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Reference book : Principles of measurement systems

By : j.p.bentley

Quiz & H.W & midterm..5 Mark

Project , Translate , Presentation.5 Mark
Final Exam.10 Mark
Download book : Research.iaun.ac.ir/pd/imanian
Email : mahdiimanian@gmail.com

B.S.C : Petroleum Engineering, PUT

M.S.C : Instrumentation & Automation, PUT
JOB : CNG unit, NIO PDC, chB

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Principles of
Measurement
Systems

John P. Bentley

Fourth Edition

Contents
Part A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

The General Measurement System

Static Characteristics of Measurement System Elements
The Accuracy of Measurement Systems in the Steady State
Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Systems
Loading Effects and Two-port Networks
Signals and Noise in Measurement Systems
Reliability, Choice and Economics of Measurement Systems

Part B
8
9
10
11

Typical Measurement System Elements

Sensing Elements
Signal Conditioning Elements
Signal Processing Elements and Software
Data Presentation Elements

Part C
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

General Principles

Specialised Measurement Systems

Flow Measurement Systems

Intrinsically Safe Measurement Systems
Heat Transfer Effects in Measurement Systems
Optical Measurement Systems
Ultrasonic Measurement Systems
Gas Chromatography
Data Acquisition and Communication Systems
The Intelligent Multivariable Measurement System

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Chapter 1 : The General Measurement System

Purpose of measurement systems

process : A system which generates information.

Ex : chemical reactor, gas platform, car, human heart.

information variables : Generated by processes.

Ex : A car generates : displacement, velocity, acceleration

Ex : Car driver, plant operator, nurse.

observer : A person who needs this information from the process.

purpose of measurement system is
to link the observer to the process.
true value
measured value

input
output

measured ( measurement ) system error

real measurement system :

Ideal measurement system :

E 0
E 0

Structure of measurement systems

Sensing element : contact with the process. - for more than one sensing element.
: Element in contact wich. Ex : Thermocouple, Orifice plate
primary
secondary
: Others. Ex : Strain gauge

Signal conditioning element : output of the sensing element

A form more suitable for further processing.

usually : Dc voltage, Dc current, frequency

Ex : - Deection bridge : Converts impedance change to voltage change

- Amplier : Amplies millivolts to volts
- Oscillator : Converts impedance change to variable frequency voltage
A form more suitable for presentation.
Ex : Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) : Converts voltage to digital form data
Computer : Calculates the measured value of the variable from the incoming digital form data

Signal processing element : output of the conditioning element

Data presentation element : presents the measured

A form which can be easily recognised by the observer.

Ex : Chart recorder, Digital display

Chapter 2 : Static Characteristics of Measurement System Elements

Systematic characteristics

Quantified by mathematical or graphical means.

Span : Input Span :

IMIN to IMAX
Output range : OMIN to OMAX

Range : Input Range :

Output Span :

IMAX IMIN
OMAX OMIN

G OMAX OMIN J
(I IMIN )
IMAX IMIN L

Ideal straight line : O OMIN =

I

K = ideal straight-line slope =

)

OIDEAL = KI + a

OMAX OMIN
IMAX IMIN

a = ideal straight-line intercept

= OMIN KIMIN
))

Non-linearity :
N(I ) = Difference between actual and ideal straight line behaviour.

N(I ) = O(I ) (KI + a ) or O(I ) = KI + a + N(I )

actual ideal

; = Maximum difference (non-linearity) : as a percentage of full-scale deflection (f.s.d.).

Max. non-linearity as a percentage of f.s.d. =

;
100%
OMAX OMIN

Chapter 2 : Static Characteristics of Measurement System Elements

q m

In many cases :

O(I ) = a0 + a1I + a2 I 2 + . . . + aq I q + . . . + am I m =

a I

q 0

Sensitivity : Is the slope or gradient of the output versus input.

Environmental effects :
Output (O ) depends not only on the signal input ( I ) but on environmetal mental inputs such as ambient temperature,
atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, supply voltage.
two types of environmental input :

Modifying input ( IM ) causes the linear sensitivity of element to change.

Interfering input ( II ) causes the straight line intercept or zero bias to change.

In non standard environmental conditions : O(I ) = KI + a + N(I ) + KM IM I + KI II

In standard environmental conditions : ( 20 C ambient temperature, 1000 millibars atmospheric pressure, 50% RH and
10 V supply voltage ).
O(I ) = KI + a + N(I)
IM = II = 0
Interfering

Modifying

Ex : Is the variation VS in the supply voltage VS

of the potentiometric displacement sensor.

x = fractional displacement

VOUT = (VS + VS) x = VS x + VS x

Ex : Is provided by variations in the reference

junction temperature T2 of the thermocouple.

Chapter 2 : Static Characteristics of Measurement System Elements

Hysteresis : For a given value of I , the output (O ) may be different depending on whether I is increasing or decreasing.
Hysteresis is the difference between these two values of O :
Maximum hysteresis as a percentage of f.s.d. =

Hysteresis H(I ) = O(I )I O(I )I

100%
OMAX OMIN

Example : backlash or play in the gears, for a given value of x , the angular rotation.
is different depending on the direction of the linear movement.

Play in gears

Backlash in gears

Resolution : Defined as the largest change in ( I ) that can occur without any corresponding change in (O ).
Maximum resolution : as a percentage of f.s.d. =

IR
100%
IMAX IMIN

Ex : wire-wound potentiometer ADC.

Wear and ageing : These effects can cause the characteristics of an element.
Ex : K and a , to change slowly but systematically throughout its life.
1. stiffness of a spring k(t ) decreasing slowly with time.
2. constants a1 , a2, of a thermocouple, measuring of gas leaving a cracking furnace, changing systematically with time
due to chemical changes in the thermocouple metals.

Chapter 3 : Sensing Elements

Resistive sensing elements

1. Potentiometers : For linear and angular displacement measurement.
ETh voltage across AB resistance across AB
=
=
VS voltage across CB resistance across CB
where:
resistance of CB = total resistance of potentiometer = RP
resistance of AB = fractional resistance = RP d/dT = RP x
or

x = fractional linear displacement = d/dT

x = fractional angular displacement = /T

linear displacement potentiometer : ETh = VS x = VS d/dT

angular displacement potentiometer : ETh = VS /T = VS x

2. Thermometers and Thermistors : For temperature measurement.

semiconductor

metal

Thermometers : RT = R0(1 + T + T 2 + T 3 + . . . )
nickel, copper, platinum

T : temperature, C
R 0 : Resistance at 0 C
, , : temperature coefcients of resistance

Typical platinum element. R 0 = 100.0 , R100 = 138.50 , R200 = 175.83

= 3.91 103 C1 , = 5.85 107 C2

Resistance/temperature characteristics
of commonly used metals

Thermistor :

Typical used metals of platinum

element probe

1
1
R = R exp , R = K exp

Typical NTC element.

after Mullard Ltd

self heating =

R 1 = 12 k , 1 = 298 K , R = 0.95 k
= 373 K , = 3750 K , self heating =

R 1 : Resistance at 1 (K ),
K , : constants for thermistors
: temperature, K
1 : Reference temperature, K ,
usually 1 = 25 C = 298 K

Chapter 3 : Sensing Elements

3. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges :

Stress = +
F/A ,

Strain = e = +
l /l

eT = transverse strain
eT = eL
eL = longitudinal strain
R=

that :

+ = tensile
= compressive

Elastic modulus = E =

: Poissons ratio : 0.25 - 0.4

for most metal = 0.3

l
A

R =

l
l
A R D
A R D
A R D
l +
A +
= l 2 A +
C l F
C A F
C F
A
A
A

R = l/A
A = wt
l = e
T
l

R l A
=

+
R
l
A

A w t
=
+
= 2eT
A
w
t

= eL 2(eL ) +
= (1 + 2)eL +
R

R/R 0
e
R0 = unstrained resistance
for most metal : G = 2

Gauge factor : G =

R
= Ge
R0

G = 1 + 2 +

1
e
piezoresistive effect
for most metal = 0.4

Typical gauge characteristics. Gauge factor 2.0 to 2.2

Unstrained resistance 120 1
for metal Linearity within 0.3%
Maximum tensile strain +2 102
Maximum compressive strain 1 102
Maximum operating temperature 150 C
Maximum gauge current 15 to 100 mA
R at maximum tensile strain + 4.8
R at maximum compressive strain 2.4

Capacitive sensing elements

Capacitance of two parallel metal plates capacitor is given by : C = 0 A
d
d : separation of the plates, m
2
A : area of overlap of plates, m
1
0 : permittivity of free space (vacuum) of magnitude 8.85 pF m
: relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the insulating material

1. Variable separation displacement sensor : C =

0 A
d+x

is a non-linear relation between C and x .

displacement x causes the plate separation to increase to d + x the capacitance of sensor.

2. Variable area displacement sensor :

displacement x causes the overlap area to decrease
by A = wx , where w is the width of the plates.

C=

0
( A wx )
d

stress
strain

Chapter 3 : Sensing Elements

3. Variable dielectric displacement sensor :

C=

0w
[ 2l ( 2 1) x]
d

displacement x changes the amount of dielectric

material 2 ( 2 > 1 ) inserted between the plates.
The total capacitance, one with area A1 and dielectric
constant 1 , and one with area A2 and dielectric constant 2 ,
A A
C= 0 1 1+ 0 2 2
that : A1 = wx , A2 = w(l x)
d
d

4. Capacitive pressure sensor (diaphragm) :

a = radius of diaphragm
t = thickness of diaphragm
that :
E = Youngs modulus
= Poissons ratio.

2
4
C (1 )a
=
P
C
16 Edt 3

y=

3 (1 2 ) 2
(a r 2 )2P
16 Et 3

5. Capacitive level sensor :

Ch =

2
2 0 h
2 (l h)
[l + ( 1)h]
=
+
ln ( b/ a )
ln ( b/ a )
ln ( b / a )

6. Differential capacitive displacement sensor :

(capacitive push-pull bridge)
The variable separation displacement sensor
has the disadvantage of being non-linear.
this problem is overcome by using the three plate
differential or push-pull displacement sensor.

A
C1 = 0
d+x
,
A
C2 = 0
dx
,
E t = Vs x
2d

Chapter 3 : Sensing Elements

Inductive sensing elements

1. Variable inductance (variable reluctance) :

concept of magnetic circuit.

displacement sensors
e.m.f. (electromotive force) = current resistance
m.m.f. (magnetomotive force) = ux reluctance = 
m.m.f. (magnetomotive force) = ni
self-inductance of a coil : L =

N
n2
=

i

ux : =

inductance(H)

Reluctance ( ) of the magnetic circuit :  =

l
0 A

reluctance(H )

ni
weber


total ux :

N = n =

n2i