation ue (6) & measured (fom the horizontal plane towards the seni, Look angles ate deleraiced tow ovbed ements at a given (ine of day wing complicated mathematica Here we will comer oa tbe case of stationary stelle. Section 22, began on page 12 ofthe tex shows how to calelae look ages snc Ship co page 238 of theta iyo are aa interested inte natbeamatcs. Read pages 24 trough 30. quaions 2.68 and 2.73, cgeter wih Figue 213,02 page 28 40d 29, ge the information needed to calcolate look anges (ora geontationary satelite. Note hat ia swe 213 o0 page 29 ofthe tex, he sale sbown wid oa row ithe azimuth angle, 2a he angle ph. ‘To'ind the look angles for a particular satelite rm 3 given ear station you mst have the foowing data: The longitude ofthe satellite, koown abe susatelitepoit. Theis the loagtde atthe equator directly below the satelite, symbol lI you ae uncertae about (be defations aod woe e latcude and longue, read the Footsote a the bots of page 2 i the ext, ‘The lattes and longitude of the earth station. Symbols ae late Le and longitude L. Be earful aot to laterchange the to: autude ba the upperase symbol To find he lok tgs of esatiary saute wi Poses 7) igen kth fon erent oad 4 OEE onde an ‘east or west of the prime (Greeawich) ‘evan sn andes egies sok ot soutbat the ester Thus oagiote of 9 W pase trough he Usted State dod eguren ou Aiowi anpet ‘eon delved ne tame ay. Ieagitude follow thi procedure: 1. First solve Equation 266 oe page 28 ofthe tet forthe ‘ogle gamma If gamma is eater tae 615° (oles than 1.3), the earth station eanot sete aelie because it isbelow tbe borzoa 2 Nex solve Equation 268 on page 2 fo El, the elation lok angle ofthe satelite 43. Thea find s fom Equation 2.71, and substitute ia Equation 273, pge 28,10 fad the angle alpha. This ‘he age shown in Figure 2.13 on page 29. The azimuth lock angle (A) i ound from Table 22 below Figure 2.13, For earth tations the sorsera bemopere, ibe sub satelie poia is na soulbwest or southeast ofthe earth station. That the satel avaye appears i the soutbera sy. ‘tis simple matter to wit a compute program which wil ay out the above procedue, so that catering the "vee parameters fo the satelite and earth ation produces ook angles, Equation 2.67 on page 28 of the ext gives the distance Irom the earth aio othe stellt. Oceasiaally this ‘ceded for path ls calelations but t varies ony betwee a 35,871 ka ora stelle direc verbead to 81,756 um for a satelite oo the Brion ‘That completes the calculation of look angles. Section 23, pages 30.32 ofthe tem, goes trough a detailed ‘lealation of the orbit and look angles fra weary geestaionay satelite. You wil see ibt the eaeulation weryinvoied, Skip thi sectionif ou are ntintereted. onerrat = Ia the Foreabing anaisis of satcize unit, we have assumed tha all the factors iano remain conta Unrate tis 20 the cave in prac an 3 numberof fect cate the vei cage wih ime. At resuly a geostationary satelite il i ay from i saion and cust be sent back using rocket wotors on the ‘atelize. Tis is caled toon Leepng and aa ieporiantfacor in determining the uel letime of Seoustionsey atetie TURBATIO! Remember tht a satelite i orbit weightless. Any al force acing on he sulelite wil case i to accelerate and eves move away fom ks feqused abt. The soagest perturbing force ona geowstionary satelite ‘the moon, The mooe's oral plane sed wit rexpet to be earth's bial ple, cating & force on the ‘atlie wbich ead ropa out ofthe ears equstra plane, The sus as 2 sna, ba sale. efet, 00 Read section 3-4 of he teat pages 32 cough 34 That now completes the stud of stellt obits sn lok angle. The nes topic we mus consider © "== 2 satelite int the required orb. Now ansuer thse questions on Sesion 22 of the ILP, ‘Which of he following parameters are needed o Find he look angle fora geostationary stele? (@) Fah station laitude (©) Emth sation loogtede ( Satettte raege (2) Subsatelitelooginde 2. Anazimuth angle i given a 00, What compass direction ie this? (@) Noni (©) Sous (@ Es (@) wen 3. An earth station i located in Equador. which iin he soutbere hemisphere ata longitude of SIP west a ‘sch part of he sky would you lok for a geoiatonary satelite witha subsatelie longitude of 115° west? (9) Nontesst () Soubeast, (2) Nonthowest (@) Soub-westB Satelite Communications png: 28 of he tee 81.2% woud you expect the saci the angle gama in Eaton 2 (2) Below the orion (©) Cathe horizon (c)_ ust above the hviron (a) P above the horizon Aw earth stion has 3 longitude of 1? cat ofthe prime meridia and altitude of A geosationary ‘elite has asubsaeite pot of «eas. What are the look anges (a) Anise, Eto? (e) Anis E17? (o) ard £190 (@) AE? “The ialad of Spitcbergea ies north of Norway above the arctic ccle a longitude of Leas and aide (L78 noth, What ar tbe look angles or a geostationary satelite witha sbsatelite point tI? weu? (2) ALST50?, E126? (b) An26150%, E126 (©) Axtr99* E1627 (6) A2251907, £13.28 The Olmnpus satelite & tobe lauached in 1980 to serve Westera Europe, and willbe located atl 1P west (equal to longitude 31"), What are the look anges for an earth statin loated in Wash De, ongitude 7209 west, atude 38 nor (3) Area, E1656? (0) Aet1139%, E1100" (9) Aer, En6e (9) Acti ee? PROBLEMS ‘++ Solve problems avetered 3 §,8,and 10 on pages 4 and 80 ofthe ext. ee ee rare Ha ee Satelite Communications “There ate two wain cles of auncher: expendable cocks, noon as Espemfsble Launch Vehicles (EL), snd the space stl, Keown 33 the Space Transportation Seem (STS) ‘04 Look at Figures 2.16 through 221 ages 3600 the et. “Thea Figues ilstrate some ofthe avaiable auochers. At the ie of writing the US space shut program | seat grounded following the iach aur ie 185, The US government, prio to 1936, bad followed ply of ‘hasing out ELVs i aor ofthe sbule, That policy bas bce eevised and ELVs are once agun seen avaiable [sanchers, in Earope tbe Ariane ELV ba enjoyed great popularity ata geostationary satelite launcher bese Df beck of lune epabiht i the United Stes. szem probabe tht a ico shutle and ELV launchers ‘rile svilabie inthe ure, Lauoching geostationary satelitesis much moce comple tha Inuachig a spacecraft ito alow earth orbit The Drocedure i detcribed im section 26 ofthe te. I invoits a series of tes in which the satelite st fist be Dot into low arbi sad then moved out to geostationary alitide sing a transfer ori. Foal the stelle bit st he made circlar anda the equal p ‘An ELV launch usualy roquives a he stage eocke 0 get he satelite into 9 trasfer orbit. A rocket mee Sitached to the stellt tel called sm Apogee Kick Motor (AKM) i wed to provide the injection imo seosynchronous orbit. Whee aSTS i wed, the satelite & nuacked inate transfer obit fom the ste by 2 Payload Aust Module (PAM), special rocket motor designed to take the payload (rom the low earth rb | the shutle out 0 geosatonse altitude, The PAM fad on two early STS launches, leaving the spaceralt a low earth orbit from nic they were eveataly recovered alte hulle mission. Tee intl orbit of any spacecraft bas a inciaation tothe ears equatorial plane equal to the latitude of the launch site, For Cape Canaveral this is 283°. Moving a geostationary satelite from 2 283° iackination tothe ‘equatorial plane requite velocity increment of 366 mi, which eee tof fue that could otherwise be ted {oe station Keepiag or fra heavier payload. The launch site for Ariane i in French Guiana latte of ‘The reduction a lul to achieve an equatorial orbit with an Aragelnuach enables Arace to cary a biger payload than ae equivalent lauscher rom Cape Casaver ‘Tye co of luaching geostationary satelite i high. Look at Table23 page 41 and Table 2-400 page 2 ofthe ter. These tables show some typical costs foc launching geostationary stelites, A good estinate would be 35M, although the weight ofthe spaceraft ia erica (actor in deciding which launch vehicle i to be vied Seal Fah sclites ean be launched inc low earth orbit with much amar rockets at uch lower cost. Suis are sow in progress for aetworks of many simple LEO satelite with medium communications capacity at action of the cout of ezosiationary satelites. Miliary communication systems sing geostationary satelite are swlerable jazi and (9 hoa attacks onthe satelite, The prospect of simple satelies and low-cost Tausebss is tact for tactia eoeauaeatios, whieh has led o renewed iateret low orbit stems, s+ Read sect 28 of he ent, pages 36 trough 4, ‘0 Nowanaver these questins on the second part of Section 2 ofthe IP.sts () PAM @ ev (xv “The space shut lnuscbs slies oto geostationary cei sing aCe} () PAM ) LEO (@ xRc (@ BL “The lnc veloc of stellt ia czcala low eat orbit at a aie of 400 km is @) wm @) Ter (©) Boas (© mm “Two ofthe folowing ae ELVs capac of lauoching» geostationary stele. deal them: (@) DELTA (@) scour (TaN (® Taste ‘What ration ofan ELVs Lach weight reaches geostationary oi in apical launch: @) ose © 10% (© 20% © 3% Satelite Communications 6. Which auch efor a Avanes reheat pasa ia yeni cai (2). Cape Canaveral Fords, USA (2) Guiana Space Cester (6). Wallops land, Vieginia, USA onerTaL EFFECTS ‘Tete ae 4 numberof elects which influcace the design aod operation of 4 stelite communication system src su fom tbe communication device Belg in ob Low cath obit satlies nove towars and 363) fom an earth statin a the satelite eases the shy. The high ‘ios of the satelite causes significant Doppler sit inthe tanemited and vested signals euiring Compensation ina sarbaed comnisios lik, Geostationary satelites moves sony wi reipect 19 a8, ‘arth statin that Doppler elect are usualy ignored. “The Doppler elect occurs for radio waves The frequency of 2 THe Doppler effect teansiter ona 3tlite moving towards an earth ston 3p to be increased by wh Ha, where v isthe velociy of he souce The Doppler fect is mamed for a tnd ithe waveleagh ofthe sigoal The increase (or decrease) ainetezathvectury Avssian physic, in equa i called he Doppler shi, kean bea problem vith Chistian Johann Doppler, bo studied tow earth orbit satelites when arrow band cece used. the change in frequency of sound waver. Whee a source of wosed moved towards EXAMPLE orawy Gomanateerer [Asatte ia low ar bt approaches a eth station a 760 : ‘DiI wuss aa frequengy of 30 Mia Find the Doppler TBE! Doppler eet is falar to oat cverone wo has beard a police ca o¢ fee copie tres i pases the sect AS the sven. approaches, the noe 2ppeate high chou As recedes, he Ste drape Te sound wares exited by The moving source ae compresed as the source moves wards the observer and fxpuoded at the source! mores avy. “Thos the observer Beas wavee sh 2 shores wavelength ot ipher quency, a the soure approaches and waves of loager waveleezth or lowe eequescy, 38 TheDoppler cea iswidely edi ada, Poe raduswicibe Geteareneciet ne io the source reedes. Doppler llect 19 meatwze the speed of vehicles and door ‘openers al supersarkets detect the Dopplr silt aused by people clos othe doors. Some navigation satelites ‘howe the Doppler shift of 3 CW tsnamact ona LEO satelite to ealeulte the positon ofthe earth station, “The wavelength for 450 MHs is 0667 m. The Doppler shift is 7000 467 = 11,354 He Because the stele ic move towards the earth ston he signal received wil be a a fequcaey of {50011994 MPfn Ia low earth eric systers which receive ow data rate wanuissions wih arrow bandwidih receiver, this can tea problem, Either tbe receiver bandwidth mos be widened to ecomodat tbe Doppler sbi or fequency racking must be used Tofellw te changing frequency a the ae es by ‘The suns wed a a power source by all communications satelits. Large arrays of solar cells generate electrical power forthe comunicatins sytem andthe oer on-board equipment exentl Io the operation of the Etlite AL cetaa tines of year, near the equnose, the eth’ shadow passes over a geostationary satelite ‘This icalled an eclipse sv Lack at Figures 223 and 224 ou page 5 of the tex, Figue 223 shows the geometry ofan eclpte and Figure 22 shows the days and durations of Eclipses. The Satelite must cary ateres (© keep i ronsing duviog an eclipse and may have to shut down pst of the ‘Communication system there not enough Battery eapacity fr 70 miautes of fll operation,Satelite Communications lites ia low cath ori wil go its epse almost every orbit round the earth. The longest eclipse will mat see Te suics and ihe peo of sim tlmnainn wl alway bea eat 48 aiotes The satelite balers ibe secbarced whe wisn sulight that peration ca comin whe is nec. sun at causes another problem fr geostationary saeltes, Twice yea, the sua will appear (0 pass wind the cite, The sue radtesclecromagpetc Doe ovr all equencis ata ie power lve, Earth ‘Cninns with ugh gaia sotennat are clecromagnetcaly “nde by the bright sua bebid the satelite aad an sone inthe line oveurs. Aw tage ay la of communications Read section 2:7 of be test, pages 1 through 4 SEVIEW OF UNIT 2 Chis unt hs shown you how satellites stay in obit and how satelite is placed io a required orbit. The Cncaonary orbic a rods of #2242 kn pastry important or communications satelites. A satlite’s “hiscalccted from su ortitaleloment a0 om the ov daa, be look angles fr sny earth station cam be found. _eostationary satelite sppeats tobe sationar oer one peint om the equator and ibe lok angles for a sven EW Sion cin be computed from the ongiude ofthe stelite sad the Taitude and logiude ofthe earth Ludlits canbe lauached by expendable uch vehicles or fom the space shutle, Both methods are expensive, “pera for geostationary stelites. ‘eau eauses sone problems fr commusiationsstelies eipessbut dowa the source of electrical power Inds rans enue commusiations outage because ofthe high eel of oot radiated by be 84a ‘00 tow answer these questions onthe second lf of Seton 2 ofthe IL. 1. Wich as the largest perturbing lect om satelite obit: (2) esa (©) the mooe (o) the planers A. Want isthe longest duration of ules fora geostationary satelite: (2) 6rmiowes (&) Teinues (minutes (6) Temioutes 9. team manic when he sun: (3) pastes behind he satelite (pases trough the zeith (Co) pases rom east to west arose Sy ‘Satolite Communications 10, When a satelite i eaelig ava rom an cath statin, deste Doppler eect couse the (2) increne () decrene (©) wavtbesameUNIT 3 THE SPACE SEGMENT 2 SPACECRAFT ‘thie unit you wil ara bout snes ss paceerati~vebices in space wilt a mission to provide eeble {munication serie or up ite ears witout repair or mubienanee, The erm spacecraft sea wed ateligeakca dacusing pce epenssjecs + Here ar the opis you wil ear about ia hie vat. + The subsytems that must be oa seit oi 10 Fal its ison + How a satelite hep o sation + How satelite i ibiized to pia its antenss a ea + How a controling eth sltion sends comsads oa satelite and how satus iaformation is sent back + Wy stelites ned solr el and how much power hey generate + Wy satelites erry many uansponders and bow they are wed for eomamusications + Wy satelite hve speci anteans wi usual beam shapes + Howto ensure the reliability of asaelte 2.4 INTRODUCTION ‘A large commusications satelite costs lions of dolars to bay ad milions more to Isusch. A pea lage {vosationary satelite might cs S100 milion to by ad place in orbit The cot of purchasing, uaching and ‘perating a satelite most be recovered by sling ils communication epaciy to wers for telephone, television, frdata transasig, The satelite mst herefore have a arg communications capacity and log ietime. The Satellite aust operate ia the hole envionment of outer space for many years wih 80 posit) of repute ‘bust be beldin he correc orbit and alvay pia owards earth, These ators area challenge othe designers nd builders of stelites, and leado some ual estes oa these spaceeral 3.2 SPACECRAFT SUBSYSTEMS see There five major subsystems on a communications satelite * Aiud ad Orbit Contl Sytem (AOCS) + Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TTC) + Power Sytem + Communication Stern ‘Look at Figure 3.1 on page Stand Figure 32 08 page ST of the et. Seteline Communications 133 sbows to ltl elites apd Figure 3.1 thaws acy ded ca Can UNTELSAT 23 la satelite tke INTELSAT VsA, the lower patt of the spsceeraft buy rotaes 19 pr Mobtaion while tbe upper pan carting ibe commusicaton sate and asteoas eras pointed athe cath eat these wai parts of the sali igure + The communistons antereas sivers and Traveling Wave Tube Amplifiers (TWTAS) + The soar array which generates lec power fom suliht + The propels tans od he apogee motor ‘0+ Now read Sections 3.1 and 32 of the et pages 52 and 5. ‘Now anpwer thes questions on Section 32 ofthe ILP 1. The TTSC spstes allows an ert station coming stellt to: (@) sead commands to the stelite (@) change the satelite onic (0) ceive tates data rom the satelite ‘A wansponder is. device on sti which (2) controls temperate (b) receives and wansmis sionals (6) sade out warsiog pulses We wil aw examine the five major sbsptems ofa commusications satelite in more detail 11.3 ATTITUDE AND ORGIT CONTROL SYSTEM (ROCs) ‘The fuaction ofthe AOCS isto keep the stellt inthe cores orbit and poatng in he correct diection. We Wr sca only geostationary sets bere, but LEO satlies require simular systems ‘There a a large suber of forces acting on an orbiting ttle which tend to change the orbit. The largest forces are caused bythe gravitational pul of the mone ad the sun, andthe variation inthe eanh's gravitational Feld, The earth is oot truly spherical. As the satelite pases through the varying graviional Fel its exit changes ‘Look at Figure 32 00 page $60 the tet. shows how the cat's shape a the equator ffs a geostationary sateliteSatelite Communications ATTITUDE CONTAOL \ satelite sn orbit is weighless and ina pest acuim. Without 3 conte system to Keep it ight way wp tbe Sol wind peestareyand agaei eld fects i accoratly, spel 0 01%, hich rai Ste would tumble over and over From impacts by mete vareanas ofa commuaatons satelite mt be poited vice comodo the stellt tad Lew atthe satelite illstrated io Figures 33 om page $7 and ot Figure 3.0m page $90 the text « wetwo main eenxiques for atte contrat Beth use zrorcpie tin to achieve stabilization Saetes kc INTELSAT IV-A i Figure 31 are sia sblized, by fuatng eos ofthe mass of he satelite af about "Sipe. and ate called spinners. Satelites Uke the INTELSAT ¥ shown in Figure 3.30 have thee ass von. Toey tse one 9 more interal momen wheels fo provide gyroscopic sabilaatin “Toe nti of stelle is defined by station bow thee aes These rotations are cll pth, and yw Look at Figure Som page 9 ofthe test “Tis figuce shows How the tree attude ates late tthe orbit and the earth. spines stett, otaton it ‘out the pitch as The antennas aad commuaication system are o.ated by an eecric morro the spacecralt Bay ce ac they tar atthe same rate asthe satelite spis, bot ia the opposite direction. This part of tbe ‘telias said to bedespun. Antenna poating abou the itch asi controlled by speeding upor sowing down the mover Poising contol an the other two aes mst be implemeted with gs as jets ate part of a complicated rocket motor sites which canbe commasded from earth va the TTR (Suteta ay attude chase requires operation a ro jets oe to start the rtaion anda second stop “The thcee axis abiized satelite uses momeatua wheels for aitude cotel. To uaderstad their operation, ernember thatthe stele weightless If me sort up 2 Bea wheel and increase is veloc, its moments ferease. The law of cossecation of angular moment el us tbat the body ofthe satelite mst rotate i he oper duction. If we place » momeatum wheel on each ass desea by a electric motor controled via the Tec system, we eaa rotate the satelite about each ass without wing gs jets. Am alternate design uses {Hage momentum wheel sbic ca be rotated align with any of the three spacecraft aes, “Thethuce as stabilized satelite need oust 3 ets oeasoeall for attitude contol. eoastant force acts be the satelite causing it to rotate about at ase thi can be countered by increasing the velocity ofthe Tossentem wheel oa thot aus However, te maximum eli af he whzel wil eventual be reached andthe trhel ust be ualoaded by operating the appropriate gases, 00 New ead Section 33, pages 55 through ofthe ext. ‘Now answer these questions on Section 33 of the TL. 1, Whieh ofthese parts ze NOT found on spaner satelite (2). momeature wheels (©) asics (6) solar sails Satelite Communications 2 Which ofthe following NOT an ase motion of spacer (ot (pitch (© ete ©) someat © yw 2 Aspianer uses an earth sensor to contol which ofthese: (0) antenna pointing () body temperature © esis 4 Momestam wheels must be ualoaded because ofthis eect (9) suatighe (solr presure (2 coastant forces onsrr CONTROL ‘The saelte is kept ia the correct orbit by adding veocey Increments along each ass at intervals wing the ga jet. Tw orbit corrections that must be made at frequen iterals ate {alld North-South and East-West station keeping manesrers ‘7 Look at Figure 37 om page 6 of the et. ‘Tis igce shows the N.S and E-W directions for a geostationary satelite, The uals is to keep the satelite wha 201° bor ‘sith respect to the center of the earth. Geostationary saelites fe bed witha a seal box so that earth stations can ave fixed postog antennas. fied pointed arteana is mec less easly than one which ba o tack a satelite tis economic to bold the satelite wiaun 2 box eat many earth ations can we low-cost Nomh South maseuvers are needed to covtet ineination ofthe obit E-W manewers are seeded to corect dit ofthe satelite sound its ob 08 Now read the set ottbe ter. cbt control, poses 60 through 6 ‘08 Now anoner these questions o0 Seton 33 of he ILP “Tae oa psn sie ends to become inclined to the earth's. eet aces prben poe Sicpenm eens Bree iar tel Rotel meee woes pass Bact ciate mers (eines masuresias coe ot Geena: Beorte | pea aoa Peeve moon Baise rere nel vege gatellite will end to drift in one direction, Bers op atx ty apt Bor Kb tk ety on ee hirevrenan ovules epg eines Hibuies eye ieee CaAInE Eel baci on | Ssecaoos aE URbEN ded BE ARBRE, NS manewers usually determices the ‘etie ste stele. Tee feb ‘typically bydrazine, 2 volatils compourd (Fier td apne Vega te pane Vn moneda tijden ise tons ovo ars (a as ad produ (presi thc debe bo Sete a he on tl cin tae land: Gpposite): The foc is ies cr berett sabes be “ager nator wich nea he ete ‘into gedsyochroaous orbit: I the launch igen es hal Bde re op fei aos lope Hs Sakon Sinbad apenas occ‘Satllte Communications A Notes ser moves a gesttonsry suet ats ie sion with rerpee tothe orbit ple: ly aaisn beep = () sowie 9) pespeadicaae (0) towards arth 6. An Buc West station Leping maneuver moves a geostationary satelite inthis direction wih respect 0 tbe conbit plane: (2) srounait (©) towards the N oS pole (©) towards cart 1. Geostationary sstelits ae sully bedside a box of () ox ( 02" @ os 5.4 TELEMETRY TRACKING AND CONTROL (TTEC) ‘The TEAC sptem of a satellite is wied to conta tbe atitude sad orbit of the satelite and also the Conmonictions ste and antennas. A degeated earth stations aorwaly required, aswell as computers nd personnel to manage the spacecraft ia orbit The telemetry ste isa comanuncation antem ia which data gathered onboard the satelite, om a mute of sensors ad sats indicators, i ranamilled (0 the contreling earth station, The tclmety link is usualy {dcpeodeot ofthe main communications system and may we cflereat radi lrequenses. Several shovsand eases ad sas iaciatos maybe used, cach reporting (othe telesetr stem every few seconds. This allows (Ge contel sain to beep check oa allie spacecraft systems and vo sound an alarm ia dangerous coadsion doclope, ‘The command system allows the control station to iasuruct the TAC Frequencies a ‘Dtelite to cary out sain Keeping masewers f 19 aake cciemstials Hie ‘Ghangeain the coomunicaion stem formal. A comausications Telemetry and command systems 0° fk taltained from the coaol sation 10 we satelite, and control codes are seat (0 the satelite. The operation of the Command system requires great care. bad command ean case ‘catastropie disaster forte satelite, such as sbting dow all ‘lecrieal power, Unally, when a command is seat tobe satelite, Iris returned site elmer ink fr checking before any action taken. This cesures tha the command was recived and itterpreted correc. The satellite is tben inuruced to ‘mplement tbe command. lange geostationary tatlies se the 64 Gul bands (or 1/11 GH). The TTAC band ie sgeeted “between be transponder bands often at one ede of the communication baad. Some satelite te 25 GHe for TTEC and most cary a completely: separate VHF command sytem at back op The VHF spite ‘ed alter lavach to wich oa he various ‘tema on the alte and fo rotate to fice the earth 40 hat the main TTEC. syetem can be wed. The VHP gxics ‘et oxmidireciionl antennas whe he tain stem uses ireional ancnars “racking ofthe ttle is necessary to detrei its orbit and, thus to decile when sation Leping manewvers are needed Very socuraterange meatarcments ate made over a period oftine and de weed to clelate she bial elements ofthe ae, Range ite Communications canbe messured by anit 4 pls othe satellites us Known delays in the sete waespooder. ‘00 Now read Section 3, paps 640 6, fathe feat Now answer these questions op Section 34a the IL. 1. Ateleneury stem sends the folowing siglo ese @) soice 0) essen (©) sates date (®) dar “The location of satelite is determined by measuring (0) ts ange (©) doppler shift of exeriee (9 TM 2.5 POWER SYSTEM ‘All satelite est have electrical power to operate the commurcations sem and for housekeeping. Housekeeping power rues the maay sysless aad motors on the spacecraft which are not part of the Powe for communications stelites is generated by solar cel lluiated by the sun ta geostationary orbit he u's intensity & 139 kW, about four times tbe renga the earth’ surface. Solar cells have 2 pial ‘ficiency of 10 to 15%, although damage to the cel by radiation and micrometeortes reduces eiciney afer Several years in space Large stelies generate powers inthe range 2 (0 3 KW wich requires many square rmcters of solar eal Spingerstelites have the surface of the rotating clindcal body covered in solar cel Half of these cll are Shoo ia darhncs, 39 more cell ea needed than wih a thvee acs stabilized satelite wi solar sail Sols tbls we rotated once every 2 hows eo thal they ate hep facag toward the sua. The toa area of cel 0 solar {ls is ka han ona spiacer, but thei elcency slower beeausc they ae beated up by the iotens infrared Fadintion ofthe sun. The cells on 4 spioner cooldown whea they areca the dark se of the satelite. Most ‘onmunkatons stelites 8 use lars Communications satelites must cary batteries to provide power duiag the launch sequence and during eclipses Toe baltris forma evbtantial part of the spacecralt weight in orbit and must be very reliable. They Se over allowed to cscharge fly because iis ight sbut he satelite down 1345 on pages 66 t0 68 of the text and look at Figure 39 which shows the Intelsat series of ‘08 Now answer these questions on Section 35 of the ILP.Satetie Commurisations 1 Pome is generated 92a saclte hy (2) star cals : (0) clear fasion (©) solar wind Aaveres are needed oma satel (2) sol eclipses (6) lunch sequence (©) santansic 5, How much clectial power do large satelite launched in the nid 198s geoerte? @ mow ©) 2 (©) Dew 4. Wied of these pes of batteries are wed on satlies? () leds (0) sicketendnium (©) Bacearboo Solar cells have an endo ie effiieny of abou (a) 3% @ © Bs © ws © 5% 13.8 COMMUNICATIONS SUBSYSTEM ‘The comausications subsyscm isthe mos important part ofa cowmusications satellite. The other ster ext {blely to suppor tbe communications capacity of be satelite, since is he sale of tis capaci which pays the ‘onl buying, lnuneSing and operating te satelite. The designers of a communications satelite try achieve {he bighen posible espcin wibia coma of weight, volume, electrical powe, and frequency allocatos Since the fist geostationary satelite, Ealy Bird wat lavached in 196, gcostatoeay satelite have grown large, Beaver, and moe cot effective, The cost per tlephooe cict has fallen steady asthe capacity ofthe stelle as increased Sstalite Communications took Figure 39 9 page 47 of the text “This Figure shows bow lates’ atelites have grow over a sventy- sear period. Novice how the weigh, power rovraed, and telephone cuit capacity have all increaved wih cach succeeding geveration. The capil cox as alo increased, but i fet bythe inreate i te suber of circuits eared s0 tha cost pee eit ns fale sendy Ths bas been selected i the cont of nterecons telephone ells which has alle by factor of three since 15S. ‘The caries satellites could ast carry many telephone crests Because they could wet tani ery mich RF overt cath Transaater power a he satelite was low 20d the antennas wed bad broad beams (0 cover he Fete earth fo later satelites such as INTELSAT (V, V and Vi, digecuonal antennas and more perf Ctansoiters were wed allowing much oe efficient se ofthe avalable bandwidth Now answer hese questions oo Section 3 ofthe IL. 1, nest ¥ developed EOL electrical power af (9) sow (Tew (9 0w (@ 210 2. Cost pertelepon circuit has fallen beause this paraeter ofthe satelite has increased (@) weight () banduig (2) teamininer power (8) Bletine ‘COMMUNICATION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION “The aicated frequency bands fr satelite communication ae shown ia Tables 4.1 aed 4.2 of the ext, pages 106 {By far the most important fequencis are the 64 GHz and 14/11 GHe band, because these are the icequeacis wed by vetualy ll coamuniestion satelizes a the present tine. Rado fequeaces are alloeted ty the iteration! Telecommunications Usion (TTU) aod administered inthe United States by the Federal Conamutications Commission (FCC). Look at Figur 10 on pages 7D and 7 of the tet, “This Figte shows some ofthe cureat and proposed satelite wAich use the 64 and 1411 GHz bands. 9 some gions suchas N America, te geostationary orbit ile with steites 3 the eotestalowable spacing of 2 slong the oxi “The designation 6/4 GHz, for example indicates an uplink eequency of 6 GHe and a downlink frequency of $ Gilz At both 64 aod LLL GHe a bandwidth of 101 Mis i alloated to satelite irks. However, cada Systems we pat of the 64 GH band at preset and most satelites use 5.9250 6.25 GHz up and3700104.20 Gi down, «bandwidth of 00 MHz each way. At H/11 GHz, the fll 100 Mz canbe vse.eter Desigantows fc Eequensy Hues Frequency bands ae often Inowm by leters » hanguver frou Warld War If coded designations 64 GH tatlites opeate& "C band” and 14/11 GH suellis in "Ku band” Te slocatios at 5020 GHe ae a "Ka und" Radars wea slightly diferent eter stew: L 8, C,X, Kanda arespond o opera he eunges 12.24, 18,612 30d 12:20 GHe. Oter tere wed by ther eeties “The COUR nies nares fr Feequcecy bands Which are Aira inthe 19205 high regency meant above 3 Miz As taco gstene were developed a suczedinly higher Gequendien mote superiatves weve asad, Jeadiog 103 somewhat dicots Beirachy of eames, The CCIR aes devede bands, bused 09 unt of three. ‘The able blow comparce the wri designations a they are commonly (ibe that Bal) ted.” ‘The desgaatonimoar neve (ne) in wd Cr spc abve 30 Ge were the valent ies helen : Fregeney rinet COR sae ‘9-300 lom frequency : : Us 3 Me media frequency CAIN “DMie fips eguency hE eso Mie ery igh egaency ver Yur SOMO MEE: sigh Gequcocy UNF Un tied ‘Ht: ‘per Wh query Cikutstaod SCOR bed 9230 Gis ara bighLequescy YO band ‘The avilable bandwidth is sbdivided into cooveiea Blocks, ypiclly%6, $4, or 72 MHz wie. Each block of Lequenciesis banded by a transponder on te satelite. A anspooder coasts of a receiver (at 6 0 14 GH) allowed bys requey tasslnor anda wansiter (at $011 GH) ‘Look at Figures 313 and 3.14, pages 78404 76 ofthe text ‘These diagrams show pica tassponder arrangements, Each transponder can handle one or more eatiers. A carters a adi fequcacy wave modulated wih information clone, data, oteleisoa, or example, Using oe wansponder to bande several carvers isclled wuliple acess. We wil eara more about wuliple acess in Unit 6 The subcision ofthe arable bandwidth ito blocks of 36, 54, of 72 MHz allows a high degree of ‘mule sezesby he satlie 40 that many routes ad eat station ea be served by oe satelite ‘7 Look at Figure 3.11 00 pope 7 fe tet. 1 shows a 64 GHa sutelite wth 24 wansponders, each of 36 ‘Mitsbandwidth within a otal Bandwidth of $00 MH Not that polivzation requency fese is uted to increase the eumber of hanaels cared. This form of Gequency reuse employs tthogosslpolrtatons, inthis ease verteal aad borzonaly (0 double the salable bandvidih. Anois form of Trequengy reuse is employed ia the Unteat aystem, where the suelites hve tmokiple spo beams and the same chansels are used ia beams gig to diferent parts ofthe word. This is called spel Beary Frequency reuse, ‘ook at Figure 3.12 0 page ofthe test 1 shows 4 Snplifed dogs of the usasponéers om an INTELSAT V atelit, To satelite wees bah 6 308 14/11 (GHz bands wit polaraaton aed Irequeney cease lo achieve 4 Frdqurag Reise Frequency reuse allows a satelite (0 cary pore thao one. set” of communication | eignls ia a given frequency band Two indepeadeat signals at the same fegueacy must be: transmitted ia diferent directions. or have orogonal polarizations Otherwise they cannot be separated by the reecver, Feequcecy” reuse allows! the trafic. ccarying capacy of 2 acdc be oubled or quadrupled That means Wat St ean eata two oF oor times ax mick revenue, if Tully losded-an, arsche prospect forthe owner Setelite Communications ‘ery high capaiy The [NTELSAT IV suteits, bunched around 1971, sed the 6 Ge baad and ewied 12 ‘anspooders cccopyiag the fall S00 Mite toed. The maimum capacity of the system was SOOD telephone Shoat, INTELSAT V ass the same 6'4 GHz bund, but squeezes iv around 18.000 telephone ceuits by ‘playing Hieqoescy reste To adion, bas 250 MHz of bandwadi t 1411 GHz. The commusietion ster, ‘SNery compliated because the satelite has macy antensas wich canbe cross connected through slmost any aaspooer wsing stiches cotrled by the TTAC sistem fom earh. The hese a lower capital cost pet telephone crit Higher capaces ea be achieved without a increase ia RF bandwii by fing in more euclts per Kloberz GLRF taaceidth, One fcksique fo demodulate the uplink carer om board tbe stele so that ie inforttion signal can be recovered proceed, and remodklated befor ransrision g earth a tbe dowlisk This is eile on board pocezing sad is wsed os some US domestic satlies, ‘Figure 16 page 78 of he ext shows the on-board processogsstem of NASA'S ACTS satelite, +4 Now cead Sesion 3650 the et page 9 through 7B Now avswer these questions oe Section 3.6 of the ILP. 3. The widely wed seit bands ae: o () Sache ( suck (@ wxcH He 4. Syptems operating at 4 GH ae oftee sid tbe i: (a) Viana (0) Kuband (0) Sbaod (®) Chand 5. ALAN GHzsstlie communication tem uses 1 GH2 for: (@) the opiak (0) the downlink (0) eplink and dowalink 6 The Bandwidth at preset wed fr satelite communications ia he 64 GH2 band is (@) wonite () scons (© somiteSatelite Communications “E Moderncomumusications satelite cae ts many rsaspoader ‘i (a) one ©) oo (6) move than (3) emrerthaa 9 A Frequency reuse ineestes the commusicationcapaiy of satelite by the foloningeebaigues (a) orthogoea polarizations (0) uit equences (©) muiple besa (c) any transponders nmboard processing canbe used to mos the recive signal a stellt athe following way (2) chassing ics () changing its modulation (©) ing forward eror conection (8) apiieaion 10, ATWTAisa: (2) teawar tobe amplifier (0) easeng wate tube amplifier (2) tealwave ope seo 2:7 SATELLITE ANTENNAS Sateitesueully cary many antennat to seve tbe TEC and the commusications subsystems. The TTC ‘pstem ws separate aeenaas om most spacers often with mare thao one independent seatem 10 guard deniost os of contol. Wire antenna (dipole ad moaopoles or helices) are used up| GHz Above 1 GHz, “waveguide horas electra and phased arose weed Look gale 4 Figure, page Sto the tet, see There are four separate antenna systems shown the diagrams 1+ Reflectors and feed arrays weedy he communications sistem fr transiting and rectivng signal * Global beam bora forthe communion tem, * Horas for the telemety system Satelite Communications * A bicone antensa for TEC. The bicone i » near omniiectonal antonns eho can Se weed Jang {hunch egadles ofthe oremtton of the spacecak ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS Antenna beams ae characterized by their 34 beamwidth he aalehetwcen pont where the power evel alls to overhalf ofthe valve a the beam sei. At geostationary alitad, a beam whic jut covers the sible earth i IP wide, Ths ealed 9 lobl Beare ‘One seven of he exe's race island. The rit is cover by aes. A lobal beam sends most of its eneey to fish inthe sea eather thae Uo art stint oo lad se isnot very ecient (buts ideal fora maritine Coemenisatioe sytem auch as Marit), The poser at reese on land ean be increaced by ating sped beams and spo beams which concentrate the linited waster power ofthe Satelite onto fesions of igh population deny. “The beamvidth ofan antenna ised tits aperture sie. The aperture area is equa othe area across tbe (rot of 3 hove or reflector. A narrow beam cap only be produced by 3 large spectre 0 there i¢ rat jst Bow Ssall a spot beam can be achieved and how accurately a shed beam ean be made to fit a land mass onthe Cans surface. Equations 3. 32 and 32 om page Blof tbe fet ve some useful relationships for gia and ‘eam ofatenoas [Note that isthe aotenaa dimensions a wavelengths which cootrol the beamith, so an aicana with a beam at {2 GHris oly one third ar wide aa 4GHE ateans with be same beam Look at Examples 37.1 and 37200 pages Hand #2 ofthe tert ‘Thete examples iusate how to eakuate the dimensions of pial ssteite antennas for the 4 and 11 GHe bands ow read the Gist part of Seton 7, poges through 8 ofthe text. SATELLITE ANTENNAS IN PRACTICE {great deal of effort and ingenuity bas ben epeaded over the past 20 years to prodoce antenna for stlies ‘thick have shaped sterable,orcecoofiguable beams, The a7 of antenna design ba been advanced grealy by the aed for highly specialized antennas for commusicaton stelits. laccua’s stelites bave beams which ate contoured to match the shapes of continents as scea [row rortationay psidons, Figure 319, page 89 af the tet, showy an example ofthe Beam shapes generated by INTELSATY. Domestic US satelites need beams which cover the 4 contiguous states and also provide Finks to Alaska and Hawa Figure 320 oa page $1 aad Figure 321 00 page 6a he ert show examples reflector, The horas create an electric fed the aperture of the relecor which geaerates the requied beam spe. Figures3223.andb shows complex antenna system designed to generate several beams simultaneoly forthe NASAACTS satelite. Now answer these questions about satelite antennas frm Secon 3.7 of he ILP.Satelite Communications Sotctites we the following pe of aatnase (2) eefecioe (b) wire fe) hele (0) nova (©) omidzcetional bicove ‘The angle subleaded by he ears dk em geostationary stud @ as or ow oe ‘Tocreae a plabal beam rom a geostationary satelite ws (2) dipate (0) bicone © horn (@) selector ‘Tocreate spot beara which atenns would you we? (0) Bicone ©) doce (0) setector (8) moaopole ‘A bora with an aperture 4 wavelets oo aside bas beamwidth around: @ 0 ow oe oo Satelite Communications 6 To generate a spttesm ichis 3? ieesa resto with an spertue wi of shows © ota, & 05m © 05a © 085m Te Am antenna which generates maliple beams mast havea () ore () efector (©) eed ray 1. The guia ofa cvcuar aperture aotenaa wih dieter 1.0m and lficieny 60% at a frequency of 14 GHz: aaa ) 3a8 © mie (@) 94a, [Note Ifyou ae ot fair wih decibel and how to ae them, ead Appendix page 439-402 the tet and Took athe sidebar ia section 41 23.8 RELIABILITY ‘Whee aval part of communications satelite fl tis ot posible to sead out the repairman to fit. Even the space shut canst reach geutatioeary ori. The desig eine ofthe satelite saay be as long a8 15 yes imapierunsog your car fr ilees years wihout ay wasteaace or even a0 ol change! “There are two approaches to mahiog reliable stlites * Mate sare every component is thoroughly tested sod space qualified. * Provide spare (tedaadant uxt foray which are hough hel of, ‘Space qualification i a process whereby every part which ito be wed in a satelite i tested under vigorous ‘conditions which siulte the environment io space: bard vacuum, intense rlar heating 100°C cold Ging ‘eclipses, sod high vibrato levels a lauach. Components at brats because they are more ely (al eat in ie and are sbjeted io verolage thigh emperatreso weed ot any device key (a, ‘The relat of any device can be calculated using ebabity heory. We wil not be conceraed withthe ‘mathematics Bere. I pesened in pages 92 (rough 98 ol he et you are intersted ia the subject I a device is likely to fll during tbe design etme of the satellite, a second, redundant, device must be provided with provision for automatic snitch over i falure cecurs. Devices which cary igh power or high ‘ollage are particulary suseepuible 1 fare~the aveling wave ube amplifiers (TWA) wed ia uanspondetsSoteite Communications tht ether sn a limited ifetime, A spare TWTA is usualy provided in parallel th he operating amp in provide he output fie raeeponder + Look at Figure 327 08 page 9 othe test “this gyre shows a iyi eanspomder wih 3 redundant pir of ih power amplers (TTA). ++ Sn ead theirs prt of Section 4m he test pages 97 throb 3. s+ Stow garner these question on Section 38 of the TLP, 1. a bathtub curve describes the folowing carter of a device (a) bow wellit canbe cleaved (b) ecetiabiy wih age (€) its water content wit ine Space qualifications wed to enhance the relly of (a) ssrooaus (b) pans of satelite Ce) earth stations /ROBLEMS ss Seve ler 2,3,5, and 80m pages 10-103 ofthe test, REVIEW OF UNIT 3 Tats oi you ave leased about satelite as pacecraft, You have studied the subsystems which are seeded to ‘uppor the eommusieaons system onthe satelite aod th communications tem and antennas “The satelite must ave meaas to keep itia the eoeect obit and on tation and wth the corecttitude, This i jobet the AOCS. Commands from the ground ae seat tothe satelite athe TT&C sytem which also sends hed daa fw the sueite derived [rom seasors abd tate indizaors onboard he spaecra. ‘Te satelite must hve electrical power to operate, Tis power i generated by solar cols and sored in batteries “The communications system consis of many transponders wich recsve signals fom the uplink, shift hei Trequcsey aad seed thea back to eth oa the dowbak. Most steits we the 618 or 1V11 GHe bands and (ea bave frequeacy reuse to increase the capacity of the communication system, Orthogonal polarizations and Sap spt beams ae tbe ain metbods ef frequeacy reuse, allowing tbe communications expacy of the Stelle to be increased by 3 [ctor of 0 or fur Satelite satennaseaage (rom simple omnidirectional ateanas forthe TTC stem 0 very complex shaped ear antennas wit electors and feed arrays. Satellites mse be very tebabe to achieve longline in space wih no maintenance, Redundant componcats wets provided so thatthe job of aed compooest ean be taken over bya spare Satelite Communications SECTION2 COMMUNICATIONS VIA SATELLITE UNIT 4 LINK DESIGN Intmoouction The commuricatin nk from an cath station to satelite, od back fom the satelite to another est station I AGEREg bea ofa sncite commuaieation system. The saat is 3 lng way awayat least 22.000 miess0 (sels says have weey weak signals, le ac, a pial igaal received from a geostationary satetite would hve to be collec for Joarsta save up enough eaeray tight lala for one second, Yet that stele Spal can cary thousands of tlephooe conversions or Several television pitares, ta this uit you wi lea how 50 rock information cam be seat with the expenditure of so litle energy. New ceesiage bodto be developed eepec for satelite coe-=niatins to make this possible, A major industry te ftoce ap lm the ely experiments with Tear and Early Bud in the 1%0s and comavnication ia Satelite is ow prt of everyday le, Wheo i all begae, ao one was quie sure whether would eeally work. In {Sis unit you wil iad ost why does s+ Here are some of the topics tht you wil study in Uait +The fequences that are avilable or satelite communications and bow they are used + The importance ofthe lnk Badge andthe ase bu + How to design a satelite ink to achieve the requied exrier ise (CIN) aio + How to calealte the noise temperatre ofa earth station + How tous GIT ratios ia ink eqeatons + The dfeences between lis tsing large carb stations and aks uslag Very Small Apesture Termiaals (vsaT9) 441 CONMUNICATIONS LINK DESIGN 4.4 FREQUENCY BANDS ‘The fequency bands used most heavily for satelice communicaons are the 64 GHz and 14/11 GHz bands Toe “Dent equeades Ke betweea 1 GHz aod 10 GH, where propagation problems are not severe and bgh goa ‘eenaas of usable dinensons canbe but, However, interationl allocation of requencies is controlled by the Inerntonsl Telecommenications Usion (ITU) tzough World Adwinisteave Radio Conferences (WARCS) WARCS are bed every few years to revise the regulations fo the wse ofthe electromagnetic spectrum. ‘There are many frequency bands aocated for satelite commusixtions. se Look at Tables 4.1 and42 om pages 106107 of the er “These tables sbow most of the frequencies alloeated to stelite communications in the “ied service" {con-aobile eat stations) and for mobiles A reset WARC in 1987 revised the allocations tallow sharing of ‘rally all mobile bands by land wobe satelite systems.Many of lise sate shared wi terest series anon neering basis which ess ha iit are placed onthe power that canbe radsted by a satelite to avoid itvftebce wih exaing sees. To ese bands, oer systems may cause interference wih a seit lak, For staple, porto 3 clr and 9 Glee leans are shared wk existing radar aod way herlore sues eorserable tela The 614 GHle bands were developed fst party becouse when the TELSTAR experiment was passe *asipnent was avalsble for thes Frequencies. ic had teen developed for miruseve Line Of Sigh (LOS) aks in was adapted fe Satelite aks very succes Comasercial satellites have not wed lequencies shove 30 GHz yet, athovgh espera satlites such as ASA's ATS-6 and Japan's C52 bave demonstaed operation at 3050 GH Rate aeausion cases se fading of the signals a these high aicrovave lequracie leading to oviags ia thundertocas sad beoy tan, Saree sytem operators bave prefered the sale lower frequcaces to date. We wil look atria fading fo a. ‘ow read the introduction to Chapter 4 pages 104108 of he tex. 4.12 LINK DESIGN: POWER aUOGET Jo any communication system, there i a minimum signal power which aust be presce tbe seccer for ak o pecform correc. The lint is set by lecrical aoe, Noise occurs ia aty eee which bass nse temper ture above absolute zero (273°C or OP Kelvin) nfrmation i transnited by modulating &earse sive which, as is oame implies, cartes the sal Satelite systems usualy employ Tequcney or phase ‘sodulation and mst always have more carrier power than aces power forthe demetuliter to rceellly ‘oover the information, The ato carer powerirms nose power, caled CIN and wuaby quoted i decbele ‘he design parameter fr any communications link Types imu ales of CIN se 81055 db, Sepeatang oa the modulation wsed. For example, satelite ceviton ues Frequeocy Modulation (FM), and tbe CN ln the rearver mast beat least 8 dB ifs good quay picture sto be recanerea. ‘CALCULATING FLUX DENSITY ‘Tobega he study of aay communication sk, we must be able o calcul the carter power a recive and sloth eoise power, so that we ean deteaae the CIN ratio, Two approaches are used. fax Jessy sod the Fs rassmassion equation. We wil begia wih the ux density calculation ‘0 Lookat Figures 41 and 42 0a page 109 the text “The lotropic source shown in these Figures ita raiating clemet which emits power equal in all ectios (Such source of electromagactic radiation carat exist in practice because EMt mane ie polasaed) Now ‘apie the source surouoded by a sphere of radjus R metre, All the cory radiated bythe source mist pase through tbe spre which bas a surface area SaRé. Hence the fix deasiy, F, per unt aeaa he spbee for Source exiting P wats simply ry — wnt aR (Equation 4.1, poe 108) Real radiating sources are atennas which have diecional beams to increase the eney sent in a gten ‘Sresion. The increase in energy ia the beam created by a ditectional antenna is called ts fom, defined the ‘4000 the power ina given dection othe power rated by an ncrope antenna a tat deection ‘A transiting tense with gun Gx radiating a power P wate produces a fax deny inthe antenna borsight eetion Satetite Communications Win! (Equation 63, page 1) ‘The puaneter PG iscalled the EIRP for Eifetive Isteopically Radiated Power, Because power and aotenad ssn re two eansiter parameters whic avaye appear togetr i ak calculations t's convenient io use oe Singe parameter, EIRP. The single parameter detenbes the combined fect of wansoiler power and ateuea gis, Aatenaa Goi Gains erm wich rather ined in Eieage werk It ozane tbe missin ain of an aatcasa ia is bores, ‘Srection (the main beam axe) and aso, (Ge gun in xy other dzecion Common sage makes gaia the, marimar ve The pia in olser diecions i gnea ia 4 below the mania enn, normalized 0 04B. The variaboa of gain with angle say from boresoht i deseribed by the asteana pater o polar diagram. ‘09 Now rea Section 4.1, pages 108-109 nthe et. CALCULATING RECEIVED POWER 1 the Mux dasty F were t fll 0g collecting sea A square taeers tbe power called would be Fx A wall, assuniog 006 coleion efficiency, Antensas Jo oot have IO lfcieny, 50 we ws an ellecive aperure AL to deseribe tbe quia, 100% elfcet area of an satenea witha ea apectire es Av The apeue elficieacy of a antenna (eyabol n.geek a) eles reat area, Ay to elfecive area A Acsa ar (Equation 45, page 110) We can now caleaae the power ectved by an antenna of elective area Ac ata datance R from atranssiting anleana with a9 EIRP of PG, watts PGA m wat (Equation 46, page 10) ent ‘A fundemeatl relationship in anenna theory sates thatthe gain and lfeaive area of an aperture antenna are ‘elated by the equation dhe oe (Equation 47, page 110) where A isthe waveleag at which the antenna is operated. (Remember that frequency and wavelength are elated bye = fy where [is frequency in Hert Ai the wavelength in acters, and the velocity of light, Sei? ws) We can substitute the value of Ay from equation 41 ato equation 4 to cain a rel in ers of Gy, the gaia ofthe receiving atenca. Then we obain the ris transmission equation, probably the moe important equation {a rado communications: Pe= F.GiG, |— [eer ‘The inverse ofthe term in square brackets [4=RiA cle hepa fut, symbol Lp. tis importast ro realize that path loa aot aloe is the sense of power Being absorbed. ath los account lor the spreading out of nergy asi ravels away from a source. To recehing antennas lng dstece [rom 3 rane, looks he a Tour becaute the received power i much reduced (Equation 48, page 110) 2Satelite Communications sample hing Dect The minor distance fom eth to 3 geostationary satelite is VFs7z hn Cale the pth oes a 1.3 GH Ose thing to remembee ones you ae comerting the gone of parameter x Jato dechelg, 3a ole ie aby logo(s), and ever 20g), The Geabel ea power ro and we always ie. power rane fe commusictions Toke Unforastcls, the deciel (isiy missed and requenty {ati are quoted a 20g a(). TH a8 incorrect te of the dB ual acd should ‘be avoided, but you are certain to rect ‘hs mins, Doet Gl sto te ap youll ig ide wavelength sig = 644, The egueny 11S x Wo Hene soa wet = Dal" S210" = 0025 Sica evant he path ss fom [42 Ra Using the ae of R 5'S872 «10? on, we get pat oss ale of 3006 x 10" or 2048 4, Phat mane tb onl the nest faction ofthe tans power incident onthe receiving atensaaperur. CALCULATIONS USING DECIBEL UNITS 1 ie very incomesieat to bande caleslations with tare Ceponents Communications eagncersivariably ve decibels to ‘Simplify he pathos ad ak budget calculation. The decitelis ‘Togarthae unit 0 abate multiplication becomes addition iu eibets and dvsionbecowes subtraction, Before the days of eaten of wany itegers Tee ble leatsone clealtrs decibels made calelation fink buders below shows how yok can Grd some 4B Sich emer alloughitisstrsighforeardto use acslclstor for YauesIeisrar thal a8 valve isseeded Tax equation evlesion, you should become fomiiar with (@ 38 senuaey'of greater thas one tlecbel and se them for such caleulations. There are aotable detiaal place 20 the table below is nce soe become faniiar wil decibels you oct essa caeustor to Bad the dB bdvantages ining deel a5 we shall se. rounded ff tot doh ‘ ttyou are not familiar with decibels, read Appendix Azithmetie Decibel, Arithmetic Decibel value valve alae value 1 ° os (12) 50 (03) 2 30 03s (=u) “60 (=06) 3 a8 a1 (=u19) 100 (0-10) 4 60 (=343) nor (=u10) 300 (=020) 5 70 (=103) oot 300 ‘ 13 (=3+48) ot 100 7 as 8 90 (=3+3+3) oe . 9 95 (24754495) Tro special decel unis are widely 0 100 ‘wet QBW ind dB. dBW means €B a Bo (=1043) ester or les haa one watt and Bea 0 179 (=10+7) ‘Seies dB peste or Jess than one 100 mo (710210) allan Hz and BK for AB reative he faa fo He and 1 Kar aho wed ie temmnaicasons work. We ean emit the equation for received power (equation 48) ia decibel terms a P= (EIRP +GrLy) dBW (Equation 410, ge 10) where dBW meacs dB greater than 1 W. Values of wbich are negative ar intrpcted as decibels below 3 [ower level of one wat. (See Appendix of the text for an explanation of dBW and sila eis) Satatite Communications Real satelite links hase nomen ses ich reduce the rene poe Equation £10. Mach of the sv in salclating resived poser acceuatly ie ose loses, teh the vale calelate! is inning realistic exists of Some of the important losses are Atmospheric loses cased by abwrption ofthe signal by gases ia the atmosphere of by ra. The mosphere hs a attenuation which creases wi Fequcncy, but rarely exerds 3 dB, even a¢ 30 GH Fai stemion i small 14 GH, oly Lue ? dB ip heavy ran, but can be 0 dB ot 30 GHz ins thunderstorm, (See Chapter 4of he ex for details) Raia atenuti by far the mos important ss ia satelite ink. + Aatenas pieting loses, ifthe resvog antenna is nt oo the boresght ofthe tasstng antenna, and ‘Sceversn Tas sbou at enced 0S 4B the antenna is tacking he satelite but wight reach 2 dB with 2 iaed antenna and sete mith sgiient orbital iackinaion + Polarisation lus iftranei and receive polarizations are saligned, This los should not exceed 0 dB. so Read the resto ection 4. of the txt, pages 110 trough 113. Now work through Examples St and-.1 ia the text pages f12 1. ‘Tuese examples show how a lak power budget i stashed by calculating the received power at an earth station wing cer fax density or et calculation of received power from Equation 4S or Equation 10. sm Here are some questlons on Secon 4 softer, 1, The! Gkizbands are popula for telice communications because: (2). sirowave equipments env avaiable (6) propsgation problems ae aiinal (o) antenna hve reasonable dimeasions 2. Systems tsing the 3020 GH band ae less popular because: () astennas are larger than 2644GHE (©) propagation problems are more severe (©) the bandwidth located for stele commusications i smaller than a 6/4 GHz 2 Flux density messured ia ust (wants () wane (© vous"1. Ae amtenaa wth an aperture Sateline Communications Which of te folowing CN ratios would tow 10 demodalte ao sig ous @) 0.48 ( +188 @ sous As uoiropicantenas rans a beams (2) in ove tection (0) inal drecions equally (6) seh circular polarisation 5. An antenna wih as EIRP of 2 wats ereaes a x deny ata cstance of 1000 of (@) 159210? Wink @) 1s9x10¢Wiat (@ s00x10¢ Wie? (® s04BWia? of 10 and an pero ficiency of has an elective are of ® ost ©) 1670 (© 60x © oon" ‘As anteoea wih an elective aperture area of 10 is operated ata lequency of 6 GH, Which ofthese i Sen? @ mous @) 2048 ( 0a (@ somes ‘satelite Commusicatins dA satelite 4000 bs si wana ata os 64a, Whats the pb ss? @ 1008 (@) ~088 ° (a 268 to, The cnt siton in cusica 9 hasan EIRP of 0 BW. he sat basa reciving antenna with agua of 1a, ibe cee power at be stele @ aeew @) stosdew aw (@ asesw 42 NOISE TEMPERATURE AND GIT NOISE TEMPERATURE Ih objects wi a physical temperate gests than able 2 ( Kelvin or 27328 Cel) rate rio All ebiect wi a spears of fequencis, Al Fequeacies up fo 300 GH, the availabe noise power Px Taled by asoace aa physi temperature Tis piven by. Py = kTpB was (Eenion 432, page 3) suber kis Botzana'scoastan ed Bs the bandwiih (a Hera) the power measuring instrument “Avajabe aie power is smply te aise power devered toa matched lad, Beltzmann's constant is 1.38 x ae aiaitn, cei decibel form 2286 BW/M2K. The KTB forma implics that a power measuring Ae elt mate buodusdth would measure iafste power. This soot he case, because a device with a given Coed caper radiates a Usted specram. As temperate increase, the width of te secre pyscal tceperatmple aa abject at 2K cadines vise Upht and would appear whic hot to « human rere ise objet do nt raciae vl pt, bu they do acate infrared and al frequencies below. is convenient to characterize microwave devices and camposeats by their aose temperature, which the carne sar tht the device nod aed have allt oop noe came fom hema lets alone hye temperate spoocnts tach iran and dSodes are known as active devices and can produce Dee Smt af aie, rel in exces of es physic temperate. pase device contig only restive of sad produces nose de to theroal apiation of electrons ony. ts noe temperature ce aces is pial temperature, A matched lood produces noise power of exact KT We can describe a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) as having a site temperature of 100 K meaning iat the Mae fee produces is equivalent toa matched soure ata pbyscal temperature of 10° placed atthe sree ta ctalent oils uaplie. Neve that woe temperate measured in Kehna not dere the a str tkvion bas aot wade tis dsintion and refers (incorrect) (oa LNA as having a nose Temperatures of 100 degrees” Noise temperature allow us to specify tbe noise characteristics af a device without speciyng the bandwith of Nee aed in The product FT Witz a nase powe! spectral density. To deteriac the nose power inSatelite Communications “scweuit we need to mhinly KT by the equivalent noise bands of the ict, We way dont ee tue bandh dod we the 3 €B bani send. The resulting rr ial ers ise temperatre i an important cocep in ttlite communication systems beeaus? our signals are 20 weak es etfs sage ofa ever i some form of lw aise device (astally» LNA), tbe aie generated by the eee cua te signal completely. Costratig the aie ina earth sation receivers vitally important. Gin whea the sipaltas a wade bd, Low noe becomes the watchword (or tears, eed systems ce RST slmot cveqnbing cle. We wl stad the design of lw noise antennas in Unit & For he moment oi sume tha the necessary composers are avaiable te frat part of Section 42, pages 15-1140 te oo Ret so Now anor these quest 1A postive source basa physi temperature of 320° an is watched toa noiseless power measuremeot ‘peter with 3 bandwith of 100 Me Does the meter tea () -1854BW () -1s334BW © sew (® 18508 «Am active device has 2 aise outpt of 126 dBW, measured ia a bandwidc of 10 MHz. 1 ts asise temperature: @ 27K ©) 26K (35K © sox (CALCULATING NOISE TEMPERATURE ‘An earth tation reelvercootins many eosy components. The design ofa liak using that ecever is siplied {aE ave angle gue forthe nose tezmperatreof he receiver. The system noise temperature is just sucha figue, M comrespoads tothe vole temperstare of thermal nose source placed atthe input of aa ideal isles ceiver strsighforward bought can be ‘bot we wil ced to “The process wed to abaia a sage igure for system act tsperature Tedousif there are masy obey compocess ina receiver, We wl pt derive the result Bere, + Look at Equation 418 on page 16 ofthe tert and Figures 4.1204 45 00 page 115. Equation 18 ges the system noize temperatre fo the receiver sbown in Figure 44, The terms in Equation {C18 ae temperatures aod gins forthe various compoaeas in Figure 44. Thus Tas and Gre are the noise teaperatere sad gain othe low nose (RF) amples immediately folowing the antenna, Orkercompocents are dented sila “The important thing to notice about Equation 418 & that Tpand Fi, the temperatures ofthe aise and 1F ple inthe reeever ae Ged by the qin ofthe fow nove (RF) amplifier. I we can make the LNA a Satelite Communications lrg, say greater han 100 (39 de tet of Tm and ian th atm aie temperature ier sl The system noise (eeperature thea degends almost entirely 08 Trp and Tia. Tar is he onise temperature of the tar sotbe lncr we can maketh tbe beter -Tais eee pcted op bythe tena fom he enone hich canbe eusinazd by ell tema deg. ‘e+ orc heough examples 42.1 and 4.2.2 im the tet, pages 116204 (17, which pages 116 a04 117, which lustrate the importance of the input stage of the rcever when tying Le achieve a fw stern nse temperature {Nove ere matherror in Exmpe 422 The yen aie temperate fer tthe antennal TUK, aot 3003 K) a moe NOISE FIGURE Noise Figure i often sed to characterize the oie fom active devices. fa satlie communications work, nase emgeratre is 3 tuck more wefl parameter. you hve 3 cise ewe foe Simply convert to 2 aibe emperatue using Eqsation ag IIT a the test, Ta = TNH). Noe Sure weal ‘quoted in decibels, whereas the NF in Equation 419 is ari, fot in dB, Convert nice igure FUB 0 NF ising he reltonship wee wie Recrnee Noise Temperatures © Low acse amplifiers for 4 GH receivers, ave ote tempers inthe $5 Kt 120 K range At GHs, LNA aoe Aenpertres ar Neher, ype 130 {0250 Wher he ENA gain exes 50 48, the yerver ooee temperate determined by we INA tempore Sone aCLNA fot wed fe ¢ fois, he ier Sad fot I air decane. theo reer ove {eoperatre Typical, low soe ers tenis Gee Man Eom ‘tbe 7 to 000K when the ee of Ge IF amplifier is added. Special low ote bers eed image econ ‘ser fave lover ole teapot, Sound SOK " bake sure you get the same anne! ‘78 Now answer these questlos on this part of Section 42 the uP 3. Anixerhas a eis gure of9 48, Is its noise teopertue: @) sox ©) aK (9 mK (© mK 4. Asst with oie oper of 0K lod LNA witha temper of 7 Kad Ciscibdn linsguemoar empress ee (@) 075K © 5K © aK ( sox Grratio Recovering 2 sigaal the output ofa satelite communications receiver eequites 8 minimus carries toate fata (CIN) at he inpat tothe demodulator,“The eatie is inpiy the recrved signal power dd thease i the auise power of he recsner sect 10 the Foot at which earie power is determined (asi) the aaicaea tends). The carer 1 aoe ate CN cota through the recier wig the mise models developed ia Chaper 4 the ex ‘he signal to aose ratio atthe output ofthe dessdultor depeeds 0a the CIN atte input and be form of sodulstion wed, la micconave communica stems Fequeeey and phase medulation ae tbe most vodely ised modulations and these have coset carsir paver whalover ie nolan sigaal wel Sete is always 2 msimum acceptable iN for ttsaciry operation ofthe commusicion stem. For Iclephon link, he design objective i 3508 SN for television, the weighed SIN design cjecive i uel <5 {0 S00B, The forms of frequency a0d phase modultion wed in stellt aks provide aS provement, 1 1B Sat the demodulator oupu is puck bight thas be CN ashe demodulator input “The minimus value of CIN used in designing a seit link depeads onthe modulation sed and ibe required Lighal to soise ratio (SIN) ofthe demodulated sgl or the Bt Error Rate (BER) ie dig signal. For sample, FAM TV needs atleast 8 dB CIN to produce an aceptabe pire, Foursphse phse shit heysog (QPSK) without cocing requires 105 dB CN for a BER of 10%. 1 the CA ratio which dominates ihe performasce of the reaciver IC iis 10 low, the signal wil be oblterated by noite, If i higher thas the ‘simu, al is well Link performance evaluations ate therefore cried out by cleuaing C/N atthe input to the receiver emodalator which requires a calculation of C, the earit power, ad N, the aise power Cs found rom the power budget, wing be methods described ia Secon 4.1 of tbe ILP, Noise i cleulated lows TB, as described {i Section 42 above. ‘We can combine the clelaed values of Cand N to ota a ratio CIN, a ia Equation 4.20 ofthe ox: qetion $20, page 18 Examination of Equation 420 shows tat he oaly parameters beloogig othe earth sation which affect CN se Gq the reeivng antenna gain andT, the sem eoue temperature, (Bs asumed tobe determined by he bandwith of the signal) Tous Guo simply G7. conzols tbe CIN of the rezving sytem: the larger we c20 make G/T, the larger willbe the CN, ‘There ate some pbyiclconstraits on waking ver age GT ratios, lacreatng the gaia of se antenna becomes expensive, oce the antenna diameter encerds afew fee. Tcaanot be decreased indefiniely sad LNA become ‘very expensive if exzemely low termperaeres ae 10h. For example, the LNA cas be immersed in guid bicoges at 77K, which wil lower is aie temperature at tbe expente of mastsning a eryogeie coling System, Ohmic les produce acue a ue rate of 7K crease ia cise temperature foreach 0.1 0B of lee 3 room temperate. The aoe contribution from theve lowes can be reduced by cooling the compoceats ‘yogenically Soc cooling is elfenive only wbea obs loses ex inthe device to be cooled, Read the section on G/T ratios in the et, pages 118 and 119 and work through Example 42.4 A limiting facor ia low noise receiver dsin is anteana temperature. When rai fils he antenna beam it ‘radiates noite into tbe antenna I ber sigan aleauation de othe rain, as happess above 10 GH, the ‘aia wil also radiate a sigaiicast amount of sie ita the recziver, As 4 res, the CN fall quik whea ais teouation occurs, since C falls and T rises, Above 10 GHe, the atenaa oie Lemperature eam exceed 200 K in ‘ery beavy rin, making very lw aol LNAS ess useful. This is ast as well, beease pial LNA’s forthe 11 Gils band have noise tepetatores of 150 K rater the 6S K which i now commonplace for GH. Figure 8.6 on page 24 ofthe ten shows how atmospheric attenuation increases wih quency in clea i Satelite Communications + So aoower there questions oa Setion £2 ofthe IL. EEG Ai Note eperntareis measured ia uit of fo the catia dag of sucllite communicalons teow noise amplifiers tere borrowed from radio asroeorers. ‘Tiey bad developed a very low poe supplier called 4 maser. The same mcr i an sous desired from Iicromave aipifition by iat ‘onion, The cater ‘bat loae ag0 Gesppeared. trom stele. common ‘eaiags, Duta tlaed device called the lass, for light epic by strated ‘nition, hae garved very svecesflly The maser oar iomened. ia Equd fefioa, at 4K, which gave 9 noe lemperatare of irovnd 20 Kat 4 Gi ‘The maser bad to be mounted at the ‘back af the reflector, right onthe end of the feed. sytem (0. avoid waveguide Temes, and ted a the antenna moved ia slotion, The whole erangeoeat was eamberome, uatelable, and. very expense: T1989, you ean Buy 2 55K, GIASFET LNA fora couple of hundred () depess (@) degrees Kehio Co) Kedias 6 The G/T too a earth station characterizes: () Ci ratio for a given system (@) the sytem aise temperature ofthe receive (©) the gia of the earth sation antenna 143 DOWNLINK DESIGN Sotlite aks suller Som occasional outages cased by cain ‘Mleovation and sus tabs, Outages mutbeLep 10 minum 0 tbat traffic onthe Unk ie aropted as Gite as possible, I is ‘Becreticlly pone to design Links with ach arg margins Chat ‘2 outage becomes rare, ut the cout W proiblive, A Corprome must be reached berveen acepible ousge tive Gola she ed the cos to provide a margin, The marge foraliakis the “Sm ‘Amount by shih be CIN exceeds the minimum wale value ands calculated uader clear alr eooditons, when therein ain the path “The anima CIN for most Links is inthe & 1025 dB range, depending onthe rpoduation technique wied. We ‘i emmise modulators in Unit §. For the morgen, we wil concentrate om designing Links To provide 2 predicted reliability. High capaci inks caring thousands of telephone cuits are designed fr rehbility of Jp.9% or 99.99%, The lat revenve and caslomer annoyance associated wth outages makes it well wort provide high elobiliy even at» high cost. The cost ay be millon of dors fo 90 foot dahes and redundant 3 EW transoiters A sagle data circuit rom a custoners premises way see fora eb of 995% in order (0 Keep oss low nth the entire eth sation priced aa few thousand dallas How a stele Lak is designed depends oo the afc the ink i carr and how much the wets prepared to pay for syste maria Italo depeads on the frequency ban, because rain atenuation s much more severe at {ahi Gi than a 64 GHz Longer outages have tobe tlerned at 1/11GHz because of ria fading. Te this section we wll lok atthe design of igh volume igh cos inks for trunk telephony, and ow value, low cst ls for sage telepbone or data channels, Home satelite TV systems i another area where cost has beea ‘educed drateally by keeping margin low ad mass producing microwave comsponens tn eos Uns, itis the downlink from the satelite (0 the earth station whichis the efitical part of the commusicaio system However, ia VSAT sptems (Very Small Aperture Terminal), the vpliak may be ciel because low power earth station tansmiters are wed. ‘Let's lok ist at the design ofa bighcapacy task lepbony Eak wing a large antenna at the earth station ‘The sytem we wil be discussing Uses aa INTELSAT IV.A satelite, pat of Intel's global crmmunicatons reqwotk, The INTELSAT IV-As are now nariog the end of tet workig ves, but he ink design is ily the same a 64 GHs for INTELSAT V and VI sates,DESIGNING A DOWNLINK seen equemeet indesign » donlaks9specfeation fo the satelite; e+ Loot Table, pages 121 and 122 ofthe tet shows x speciation forthe INTELSAT IV Asatte she key elements ia tat speciation for donk deg ace he eansponde frequencies outetpovst 28d re ee eae ih elite downlink ateona gin, beams, ad polarization. ‘Look t Figure 46, page 120 ofthe er and read pages 119hrougS 12 “the empl tbe tex shows that ie the abl beam of the seit and ait SJB ome 6S Te ca gcc ube amet acnna a th eal sain to seve a0 18 SHEDS SS 8 Fe eae The 18 dB CON aon a7 dD margin oer a winimom vale of 148; TH 36 ea ts clepboce channete (ne way, hall 3 tephone cui) Thi ielcent we of he se a a hosel pial cecpis# but th satelite sigs Hoe cock channeThe ee eaged to ensue a Sbd8 SIN nthe ected telephone chanel a baschsed by eric 2 acs (FD fa poe 3m proven! f 3 dB (SA a in ebad chans fr 2 eae ency modulations grea in decibel unis by SN = CIN + FM Improvement) A we wise shonly, the IVTELSAT 1V-A ink design is very conserve. Itt provides ih Guts Mee is epee nthe wor eps the umber of ance Beem or 28 zpos ke eee capo and coy ea tations wit lg atnnas. The 2 m anne ad aus ine mith of OX" aad mt be sted ofoow dara aad dit moventat of i in earth ston cat (peal ilo of dlrs) ca be obtained by wing 3 sate ae iderbeumith that does need toteack the satelite. reer we was 10 cary more tclephooe chances faa 36 MHz baodsiih, And remember tht sis Tee IG a chan so more chanale ears move revenues powefl gente (9 ma te of 0 cee dena pose Lets tania the INTELSAT IVA earpeto ee where change could aaFiotempeove the uiization ofthe ranspoader bandwit + Use aspot beam fiom the satelite o increase tansited EIRP «Uae sage aces tothe transponder to redace output backoff andiacesse trannited EIRP + Uses diferem modulation scheme wth higher efficiency + se signal processing teciques to inreaseelieacy. -tuaeteesiqus ar all being introduced by ttelat in eos! services and are wed in US donee These techie og stem where a competine envionment ta forced common cries eee 88 sae coe per leone coc. By sng pt bear, Sl Siebans Mosulin (8) aod companies Pree achive 600 telephone channels in 236 MHz transponder, Now answer these questlonso® Seton 43 ofthe ILP 1. The margin in a downlink isthe era CIN provided to: (improve the SIV wader clear air conditions (@) alow for ain attenuation cathe pst (©) sean FMinproverent Salelite Commoneatiors tovelsat dowrliks wih large ert stating sateeas are designed with a arin () 3a, ( sa8 (@ Te (104s 4 Ae ntl lbalbeam teansponder caries fewer han this number of telephone chasse (@) 60 (@) 200 (©) 1000 «x0 4 Whi ofthe following techrigues wil lower the cost of ink compared othe nts global system? (2) Use neger cath station antennas (©) Use smal earth station antennas (© S80 wid compandiog (2) Spot beams onthe steite 44 DOMESTIC SATELLITE SYSTEMS Domest sate stems sere a single cot o ron and now scour the sory of satelite in Preity otic Tee Usted Stes ho bad domestic satelits fa operation sce 1974, These sts ‘Shee uci copctes that neta basen The we Sor eznabeacy che tie gee gen Ce or ey pala rampooder Using te fall 36 MHz bandwith ges large FM improvement and as madetaedie TV reception wih 1 fot ha really. porate oe “There ae two faite onthe gaia which ca be achieved wih an aoteana ona satelite. Fest he Bea ms cover TRO de Soy or repon be served, Gain and beamwidth are linked as we saw in Usit 3 by telationship Gs Sen) ner the beam the gun ed, When ied rom grxioonar ori te United States sbtends approximately 6 by. (The wider angles iathe E-W direstion) ‘The second cont in the pil ee fhe antes ie sei, mas ins th uch stout Zofia hve a tacbruced ew oe ro the sae, Mos sit ates ae fe than 2 e ‘Bamtice ar d Or this ives beamwidth of 2° of less Narrower beams canbe obtained by song 10 the Mat hrbnd wher dm nna eamthe Anan ‘of fat geostationary altude covers 30 tthe equator. HOME SATELUTE TV EXAMPLE Let's calalte CIN for a3 (10) home satelite TY. i te TV aatenna receiving an MTV transmission at 4GHz from 3 Ue donate eatlte Th ceiver wil ave a Bandi of 25 MPa, eargaally arrower than he trassision toedehe oc27 Mife There ia seal os of pitare quality in exchange fr a1 dB eeductvs is oss powse ‘Brewton be epee ssl forte aes 8K rth LS snd20KSatelite Communications se EIRP availble fiom 04 GHe demcsicsatlies varies considersbiy. The satelite antenna bas a 6° x 3° ot te efieny i ol ays sry high, WR 3 an Fi $ ih a transponder power oupat of Swat» pad EIRP i 3 1M, We wil assume thut our earth sition sao inthe eeater te beam aed allow a 2 WB redaction ia Here fs the procedure we wil use find the receiver CIN: + Calculate he stelite EIRP towards the eat ation + Caleuate the carth statin atenea gain + Set wpa power budget ond easned power P, * clude aloe such tantcena mispoitng ia te + Calculate XT, he recziversoise power + Find CaN = PrATB. Ie his example the EIRP towards ou eat sation 35 dB 248 = 33 4B. Let's allow 05 dB for earth tation sslenea mispoiaig, and 05 dB as an atmospheric ssa « GH. oa me need to cleat the cath station antenna gia om G = +AU? Ac isthe lfecine peste atca of ‘herecivngatensa which s tbe physcal area tines the licen. We wllassume an elicency of OF, Thea {Ge plysical areas oR! = 7.07 mand he elective areas 424 a This gives a gin of 998 <8, ‘Now we eaa setup a power budget and ease budget. Power budget Ssteliic EIRP towardscarh station 330 dBW Patblossf38000bmat4GHz 1961 a8. Earth station antenoa gaia ‘BB dB Lee nena ater re) ecshed power Py 124 Noise Budget me oN Boltamanasconsiat a6 | dBWiKHe Moise temperature, 20K ms dBK Bandi 23 MHz 36 dBi NoisePowerN 342 dBW TEI TU GS ugh fer an stenaton td eer dpa in seq mag ny ance dubbnon bee sper ce acs be oe eae ike nagoad cen ees oo sv tak a fg 4 pope fhe tT shoe «Ser Cc ar este TY receiver. Note the threshold at 8 AB, where the S/N starts to fall rapidly. ms Ino eample, we eelted CIN fora elated away rom ihe enna orig Someone ose at the borcigh wuld ea Ch of 1.9 GB and 3 dB mapa wih 410 duh Te care mug cold be ade for ih sae. Reducing antenna ameter to8 lower apo 2008, sate Hose Sate TV Cable TV cissibasoo by stit adhe sited Slate bogun ie the sid1970 ial twins 6m antennas and Caen thes. tn 199, «profesor at Stslord University bulk an experinental eats station in his Yad (oe, ate ait ad componcats bough from surplus stores, The 2 f ateaaa way accrsay beenuse LNAt wee Tio pod qule tigh wose temperatures and FM demodalatars had thresholds sroued 11 <8. Two dae esa se bone saulile TV posible: GAASFET amplifiers and the thesbld exension FM Serer pak ware ao outeconth ofthe commerchlStelize TV diribution market, whe cath sttion Seetilcca were lniking for mays 10 sake ear ston antennas sialler to rede cox The Gt are Gy duoibchon sytem was established ia Canads byte Teles orpatizaton a 1972. At thot is, Sh vith 20 vocoled paramere amps wa wed a te eccrng stan cot of $8100, “The comerdatpotctal of satelite TY bad been recogaized for many years and various deans of TY Tekdentcuclites od besa proposed. Thee queas were maul designed forthe 1/11 Giz bed, tng 1 rans anconss sod 10 or 200 W tracaatert oa tbe satette-The earth statins iathese decent bad igh nose texperateres, peally 700 Ky requng « igh thx deasy he earths wiface: Teshold aa ee custo were bot sed, 30.4. CIN thvebold of #3 6B was asuaby specified. The Diret Sioadcai Secites (DBS) needed for thece spiems vere large, heavy, and could trast only four TV ‘hanaes, coopared tb be 24 hanoelsofa US domessesstelite. ny Meeaea ‘The development of the + GHz Rome satellite TV sation occurred very rapidly in tbe cary 1980s wih 2 ‘Teo fais pice ws manoicrurere developed volun production techsiques. Ta 196, 2 typical ear SEEDS syplo wid «13 fi dgh and 150 K GAAGFET LNA. By 1985, 75 K LNAs were commonplice, ‘ening a 5100 and couple systems coil be puchased fr $1500 or less There cn be ite doubt that ‘Tbs be copcttbe earl o set lion ese mprvemet i afore: ed feos legal apects of reccving cable TY sigals a home took same tine to resolve. The cable TV compan “TRlcker seco: dvning i vepac bough tir va ath aon ba ee haa hath US poplin EESTI GT ant euny Rover had poor ous TV sent, Congress essay ruled tht the ‘Guia ofbe Tv spl shold srambl hel igual if thy wanted to preveateanutborzed ection Piped DBS spiens. One DBS company bad bough vo slits at» coe. ERE Tas cccpaay sald ihe nel to's Eniopean DBS consortia, which ha plane 1 serve seer Euope nib DES amen a1 Sees “qovend utr sont lie TV and dre bona peas end Seon od read Chapter, pugs G1 trough BE Low cAPACITY LINKS Satelite aks cn be wed to pede a singe two-ay cic for voce or data inthe sameway that copper wires SARI a pride telephone service. In mca cases, wing the existing telephone perwork i ess cost for & Mie trait han peovichog a dedicated eat aio for just one user, However, ifthe users a ship at senor is 1g ny from any connection into the teresa lephave network satelite Kinks avabe aera. Mobile vers, whether at sea a the air, or on Ind, mut we radio links for communications. fo city seas, aeeere rade yuteme provide this eric very efetvely aad ean link the motile into th sation! ilephooe TEASE Gp alsen maybe thousands of mie rom and, and relied inthe past on HF radio inks HF shortcrave) lak ase the ionosphere as 2 2 14 log) logit = ener Eqn 519) “The parameter 1 isthe eatio of rms frequency deviation for the FDM baseband of N channels 10 the rms ‘Geiaoa of the test tne. lo practice, tbe teat Looe power level i set (oO dBm, the nomial maximum power Tevet allowed in stage telepbone ehanoel, andthe FM modulator sto produce an ms deviation of Mines the rma deviation calculated forthe FDM Baseband, fm What the loading role then tls ws isthe average power eel in Bin of an FDM baseband with N channel, += Now read pages 162169 the test, beginning withthe new section atthe bottom of page 162 s+ Now ausner these questons on Sections Sand $3 ofthe ILP.Satelite Communications ‘sid signal hata Bani f 12 Mia tries a8 FM molatr giving a pea eequeney deviation of SD Mlis and an FM bandit of 24 Mite, The signal is r2ceied with a CIN of 20 dB Use equation 5.1L tof tbe SPN a th (ot). Ue rsa os fm 1190 co) 3.490 fa) 5750 The FM improvement ltr (in dB) in question I above i () 688 fe) 9548 (o msgs Dis the aumber of ‘The baadidth reqited for an FDM batcband i approximately 42.6 kits wh Channels Hom eaay hanoels wil tint baseband with bandwith S00 ie? we 100 © 108 09 ‘A FOM bascbasd eoetains 12 elephoos channels and extends fom 1200 KHz his FM modulated onto Moo Métz carer and sent by satelite using an RF bandsdth of 500 KHz IC he rms mubchanne! ‘Jeviton i 109 Lend he test tove rms deviation wing the appropriate lading ule. What ithe answer inti? @ ou we te Be (@ m2 Satelite Communications 5, The tes tone in question 4 abuse injected nko a eephone chanel athe top ofthe Boschand 351 {Whats the sgnl so oie ratio alter the demodulator the top channel when the eecciver IF CN i615 UB” Anime 3 pophometric wcghing factor of 248 snd a precaphass improvement of dB () aisa8 () 45648 (@ 9548 @ sies 4 Aspeech signals transmitted using single chanel pe cartier FML The peak fequency deviation is set to 22 He and be asin baseband fequency 3.4 LHe The RF bandwidth used is $0 KH. A psophometsic Sceishtng of 25 and a preemphase improvemeat of 1DdB are asumed. fhe received signal has a CAS Of dB, the baseband SN (9) 315u8 (® s088 (@ sous (® sise8 53.2 COMPANDING AND COMPANDED SSB Indiidal telephone channels caa medolte separate castes in a Single Chanel Per Cartier (SCPC) system ‘This is sefel when a station ends oely one otto channel (9 few for an FDM baseband also allows mary ations to stare one transponder without having o welplex and demkiplex FDM blocks inorder to extract 3 {ingle channel SCPC speech requires a smaller ms frequency deviation than aa FDM baseband becaus it hs $ hipher peak o mesa ratio. This results i Tess SIN improvement per chancel haa with FDM ‘The tiation can be improved by companding. The speech signal atthe tassiter is passed through 3 ondincar amplifer which educes the mare range ofthe signa. This makes all the quiet sounds fuder, and ‘Sho makes te sterage signal to aol ratio beter, A physiological phenomeaoa ofthe human ea is that ae ‘xonot Her loud sounds ad noise atthe same time. Although the signal to wose power ato i unchanged by oupunding her i subjective improvement of vp to 20 dB inthe perecived signal 19 noise ratio. At the feceher, 2 complemeatary non-linear amplifier (expander) corrects the distortion introduced by the compressor. Equation $28 on page 175 ofthe text quotes the companded S\ for a ingle spech chanel wsng FM as: SIN = City TBA + 2 lopiol df) ‘here Coste carrer to aise poner spectral density ttigat he input othe ceciver demodulator. Nose ‘power spectral density is obtained by viding eoise power by IF bandwidth Ccontpaninen ssa ‘The 20 dB subjective improvement obtined by companding allows us o use SSB witha CIN inthe 28-30 dB ‘ange, The resulting SN in the Baseband channel fe 5» 50 €B, adequate fr telephony. In a companded SSB Teephony sem. telephone channels are stacked ito an FDM baseband, whichis thea ampftede modulatd font the eavicr using SSB. This canslts the Saicband sgl tothe carrier frequene with no charge in thir (orm. The demodulator inthe SSB receiver simpy vansiaes the chanaels back to baseband, where they are ‘eoered by deailexing om the EDM tascband. The wert case SN woud be 42 for a C™ of 2 0 Shs compnding improvement of 1€3, However the CN varies with chanaet acy If hal he ckanoel are‘satelite Communications Fosse, a8 wil be the cae m suite 3b bee, a 5 v8 (oe ane wea there ate a age nubs of annals in he basehand the SY 1 ashneiuge of vompaoed SOB ig hat it tee 4 Lr of RF Bandas for each telephone chanael compared (on te for appeal FOMIPM system. A 6 MHZ tensponder can ary 00 SSB canoes ia pace. wLgels FMVEM usualy eats no more than 0) The vcr charged by the channel, othe SSB sem «30 sy hus Lies he revenue ol be FM sate, asrang inducement theater owner ue SSB. There | ely tome i of uaity in going Irom FM (a SSB, Butt 3 competing easvonseat, his may be citshleimetura for lower charges : 7 Now read he setans ot analog FM SCPC and compsaded SSB on pages 174 though 176 ofthe tet 0+ Aaower these questlons om the lst part of section $3 1. -§ companded SCPCIFM lnk bas a cari 10 specral ise deat atthe receiver of $3 dB. The peak frequency deviations 5 LH Using Equation 52, page 15in he tet isthe telephone channel SN @) usa © Hees ( seas @ 2188 The eeecver CIN is mestured at $.0 dB in a0 IF bondwidih of 16 KH2 when a test tone is sem oxer a componded SCPCIFM link The peak devitog it 45 HH2, What i the tes tone SIV ia the baseband ‘ante using Equation $28 of he tex? @) 1688 @) H6u8 @ s3a8 @ 2308 1A singe elephone channel requtes 42 He of baseband bandh in a large FDM baseband. How mane ‘SB chanacle could be tranemited using CSSB in hl standard ansponder with RF bandssdih 18 MHa? () x00 @) 285 © 60 @ 858 utelite Communications to, fe bal taaspunder ia Quest had Reem sed for FOMUPM intend of S38, a5e Table Sb, poe (fhe to to ind the auber of chase whic could be cried (his 53.3 PRACTICAL EXAMPLES OF FOMIFM SYSTEMS ‘Thc tem cootins two exaspes of SIM and capac calculations which ilusate the pesformance of FDMIEM ‘pee na section, we wl work trough those xamples to show bow each step completed. Te examples SE ERd oe ola performance speciation, sig he parameters pen i Tables 5.28 and 5.2 ofthe tex, pages D172 EXAMPLE 5.1.1, p 169 fa this example, tbe ill 5 MHz bandwidth ofa transponders loaded wih 972 FDMUPM speech channels The {SN objec sb tbe worst (op) cbanne is 51.5 6B, ween te receiver CIN is 178 dB, Th SA slightly higher tear So a8 requved ended in an inieraatiol tlepboee cucu, 0 alow for some degradation i the tensa tas" which conaet he wees tothe eat stations. “The quesion asks for thers test one deviation ad the ms mulekanne deviation ‘Step 1. We sust fd the fequency of the fs one ia the FDM baseband. We have specified worst channel SAN tb abet tone wil beat the top ofthe baseband. We will assume 42 KHz pe channel in the baseband. 0 ibe bescbaod bandwodth in 972142 KHz = 4.082 MH. Thus the top chanel isa 4082 MH. (The baseband rababiy starts a 12 LHe rater than O Hz 40 we sould reckon the fop channel at 096 2, but the difercace oot significa.) ‘Step % We can ind he ts toe frequency deviation fora Equation $18, by subsitting koown values for Cv Bary ad nue We wil ase tbat the reeever IF bandwidth is 36 MHz, and tht the telephone chose acdeid eb bit, corresponding to a CCIR chanel exteading [rom 300 00 Ha, We wl also assume 25 {BB prophomeric weighing aod 4 dB preemphasis improvement Thea Equation 5.18 becones (using &B values ‘aeouebout 510 = 178 + 10log0 Evaluating each ofthe terms gies r + fms | 519-178-406-65 = Dlogie | ——— aoszxiw* | Remember that ix = 20logi yy = 10", 1 sling fr fom ies the test Lone ems equency deviation a+ sree ys bia Ica the lest one deviation wbich we have ouad fom Equation 5.18 because we specified SIN fn he worst chanoe. ‘uep3. Now we can fed tg mukichaoae frequency deviation wig the lading rules. What we ced to finds AP iadunship Serween the rn vltage of the test tne signal andthe rms voltage ofthe multchanacl FDM. Mga Since frequency devation in an FM system is proportional to modulating sgn! voltage, ts tbe vole os which are needed io determine frequency deviations. Since 972 > 230, we wie the loading ruleSataite Communications La AS + WlogO7) = 1438 : sists uy thot the avecage power level of the 72 change! FDM baseband siemlis 488 dBm refereaced 103 stioaeleneof dBm We ace the vase eat for. sbo, whic wen by vas he mutichaoset fesquency desi is 555 times te 1s tone deviation, and Soy (FDS) 5.554778 ce can check this result for vat ver easy by cleulatine the occupied bandwid of she FMM signal peut ale. Fors top channel at 4082 Mhz and arms eulcbanoe (quency eatin of 432 MHz. if are eet peak to abcan fatto of 316, the peak deviation i 13.65 MHz andthe occupied bandwidth is 355 ‘ree vested our eaeustion by asain a RF baaccth of 36 MH 2th checks out correct Je Sa eves values forthe parameters we bore just calculated whic are shy dferet. neta wes 4028 fe as op ohana cher than he 4052 Mz whic assumed. AMPLE 5.1.2 this example, the oumber of channel which canbe carried ina given RF band is eaeubted. This is rib tort uimect calculation than te renous oot, tecause he aaah leads toa equation wb Ba 60 rainion sn terse tecbaiqus Ganpted guessuotk) ust be sed oad thease eis the problee. A bandwidth of 9 Miit i aUocated for 2 single FDMVFM caries in an ttesat V “Spundec Tue reccver CN is tobe 87 dB, andthe weighted SIN ia the wort chase! eust be 5 dB. (The eer tke tem quotes amc power cf 8060 pW i Se worst chanacl, Tass angber way of specfhing SON ee Sind tcleptoneehaaael, Relate to the somal signal level of {mW or 10” pW the noise power is at "dm ching a 9° of 1 dB) How man telephone chasaels cao this FDMFM eri support? ‘The basi equation wedi this ese i SIN = CIN + FM improvement. We have a CON of 147 dB and a requced SiN (worst ehanael) of $1 dB, 40 we must set up the FDMIEM re raters to provide as improvement ator of 363 dB. We wil assume aclepooe chaacl bandwith of 1 Fite ssuopbometrie weiebig Iacor of 2568 anda prceapbass improvement of 48, Using Equation 5.18 [ou ‘aoe 100147 + tege |, + tego | was {sani Vo Nesee —- kg) 2883 Fine S| o57 and atmues = 057m, om ‘This se est toes ems deine later ote rune ofthe top basebaed chanel Lets assume thot thee ave N channels. The bacband handed wll be 200 N Hr, an we can we Caron fale (0 fa lpn, Thea we can apply the ual 316 ratio of peak Co m9 Lequesey demain to Fad the ‘oukichanel re desstion ard solve the loading rae Fr. Applying Cason's rae tbe mlichannel rms frequency deition il be mei Whee Minanie = 45- Myo = 4808-3 160200 Since the RF bandwidth alloeated to this FOSUM carter is Mo, lets assume N-<24D, We must ws the Cowect loadig rae fr this case Ft tras ov that ou asl guess ie wrong, ad N> 200, we wll hae To stat (ret andvewor the problem wing the loading ele fr N>20, Equation 519i the tex sre: logis! = t. + login foe 20 Soling for we hae: = tft + on 900 and isthe ratio of ther eequencr dentin forthe mulicartee case othe fo teat tone. Putng hs all together ne have frequency dvistion ofthe Mone = Bins = OST. 15200 N We sow have two equations forthe ms deviation of the mulicarie signal, wth oly one ‘umber of chanoee, Combining these equations and ths equation fr [gives &$210°-«290N = 1k" 9 BIGS7RON which reduces to: Wn.ss = Nx{14053¢10°%% 99 + 1} “This equation canna be solved dzecly, We mat gues at value fo N, substitu tino the equaio, and see if sie are correc I oo, we Uy again. That ealed aa leratv solution. A coraputereaa sole such an equation ‘ery auiely We need to guess ata trtng vale fr N With 9 Miz of RF bandwith, N should be aru 20. ‘SolVing the right hand side ofthe equation we gta value of 126. Thee too lage 0 we could ry N= 190. ‘With N= 09, the vale 1061.14 few ore tries wil warrow the solution downto I9L2, 0 N must be tbe sea loweat integer, or 19L chancel, Qu oigoal ssteption that N<240 was comet ‘A ial ep sto check that his answer i correc. The mathematics uied to iad N was fairy complicated, ant i esayto make an error Lets east the FDMVEM parazeies aad check them again Table aia the tex The top bascand chansel isa 4200 N He, or 802 Az The test toue ras frequency deviation is given by OSTnue = 457 HH. The re molichasnel deviation i ines the text tone deviation, Song for es! = 2S and thee Alo wv = 1168 HB2. The corresponding vale: (rom Table S13 in the text are: N = 192 for B OM, four = 808 WHE, Sfea a = 457 HR and Sls ne = 1167 KH. We appear Lo base the eoect Now solve problems 1 soda the problea sect of the tet, pages 220-21 54 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS Ta the ist part of Usit 5, you studied analog transmiston techiques for satelite links, wit the empbasis 0m Trequeoey modelation. The advent of eptial fiber transition andthe tead for telephone exchanges to Be aMlaigial bas led to 3 revolution inthe coemmunicatonsindasry. Whenever new inks are isaled or tecestiahSatelite Communications saison, og ok remain ve, and wl continue tobe wae any sess, bat there fa relenlest mone towards a0 al digital nctwork for mcd oie and do Aesmission. The chenisal aia is tbe laterated Serces Digital Network, ISDN, which. wil llr erconnectioas at 3 warty of data rset. Speech will be seat ough the ISDN at 6 oF 64 hlobyecoed (8/5) sing PCM Lebaigas hese ac may tesous ae advantaes for ap algal seqwork, Voice and data con be mised at wl, reuters Can proces sia without the ace fr analog smithes, and sophinicated processing ol ipa C20 w= Toplmeried in IC Torn. Maltipieig of many voice or data sna alo igh specd dsta steam tssgsforsard witht signals 28d ca he schived mach poe eaily and esonomiealy thi wih analog sins [a satelite sslems,malipie accew of 2 ieglechanoe! cin be achieved with Tie Divice Muliple esis (TMA), a (ecbrigue which cansot be ued fr analog signal, Dial signals can aio be stored and \eaverd, which sometimes an antag, Most people thok of ig signal at cetangular putes handled by lg circuits, wth v0 fed voltae levels such 250 and Sots represeatnglozial an 1 The concep of rectangular poi is ensonabl for comput {ireuisoperaig at low data sts. But romember that a recangulr pulse has a inintely broad specrm. A Useful rule of 13umb is that You need 4 bandusdth equa to ten times the reciprocal ofthe pute ath (0 ‘latins seat recsngular pole shop, Ite send fllwidth pulses, such tbat the voltage lee representing 21 or a0 las fr the whole of bt psiod| (iss alle anon-etum io ero of NRZ pale), we would need a nk baci of a eat ten times he pale ‘ate (bi tate) ote sure of maintaining he rectangle ple shape. CCommasications ks are invrisbly bandied, sd few offer a bandwid of tea izes he bitte Many links ow in use havea babdwsth ess haa the bit at, ad rely on mulilevel pulses haown ae bot push he ghest possible data rate through a pea link. The pues must be designed 39 that tbe pale specu matcbes the avaible Bandwidth of the sk very closely. The transmision ofthese caefly shaped pulses over the ik ‘then an analog proces requiring linea ccuts, hough be data are diglal, Stele links, 25 we have seen in earlier units, tend to hae limited bandwidth 20d also poor CN ratios a the ‘ceive end, Dipial techniques ave tobe talored to ths Stuaion, snd the modulations ward by satelite links Giller somehat rom those used in terretrial microwave links, The aim se eve, i squeeze the maximum umber of chansls orbits per seeo0d) into a given bandwiib otha eveoue maximized The meiure of Ietfrmance fora dig ink ithe Bi Error Rate or BER, whic i veal the probaly shat «gen bi ‘rupted rasmision. Satelite aks are usually designed o achieve BERS inthe range 10100 a his unit, me wil est look a the techaiques which ae vied 0 shape the spectrum of a digital pulse tae 0 that it atches the Bandwidth of Kn, and thes we val look atthe modlation methods wich canbe wted for Aigial signals We wil aso review Pube Code Modulation (PCM), the process by which analog (ie) signal xe turned into iil data sears for transmizsion i dig aks. ‘We must start this section on digital signals by fis reviewing the techniques wae for tranumision of data on baseband ciety, such as telephone bnes The ideas can readily be extended to the RF channels sed on sstelies, 5.41 BASEBAND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION Digial signaling is not ne i predates telephony by 40 year. The fret dig nks were bul to send telegraph signals and comiued in opetio for many years. Lon distance commutication by telephone wasnt posible ‘nthe ene 190s, when amplifiers became walabe. The data rates achieved by ery telegraph systems were low, sad the problems asteined with he ranumision of pulses though a bandlinted creit wore not fly understood vn the 1920s. The work of Nyquist at Bel {Labs provided te fist theoretical basis forthe design of igh quality dig data Binks. Satelite Communications 1 the sechriqus sed in dita waeunision sytems 40 fedace iuersont Lt you ace not fmiloe wit a . el chee ad the concepts of Soqun fiterng and equation teas AppeDux > Appendts P cence he bus theory of bassoon pate rss ssion (st) Jon system requires the ase of a pir of “The contol of Inter Symbol Iaterfreace (St in pulse transmission system requires th “Deiat, oe a each eo he ak, These we tnown gata yi len. Whee matched Unk ad dees hough appropri equszrs be Nut ies ensre hal he reseed ple waveform IES Gosings at intemal of F seconds afer te pesk af the pulse. sampling gate i tbe receiver timed (0 re ee ike pea uf the arising plses, which coincide sh the sero erosings uf the (ls of al preeesing wae inthe 2 the theory behind the design srr Mi siear ony one pobewsscpicd aod 01S oc, Appeod 2 cavers the theory behind the Sp Ur aero IST teri. rar with bgitl ascission theory, eadthe nest wetion ofthe tet to review that materi youre ead the fst pat of Section $4, page IAE-AS6 ofthe ext Sow answer these questions om the frst part of Secon Sa the LP. Digital ransmision stems ate prefered ove aalg stems forthe allowing reasons (2) soice and data en be media the same channel (0) TOMA canbe ued on seit inks (© sigpals cam be sored and recovered easily 1. The performance ofa digs dst inks characteried by @ on sw © Pow (@) BER 3. Zero [Stina dg link docs stich othe following? (2) etnies inerferenceberwec pues (0) csses interference ewes ples (6) laces he BER (2) arrose bandwith eguiedosend spe $42 NYQUIST FILTERS ANO WAVEFORMS “Toe Nyquist ie hs a impulse sponse which cones the time ai at intra of Ty the bit period. Forzro Broeinon ne ned a bk hh bas an ended reser response ich i eal that o » Ng Titer Then ifwe ve penne aad ne tative going inpules to represen binary 1 and Ot the input ad sample at the ettect insta athe rctve cod we wi hve 2701S, Cn of he mont npc coeceps ia comuncaion stem the reationship between the gency eee Seer ee and th pat sede spec we fave an inp specu SD), and em Sheegicuytepome (hh vecened peomnl be V sbee“Saatine Communications vag = 10H) tna digi commutation nk, S( te equency egos of he air inks om inp 0a NS Tt 1 or gar) whichis tro at waver, aad wea rest cows ear of ee St, We mst se ites ae the nh rans neti H(t produce he eqns Pt eee a eed he vied covne rant fnein gies in Equation om pat US of eo a ep specrus iD Icon tat the opt spect VCD) = HD The gal mich has wei isthe pale response ofthe ser ee Te ean ipule. an aitely nro» ple ol wnt iss tine woveforn wt) given by the inverse Foner transform ofthe ‘The impulse response of the apuetpectrum Vt), shown in Equation 5.2 sd) = FH AOS] (e952) where Ff Jiniates an iaverse Fourier teasform. rhe tie wavelorn forte ried caine fequenc esponse is gieaby Equation $1 0m page 15 of the text FeossaRet™] [Rank] 40 =| — reel (eqs) ta this equation, Ry is the Bit ete anda the rot parametr ofthe iter. The rave af as ous a ths aaa he waveform asa nied iaXIX shape, which depeads on the valu of pha a) Seeneen a Da Equation $11 becomes 1, ad the waveform i crac XIX. the ove: enon ee ener decay euch ore cy than XX. igre £49 om pop 18 of hee SO sips eran tine roveloras forthe case ofapha = 0,05 aed The i prod Tih woes eet eae carvan Or socal becane rege finite attention a 93687 RO coo sigh appromete he ase cosine respons have alpha vlues berween 02 ad 5.43 BANDPASS DIGITAL TRANSMISSION te ne previous evn sects we looked 3 ihe way bscand Eas are deine to config te epee of ee Pr lus wilaa a ersow bandwith wiowt allowing 1S 0 ocut. Rain Eaks fare es GENCE dane ai inks becouse sas mst b kept witha the channel baad floated Ears Wat's cons oe ce aged baacwi ie mererence i anoterchaanel. The FCC eguls ovate a rai inks ve tobe designed isinize owt bard sal ence In slit aks se ocean ad acent henna hin the tare transponder, or another anspondet theintererenee “the approach sed inthe desig of ao ks or dg! ranaision i eae araloges that fr Beha Fae ree square root Nui ies ar need at each end ofthe Unk, anda ft spec Gost Woks, Bandpses can be apptied to the inp. AC the receive, samplig of the received seal proves channel bandwiat de date A sje dferece, bower, is that ibe pulses matte modulated ono an RF reese eptbe resiver aust include a demodulator to recover abaseband ple sear, “The Re carries wave wet carey digital data bas thre parameters: amplitude, fequeney. and phase Any oe Teresi) canbe module: ig Amplitude Sit Keying (ASK), Frequcacy Sit Kevin (29 6 oar ian (PSK), The tera Kong reer the ont ature of digi sia when Binary alg en a mceicis wanhated nth 10% modulation, iti called Oo-Otf Keying (OOK), There are any ee Mee pen nes asc modulations. PSK & the cost widely we in satelite Hinks, BPSK asd QPSK Se Taran abc send naan fou pv atest represent inary daa one Bt and two Bs Cie, We WRiloomine PSK stems in ter section. Satelite Communications Tramumision of 9 digital modulntsd easier eequirs fers ah a feequeocy response etending ch wl Tatar tac the same princples which we ssed fo UesgnTSE-free baseband Gok can te aed 10 woes cue hake The bck nga of simple bandpass pt inks shown in Figure $12, poge UK of Digiol data eaters the modulator, which is din bya cre oa req Fabdgas Biated (BPF) aod equalized o produce the required spectrum 19 aan se pe ccal steed, demoduntedt rere tobsseband ap sampied athe corect insta {he eatin cod Sepang speci te bandpas xterm are shown it Figure 3.12 Band, page 184 cy & The modulator output is te oedec to undersiand the operation ofthe dg RF tak, we start withthe spectra ofthe input signal. For 8 rae soa tk andom tae O mosaatio. the spectrum bs 3 sioX/X shape, wih ero cosings every Ro eS i dec the signal spectrum hs a with 2p, We need bandpass versions af be Syaus ters dese eo aictead Hak, iPwe are to acicve zoroIst operation. Teansation of a baseband fer ino + wel esier acightorward We ile the esl bers bout poo. The baseband requence sponse aor ee be cove uequeccy vale is ceotered atthe center ofthe bandas fer carastensic and he aang ee sea toredsbow the center rues. The rsa fa symerzl frequen response Rees a ete Cequency ofthe bandpass iter, with be baseband Ges shape each side vith Nyquist iter there arange of fe shapes fr 1 + V. This is standard result for a Gastian distribution, ‘We want the probability tht the noite voltage exceeds +V of i lest than -V. The result ie gen bythe complementary error facto, ee: PQN>¥) = Leste WievE) (Equation 554) ‘Because the Gaussian PDFs symmetrical P(N>V) = P(N<-V). The focton ers defied bythe integra: 2 eae | | oe where u = wleVE ois the standard deviation ofthe noise and ois the variance ofthe cise, proportions tothe ose power See Appeodx fer 3 iscusion ofthe complemestary error function. ‘Te otabtin of anenr ecg ete kit hm of be bee hat vane ici a 4 zefo and that 301 seceved as 1, Average over a o0g ne, the probability of 21 beg seat is equal 1 the Probably of a0 being seat tich are both egal tone ll Ths PE i givea by. . PE = 12[P(N> V)] + UA[P(N<-V)] = PIN>V) = Uerle(Wiova} ‘Table Af. and Figue A4.1ia Appendix 4sbow the shape of the complementary error function, Remember that se wil be using ere vo deerbe theta ofthe Causiaa PDF tells us how ely is that a given vollage level Vis exceeded by oote spike, inthe wrong diecton.— ~ ) woes (© 088 (y ss 5.8 OIGITAL, TRANSMISSION OF VOICE he 100 years that lowed B's invention ofthe tele>hone, vice signals were seat long disagces as curreats in copper wires. Ina elephoae sytem, tbe cucent ia te wires proportional othe varrng ir pressure oa the pealar's microphone ant dives an earpiece which recrentes the variations in ir pessure atthe Ustener’ ea, Provided thatthe link between speaker aad listener doesnot stort the ime wavefors teasoable replica of the speaker's voice cam be beard mt the Utener's od ofthe Lak. Tis a example of a0 analog communication fysiem: magnetic tape cecordings, long pling disk recordines, and telersion are other examples. In the Cesrdiag techniques the currents repreiating the oizaa signals are elored xe mechanial deformations othe Sortace of ving disk or ay vasatios othe stored magnet eld of parties oa a ape scission and econsig of gals este eplaciag analog methods, and most telephone calls are liga frat least prt oftheir way. Tae compact disk steady replacing vey disk records {bd digital tape recording i a really. This ead il cootinue wot all wanstision and storage of signals is igial except pertaps for tlession. Analog signals will exit only athe terminals of the transducers ‘murophones and loudspeakers inthe cate of sudo sigals. The reason for this trend is simple sigoals [Ze robuss, aa be procesed by ICs and computers, and can be ranemited tod repeoduced without error. They hn be sited with egal data on digia inks, and pated through digi elephone exchanges. {a this section you wif ear how an analog voice signal i changed ico a digital bi steam using a technique ‘alled PCM (Pulse Cade Modsltion) and bow PCM systems are designed to provide aise-fre transmission of ‘oie signals. You vill alo leare how to calalate the analog SIN ratio fora telephone chanoel whes, PCM is seat over a digital kin which erraes cut 5.6.1 SAMPUNG “The fist stage in any system wich ends analog signals ia dal for isthe conversion ofthe analog signal into Agia words, Several rules must be obeyed in this proces ifthe analog signal tobe recovered intact, bu ia prscice the proces is simple, esaly employing a single (C. The (C input fan analog signal and its ootput ia Scial bit steam. ‘The IC conti tree man blocks, a2 lapel lowpass fier, 2 sampling gate, and an ‘Analog to Digtal Converter (ADC). ‘Appendix eviews the rules fr tending anlog signals za» Roa! ifyou are ac famiar withthe proces “The fest rule isthe Sampling Theorem, proposed by Nequst in 1924 The sampling theorem sates that any ‘igoa eaa be completely recovered fom samples taken a3 rate equal to twice the ghost fequency preset the signal. We wil ot be concerned withthe proof of this theorer here-thatcaa be found in any test on ‘comunication tory. What matters isthe very powerful ool his theorem provides and upon which all PCM systems are bated ‘Sampling works because the specrum of a signal whic has beea sampled ia accordance withthe sampling theorem consis a replica ofthe original alg signal peru. “The highest tequency in sal which tae cansmited be dened, s tha the sampling at ea 0 t covrecty le Noth Americas telephone stems the upper limit othe elephone chanael band is se at 3100 Hz. Ta international systems ice HOD Ha, The min sampling rte is therefore 6200 or 680 He, depending onSatelite Communications ne sstem. However, (be sampling rate most be set rather igh iher than the minimum valve of twice he highest. -qeacy because the (ers wed area stems at 20 ideal sod » probe called nae incase Problem called aliasing ares too low 4 St nage in il leone ak bereft te sampling lore he sampling sae Sg ve pase hough lospass xa esp coffe 10 SMe anda ape Sl ngs ang ge “here “sia of varying beight pulses is called a Pulse Amplicade Modulated (PAM) wave: the signal bas moduloted & soiant height pulse train, ean Be Sl bs 0 ook at Figure $22 om page 205 tbe text sf show ie bs lent fa PAM Unk aed PCM ak (ste pl path) The weer sow = sep ili omerted to series of saps which ave thee set avanog beg pena Pat sen overdo ia watsbva A meer PCM ye, The Dia Cermak zero the inverse fastion ofthe A.M coavers ial wrde to vag eight pes No tht sagt {Egil nd digi to analog comenters re sbbeiateS GAD or ADC. tod D/A EAC £52 QUANTIZATION The samples which ae generated by the PAM . proces canbe converted into dil words wil se analog o gl meray Th dl word pdt AD oer eal omen eat 20 tubers are dst clemeats, whereas our samples have continuo vanag height W ‘have to pick the nearest umber to represent the pulse magnitude, so the Sree el le magi, so the ADC ca oy fener a eaained Te serene bowen te resp alae adh spe alu andthe quantized ale athe ADC oupatisa gunz roe se represen dren ugg A xh emp po ti POM em See pea Bel seoraiers nr ed antici aoe, hd willbe sanyo tae coe QUANTIZATION NOISE There are 140 sliios 1 orci ng quantation csc: lage suber of eps canbe wed inthe ‘tsasation proces so that each epi all of no-no step saz can be employed wg » pct Ibowm a oapanding i POM eleptone ses, Yor bends as wed Ths s ucompro ees og words with low quantization ere nd the need fo squceae ts many chaacl as pose aos bk ire re mat ‘A FOM tlephoe stem eng 8 LHe sampling sod § words bas a it at of 6 Kbps (coe way). 7 bisape are wed, he bi te 236 pe Http per speech chanaet lathe expe gen ane we aly assumed hat equa tp ses were wedia covering fom PAM to FCM ‘Te eads fo problem wih "quite in tele ye, Te gut ale she bao speech {easmision ten, because his oe vie gt lot inthe noe Ina FCM ste, the gut ae geaests¢ sma log vokag wich i imered it a ey smal ane warn bythe ADG. The ts open ouch ae or than for te "loud take." who covers most oral f the dymamic CCoMPANDING ‘olin adsl which an werpeced ir of ae ; ci ee of bunt bering, Quanto sie a been “ayn tc tn ton pan geste AGE ‘etait ge edie en ounce aueloge usicncneron ‘tai Ife die up or gatas tel s-eeay ty cig sco tiptersved OV ead sssyarcad tae ye cdethne or Vu Camp are eee eae ee mab car's charaterstic 1 redsec the apparent lee of quaneioe ve Nem hat : thou fsb meas nF ine wou drm wtbe sual osc nates ws! Satelite Communications “The proses of eoerlicar encoding ofa signi sled compression, It must be aatehed bya cmplizeatry Ton-lncarsypansioe proces athe receiving c0d ofthe Sak The combed procs is known as com@pandicg 3 Contraction of compre and expanding SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIOS ‘Quantzstioe nose i expressed sa SN rato based on signal whichis either athe asim posible put Teel forthe ssiem ova sine wave which ba psive and negabive peaks which cover te systems drvanic ‘age: The derivation of is SOM to leapby and the tm guotes the result or the Fst casein Equation $41 page: (iy = where Lis the eumber of levels aa uniform gasses, and N ie the numberof bits cutput bythe ADC, (L = Sypuc inte decibel form, (S/N)g = 68, Fort sinewave laut, the quantization signal to aise aio is 73-68 lower. Uwe use 8 bits and a uoiorm quantize, (SIN}y for a sine wave is 41, lower tha the 50 4B obec fo ‘Berea! SN in analog ‘elepbone ks, The noa-Lnear quantizer produezs a subjestiveimprovermest of about 24 {4 ging a guaaizatin SIN 65 dB. Thiegvarntes that quantization noise i virally inaudible ina PCM lak ising bt words aad companding. “The wansmision of PCM voice signals trough data nk may result ia bit err. At the receiving en these br emort afe wansated foto noise inthe analog sigma since they represent departures from the orignal Stavelorm. Bt erors due 10 thermal nie wil occur randomly ia the PCM words, causing small errors if the [eas sguieant bic is changed aed lage eroref the mont sigliant bit changed. A derivation ofthe SIN for 3 ‘Sustbund signal after cooversion frm 4 PCM bi streaze with thermal soe errors is iven inthe ext, 08 pages 50910, The results surprising simple, and i gveaby Equation £38 on page 210: (srs = 1448) (Equation 588) where PB isthe PCM bit steam BER. PCM links are usually designgd to have a tit etor rate lower than 104 uader sora operating condition. Inserting a vale for FB of 10 in Equation S58 gives a thermal noise SIN rato of $4 dB. If companded 8 bit PCM is sed thermal sole at 4 BER of 10° wil be 10-68 higher than quantization nose, and wil be the ‘owmzua foto. the link BER becomer wore dut fo a aia fade fr example, the SY wil fal, Once the auiio Sv goes below 30 dB, the lnk is regarded a inoperable, Recalig tbe BER cures for OPSK of Section $5 (Gee Fgwe 517 on page J ofthe to, for example), 425 dB change is isk CIN frm 10.5 dB 108 048 cases {he BER to fall rom 10*to 104, Thus 225d fal i te QPSK lnk CIN takes the FCM audio ouput from, oral hgh quality 30 outage. Now read Section $60 he ext om pages 204 through 211. “The las pst of Section 5 inthe tox covers delta adulation, a form ofdferenil PCM. We wll ot cover Gea od bere, but you mgy be interested to read thal sein i the text. Dea od sno widely sed ait bas {problem caled slope ovrlosd wbich cases dstrion under condias in which he signals changing api ‘speech, rapid changcs inthe signal ae agoised wih certain coasooaats such ast and d. Tosi 10 Aistingish betwece tad d, for example, leds to coafusion in the understanding of specch, and deka mod feeme to hae been restricted to military communications systems. It fers a reduction in bitrate, and hence Trsataision bandwilb, a the price of reduced sudo quality. Difereatal PCM and linear predictive encoding le wo other teckaiqus which ena be wed to reduce the Bitrate of digital speech, [Now answer these questions on Seton Sf the ILP.satsite Communications ‘An aio signal is banlimitesd to the frequency range 100-9508 Ho. Which of the following sampling ald erat he signal tabs recoversd withow Ssortion? fa) roe (>) waste “Toe sampling ate wed internationally ia PCM tlephooe stems (9) soo He 0) 300 He (© Soon tte 1o900 He 3. isthe prefered transmission technique for digital spech signals because i canbe: reponerted (C0 paced through noo near smpliers () wed to reduce the bic eate for trasmision (6) andieddisectly by digital computers 4. PCM signal derived fom 8 Ke samples and an Bit ADC have abit ate of () akbps (0) S6%bp (0) 64 8bp¢ (2) 128ibpe 5. Quantization oie is a result of (0) sampling () analogto digital comversion (9. tow pas fkeriog (©) non-tsear amplifistion Satelite Communications Comptoding reduces quamnation noise by zing sich ofthe lowes effects? (2) sampling a8 ute (0) low pas ering 3482 (0) noasineransog to distal conversion (8) physiological characteris ofthe bumas eat A telephony sytem uses linear encoding wth 7 bic words and 8 kf sampling. What isthe transmission bit (a) abpe 0) S6%bp6 (9) tips (4) 25kbps ‘The spstem in question 7 above can accep at it apt sgals which inthe range -1

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