file phase2.

doc Last update: 12 Feb 1998

SECTION 1 : PROJECT SUMMARY

1.1 Project Title Management of Phytophthora diseases of

durian

1.2 Project Number PHT 95/134

1.3 Category

(a) Program Postharvest Technology

(b) Commodities/Countries
(with proportion of expected
project benefits)
COUNTRIES
COMMODITIES AUST THAILAND VIETNAM
Durian 25 40 35 100

TOTAL 100%

© Is there development 42.%

expenditure associated with this
project?
If yes, show percentage

1.4 Geographic Region South East Asia, Australia

1.5 Related ACIAR Projects CS2/96/193 Biodiversity, identification

and detection methods for Phytophthora
(Dr A. Drenth)

1.6 Commissioned Organisation The University of Melbourne

1.7 Collaboration in Australia NT-Department of Primary Industries and

Fisheries (Dr T.K. Lim and Y Diczbalis)
Queensland Department of Primary
Industries (Lynton Vawdrey)

1.8 Developing Country Collaboration Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

Southern Fruit Research Institute, Long
Dinh, Vietnam

1.9 Collaboration with Other

(Non-ACIAR) Projects
(a) AusAID/IDP Projects Integrated management of Phytophthora
diseases of cocoa (PhD studentship to Mr
John Konam if CCRI in PNG)

(b) External Agencies RIRDC ZTR-01 Durian germplasm

evaluation for tropical Australia

1.10 Key Personnel

 2

(a) ACIAR Co-ordinator Dr G.I. Johnson

(b) Project Leaders Dr David Guest
Senior Lecturer
School of Botany
University of Melbourne
PARKVILLE VIC 3052
Phone: 61 03 93445042
Fax: 61 03 93475460
Email: d.guest@botany.unimelb.edu.au

Dr Somsiri Sangchote
Project Leader
Department of Plant Pathology
Faculty of Agriculture
Kasetsart University
Paholyothin Road, Chatuchak
Bangkok 10900THAILAND
Phone: 0011 66 2 5790113
Fax: 0015 66 2 5796152
Email: agrsrs@ku.ac.th

Dr Nguyen Minh Chau

Director
Southern Fruit Research Institute
Box 203 Mytho - Tien giang
VIETNAM
Phone: 0011 84 73 855588
Fax: 0015 84 73 855588
Email: MCH@netnam2.org.vn

© Administrator of Project in Ms Denise Dawson

Commissioned Organisation General Manager
School of Botany
University of Melbourne
Parkville 3052

1.11 Proposed Duration of Project AND 3 years, commencing July 1998

commencement date
 3

1.12

(a) Estimated Expenditure

from ACIAR funds

YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 3 TOTAL

(1/7/98- (1/7/99- (1/7/00-
30/6/99) 30/6/00) 30/6/01)

Personnel 79,515 82,902 86,186 248,603

Supplies and Services 40,210 28,168 41,454 109,832
Travel 39,850 23,300 53,050 116,200
Infrastructure costs 6,186 5,628 5,846 17,660
Capital 120,600 122,600
Total 286,361 139,998 186,536 612,895

Of which development 120,272 58,799 78,345 257,416

expenditure =
(This is part of, not additional, to the
above figures)
(b) Other Support directly
associated with this project
(i) From Commissioned 45,820 48,108 51,772 145,700
Organisation
(ii) From Australian 46,000 46,000 41,000 133,000
Collaborators
(iii) From Developing 27,600 27,500 27,800 82,900
Country Thailand
Partner Vietnam 31,000 31,800 32,000 60,000
(iv) From Others
Thailand Research Fund 54,583 67,376 51,631 173,590
RIRDC 35,000 35,000 35,000 105,000
Grand Total 526,364 395,782 425,739 1,193,385
 4

1.13 Abstract
Durian is the favourite fruit in many Southeast Asian countries. It is a prized tree in many
mixed gardens and a valuable orchard crop that commands extraordinarily high prices at local
and export markets. The value of the worldwide trade in durian is estimated at A$ 3 billion
annually. This project will develop strategies to control fruit rot, root rot, patch canker and
dieback of durian (Durio zibethinus M.), caused by strains of Phytophthora usually identified
as P. palmivora Butl. These diseases cause annual yield losses estimated at 15-30%, and their
impact is compounded by locally severe incidences of tree deaths, and storage and transit rots
that can destroy entire consignments.
The genus Phytophthora includes pathogens that cause root, stem, foliage, flower and fruit
diseases of plants, although the pathogen is generally considered soil-borne. Disease is
usually initiated when dormant propagules germinate and release infective zoospores
following wetting or temporary flooding. Phytophthora is a poor saprophytic competitor, and
the survival of the pathogen in the soil is vulnerable to orchard management practices that
stimulate the activity of soil antagonists and reduce the likelihood of ponding. Composts and
manures that stimulate the activity of actinomycetes, endospore-forming bacteria and certain
fungi are used to reduce the incidence and severity of Phytophthora diseases in crops such as
avocado (Stirling, Hayward & Pegg, 1992) and thryptomene (Aryantha, 1997; Aryantha &
Guest, 1997). Composts and manures also improve soil drainage, soil fertility and plant
growth.
Durian is a tall tree that is amenable to mixed farming systems in the tropics. However, the
broad host range of P. palmivora creates a risk of cross-infection between intercrops. The
variability of Phytophthora also presents a challenge to plant breeders attempting to
incorporate disease resistance into breeding lines, and presents a challenge to quarantine
barriers. Consequently, it is imperative to document and understand the host range,
geographical distribution and virulence of pathogen isolates from different durian-growing
areas.
Australian researchers are world leaders in developing integrated disease management (IDM)
strategies, including the use of potassium phosphonate, to control plant diseases.
Phosphonates have a remarkably low toxicity to mammals, and are selective for pathogenic
Oomycetes such as Phytophthora (Guest et al., 1995). When directly injected into the trunk,
phosphonates are extremely effective against Phytophthora diseases of cocoa and avocado
(Guest et al. 1994 & 1995). The precise timing and rates of trunk injection are known to be
important in determining the translocation and partitioning of phosphonate within the tree,
and thus the level of disease control achieved. Thus, the mixed results from preliminary trials
with durian suggest that further work on the timing of phosphonate injection in relation to tree
phenology is required.
The primary objective of this project is to improve orchard establishment and sustainability,
and the consistency of quality fruit supplies to the expanding Asian and Australian durian
markets, by developing an integrated management program for orchard and postharvest
disease. We will also examine the interaction between losses due to Phytophthora and other
major post-harvest pathogens, and will develop strategies to improve fruit quality and prolong
fruit life. Key elements of the project will be the development of orchard management
practices that are appropriate for small-scale mixed farming systems as well as large orchards,
including biological control and the targeted use of trunk-injected fungicides. These control
strategies will be based on a thorough understanding of the biological and environmental
factors conducive to disease, and will investigate techniques successfully used against
 5

Phytophthora diseases of avocado and cocoa. The expected outcome of this project, and the
implementation of its recommendations, will be to reduce tree deaths, increase fruit yields and
decrease post-harvest fruit losses. Diseases caused by related Phytophthora species also cause
significant losses to Australian horticulture, and to the Australian environment. This proposal
will address questions that are common to the management of disease in horticultural and
natural plant communities.
This proposal builds on work on the control of Phytophthora fruit rot of durian in Thailand
using Aliette (Pongpisutta & Sangchote, 1994), research on integrated management of
Phytophthora on cocoa in Papua New Guinea (Guest et al. 1994), and biological control of
Phytophthora cinnamomi in horticulture (Aryantha & Guest, 1997). A collaboration has
already been established between the University of Melbourne, the Northern Territory
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, the Queensland Department of Primary
Industries and pioneering durian growers in Australia, Kasetsart University in Thailand, and
the Southern Fruit Research Institute in Vietnam. These collaborators offer the necessary
expertise and facilities to successfully undertake the project outlined. The project will
combine Australian expertise in:
• phosphonate mode of action and injection technology
• biological control of Phytophthora using composted manures and mulches
• the variability and ecology of Phytophthora, and
• durian cultivation, durian diseases and disorders
with Thai expertise in:
• durian cultivation and disease biology
and Vietnamese expertise in:
• durian orchard establishment
 6

1.14 Flow Chart

1998 1999 2000 2001
Quarter J O J A J O J A J O J A
Site/Objective
Melbourne
Baseline information & Start-up U U
workshop
Host-pathogen-environment U U U U U U U U
interactions
Develop IDM options for nurseries, U U U U U U
orchards and postharvest handling
Demonstration plots
International collaborations U U U U U U U U U U U U
Travel to Cairns/Darwin
D. Guest U U U
Research Fellow U U U U
Travel to Thailand/Vietnam
D. Guest U U U U
Research Fellow U
Darwin/South Johnstone
Baseline information & Start-up U U
workshop
Host-pathogen-environment U U U U U U
interactions
Develop IDM options for nurseries, U U U U U U U U
orchards and postharvest handling
Demonstration plots U U U U
International collaborations U U U U U U U U U U U U
Travel to Melbourne
T.K. Lim NT DPI U
Y Diczbalis NT DPI U
Research Assistant NTDPI U
L. Vawdrey QDPI U

Travel to Darwin
L. Vawdrey QDPI

Travel to Thailand/Vietnam
T.K. Lim NT DPI U U
Y Diczbalis NT DPI U U
Research Assistant NT DPI U
L. Vawdrey QDPI U
 7

Kasetsart
Baseline information & U U
Start-up workshop
Host-pathogen- U U U U U U U U
environment interactions
Develop IDM options for U U U U U U
nurseries, orchards and
postharvest handling
Demonstration plots U U U U
International U U U U U U U U U U U U
collaborations
Travel to Australia
Somsiri U U
Rutiya U

SFRI
Baseline information & U U
Start-up workshop
Host-pathogen-
environment interactions
Develop IDM options for U U U U U U U U U U
nurseries, orchards and
postharvest handling
Demonstration plots U U U U
International U U U U U U U U U U U U
collaborations
Travel to Australia
Vietnamese scientist 1 U
Vietnamese scientist 2 U
Travel to Thailand
Vietnamese scientist U U

1.15 Outputs Table ``
SUB-PROJECT
1. Baseline information
gathering and planning
workshop (M,D,SJ,T,V)
2. Host-pathogen-environment ♦ Methods for diagnosis and pathogen identification
interactions in durian orchards ♦ Epidemiology of Phytophthora in durian orchards
(M, D, T)
8
SCIENTIFIC OUTPUTS POTENTIAL APPLICATION
♦ Information on areas currently under cultivation, Identification of risk factors in disease
cultivars grown, disease incidence and severity, Identification of field trial sites
soils and climate
Identification of expertise and knowledge gaps
♦ Information on current expertise and standardised
techniques Identification of research and training priorities
♦ Information about research and development and
training needs Project implementation
♦ Trained personnel
Accurate diagnosis and disease mapping
and climatic, soil and agronomic management Identification of weak links in the disease cycle
factors conducive to disease
♦ Pathogen biology
♦ Biology of fruit infection Orchard management strategies
♦ Screen for durian genotypes for resistance to
Phytophthora in laboratory, glasshouse and field Exploit possible opportunities for biocontrol
studies
 9

SCIENTIFIC OUTPUTS POTENTIAL APPLICATION

SUB-PROJECT
3a. Nursery practice and ♦ Propagation and stock/scion options Improved tree establishment and survival
orchard establishment (D, V) ♦ Site preparation options
♦ Nursery practice options Define appropriate frequency and rates

3b. Orchard management:
Fungicides (M, T)
3c. Orchard management:
Biological control (M,T)
3d. Orchard management:
IDM (M,D,SJ,T,V)
♦ Fungicide use options
♦ Fungicide residue analyses
♦ Use of composts and mulches for tree and
postharvest disease suppression
♦ IDM options
Rationalise use of suitable mulches
Reduction in tree deaths and pre- and postharvest fruit
disease
Improved preharvest management and harvesting
methods, improved postharvest handling and reduced
incidence of storage and transit rots

3e. Management of postharvest ♦ Impact of orchard management on

disease (M,T) postharvest disease
♦ Postharvest handling and storage options

4. Grower demonstrations ♦ Extension information and Technology Fine-tuning of control recommendations

(D,SJ,T,V) adoption

5. International collaborations ♦ Regionally coordinated research Regional implementation of recommendations

(M,D,SJ,T,V & others) ♦ End-of-project workshop

M=Melbourne; D=Darwin; SJ=South Johnstone; T=Thailand; V=Vietnam

 10

SECTION 2: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

2.1 Background

Phytophthora diseases
Many tropical tree crops are severely affected by diseases caused by the polyphagous,
cosmopolitan soil-borne pathogen Phytophthora palmivora. On durian, symptoms manifest
as root rot, seedling/tree dieback, patch canker and pre- and post-harvest fruit decay (Lim
and Chan, 1996, Chan and Lim, 1987, Lim 1990). Infection is most severe during the
rainy season, when spores of P. palmivora are dispersed from the soil, or from tree canker
infections, to ripening fruits. Rainwater drops at the stylar end of the fruit induce spore
germination. The resulting rot spreads rapidly into the flesh, especially during storage and
transit, causing the skin to split, rendering the fruits unsaleable within days.
Durian is seriously affected
Durian is an important cash crop in most of Asia, including Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia
and the Philippines, and is a key element in the reconstruction of horticulture in the
Mekong Delta of Vietnam. The rapid consumer-driven expansion of the durian industry in
Thailand has led to the establishment of orchards on increasingly marginal land. This
marginal land was badly affected by the devastating floods of 1994, and the outbreak of
Phytophthora that followed killed about 40% of the durian trees. Severe losses have also
been reported in new orchards in Far North Queensland following Cyclone Justin in 1997.
Although this scale of tree death is uncommon, rots of ripening fruit are responsible for
chronic production losses, estimated at 30% in Malaysia, and 15% in Vietnam (Nguyen
Minh Chau, Southern Fruit Research Institute, Vietnam, pers. comm., 1996). The
incidence of rots developing after harvest are difficult to estimate and vary with storage
conditions and length of storage, but whole consignments are often destroyed (Lee, 1988).
Preliminary surveys suggest combined losses of at least 20% due to diseases caused by
Phytophthora. The significance of the threat to production resulting these diseases is
reflected by the priority ranking of research into their control by the Thailand Research
Fund (P. Boon-Long, Thailand Research Fund, pers. comm. 1995), and is a priority crop in
the five-year agricultural strategy (1996-2000) of the Vietnam government. Financial
support for local aspects of this proposal has been offered by the Thailand Research Fund,
the Vietnam Fund and Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. The durian
growers in north Queensland and the Northern Territory have identified Phytophthora
diseases as one of the prime production constraints in the Australian Durian Industry
Strategic Plan sponsored by Rural Industries Research & Corporation, RIRDC Project
No ZTR- 01. Durian was rated in the top three fruits among 41 crops as having the best
market potential and developmental prospect in an RIRDC sponsored workshop on
Market Opportunities and Research Priorities for Commercially under-exploited
Tropical Fruits, Vegetables and Nuts held in Cairns, July 1997.
The disease cycle is similar to that on other tropical tree crops
There have been some attempts to control Phytophthora on durian using fungicides,
biological antagonists and hygiene, although these have been firefighting exercises that
were applied too late to reduce losses significantly or sustainably. Orchard management
practices are important in reducing the survival and dissemination of the pathogen. Studies
on Phytophthora in cocoa plantations show that the pathogen survives in several ways over
the dry season, including dormant propagules and mycelium in infected roots and host
 11

debris in the soil, in infected fruit mummies, as infections of flower cushions and cankers,
and as dormant propagules in bark crevices (Gregory and Maddison, 1981; Konam &
Guest, 1996). There is potential to identify biological factors that reduce the survival, and
thus primary inoculum levels, of the pathogen. For example survival of P. palmivora in
infected cocoa pod tissue is significantly reduced under mulch compared to bare soil or
grass (Konam & Guest, 1996). Composted chicken manures significantly reduce the
survival of P. cinnamomi in soil, and the consequent development of disease in
horticultural plants (Aryantha and Guest, 1997). A secondary advantage of composts,
mulches and manures is their ability to stimulate plant growth.
At the start of the rainy season, the pathogen disseminates from the soil to the canopy as a
result of rain-splash and the activity of invertebrate vectors such as ants and flying beetles
(Dennis & Konam, 1993). Further work is required to assess the role of these insects in
durian orchards. Experiments with leguminous ground covers have significantly reduced
disease incidence in cocoa plantations, and improved soil fertility. Control of Phytophthora
using post-harvest fungicide applications had no effect on fruit rots caused by other
pathogens like Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Phomposis
sp., although there is some evidence that fungicidal control of these pathogens may
increase the severity of Phytophthora fruit rot (Sangchote, unpublished).
There is an urgent need for co-ordinated research into durian orchard establishment
and management practices. This must include the development of a sustainable disease
management package for durian, to prevent the outbreak of epidemics, to reduce disease
losses to Phytophthora and other pathogens, and to address the related threat of land
degradation resulting from the unsuccessful establishment of durian orchards on
marginal land.
Resistance to Phytophthora has been reported in related Durio species, although these
species have not yet been adequately investigated as potential rootstocks. Durian
germplasm collections exist in Cairns, Darwin, Indonesia and Thailand, and offer a
valuable resource for future breeding programs. The response of these collections to
different isolates of Phytophthora is unknown, making pathogen variability studies an
essential part of this research.
P. palmivora has a wide host range including many horticultural and plantation crops in
South East Asia. The development of a sustainable durian industry may involve
intercropping of durian as a shade tree for other crops, many of which are susceptible to P.
palmivora. It is essential that an integrated management strategy addresses the diversity
and host range of P. palmivora isolates. There is some evidence from preliminary studies
at Kasetsart University of host specialisation in this pathogen, but this needs further study
at the physiological and molecular level. Our activity here will complement the much
broader study of pathogen variability proposed by Dr A. Drenth under CS2/96/193.
Durian is an ideal model for the development of integrated management strategies for
Phytophthora diseases of tree crops. Because of its value, growers are highly motivated to
implement intensive orchard management practices, including hygiene, regular pruning
and harvests, compost and fertiliser application, pest, disease and weed control. The novel
technique of trunk injection of phosphonate fungicide has been shown to economically
control Phytophthora diseases of cocoa in monsoonal environments where traditional
fungicide sprays are ineffective and potentially polluting (Guest et al. 1994 & 1995).
Annual injections have given control in experimental plots for over a decade. Phosphonate
applications act by reducing pathogen sporulation and protecting the plant rather than by
 12

eradicating the pathogen, and in an integrated disease management program phosphonate

complements other management practices such as composting, that acts by reducing
pathogen survival. Integrated management based on cultural practices, readily-available
composts along with strategic applications of an inexpensive fungicide such as
phosphonate are particularly suitable for smallholder mixed farming systems.
Post-harvest rot of durian fruit is the major marketing problem, although infection is
thought to occur in the field. This project aims to reduce losses by preventing infection of
the tree, reducing tree deaths due to canker, and reducing infection of the ripe fruits. It has
ready application to the management of a range of other tropical and temperate tree crops.
There is now a unique opportunity for Australia and other producer countries to
collaborate in the development of a continuous supply of high-quality fresh fruits to these
lucrative markets.
Integrated disease management is sustainable and appropriate for smallholders
Recent work on the biology and management of P. palmivora diseases of cocoa in Papua
New Guinea has demonstrated that tree and pod losses can be significantly reduced by an
integrated management program including hygiene, establishment of leguminous ground
cover, management of insect vector breeding sites, biological control and fungicides
(Dennis & Konam, 1993; Konam & Guest, 1996). It also showed, together with related
work on avocado in Queensland, the importance of understanding tree architecture and
phenology in relation to the timing of phosphonate injection and disease control (Whiley et
al. 1995). The use of composted chicken manure to reduce pathogen survival, as
previously mentioned, exploits a waste material. There is also recent evidence of
antagonistic interactions between other fruit fungi and P. palmivora that warrants further
investigation because of their possible impact on tree survival and post-harvest rots caused
by P. palmivora and other pathogens. The proposed project will apply similar principles to
develop strategies to manage Phytophthora diseases of durian.
The viability of tropical fruit industries, both for local and export markets, depends on the
production of high-quality fruit. In previous ACIAR projects involving studies of
post-harvest diseases of tropical fruits, including durian, diseases caused by Phytophthora
have complicated studies of other diseases. P. palmivora causes significant losses of durian
due to pre-harvest fruit infection and tree infections that decrease fruit yields and cause
tree deaths. These infections serve as sources of inoculum for post-harvest fruit rots. These
diseases have also been the focus of research, funded by the Thailand Research Fund, by
Dr Somsiri Sangchote. Following heavy rains during 1994, forty percent of trees in one
major orchard in the main durian-growing region of eastern Thailand died following a
severe outbreak of stem canker and root rot caused by P. palmivora. Similar losses were
recorded in other orchards. There is an emerging durian industry in northern Australia that
aims to supply the off-season market in Asia. P. palmivora is present in the areas where
durians are being planted, and tree deaths due to canker have been observed in Far North
Queensland, and the pathogen identified as P. palmivora (Lynton Vawdrey, QDPI, South
Johnstone, Matthew Weinert, CRC-TPP Brisbane & Alan Zapalla, Bellenden Ker,
personal communications).
Effective disease control measures for durian diseases will lead to sustainability of the
durian industry and guarantee high yields of quality fruit, and prolong their storage life.
These developments could foster the development of a much larger industry within the
next 20 years, in the same way that such measures have underpinned the expansion of the
Australian mango industry.
 13

2.2 Economic Significance

The significance of durian is Asia is not limited to its commercial value, but includes
its cultural significance, a factor that adds to the quality of life experienced by all
strata of Asian society. Furthermore, strategies developed for the control of
Phytophthora diseases of durian may be easily transferred to other tropical tree crops
affected by this pathogen. Its high cultural value promotes intensive management
inputs that favour its use as an experimental model, and promotes grower awareness
of integrated disease management practices.

Durian is one of the most popular and widely consumed seasonal fruit in South East Asia.
Quality fruits command high prices
Table 1. Range of seasonal variations in durian market prices, production figures and
value (Nanthachai, 1994)
Country Price per kg Total production Value ($A million)
($A) (Thousand Tonnes; 1993-94)

Thailand 1.00-6.00 746 746 - 4,476

Malaysia 7.00-8.50 200 1,400 - 1,700
Indonesia 0.30-6.50 200 60 - 1,300
Vietnam 0.50-5.00 110 55 - 550
Philippines - 3.85-6.00 145* 558 - 870*
local rural *(based on 1987 Yield/ha *calculated at range of

area
Metro Manilla 7.70-25.65 and 1994 planting area) rural price

Singapore 12.80-18.00 insignificant local

(named production
varieties)
(village types) 3.85-8.00 0
Australia 8.00-12.00 0.2 1.6 - 2.4
World total 2.60 1,176 3,055
(estimated)

Almost half of the world’s durians are grown in Thailand, which supplies 80% of the
world’s export trade. Fruit production increased by 50% between 1989 and 1992, and the
size of the domestic market, based on a conservative wholesale price of $A2.60/kg, now
measures almost $A 2,000 million (A$ 2 billion) (Table 1). By comparison, the production
of that nation’s rice industry was valued at $1,317 million in 1993. An additional 53,869
tonnes of fresh fruit and 2,559 tonnes of frozen fruit, valued at over $A50 million, were
exported in 1993. Growers expect an average yield of 10-18 tonnes per ha, realising
$A26,000-90,000/ha at local market prices for premium cultivars. The value of exports of
durian from Thailand now exceeds all other fruits, including banana and mango. Durian is
also a significant crop in Indonesia, Malaysia and Vietnam, and is one of the most valuable
 14

traded fruits in Asia. The major markets for exported durians are Singapore, Hong Kong,
Taiwan and Brunei.
Based on initial surveys, total pre- and post-harvest losses due to Phytophthora diseases of
durian are conservatively estimated at 20%, equivalent in value to least $600 million. The
development of an integrated management program for Phytophthora diseases of cocoa,
similar to that proposed in this project, reduced total losses from 30% to less than 10%. If
these results are extrapolated to durian, this could mean a saving of at least $400 million to
the durian industry.
Durian orchards were first planted in north Queensland in 1980 and in the Northern
Territory in 1984. There are two driving forces behind the development of a durian
industry in Australia. The first is to satisfy the growing domestic market that consumes
imports valued at about $2 million every year. The second factor capitalises on the fact that
durian harvesting in Australia is out of phase with major Asian producers (Figure 1),
generating a potential export industry to lucrative out-of-season markets in Singapore,
Hong Kong, Malaysia, Taiwan and Japan. The exploitation of these markets depends on
the production, and delivery, of high-quality, disease-free fruit. The threat of post-harvest
decay and transit rot is particularly serious for producers attempting to establish a
reputation in these markets. The threat is worth resolving, given potential gross returns of
$60,000/ha (based on local costs and prices).

Figure 1: Seasonality of durian harvests in durian producing areas (Nanthachai,

1994)
Production Area Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

W Malaysia
E Malaysia
Thailand
Indonesia
Vietnam
Laos PDR
Cambodia
Philippines
Brunei
Myanmar
Singapore
N Queensland
Northern
Territory

2.3 Literature Review

Current status of durian growing in South East Asia

Durian is grown in all areas of tropical Asia and the South Pacific. The major areas of
commercial production in Thailand are around Rayong, Chanthaburi, Trad, and Prachin
Buri in the east and Surat Thani, Chumporn, Nakorn Sri Thammarat, and Yala in the south.
The total producing area is 123,260 hectares, consisting of large commercial and
smallholder orchards, with a total yield of 746,642 tons (1993/94). The vast majority of
 15

fruit is consumed locally or shipped to city markets. Exports in 1995, primarily to Hong
Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia, totalled 48,761 tonnes, valued at 1004.1 million baht
(Sertrapukdee, 1996, Udomsin, 1994).

Vietnam produces about 110,000 tonnes of fresh durian from about 10,000 ha, mainly in
the Mekong Delta where the industry is expanding rapidly Chau, pers.comm.). Many
varieties and local selections are grown, resulting in large variations in yield, fruit quality
and disease incidence. Preliminary surveys conducted by Southern Fruit Research Institute
at Long Dinh have shown that 70% of fruits are infected by Phytophthora, causing an
estimated yield loss of 15%. At present there are no reliable control recommendations.

As indicated above, the potential to develop a durian industry in Australia is good. Fruit
harvests are seasonally revered compared to the main producers north of the equator
(Figure 1), and this is reflected in our observations of tree phenology (Figure 2). Not
enough is known about production trends or the threat posed by Phytophthora diseases to
be able to predict any trends. P. palmivora is present in northern Australia, and was
recently isolated from stem lesions on durian in Darwin and in Cairns, north Queensland
(Lim, Vawdrey, Weinert, pers. comms. 1997).

Objective 1: Because the durian industry is dispersed and rapidly expanding, baseline
information is essential to define trends in production, disease incidence and severity.

Objective 2: Development of disease management strategies requires a complete

understanding of the disease cycle on durian, and other hosts. This involves a
description of pathogen diversity, host range and sources of disease resistance, and
definition of durian crop phenology, environmental, soil and crop management factors
leading to disease.
 16

Figure 2. Durian crop phenology in Darwin, Australia (above) and Chantaburi,

Thailand (Below) (after Lim and Sangchote)

Epidemiology of Phytophthora diseases of durian

The most common and severe disease of durian trees is caused by the pathogenic
oomycete, Phytophthora palmivora. Phytophthora root rot was reported in Thailand in
1966 (Phavakul and Jaengsri, 1969) and in Malaysia (Navaratnam, 1966). Infected trees at
first show no external symptoms until a dark liquid begins to exude from one or more spots
on the trunk, usually near the base. Scraping the bark reveals a blackened, necrotic lesion
in the inner bark and phloem. The portion of bark is killed, forming a patch canker, and
 17

becomes riddled with boring beetles, including Conopia sp. (Thompson, 1934;
Navaratnam, 1966). In advanced stages of infection, defoliation and twig dieback occurs,
and if the patch canker encircles the trunk the tree will die. Infection can also occur in
leaf, stem, and fruit tissue (Phavakul and Chinnavasarn,1975; Katuruak et.al., 1990). The
pathogen also causes a devastating seedling dieback and foliar blight with losses exceeding
50% (Chan and Lim, 1987). P. palmivora can infect fruit directly (Lim and Chan, 1986)
and through wounds on the surface of the fruit by zoospore, sporangium, and mycelium
(Pongpisutta and Sangchote, 1994). Fruit rot usually starts to develop at the ripening stage
of the fruit. Fruit from Rayong province in Thailand suffered average losses of about 8%
due to Phytophthora rot (Sangchote and Chana, 1980). Similar surveys in Vietnam have
indicated losses up to 70% (Chau, pers. comm).

Host range: Morphologically indistinguishable strains of P. palmivora show signs of host

specialisation. Strains isolated from durian are highly pathogenic to durian seedlings,
moderately pathogenic to papaya seedling and non-pathogenic to seedlings of cocoa,
jackfruit, tangelo, mandarin orange, pulasan, rambutan, and passionfruit (Tai, 1971, Chan
and Lim, 1987) However, other strains of P. palmivora show specialisation on cocoa,
coconut, rubber (Thompson, 1934) orchid (Navaratnam, 1966), and sweet orange (Zitko, et
al., 1991). The specificity of durian and non-durian strains of P. palmivora has serious
implications for quarantine and for disease management strategies in mixed farming
systems.

Environmental factors: Humid and damp conditions are necessary for infection and for
development of the disease. It is evident sporangia are carried by rain splash, insects, snails
or wind (Lim, 1990) to the stem. In the presence of water, sporangia germinate to release
zoospores, which infect the stem. Poor drainage and temporary flooding are commonly
associated with disease epidemics. The presence of grass and other cover around the collar
of trees are also factors conducive to infection and disease development (Navaratnam,
1966).

Cultivar susceptibility: Many durian cultivars are susceptible to this disease including
Kadoom, Laung, Kob, Kanyao, Chanee, and Monthong (Keeratipatarakul, 1980;
Pongpisutta and Sangchote, 1994) Surveys of disease incidence on Kadoom and Laung
cultivars in Thailand found that 60 and 59.5% of trees, respectively, were infected
(Keeratipataragul, 1980).

Resistance to Phytophthora exists in local selections of durian, and gives reduced

susceptibility, although systematic surveys of this resource have been very limited
(Pongpisutta and Sangchote, 1994; Tai, 1971). Hybrids bred from Malaysian selections by
MARDI with increased resistance have been released recently (Lim, 1997). A large
resource of potential disease resistance exists in related Durio, Neesia, Coelostegia and
Kostermansia spp. that have evolved in high disease-pressure environments (Lim, 1997).
However, the difficulties combining yield, disease resistance and fruit quality in perennial
tree crop breeding programs is likely to preclude rapid advances in the control of
Phytophthora. As well, pathogen variability in different locations may confound disease
resistance breeding programs.
 18

An alternative to conventional breeding that could be used in integrated disease

management is to develop rootstocks that confer resistance to Phytophthora root rot. More
studies are required to determine graft compatibility with scions of common durian and the
nature and extent of disease resistance. Selected rootstocks could also impart desirable
agronomic characters, fruiting precocity and habitat adaptability (Lim, 1997).

Objective 3: As disease can impact on durian cultivation at all stages from the
nursery to mature orchards, and beyond to the marketplace, a series of disease
management options must be investigated to reduce disease incidence and severity at
each stage of the cropping cycle.

Development of disease control measures

The following approaches have the greatest potential and are listed according to the time
required for implementation and results:

1. Improving soil drainage: There is a clear association between water-logging and disease
incidence and severity on durian. Part of this association reflects the dependence of the
pathogen on free water for dispersal and infection previously discussed, however the
effects of soil, root, trunk and leaf water potential on symptom expression is not well
understood (Bunny et al. 1995; Podger, 1972; Davison, 1997; Weste, 1997). Although the
most suitable durian-growing soils in Thailand and Vietnam are considered to be well-
drained loams, these soils frequently have very high water tables that provide a continuous
source of water. Poorer soils may have lower water tables that induce seasonal water
stress, or may be more prone to seasonal flooding. It is seasonal stress of this type that
causes the secondary dieback symptom in Phytophthora cinnamomi-infected eucalypt
forests of southern Australia (Podger, 1972). Improving soil drainage through mounding
and mulch application is a successful IDM strategy used in avocado orchards prone to
attack by Phytophthora (Broadley, 1992). A thorough understanding of the effects of water
relations on disease may allow improved drainage and irrigation practices that reduce
Phytophthora disease of durian.

2. Nursery practices and soil pasteurisation: Seedlings understocks are widely used in the
clonal propagation of durian cultivars, however, they are not genetically uniform and give
rise to variable planting material (Lim, 1997). Understocks asexually propagated by
marcottage or cuttings provide genetic uniformity and hence uniformity in disease
resistance, growth development and preclude scion/rootstock incompatibility problems.
The use of genetically uniform planting materials, especially those with good resistance to
Phytophthora, established in pasteurised potting mix will ensure the development of
healthy and vigorous plants that can withstand the onslaught of disease attack. Pasteurised
potting mix amended with beneficial antagonistic microorganisms is another approach that
can be used to induce soil suppressiveness against Phytophthora. The use of advanced
planting material system as is successfully practised in Malaysia can enhanced seedling
establishment in the first two years (Lim, 1997). Such practices coupled with the use of a
nursery accreditation scheme will thwart the occurrence of diseases.

3. Chemical control: Phytophthora spp. can be experimentally controlled by copper-based

protectant fungicides, or by systemic fungicides including carbamates, cymoxamils,
acylanilides, and phosphonates (Cohen and Coffey, 1986). These chemicals may be
applied as soil drenches, sprays, root infusions or by trunk injection (Buchenauer, 1990;
 19

Guest et al., 1995). Disease on the stem of durian can be eliminated by scraping the
diseased area, then applying paints of metalaxyl or fosetyl aluminium. Due to the systemic
properties of these fungicides, soil drenches with metalaxyl or fosetyl aluminium could be
detected on leaves of durian trees after 7 days of application and remain effective for at
least 25 days (Vichitranonth et al, 1980). Annual trunk injections of phosphonate
successfully control stem canker and Phytophthora pod rot of cocoa (Guest et al., 1994),
and root rot of avocado caused by P. cinnamomi (Darvas, et. al., 1984), while transplant
dips give persistent protection against root and heart rot of pineapple caused by P.
cinnamomi and P. parasitica (Rohrbach and Schenck, 1985). Preliminary trials in Vietnam
have shown significantly reduce disease incidence and severity following phosphonate
trunk injections (Appendix 1).

Phosphonate is unique among fungicides in its water solubility and its translocation in both
the xylem and phloem of plants. Because of this, trunk injections can be used to treat
Phytophthora infections of roots as well as leaves, stems and fruits (Guest et al., 1995).
Phosphonate, formulated for use in horticulture, is widely available, inexpensive and
environmentally safe. The phosphonate anion is strongly inhibitory to critical stages in the
life cycle of certain Phytophthora spp., especially to sporulation (Ouimette and Coffey,
1990), although in general it has only a weak effect on mycelial growth (Guest and Grant,
1991). The activity of phosphonate against Phytophthora spp. results from the disruption
of phosphate metabolism, resulting in a loss of pathogenicity and subsequent stimulation of
a defence reaction in host (Griffith et al., 1992; Guest and Bompeix, 1990; Guest & Grant,
1991). Unlike Phytophthora, plant metabolism discriminates between phosphate and
phosphonate, and phosphonate remains essentially inert, and persists in treated tissue until
diluted or lost as the plant grows and senesces (MacIntire, et. al., 1950). Although
repeated applications of fungicides can select resistant pathogen strains, no resistance to
phosphonate has been recorded, presumably because of this complex mode of action. On
the other hand, Ferrin and Wadsworth (1992) reported that two isolates of Phytophthora
parasitica, pathogenic to Catharathus roseus, developed resistance to metalaxyl.

4. Biological control: Pathogen inoculum must compete and survive in septic environments,
such as the soil or plant surface, before infecting a host. Many bacteria, actinomycetes and
fungi have been shown to compete, antagonise and parasitise pathogen propagules,
including those of Phytophthora (Aryantha, 1997; Aryantha and Guest, 1997). These
micro-organisms can be manipulated in biological control. Fungi such as Trichoderma spp.
and Gliocladium spp. have been shown to have potential as biological control agents
(Papavizas, 1985). Lim and Chan (1986b) reported sporangia and chlamydospores of
Phytophthora palmivora were attacked by mycelium of Gliocladium roseum. Awarun
(1994) showed that 2 isolates Trichoderma harzianum provided complete protection of all
test plants. Although these microbes are common in agricultural soils, their levels of
activity may not adequately control diseases caused by Phytophthora. Two strategies have
been employed with biological control agents, the first is to add exotic antagonist strains,
and the second is to manipulate the environment to stimulate the activities of endogenous
antagonists. This is most commonly achieved by adding organic matter to the soil.
Numerous studies have shown, for example, that composted chicken manure stimulates
soil actinomycetes, reducing the survival, and disease-potential, of Phytophthora
(Aryantha and Guest, 1997). Studies on leaves and fruits have revealed epiphytic yeasts
and bacilli, especially those isolated from healthy fruit growing under high disease
pressure, that also reduce postharvest disease when applied to harvested fruit (El-Ghaouth
& Wilson, 1995; Leibinger et al., 1997). Preliminary studies in Project 9313 suggested
 20

antagonism between certain postharvest pathogens, including Lasiodiplodia theobromae,

and Phytophthora. As a consequence, Phytophthora postharvest disease increased when
treatments to control L. theobromae were effective.

5. Resistant rootstocks: D. lawianus, a wild durian from Chumphon Province in southern

Thailand, is more resistant to P. palmivora than commercial cultivars of D. zibithinus.
Hundreds of years of selection by durian growers in Malaysia and Indonesia have also
produced more resistant cultivars and varieties, and breeding programs by MARDI in
Malaysia have produced a range of field-tolerant hybrids. Lim (1997) suggested that many
potential sources of disease resistance may be found in Durio and related genera found
growing wild in damp, low-lying areas. The few studies on disease resistance in durian
have indicated that the type of resistance selected is horizontal or polygenic, resulting in
quantitative rather than qualitative disease resistance (Lim, 1997; Phavakul and
Chitanavasarn, 1975). The use of these selections as rootstocks would provide a valuable
tool in integrated disease management, and avoid the difficulties encountered in combining
disease resistance with fruit quality and yield in conventional breeding programs. Single-
or multiple-rootstock/scion combinations may offer additional advantages to
environmental tolerance, precocity, yield and fruit quality (Lim, 1997).

6. Integrated disease management: The wider appreciation of the need for sustainable
production systems that reduce harmful environmental impacts has prompted a shift to
integrated disease management strategies. These strategies are underpinned by a thorough
and comprehensive understanding of the dynamic relationship of the crop host and
pathogen with their physical, chemical and biological environment. Integrated disease
management uses all available management tools in a tactical battle aimed at reducing
disease levels to economically acceptable levels. These tools may include the targeted use
of fungicides, biological control, resistant rootstocks, fertilisers, physical and cultural
methods, as described above. The key to the program is the way management options are
used to complement each other. Integrated management programs incorporate growers
needs and preferences and are especially suitable for tree crops that allow long-term,
continuous application.

Objective 4: Options for integrated management need to be verified by establishing

grower-demonstration plots in durian growing areas.

An important goal of this project is to encourage implementation of the recommendations

from our research with on-farm trials and demonstration plots. Grower participation in testing
and fine-tuning of disease management options for both orchard management and postharvest
handling serves the dual purposes of verifying their practicality, as well as encouraging
greater uptake. On-farm and packhouse demonstrations stimulate grower interest and provide
sites for field days.

In Thailand, uptake of postharvest technology for longans has succeeded because of the close
involvement of producers and marketers in developing quality assurance protocols (Tongdee,
1997).

Objective 5: To encourage international collaboration and information exchange

between existing and emerging durian producers
This project brings together expertise from Thailand, a major durian producer, as well as from
Australia and Vietnam, countries with potential to develop and greatly expand their
 21

industries. As indicated in Section 2.1 (Background), active research on durian cultivation

and orchard and postharvest disease management is being undertaken throughout Southeast
Asia (Nanthachai, 1994). The project participants maintain close linkages with durian
researchers in Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei. In addition, this project will involve, and
contribute to, the wider field of study on the evolution and pathogenicity of Phytophthora
species (Irwin et al., 1997), and we have links with Phytophthora researchers in Australia,
Europe and the USA.

2.3 Research Objectives, Hypotheses and Expected Outputs

Objective 1: To review baseline information about durian, Phytophthora, and farming

practices, and to undertake a planning workshop.
Objective 2: To verify and expand knowledge of host-pathogen-environment interactions that
underpin successful disease management.
Objective 3: To develop disease management strategies for nurseries, orchards and
postharvest handling
Objective 4: To demonstrate integrated management options to growers using on-farm plots
in durian growing areas.
Objective 5: To encourage international collaboration and information exchange between
existing and emerging durian producers

Hypothesis: That relevant aspects of the what we know about Phytophthora and the
management system involving injection of phosphonates developed for control of
Phytophthora diseases in cocoa and avocado can be adapted for control of P. palmivora
in durian.

Outputs: Tailored management strategies for durian that ensure a sustainable reduction
in orchard damage and postharvest losses caused by Phytophthora in South East Asia
and Australia.

2.5 Research Method

Objective 1: Baseline Review and Planning Workshop

A planning workshop will be held to thoroughly review past and current work on
Phytophthora in durian, and to develop work plans for the project. Pertinent work on durian
cultivation, cropping systems and orchard management practices which have relevance to the
integrated control of Phytophthora diseases will also be discussed. This will be followed by
an overview of the project schedules and workload requirements. Uniform methodology and
experimental procedures and analysis will be elaborated and demonstrated whenever
necessary. This workshop will be held in late 1998 at the University of Melbourne where
there necessary facilities and equipment are available (see Appendix 2). The planning
workshop will be followed by field visit to Southeast Queensland and durian growing sites in
Far North Queensland.

The outcomes of this workshop will be communicated to durian researchers not directly
involved in this project, including researchers from Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and
Brunei. Options for email networking will be explored. This will encourage future
interactions and improve coordination of regional research activities.
 22

Objective 2: Disease cycle and epidemiology

Once the baseline review identifies suitable field sites covering a range of environments with
varying levels of disease incidence and severity, systematic surveys will be undertaken to
identify

• Sources of primary inoculum (propagative material, soil, alternative hosts etc.);

• Seasonal variation in levels of inoculum in soil, roots, bark, leaves and fruit;
• Interactions between soil type, drainage, biological antagonism, ground cover and
companion crops and mycorrhiza on pathogen survival, dissemination and infection;
• Fluctuations in soil water potential on their effect on the survival and spread of the
pathogen;
• Edaphic factors responsible for disease suppressiveness and conduciveness;
• Pathogen vectors and modes of dissemination (physical, splash, ants, beetles etc);
• Modes of fruit infection.

This information will then be used to design intervention studies, examining potential disease
management options, such as:
• The effect of soil amendments (e.g. Trigreen PP-1R, Trichoderma harzianum, Effective
Microorganisms etc.) and composts on soil biology and disease.
• The effect of orchard management practices (soil drainage and irrigation, fertiliser,
pruning, hygiene, intercropping systems etc.) on disease.

The techniques required for this study are routine at one or more of these laboratories, but
require application to durian and Phytophthora. Pathogen populations will be monitored by
baiting techniques and by direct isolation on to agar. Soil physical, chemical and biological
characters will be described using standard techniques established in our laboratories
(Aryantha, 1997). This study would largely involve the University of Melbourne, NT-DPIF
and Kasetsart University, and could form the basis for postgraduate student projects.

Pathogen distribution

Pathogen isolates from durian and other hosts from different regions, from different tissues
(soil, roots, bark, leaves, fruit) will be collected and examined. Pathogen diversity and
specificity will be compared using morphological characters, host and tissue-specificity,
isozyme analysis and DNA-fingerprinting.

This study would primarily involve Melbourne and Kasetsart, with roles for NT-DPIF and the
Southern Fruit Research Institute (SOFRI) in pathogen collection.

Resistance screening

In vitro and in-vivo assays for resistance of different durian tissues and genotypes will be
developed in parallel to assays for pathogenicity, using techniques developed for other crops
such as cocoa (Blaha, PNG-CCRI, pers. comm.). This sub-project will be coordinated by the
Project Leader and Research Fellow at The University of Melbourne.
 23

a) Rootstock compatibility, disease resistance, precocity, yield and fruit quality of potentially
useful durian genotypes will be examined. Single and multiple rootstocks will be compared
in glasshouse and field trials in Darwin. This sub-project will be coordinated with similar
programs in Malaysia (Lim, 1997) and Thailand, with whom we will exchange durian
genetic resources. This project is ideal for a topic for postgraduate research involving the
research assistant to be based in Darwin for the fieldwork.

b) The physiology of disease resistance will be examined to identify discriminatory host

responses for use as early physiological and biochemical markers in rapid screens for
resistant durian genotypes. Initial studies will use detached leaves in bioassays, and will be
extended to studies on intact plants and fruit. The experience of the Project Leader, derived
from ARC-funded research into the role of the oxidative burst in the elicitation of disease
resistance mechanisms and the role of hypersensitive cell death and phytoalexins
(Sutherland, 1992; Able et al., 1998), will be applied to the durian/Phytophthora
interaction.

Nursery practice and orchard establishment

The rapid expansion of durian plantings in Thailand, Vietnam and Northern Australia depends
on successful orchard establishment and the sustainable production of quality fruit. This study
builds on the knowledge gained from the baseline surveys, and aims to identify important
factors in site selection and establishment and their effects on disease pressure, including:

a. site preparation (drainage, mounding, fertilisers, irrigation, soil amendment, compost,

mulch), transplanting age, season, shade management, pruning, fertilisers, composts
etc.
b. the most suitable varieties and planting materials;
c. stock/scion compatibility;
d. multiple rootstocks;
e. the best propagation techniques (seedlings, grafting, marcottage etc.);
f. nursery management practices (hygiene, fertiliser, shade, pest and disease
management);

The pressure to increase durian plantings in Australia and Vietnam has generated an urgent
demand for recommendations, and have also made available suitable field sites and grower
cooperators in these countries. This sub-project would be undertaken by NT-DPIF Darwin, in
close collaboration with QDPI South Johnstone, SOFRI and The University of Melbourne.

Orchard management: Fungicide application

Trunk injections of phosphonate fungicides provide excellent control of Phytophthora on

avocado and cocoa.. Preliminary trials in Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia have also shown
good efficacy on durian. Because phosphonate is phloem-translocated, it is essential to
thoroughly understand tree phenology so that injections are timed to provide maximum
protection to the vulnerable part of the plant when infection pressure is highest. Figure 2
illustrates the seasonal nature of tree phenology at two durian-growing locations, Chantaburi
(Thailand) and Darwin (Australia). Fungicide applications will be to coincide with the dry
season, start of the rainy season, end of the rainy season or during flowering.
 24

The main limitation of this sub-project will be getting access to enough uniform trees to
design a rigorous but statistically powerful trial. For this reason, we propose two levels of
trials - simple +/- trials using the current GreenleavesR recommendation from Thailand (3x20
mL injections of 200 g/L potassium phosphonate at 2-4 monthly intervals), and more complex
trials comparing a range of rates, frequency and timing of fungicide injection.

a. A simple pilot trial in Vietnam commenced in November 1996 and similar trials will
be established at other locations. These trials use single tree replicates to compare
several rates of application at different times with respect to seasons and tree
phenology. Records of fruit yield (healthy, Phytophthora, non-Phytophthora), tree
survival, canker severity and post-harvest disease (one week after harvest) will be kept
for each single tree replicate (25 trees/treatment), then combined and analysed to
formulate interim recommendations.

b. More complex trials will be established in Darwin (or North Queensland) and
Thailand to provide material for fungicide translocation, persistence and residue
analyses by the Research fellow at The University of Melbourne. These analyses will
allow fine-tuning of the optimum rates, frequency and timing of injection.

Orchard management: Biological control

Previous studies, including those in the Project Leader’s laboratory in Melbourne, have
identified the beneficial effects of chicken manure-based composts on root diseases caused by
Phytophthora because these treatments reduce the survival of the pathogen in the soil
(Aryantha and Guest, 1997). The potential of compost, and other soil amendments for the
control of durian disease, and their effects on tree growth and fruit yield will be tested in
glasshouse trials conducted in Melbourne and in field trials in Northern Australia, Thailand
and Vietnam as suitable sites become available.

In addition to chicken manure-composts of varying composition, we will screen a range of

commercially available soil amendments, including products such as Effective
Microorganisms, Bokashi, SC27" and formulations of Trichoderma.
Combinations of these amendments with composts will be screened for activity against
Phytophthora in vitro, in bioassays and glasshouse trials. The most active amendments will be
selected for field trials, where they will be assessed for their potential in IDM.

a) Endophytes isolated from durian tissue (stems, leaves, developing fruits) will be isolated.
Their occurrence will be monitored in different tissues and seasons, and screened for
activity against Phytophthora. This activity will be coordinated with orchard management
and fungicide trials to examine the possible effects of orchard management practices on
endophyte colonisation and disease, both in the orchard and post-harvest.

Management of postharvest disease

Our initial studies will focus on the infection process in fruit, and the interactions between
Phytophthora, other pathogens, saprophytes and endophytes. Our assumption is that
Phytophthora infection of fruits occurs in the field and that lesions develop during
postharvest handling, storage and transport. Consequently, practices that reduce the levels of
Phytophthora in the orchard should also reduce postharvest infections.
 25

We will study:

a. Modes of fruit infection

b. The effects of pre-harvest orchard management (such as pruning, orchard management,
IDM and calcium amendments) on fruit quality, the incidence of rots caused by
Phytophthora and other pathogens and fruit storage life;
c. The effects of postharvest fungicide dips (such as Benomyl, Aliette and phosphonate),
biofumigants and biocontrol agents on the severity of Phytophthora and other
postharvest pathogens and on fruit quality and storage life;
d. Interactions and reported antagonism between Phytophthora and other postharvest
pathogens.

This sub-project will be based in Melbourne and Kasetsart where the facilities and expertise
already exist. A key step will be the development of techniques to monitor the presence of the
pathogen, and the development of bioassays to facilitate studies of the effects of treatments on
different stages of fruit disease.

Objective 4: On-farm demonstrations of integrated disease management options

The formulation of IDM strategies for each durian-growing area will emerge from a
careful analysis of our data on disease epidemiology. For example, if pathogen
populations are lowest during the dry season, strategies will be developed to reduce
pathogen survival over this season. In this way levels of primary inoculum will be
minimised. Incorporation of composts will improve soil drainage, and the physical
chemical and biological structure of the soil, reduce ponding and temporary
waterlogging, and suppress zoospore release. Mulches and groundcover will suppress
the dissemination of inoculum from the soil through rainsplash and vectors. Trunk
injection with phosphonate will ensure that any zoospores that are released fail to
colonise durian tissues or release secondary inoculum. The net result should be higher
rates of tree survival and yield, and lower rates of fruit infection.

In this sub-project we will:

a. Identify weak links in the disease cycle that can be exploited by applying the
most appropriate and effective nursery and orchard management practices
available;
b. Target cost-effective management and disease control strategies for each durian-
growing region.
c. At the beginning of the third year of the project, prepare farmer demonstration sites in
Thailand, Vietnam and Australia according to preliminary recommendations, and
plant with selected durian planting material.
d. Implement a range of management strategies designed to reduce the impact of disease
in on-farm plantings of mature durian orchards in Australia, Thailand and Vietnam,
once again at the start of the third year of the project. Other countries (Malaysia,
Brunei, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia or the Philippines) could also become involved
in collaborative trials at this stage.
e. Establishment of these trials will be co-ordinated with the local extension services,
and will involve training workshops and regular field visits.
 26

Objective 5: International collaboration

This project brings together expertise from the major durian producing nation, Thailand, a
rapidly-developing but smaller producer, Vietnam, and a potential producer, Australia. We
also have close links with the highly-developed industry in Malaysia, and contacts in
Indonesia and Brunei, and through this project plan to establish a network of researchers
interested in both durian and Phytophthora diseases, including studies on pathogen diversity
in Project CS2/96/193. Key researchers will be invited to participate in the end-of-project
workshop.

2.6 Collaboration / Coordination

The proposed activities build on:

• previous research on Phytophthora fruit rot of durian at Kasetsart University

Pongpisutta and Sangchote);
• previous research by the Project Leader on the use of phosphonate trunk injection
to control Phytophthora diseases of cocoa and coconut in Papua New Guinea,
Indonesia, the Philippines and Brazil;
• research on biological control of Phytophthora cinnamomi in native plant communities at
The University of Melbourne,
• ARC-funded research on the role of the oxidative burst in the elicitation of resistance to
Phytophthora;
• expertise in the management of Phytophthora diseases in durian at NT-DPIF and other
tropical tree crops at The University of Melbourne
• the rapid expansion and associated research effort at SOFRI and NT-DPIF, and
complements:
• proposed research in ACIAR Project CS2/96/193 (Biodiversity, identification and
detection methods for Phytophthora).

Co-funding of aspects of this project is proposed from:

• Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
• Thailand Research Fund
• Vietnam Fund

In-kind support is also proposed from:

• UIM Agrochemicals, the Queensland-based manufacturer of Fosject, the market-leader in
phosphonate fungicides
• Durian growers in Australia (for provision of field trial sites, fruit and time)

Project co-ordination meetings and a start up workshop (Appendix 2) will seek input and
collaboration with durian researchers in other countries, in particular with the Malaysian
research organisation, MARDI, the CRC for Tropical Plant Pathology at the University of
Queensland (Project CS2/96/193), and representatives of the durian industry, shipping and
retailing companies and agrochemical industries. We will also involve local extension
services and coordinate and assist the running of local-language training workshops for
extension officers and durian growers. Interest in, and the feasibility of establishing an email
network of durian researchers will be investigated.
 27

2.7 Economic Impact of the Research

Based on a conservative estimate of 20% yield loss due to pre- and post-harvest
diseases caused by Phytophthora, a halving of this loss to 10% as a result of the
implementation of this research would save durian producers, marketers and consumers
$A400 million annually. This will provide significant flow-on benefits to the wider
communities. In related research on cocoa in high disease pressure areas of Papua New
Guinea, the incidence of Phytophthora pod rot has been reduced from 30% to less than
10% by trunk injection alone, increasing yields by up to 50% (Guest et al., 1994).
Implementation of integrated management could further improve yields, sustainability
and cost-effectiveness.

In addition, the application of results achieved in this project from durian to the
management of Phytophthora diseases of other crops, and the development of scientific
expertise in collaborating countries will enhance the benefits from this project.

2.8 Application of Research

The results of this project will be used to reduce pre- and post-harvest infection of
durians by Phytophthora. This will improve the longevity of durian orchards and
prolong the storage life of harvested fruit. The technology developed will provide
alternatives to, and reduce dependence on, the use of fungicides.

Country-Partner participants have been chosen to ensure successful execution and

implementation of the research program. Key personnel from The University of
Melbourne, NT-DPIF, QDPI, Kasetsart University and SOFRI will participate in all
aspects of project planning, conduct and extension. Advice will be actively sought, both
formally and informally, from growers, industry and collaborating funding agencies
(ACIAR, RIRDC, TRF and VF).
Experience from a related project on the application and adoption of integrated
management programs for the cocoa industry in Papua New Guinea will benefit this
project. A combination of on-station and on-farm trials have been effective in
demonstrating to growers the benefits of these programs, and in the facilitation of
training workshops and field days aimed at all sectors of the industry.

In Australia the durian industry is new and attracting attention from enterprising
growers because of the potential market in Asia. The presence of Phytophthora strains
pathogenic to durian looms as a major threat to this nascent industry. This research will
allow the industry to adopt sound disease management practices from the beginning,
and avoid the boom and bust scenario that has afflicted other rapidly-expanding
industries.
 28

2.9 Impact Assessment

(a) Environmental and social impact

The primary objective of this project is concerned with augmenting the supply of
durians by reducing tree death, pre- and post-harvest fruit losses and extending shelf
life, resulting in qualitative and quantitative benefits to the population. The year-round
availability of quality fresh fruits resulting from improved sustainability of Asian
producers and imports of Australian fruit will stabilise the market and could lead to
modest price reductions and increased demand.

The adoption of integrated disease management practices for Phytophthora will reduce
the reliance on fungicides. The major fungicide to be used, phosphonate, is selective
and is less toxic to humans than table salt. Because it is to be injected, very little
environmental contamination occurs. These two features mean that phosphonate trunk
injections are environmentally benign.

The beneficiaries of this project will be the producers, marketers and consumers of
durians in Asia and Australia. The technology involved in integrated management is
scale- and gender-neutral, and thus benefits smallholders, large orchardists, men and
women equally. Durians are produced on family farms or on extended-family
enterprises, and are sold by family businesses that employ male and female family
members. Women play a prominent role in family decision-making processes, including
management of the family budget, and will benefit from the improved supply and
quality of durian fruit. Employment prospects will be improved at all levels of durian
production and marketing.

2.10 Personnel Involved

Sex Percentage Funding agency

Personnel/position
time/annum
University of
Melbourne
David Guest Male 20 The University of
Melbourne
Research Fellow 100 ACIAR
Technical assistant 50 ACIAR

Kasetsart University
Somsiri Sangchote Male 30 Kasetsart University
Ratiya Pongpisutta Female 50 Kasetsart University

NT DPI & F
T.K. Lim Male 20 NT-DPIF
Y. Diczbalis Male 15 NT DPIF
Research assistant 100 RIRDC
 29

QDPI
L. Vawdrey Male 10 QDPI

SFRI Vietnam
Nguyen Minh Chau Male 10 SFRI (plant physiology)
Huynh Van Thanh Male 80 SFRI (pathology)
Do Minnh Hien Male 50 SFRI (postharvest)
Huynh Van Tan Male 80 SFRI (agronomy)

Activities and Responsibilities:

University of Melbourne

David Guest: Overall project leader. Responsible for project direction, coordination and
liaison sub-project leaders. Project reporting and budgeting, travel coordination,
training and PhD supervision, project workshops and publicity. Planning of
trunk injection and integrated management studies within project.
Research fellow (Melbourne): Assist Dr Guest in project coordination and reporting,
workshop organisation, trial design, visiting scientist programs and
documentation. Frequent project visits. Develop protocols for and undertake
phosphonate residue analyses; plan and undertake studies of fruit infection and
disease resistance mechanisms in durian and exploit links with ARC-funded
research on early defence events in infection by Phytophthora of susceptible and
resistance hosts in the Project Leader’s laboratory.
Technical assistant (half time Melbourne): Assist with development and conduct of
routine bioassays, maintenance of culture collections, assistance with fungicide
residue analyses and logistics of training programs and workshops.

Kasetsart University

Somsiri Sangchote: Thailand project leader, responsible for planning, coordination,

supervision and implementation of Thai component of the project. Supervision
of biocontrol and postharvest studies, and with establishment of on-farm
demonstration trials in Thailand. Will liaise directly with other sub-project
leaders and the Thailand Research Fund, Thailand Department of Agriculture
and growers.
Ratiya Pongpisutta: Responsible for research into the biology of Phytophthora isolates
from durian (PhD project co-supervised by Guest & Sangchote).

NT- Department of Primary Industry & Fisheries

T.K. Lim: Darwin project leader, responsible for planning, coordination, supervision
and implementation of northern Australia component of the project.
Development of rapid screens for resistant durian genotypes. Examine
stock/scion compatibility and multiple rootstock trials. Supervision of orchard
management studies. Will liaise directly with other sub-project leaders, RIRDC
and Australian durian growers.
 30

Y. Diczbalis : Crop/soil water physiologist to look into relationships with crop /soil
water effects on disease spread and survival.

Research assistant (Darwin): Assistance in establishment, maintenance and assessment

of glasshouse and field trials.

QDPI

Lynton Vawdrey: Plant pathologist with responsibility for durians in Far North
Queensland. Management of field and on-farm trials investigating integrated
disease management in liaison with D.Guest (phosphanate injections and
mulches) and TK Lim (Nursery practice).

Southern Fruit Research Institute, Vietnam

Nguyen Minh Chau: Vietnam project leader, responsible for planning, coordination,
supervision and implementation of Vietnamese component of the project.
Supervision of nursery management studies and on-farm demonstration trials.
Will liaise directly other sub-project leaders, Vietnam Fund and Vietnamese
durian growers.
Huynh Van Thanh: Responsible for planning, establishment, implementation and
assessment of field establishment trials in Vietnam (PhD project co-supervised
by Sangchote & Nguyen).

2.11 Project Review

An external review of the project would be appropriate in the middle of the third year of
the project. The review will involve consultation between appropriately qualified
reviewers, the ACIAR Program Coordinator and project leader, with visits to sub-
project leaders in Darwin, Thailand and Vietnam.

2.12 Literature Cited

Able, A., Guest, D.I. and Sutherland, M.W. 1998. Use of a new tetrazolium-based assay to
study the production of superoxide radicals by tobacco cell cultures challenged with
avirulent zoospores of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae. Plant Physiology: In
Press
Aryantha N. (1997). Control of root rots caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands using
manures and composts. PhD Thesis, School of Botany, The University of Melbourne.
Aryantha N. and Guest, D.I. (1997). Biocontrol of Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands using
antagonistic microorganisms. 11th Biennial Conference, Australasian Plant Pathology
Society, Perth, September 29- October 2.
Awarun, S. (1994). Selection and application of antagonistic microorganisms to control root
and stem rot of durian caused by Phytophthora palmivora (Butl.) Butl. M.Sc. Thesis,
Dept. of Plant Pathology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok. (in Thai).
Broadley, R.H. (1992). Protect Your Avocados. QDPI.
Buchennauer, H. (1990). Physiological reactions in the inhibition of plant pathogenic fungi.
p.178-182. In G. Haug and H. Hoffman (eds.). Chemistry of Plant Protection.
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
 31

Bunny, F.J., Crombie, D.S. & Williams, M.R. (1995). Growth of lesions of Phytophthora
cinnamomi in stems and roots of jarrah in relation to rainfall and stand density in
Mediterranean forest of Western Australia. Can. J. Forest Research 25, 961-969
Chan, L. G. & Lim, T. K. (1987). Control of Phytophthora palmivora on cocoa and durian
seedlings. J. Pl. Prot. Tropics 4(1), 9-13.
Cohen, Y. & Coffey, M.D. (1986). Systemic fungicides and the control of Oomycetes. Ann.
Rev. Phytopath. 24, 311-338.
Darvas, J.M., Toerien, J.C. & Milne, D.L. (1984). Control of avocado root rot by trunk
injection with Fosetyl-Al. Plant Dis. 68, 691-693.
Davison, E.M. (1997). Are jarrah trees killed by Phytophthora cinnamomi or waterlogging?
Australian Forestry 60, 116-124.
Dennis, J.J.C. & Konam, J. (1993). Phytophthora palmivora cultural control methods and
their relationship to disease epidemiology on cocoa in Papua New Guinea. 11th
International Cocoa Research Conference, Yamoussoukro, Cote d’Ivoire, 18-24 July.
El-Ghaouth A. & Wilson C.L. (1995). Biologically-based technologies for the control of
postharvest diseases. Postharvest News and Information 6, 5-11.
Ferrin, D.M. & Wadsworth, M.L. (1992). Effect of metalaxyl on sporulation and growth of
metalaxyl-resistance and metalaxyl-sensitive isolates of Phytophthora parasitica in
vitro. Plant Dis. 76, 492-495.
Gregory, P.H. & Maddison A.C. (1981). Epidemiology of Phytophthora on cocoa in Nigeria.
Phytopathological Paper No. 25, CAB, Kew.
Griffith, J.M., Davis, A.J., & Grant, B.R. (1992). Target sites of fungicides to control
Oomycetes. Pages 69-100. In Targets sites of fungicides action. W. Koller, ed. Chem.
Rubber Co. Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Guest D.I. & Bompeix, G. (1990). The complex mode of action of phosphonates.
Australasian Plant Pathology 19, 113-115.
Guest D.I. & Grant B.R. (1991). The complex action of phosphonates as antifungal agents.
Biological Reviews 66, 159-187
Guest D.I., Anderson R.M., Foard H.J., Phillips D., Worboys S. & Middleton R.M. (1994).
Long-term control of Phytophthora diseases of cocoa using trunk-injected
phosphonate. Plant Pathology 43, 479-492
Guest, D.I., Pegg, K.G & Whiley A.W. (1995). Control of Phytophthora diseases of tree
crops using trunk-injected phosphonates. Horticultural Reviews 17, 299-330.
Irwin, J.A.G., Crawford, A.R. & Drenth, A. (1997). The origins of Phytophthora species
attacking legumes in Australia. Advances in Botanical Research 24, 431-456.
Katuruak, C.,Vichitranont, S., and Leelasertrakul, K. (1990). Comparison of morphology and
resistance to chemicals of some Phytophthora isolates of durian from different areas.
Progress report 1990, Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Dept. of
Agriculture, Bangkok. p 32-33. (in Thai)
Keeratipataragul,V. (1980). An assessment of importance and the chemical control of
Phytophthora root and stem rot of durian (Durio zibethinus Murr.), M.Sc. Thesis,
Dept. of Plant Pathology, Kasetsart University, Bangkok.
Konam, J., & Guest, D.I. (1996). Integrated management of Phytophthora diseases of cocoa
in Papua New Guinea. 12th International Cocoa Research Conference, Salvador, 17-
23 November.
Lee, B.S. (1988). Phytophthora diseases of selected fruit trees and their control. Seminar on
Tropical Fruits - Cultivation, Pest and Disease management. Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,
20-21 October.
 32

Leibinger, W., Breuker, B., Hahn, M. & Mengden, K. (1997). Control of postharvest
pathogens and the colonisation of apple surface by antagonsitic microorganisms in the
field. Phytopathology 87, 1103-1110.
Lim, T.K. (1997). Boosting Durian Productivity. RIRDC Project DNT-13A Report.
Lim, T. K. & Chan, L. G. (1986)a. Fruit rot of durian caused by Phytophthora palmivora.
Pertanika 3, 269-297.
Lim, T.K. & Chan, L.G. (1986)b. Parasitism of Phytophthora palmivora by Gliocladium
roseum. J. of Plant Diseases and Protection 93, 509-514.
Lim, T.K. (1990). Durian Diseases and Disorders. Tropical Press Sdn Bhd, Kuala Lumpur.
MacIntire, W.H., Winterberg, S.H., Hardin, L.J., Sterges, A.J., and Clements, L.B. (1950).
Fertilizer evaluation of certain phosphorus , phosphorus, and phosphoric materials by
means of pot cultures. Agron J. 42, 543-549.
Nanthachai, S. (1994). Durian. ASEAN Fruit Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur.
Navaratnam, S.J. (1966). Patch canker of durian tree. Malay. Agr. J. 45, 291-294.
Ouimette, D.G. and Coffey, M.D. (1989). Comparative antifungal activity of four
phosphonate compounds against isolates of nine Phytophthora species.
Phytopathology 79, 761-767.
Ouimette, D.G. and Coffey, M.D. (1990). Symplastic entry and phloem translocation of
phosphonate. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 38,18-25.
Papavizas, G.C. (1985). Trichoderma and Gliocladium: biology, ecology, and potential for
biocontrol. Ann. Rev. Phytopathology 23, 23-54.
Phavakul, K. and Chinnavasarn, S. (1975). Studies on resistance to Phytophthora root rot of
durian root stock. Research Report 1975, Division of Plant Pathology and
Microbiology, Dept. of Agriculture, Bangkok. p 115-119. (in Thai)
Phavakul, K., and Jangsri, V. (1969). Root rot of durian. In Plant Disease Control,
Agricultural Science Society of Thailand, Bangkok. p. 60-61.(in Thai)
Podger, F.D. (1972). Phytophthora cinnamomi, a cause of lethal disease in indigenous plant
communities in Western Australia. Phytopathology 62, 972-981.
Pongpisutta, R. and Sangchote, S. (1994). Phytophthora fruit rot of durian (Durio zibethinus
L.). In Champ, B.R., Highley, E., and Johnson, G.I. (eds) Postharvest handling of
tropical fruits. Proceedings of an international conference held at Chiang Mai,
Thailand, 19-23 July 1993. ACIAR Proceedings No. 50, 460-461.
Rohrbach, K.G. and Schenck, S. (1985). Control of pineapple heart rot, caused by
Phytophthora parasitica and P. cinnamomi with metalaxyl, fosetyl Al and
phosphorous acid. Plant Dis. 69, 320-323.
Sangchote, S. and Chana, C. (1980). Control of fruit rot of durian and rambutan after harvest.
Research Report, National Research Council, Bangkok. (in Thai)
Sertrapukdee, R. (1996). Informations of five economic fruit crops of Thai Research Fund,
The Fruit Newsletter 1(2): 14. (in Thai)
Stirling, A.M., Hayward, A.C. and Pegg, K.G. (1992). Evaluation of the biological control
potential of bacteria isolated from a soil suppressive to Phytophthora cinnamomi.
Australasian Plant Pathology 21, 133-142.
Sutherland, M.
Tai, L.H. (1971). Studies on Phytophthora palmivora, the casual organism of patch canker
disease of durian. Malay. Agric. J. 48, 1-9.
Thompson, A. (1934). A disease of durian tree. Malay. Agric. J. 48, 1-9.
Tongdee (1997) Tropical Fruit Conference, KL*
Udomsin, A. (1994). Durian. In: Agricultural Economic News. Dept. of Agricultural
Economics, Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative, Bangkok. p. 36. (in Thai)
 33

Vichitranonth, S.,Katuruak, C., Phavakul, K. (1980). Study on the activity of certain systemic
fungicides against Phytophthora palmivora, causal organism of durian root rot.
Annual Report, Division of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, Dept. of Agriculture,
Bangkok. p. 430-448.
Vichitranonth, S., Katuruak, C., and Phavakul, K. (1987). Control of Phytophthora stem end
rot of durian by systemic fungicides. Research Report 1987, Division of Plant
Pathology and Microbiology, Dept. of Agriculture, Bangkok. p 1-17. (in Thai).
Weste, G.M. (1997). The changing status of disease caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi in
Victorian open forests, woodlands and heathlands. Australasian Plant Pathology 26,
1-9.
Whiley, A.W., Hargreaves, P.A., Pegg, K.G., Doogan, V.J., Ruddle, L.J., Saranah, J.B. &
Langdon, P.W. (1995). Changing sink strengths influence the translocation of
phosphonate in avocado (Persea americana Mill.) Trees. Austr. J. Experimental
Agriculture 26, 249-253.
Zitko, S.E., Timmer, L.W., and Sandler, H.A. (1991). Isolation of Phytophthora palmivora
pathogenic to citrus in Florida. Plant Dis. 75, 532-535.
 PHT/95/134 Management of Phytophthora diseases of durian

Appendix 1. Planning Workshop, December, 1998

Workshop aims
· To review past and current work on Phytophthora in durian, and to develop work
plans for the project.
· To identify training needs for individual project scientist visits

Preparations and arrangements

An interactive workshop will be held over three days in Melbourne, followed by a field visit
to South and North Queensland. The workshop will be organised by the Project Leader, in
consultation with collaborating partners, with implementation coordinated by the ACIAR
project appointees at The University of Melbourne.
· Nominated workshop participants will review core baseline information in advance.
Their review papers will be included in the workshop handbook and presented at the
workshop.
· Techniques and equipment. Workshop participants will receive practical training in
the use of analytical equipment, methods and laboratory and glasshouse techniques for
studies on Phytophthora (UM Research Fellow to coordinate).
· Research planning and trial designs. General concepts of experimental design, trial
implementation, working with farmers, data collection and analysis. Presentations on
proposed work and time-lines by sub-project leaders, followed by discussion and
activity scheduling.
· Workshop conclusions and international linkages.
· Field visits. South Queensland - QDPI (integrated management of Phytophthora
diseases in avocado and vegetables), Birdwood Nursery (disease-free certification
scheme), commercial fruit packhouse (postharvest handling and treatment), CRC-TPP
(molecular identification of Phytophthora). North Queensland - Zapalla (commercial
durian orchard), QDPI South Johnstone Research Station, Workshop wrap-up.

Draft Program

1. Introduction and welcome

· ACIAR project rationale
· Program for Melbourne and Cairns
· Housekeeping
· Workshop manual and workgroups

2. Project overview
· Aims
· Activity schedule
· Institutes involved
· Research planning and reporting

3. Baseline review
Pertinent work on durian cultivation, cropping systems and orchard management practices
which have relevance to the integrated control of Phytophthora diseases will be discussed.
· Current status of durian production and handling in Thailand, Australia and Vietnam
(Sangchote, Lim, Chau)
 35

· Current status of Phytophthora biology

· Principles of integrated disease management
· achieving adoption and application of IDM by extension services and growers

4. Techniques and equipment

Workshop participants will receive practical training in the use of analytical equipment,
methods and laboratory and glasshouse techniques for studies on Phytophthora (UM
Research Fellow to coordinate).
· Disease diagnosis and pathogen identification
· Culturing techniques - pathogen isolation, baiting, selective and non-selective media,
establishing single-zoospore cultures, inoculum production, culture maintenance,
storage and establishment of a central culture collection, quarantine issues. Isolation
and identification of other pathogens and endophytes.
· Studying pathogen variability using morphological, isozyme, molecular and
pathogenicity
· Infection studies - sectioning, staining, microscopy
· Pathogen dissemination studies - techniques for the identification of sources and mode
of transmission of inoculum for tree and fruit infection, identification of vectors,
effects of mulches and groundcovers
· Bioassays for rapid screening of durian genotype resistance, comparing pathogenicity
of isolates and assessing the effectiveness of control measures
· Hygiene and soil sterilisation
· Propagation techniques: rootstocks, grafting and marcottage
· Phosphonate trunk injection techniques and residue analysis
· Analysis of total biological activity, chemical and physical characteristics of composts
and mulches
· Handling and assaying biological antagonists

5. Research planning and trial designs

· General concepts of laboratory records, experimental design, trial implementation,
working with farmers, data collection, analysis and reporting.
· Presentations on proposed work and time-lines by sub-project leaders
· Discussion and activity scheduling.

6. Workshop conclusions and international linkages

· The outcomes of this workshop will be communicated to durian researchers not
directly involved in this project, including researchers from Malaysia, Indonesia, The
Philippines and Brunei.
· Options for email networking will be explored. This will encourage future interactions
and improve coordination of regional research activities.

7. Field visits
· South Queensland - QDPI (integrated management of Phytophthora diseases in
avocado and vegetables, trunk injection), Birdwood Nursery (disease-free certification
scheme), commercial fruit packhouse (postharvest handling and treatment), CRC-TPP
(molecular identification of Phytophthora).
· North Queensland - Zapalla (commercial durian orchard), QDPI South Johnstone
Research Station
· Workshop wrap-up.
 36

Draft schedule
Morning Afternoon Evening
Day 1 Welcome Dinner
Project overview
Day 2 Baseline review I Techniques I Free
Day 3 Baseline review II Techniques II Research planning
Day 4 Research planning Planning and Fly to
conclusions Maroochydore
O/N Nambour
Day 5 SE Qld Field visits O/N Brisbane
Day 6 Cairns Field visits Dinner
Day 7 Wrap-up and
conclusions
 SECTION 3
BUDGET
PROJECT NO. PHT 95/134

Management of Phytophthora diseases of durian

PART A AUSTRALIAN COMMISSIONED ORGANISATION

PART B AUSTRALIAN COLLABORATING ORGANISATION
PART C DEVELOPING COUNTRY PARTNER
PART D SUMMARY OF ACIAR FUNDS
PART E REVIEW AND CO-ORDINATION COSTS
PART F DEVELOPING COUNTRY PARTNER CONTRIBUTIONS
PART G COMMISSIONED ORGANISATION AND COLLABORATING INSTITUTE
CONTRIBUTION
PART H ESTABLISHMENT COSTS
PART I ESTIMATED BUDGET FOR ACIAR-FUNDED PROJECT TRAINING COSTS

ALL COSTS SHOWN IN THIS BUDGET ARE AS AT December 1997.

KNOWN COST INCREASES ARE INCLUDED
NO ALLOWANCE HAS BEEN BUILT IN FOR INFLATION IN FUTURE YEARS.
 1

SECTION 4
DOCUMENTATION
PROJECT NO. PHT/95/134

Management of Phytophthora diseases of durian

Letters of Support

Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries

Office of the Vice President for Research Kasetsart University Thailand

The Thailand Research Fund

 1

SECTION 4
DOCUMENTATION
PROJECT NO. PHT/95/134

Management of Phytophthora diseases of durian

CV’s of Participants

Dr David I Guest

Dr Lim Tong Kwee (T.K.)

Dr Yan Diczbalis

Dr Somsiri Sangchote

Ms Rutiya Pongpisutta
 1

CURRICULUM VITAE

NAME: David Ian GUEST

DATE AND
PLACE OF BIRTH: 28 July 1955, Melbourne, Australia

NATIONALITY: Australian

MARITAL STATUS: Married, two children

QUALIFICATIONS: B.Sc.Agr.(Hons 1) (Sydney, 1977)

Ph.D (Sydney, 1983)

LANGUAGES: English
French

PROFESSIONAL POSITIONS
• Lecturer (1983-93) and Senior Lecturer (1993-present), School of Botany,
The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
• Associate Dean (Academic), Faculty of Science, The University of
Melbourne (1997-present)

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES:
Australian Mycological Society
Australasian Plant Pathology Society:
Councillor (Victoria) 1987-1993
President-elect 1997-1999
Pacific Association of Tropical Phytopatholgy
British Mycological Society
Society for Free Radical Research
International Society for Plant Pathology, Committee for Teaching and
Training (1988-present)
American Phytopathological Society

AWARDS
French Government Scientific Fellowship 1987
Invited Professor, University of Paris 6, 1990/91 & 1992.

INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE
Division of Plant Pathology, Ministry of Agriculture, HMG, Khumal Tar,
Nepal. Volunteer, Jan-Feb 1981 and Jan. 1983
Plant Pathology Division, Agriculture Corporation, Rangoon, Burma.
Volunteer, Mar. 1981.
Faculty of Agriculture Unit, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.
Study leave, Apr. 1985.
Department of Plant Sciences and Biochemistry, University of the West
Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad. Study leave, May 1985.
Laboratoire de Pathologie Vegetale, Universite de Pierre et Marie Curie,
Paris, France. Invited Professor May 1985; Aug. 1987; Dec. 1988- Mar.
1989; Apr. 1990- Mar. 1991 and May-Jul. 1992
Cocoa Black Pod Research Trust of PNG, Kar Kar Island, Papua New
Guinea. Research Director, 1987-present.
UNDP/FAO Coconut Improvement Project, Sulawesi, Indonesia:
INS/85/016: "Phytophthora diseases of coconuts". Consultant, Nov-Dec 1989.
UNDP/FAO Integrated Coconut Pest and Disease Control Programme,
Mindanao, Philippines. PHI/86/004: "Biology and control of Phytophthora
 2

diseases of coconuts". Consultant, Oct.-Nov. 1990, Jun.-Jul. 1991 and April

1992.

CURRENT RESEARCH INTERESTS

Management of Phytophthora diseases of tropical tree crops and

Australian native plants: We have developed an integrated disease
management package for cocoa growers in Papua New Guinea, based on
trunk injection of phosphonate fungicides, and have established similar trials
in Brazil. I have consulted on UNDP/FAO projects on the integrated control
of coconut diseases in Indonesia and the Philippines. I am currently
developing a project to manage Phytophthora diseases of durian in Australia,
Thailand and Vietnam. We are also studying the management of dieback
diseases in Australian horticultural and native plant communities, based on
biological and chemical control measures.
Plant disease resistance mechanisms: We are studying the early events
that activate plant disease resistance mechanisms, in particular the
activation and role of the oxidative burst in challenged plants. Our research
aims to discover new ways that these responses may be exploited in the
sustainable management of plant diseases.
Fungi as human allergens: Fungi play an important role in human allergic
disease. Our study aims to identify the major allergenic species, and to assess
their role in the development of adult respiratory diseases such as asthma.

KEY PUBLICATIONS

1. Guest D.I. (1984). Modification of defence responses in tobacco and capsicums

following treatment with fosetyl-Al. Physiological Plant Pathology 25, 125-134.
2. Smillie R., Grant B.R. & Guest D.I. (1989). The mode of action of the
phosphite: Evidence for both direct and indirect modes of action on three
species of Phytophthora in plants. Phytopathology 79, 921-926.
3. Nemestothy G.N. and Guest D.I. (1990). Phytoalexin accumulation,
phenylalanine ammonia lyase activity and ethylene biosynthesis in fosetyl-Al
treated resistant and susceptible tobacco cultivars infected with Phytophthora
nicotianae var. nicotianae. Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 37, 207-
219.
4. Guest D.I. and Grant B.R. (1991). The complex action of phosphonates in
plants. Biological Reviews 66, 159-187.
5. Guest D.I. (1994). Fungi. Chapter 36, in Biology, ed R. B. Knox, P.Y. Ladiges
and B. Evans. McGraw Hill Australia Pty Ltd., Sydney.
6. Saindrenan P. and Guest D.I. (1994). Involvement of phytoalexins in the
response of phosphonate-treated plants to infection by Phytophthora species.
Chapter 16, in Handbook of Phytoalexin Metabolism and Action, ed by R.P.
Purkayastha & M. Daniel. Marcel Dekker, NY. pp. 375-390.
7. Guest D.I., Anderson R.D., Phillips D.A., Foard H.J., Worboys S. & Middleton
R.M. (1994). Long-term control of Phytophthora diseases of cocoa using
trunk-injected phosphonate. Plant Pathology 43, 479-492.
8. Guest D.I., Pegg K. & Whiley A. (1995). Control of Phytophthora diseases of tree
crops using trunk-injected phosphonates. Horticultural Reviews 17, 297-328.
9. Guest D.I. and Brown J.F. (1997). Infection Processes. Chapter 15 in Plant
Pathology and Plant Pathogens. Rockvale Publications, Armidale, NSW.
10. Guest D.I. and Brown J.F. (1997). Disease Resistance in Plants. Chapter 16 in
Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens. Rockvale Publications, Armidale, NSW.
11. Mitikakis T., Ong E.K., Stevens A., Guest D.I. & Knox R.B. (1997). Incidence
of Cladosporium, Alternaria and total fungal spores in the atmosphere of
Melbourne (Australia) over three years. Aerobiologia 13, 83-90.
12. Able A, Guest D.I. & Sutherland M.W. (1998). Use of a new tetrazolium-
based assay to study the production of superoxide radicals by tobacco cell
 3

cultures challenged with avirulent zoospores of Phytophthora parasitica var.

nicotianae. Plant Physiology (accepted 22 Dec 1997).
 1

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name: LIM TONG KWEE (T.K.)

Department:
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Berrimah Agriculture Research Centre,
GPO BOX 990 Darwin, NT 0801
Telephone 08-89992222, Fax - 08-99992049, Email tk.lim@dpif.nt.gov.au

Education and Academic Qualification:

Degree:
B. Agr. Sc. (Hons.) University Malaya - 1970
M. Agr. Sc. University Malaya - 1974
Ph. D. University of Hawaii (Botanical Science - Plant Pathology)- 1977
Gamma Sigma Delta (Honor Society of Agriculture) - 1976
East West Centre Scholar, 1974 -1977.

Thesis/Dissertations:
LIM, T. K. 1974. Germination and storage problems of some tropical fruit seeds. M.
Agr. Sc. Thesis.

LIM, T. K. 1977. Etiology of three pineapple fruit diseases caused by Penicillium

funiculosum. Ph. D. Dissertation.

Current Appointment:
Principal Horticulturist (PO3).

Previous Academic and Other Relevant Appointments:

Associate Professor, Department of Plant Protection, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia
1981- May 1990.
Lecturer (Universiti Pertanian Malaysia) - Oct. 1972-1981.
Lecturer (College of Agriculture, Serdang) - 5 July 1971 - 10 Oct. 1972.
Tutor (University of Malaya) - 1970 - July 1971.

Published Work:
Books
LIM, T.K. and KHOO, K.C. 1985. Diseases and Disorders of Mango in Malaysia. Tropical
Press, Kuala. Lumpur, 101 pp.
LIM, T.K. 1990. Durian Diseases and Disorders. Tropical Press, Kuala Lumpur, 95 pp.
LIM, T. K., and KHOO, K.C. 1990. Guava in Malaysia: Production, Pests and Diseases,
Tropical Press, Kuala. Lumpur, 260 pp.
LIM, T.K. and SIJAM, K. 1990. Penyakit Pokok Durian. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
Publishers, Kuala Lumpur 78 pp.
Proceedings Editor
CHACKO, E., LIM, T.K. and KULKARNI, V. 1991. Proc. of the Third International Mango
Symposium., Acta Horticulturae 291.
LIM, T.K. et al. 1979. Strategies In Plant Protection, Proc. Plant Protect. Sem. Kuala Lumpur,
284 pp.
LIM, T.K., LIM, W.H., HAMIDAH, S., and CHOO, P.H. 1990. Ornamentals in Malaysia
Pests and Diseases, Proc. MAPPS Seminar, Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. 151 pp.
 2

Journals/Bulletins/Proceedings
1998
Lim, T. K. 1998. Chapters on Loofahs, gourds, melons and snake-beans; Durian, and
Rambutan. In The New Rural Industries - a Handbook for Farmers and Investors (ed. K.
Hyde) pp. 212-218, 281-287, 306-313.
Lim, T. K. and Luders, L. 1998. Durian flowering, pollination and incompatibility studies.
Annals of Applied Biology. Vol. 132 (Accepted for publication).
Lim, T. K., Luders, L., Mansfield, J., Zappala, G. and A. Zappala. 1998. Polygonal graph
analysis of durian cultivars using leaf characters. Tropical Science Vol. 38. (Accepted for
publication).
1997
Lim, T. K. 1997. Boosting Durian Productivity. (ISBN 07245 30150) 167pp.RIRDC.
Lim, T.K. 1997. Durian - sources of resistance to Phytophthora palmivora. Proceedings
International Workshop on Disease Resistance in Fruit, Chiang Mai Thailand, 18-21
May, 1997. (In press)
Lim, T.K., Luders, L., Diczbalis, Y. and Poffley, M. 1997. Rambutan nutrient requirement
and management. DPI&F Tech. Bull. No. 261.
1996
Lim, T.K., Luders, L. and Poffley. 1996. Studies on fruit deformity and nubbin in Irwin
mango. Proc. Int. Conf. on Global Commercialisation of Tropical Fruits, K.L. Malaysia.
pp.287-298.
1995
LIM, T.K. 1995. Chapters on Carambolas, Rambutans and Durians in Horticulture Australia
(ed. B. Coombs) Morescope Publishing Pty., Ltd. Victoria, pp. 392-396, 453-458, 443-
446 respectively.
LIM, T.K. and BOWMAN, L. 1995. Control of sapburn on "Kensington" mangoes with
postharvest chemical treatment. ASEAN Food Journal 10(3):83-89.
LIM, T.K. and CHUNG G.F. 1995. Occurrence of the entomopathogen, Hirsutella versicolor
Petch on Idioscopus nitidulus Wlk. the mango leafhopper in Malaysia. The Planter, Kuala
Lumpur 71:207-211.
LIM, T.K. (contributor). 1995. Producing Quality Kensington Pride Mangoes for the
Australian Market. Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries, Northern Territory,
1994
LIM, T.K. 1994. Algal leaf spot, Pink Disease, Grey leaf spot of mangoes in Compendium of
Tropical Fruit Diseases. APS, St. Paul, Minnesota USA.
1993
IBRAHIM Y.B., LIM, T.K., TANG, M.K. and TENG, H.M. 1993. Influence of temperature,
pH and selected media on germination, growth and sporulation of Aschersonia placenta
and Hypocrella raciborskii. Biocontrol Sc. and Technology 3:55-61.
LAM, C.H. and LIM, T.K. 1993. Efficacy of hexaconazole for the control of white rust on
chrysanthemum and powdery mildew on roses. Int. J. of Pest Management 39(2):156-
160.
LIM, T.K., BOWMAN, L., and TIDEMANN, S. 1993. A report on the survey of winged
vertebrate pest damage on crops in the Northern Territory. Department Primary Industry.
& Fisheries, NT Tech. Bull. 209.
LIM, T. K. and KUPPELWEISER, W. 1993. Mango sapburn amelioration in the Northern
Territory. Acta Horticulturae. 341:518-527.
1992
 3

LIM, T.K. 1992. The rambutan industry in the Northern Territory - current status, research
and development emphasis. Acta Horticulturae 321: 62-70.
LIM, T.K., CHUNG, G.F. and KO, W-H. 1992. Basal stem rot of oilpalm caused by
Ganoderma boninese. Plant Pathology Bull., 1:147-152.
LIM, T.K., POFFLEY, M. and BOWMAN, L. 1992. New grafting techniques for exotic fruit
trees. Department Primary Industry. & Fisheries, NT Tech. Bull. No.194.
LIM, T.K. and RAMSAY, G. 1992. Abiu a crop with potential for the Northern Territory.
Acta Horticulturae 321:99-105.
1991
HASHIM, K, LIM, T.K. AND ABDUL RAZAK, A.R. 1991. Pathogenicity of Ganoderma
boninense Pat. on oil palm seedlings. Proc. 1991 PORIM International Palm Oil
Conference- Progress and Challenges Towards the 21st Century. 9-14 Sept. 1991, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 418-423.
HASHIM, K, LIM, T.K. AND ABDUL RAZAK, A.R. 1991. Determination of a suitable
substrate for culturing of Ganoderma boninense Pat. Proc. 1991 PORIM International
Palm Oil Conference- Progress and Challenges Towards the 21st Century. 9-14 Sept.
1919, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 507-510.
LIM, T.K. 1991. Abiu - a botanical and agronomic review. Department of Primary Industry &
Fisheries, NT Tech Bull. No. 169.
LIM, T.K., SIJAM, K. and ONG, E. T. 1991. Bacterial black spot of mango - a new disease in
Malaysia. Third Int. Mango Symposium, Darwin, Australia, 25-29th Sept., 1989. Acta
Horticulturae :317-323.
1990
LIM, T.K., HAMM, R.T. and MOHAMAD, R. 1990. Persistency and volatile behavior of
selected chemicals in treated soil against three basidiomycetous root pathogens. Tropical
Pest Management 36(1):23-26.
LIM, T.K., IBRAHIM, Y.B., M.K. TANG and R. LIEW 1990. Occurrence of Aschersonia
placenta and Hypocrella raciborskii on Asterolecanium ungulata in durian (Durio
zibethinus). Biocontrol Science and Technology 1:137-144.
LIM,T.K., KHOO, K.C., YUSOF, I., and LAM, C.H. 1990. Pesticide management in
floriculture in Malaysia. Proc. Ornamentals in Malaysia Pests and Diseases (eds. Lim,
T.K., Lim W.H., Hamidah S. and Choo, P.H.) MACA Malaysia.
LIM, W.H. and LIM, T.K. 1990. Current status of orchid diseases in Malaysia. Proc.
Ornamentals in Malaysia Pests and Diseases (eds. Lim, T.K., Lim, W.H., Hamidah, S.
and Choo P.H.).
SIDEK, Z. and LIM, T.K. 1990. Occurrence of a mosaic virus in guava. Pertanika 13(3):357-
359.
1989
ARIFFIN, D., SINGH, G. and LIM, T.K. 1989. Ganoderma in Malaysia- current status and
research strategy. Proc. 1989 PORIM International Palm Oil Development Conference,
5-9 Sept., 1989, K. Lumpur.
HO, Y.W., LIM T.K. and RATU, N.R. 1989. Histopathological development of the crusty
leaf spot of mango. J. Pl. Prot. Tropics Vol 6(1) :13-17.
KAMARUZAM, S. and LIM, T.K. 1989. A rust disease on Gendarussa vulgaris Nees caused
by Puccinia thwaitesii Berks. Pertanika 12(1): 7-10.
 4

LIM, T.K. 1989. A foliar blight of Bougainvillea caused by Phytophthora nicotianae var.
parasitica in Malaysia. in Interactions Between Plants And Microorganisms (eds. G. LIM
and K. KATSUYA) Proc. JSPS - NUS Seminar on "Microorganisms and Plant
Interaction", University of Singapore, 25-27 Oct.,1989. pp 20-34.
LIM, T.K. 1989. Studies on some lesser known mycoflora of durian: Sooty mould and black
mildew. Pertanika 12(2): 159-166.
LIM, T.K. 1989. Verticillium lecanii - an entomopathogen on a cocoa pest, Lawana
conspersa in Malaysia. J. Plant Prot. Tropics. 6(3): 189-192.
LIM, T.K. and KAMARUZAMAN, S. 1989. A rot of detached durian ruits caused by
Sclerotium rolfsii. Pertanika 12(1):11-14.
LIM, T.K. and KAMARUZAMAN, S. 1989. Occurrence of the green alga Trentepohlia on
trunks and branches of durian. Planter, Kuala Lumpur 65: 328-333.
LIM, T.K., RITA, M., CHUNG, G.F. and CHIN, C.L. 1989. Studies invitro on Beauveria
bassiana isolated from the cocoa mirid, Helopeltis theobromae. Crop Protection 8(5):
358-362.
LIM, T.K. and TEH, B.K. 1989. Antagonism invitro of Trichoderma species against several
Basidiomycetes soil borne pathogens and Sclerotium rolfsii. J. Plant Disease and
Protection (Z. PflKrkh. PflSchutz) 97:33-41.
1988
HO, Y.W., LIM, T.K., AZAHARI, M.H.M., and HO, C.T. 1988. Studies on the aetiology and
control of grey leaf spot of coconut. J. Pl. Prot. Tropics 5(2): 75-81.
HO, Y.W., LIM, T.K. and MUDA, M. 1988. Suppressiveness of peat soil as a possible
biocontrol agent for Phytophthora nicotianae var. parasitica pathogenic to pineapple.
Proceedings of the Symposium on Crop Pathogens and Nematodes, Bogor, Indonesia.
BIOTROP Special Publication No. 34:217-222.
LIM, T.K. 1988. Diseases of selected perennial fruit trees and their control. Seminar on
Tropical Fruits: Cultivation, Pest and Disease Management, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,
Malaysia, 20-21 October, 1988. 21 pp.
LIM, T.K. 1988. Studies on some sooty mould on guava in Malaysia. Pertanika 11(3):
349-355.
LIM, T.K., RITA, M., OOI, P.A.C. and CHIN, C.L. 1988. Some entomopathogenic fungi
isolated from Conopomorpha cramerella. Planter 64: 548-554.
MOHAMAD, R.B., LIM, T.K. and HAMM, R.T. 1988. Distribution of 14-C tridemorph after
application as soil drench. Proc.Inter. Symposium on Changing Perspectives in
Agrochemicals: Isotopic Techniques for the Study of Food and Environmental
Implications, Neuherberg, 24-27 Nov., 1987. p.300.
1987
ANG, B. B., LIM, T.K. and TEE, S.K. 1987. A sudden dieback of cocoa caused by
Botryodiplodia theobromae. Planter 63:228-235.
CHAN, L.G. and LIM, T.K. 1987. Control of Phytophthora palmivora on cocoa and durian
seedlings. J. Pl. Prot. Tropics 4(1):9-13.
FATIMAH , M. A., VARGHESE, G. and LIM, T.K. 1987. The recent fungicide crisis in
vegetables: Facts and fallacies. Options 2/87:3-6. Planter 63:418-423.
LIM, T.K. 1987. Management strategies for the control of important diseases of
selected fruit trees. Proc. National Multipurpose Tree Species Seminar 1, 14-15 Dec., 1987,
Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 16 pp.
LIM, T. K. and CHIN, C.L. 1987. Foliar blight of guava seedlings caused by Phytophthora
nicotianae var. nicotianae. Fitopatologia Brasiliera 12(3): 251-254.
 5

LIM, T.K., CHUNG, G.F. and CHIN, C.L. 1987. Occurrence of the entomogenous fungus,
Metarhizium anisopliae var. anisopliae on Lawana conspersa, a pest of cocoa. Annual
Report Negeri Sembilan Planters' Association, 1987 , pp 32-36.
LIM, T. K., NG, C.C. and CHIN, C.L. 1987. Etiology and control of durian foliar blight
caused by Rhizoctonia solani. Annals of Applied Biology 110(2):301-307.
RAZAK, A. R. and LIM, T.K. 1987. Occurrence of the root-knot nematode Meloidoygne
incognita on guava in Peninsular Malaysia. Pertanika 10(3):265-270.
1986
CHAN, L.G. and LIM, T.K. 1986. Comparative invitro sensitivity of selected chemicals on
Phytophthora palmivora from cocoa and durian. Pertanika 9(2):183-191.
LIM, T.K. and CHAN, L.G. 1986. Fruit rot of durian caused by Phytophthora palmivora.
Pertanika 9(3): 269-276.
LIM, T.K. and CHAN, L.G. 1986. Parasitism of Phytophthora palmivora by Gliocladium
roseum. Zeitschrift fur flanzenkranheiten und Pflanzenschutz ( Journal of Plant Disease
and Protection) 93(5): 509-514.
LIM, T.K., KHOO, K.C. and RAZAK, A.R. 1986. Pest and disease of guava fruits in
Malaysia. Prosid. Simp. Buah-buahan Kebangsaan, Serdang, 8-9 April, 1986. pp
262-271.
LIM, T.K. and RAZAK, A.R. 1986. Studies on a Phomopsis rot of bagged guava (Psidium
guajava L.) fruits in Malaysia. Fitopatologia Brasiliera 11:227-236.
LIM, T.K. and WAI, O.C. 1986. Effects of selected fungicides on the mango anthracnose
pathogen, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. Fitopatologia Brasiliera 11:67-74.
1985
LIM, T.K. 1985. Fungicides and nematicides in Agriculture. Occupational Safety and Health
in the Use of Agrochemicals Seminar, Petaling Jaya, 19 Dec., 1985. 15 pp.
LIM, T. K. and KHOO, K.C. 1985. Some vascular epiphytes of mango and their control.
Planter, Kuala Lumpur 61:162-171.
LIM, T.K. and LIM, W.H. 1985. Cercospora leaf spot on orchids. Malaysian Orchid Bulletin
2:13-15.
LIM, T.K. and SINGH, G. 1985. Disease and pest problems of cashew in Malaysia. Acta
Horticulturae 108:139-144.
1984
LIM, T.K. 1984. Fungicides and their usage in orchid cultivation. Malaysian Orchid Bulletin,
1:15-28.
NIK, W.Z. and LIM, T.K. 1984. Occurrence and site of infection of Colletotrichum dematium
f.sp. truncatum in naturally infected soybean seeds. J. Plant Prot. Tropics 1:87-91.
1983
BONG, C.F.J., NIK, W. Z. and LIM, T.K. 1983. Studies of Colletotrichum dematium f.sp.
truncatum on soybean. Pertanika 6(1):28-33.
KHOO, K.C., HO, C.T. NG, K.Y. and LIM, T.K. 1983. Pesticide application technology in
perennial crops in Malaysia. in Pesticide Application Technology. eds. LIM, G.S. and
RAMASAMY, S. pp. 42-85.
LIM, T.K. and KHOO, K.C. 1983. Crusty leaf spot disease of mango. Pertanika 6(3): 12-14.
LIM, T.K. and KHOO, K.C. 1983. Zimmermaneilla trispora, a leaf parasite of mango in
Malaysia. Plant Disease 67: 1389.
LIM, T. K. and NIO, H.L. 1983. Control of Phytophthora palmivora on orchids with some
new systemic and standard fungicides. Pertanika 6(1):34-39.
LIM, T.K. and WAN ZAINUN, N. 1983. Mycoparasitism of coffee rust pathogen, Hemileia
vastatrix by Verticillium psalliotae in Malaysia. Pertanika 6(2):23-25.
 6

1982
KHOO, K. C., IBRAHIM, Y., MAELZER, D.A. and LIM, T.K. 1982. Entomofuana of
cashew in West Malaysia. Proc. Int. Conf. Pl. Prot. in the Tropics. pp 289-294.
LIM, T.K. and KHOR, H.T. 1982. Effects of pesticides on mango leaf and flower microflora.
Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenshutz und Pflanzenkhranheiten (Journal of Plant disease and
Protection) 89(3):125-131.
1980
LIM, T.K. 1980. Chemical control of mango anthracnose in Malaysia. Invitro fungitoxicity of
selected chemicals. Pertanika 3(1): 5-9.
LIM, T.K. and ABDUL, R.A.1980. Cashew cultivation in Malaysia. The Planter, Kuala
Lumpur 56 :266-272.
LIM, T.K. and ROHRBACH, K.G. 1980. Role of Penicillium funiculosum strains in the
development of pineapple fruit diseases. Phytopathology 70(7): 663-665.
NIK, W.Z. and LIM, T.K. 1980. Seedborne pathogens of some selected grain legumes in
Malaysia. Proc. Symposium on Legumes in the Tropics, Serdang, Malaysia, 13-17 Nov.,
1979,pp 35-48.
1979
LIM, T. K. and WAN ZAINUN, N. 1979. Biological control of Rhizoctonia damping-off of
mungbean through antagonistic seedborne microflora. Proc. Pl. Protect. Sem., Kuala
Lumpur, pp 35-48.
 1

Curriculum vitae

Name: Yan Diczbalis

Work Address: Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries

PO Box 990
Darwin, Northern Territory, 0801, AUSTRALIA
Phone 08 89992309, Fax 08 89992049
Email: yan.diczbalis@dpif.nt.gov.au

Date of Birth: 31 August 1956

Academic Qualifications: Masters of Agriculture Science (1986)

University of Queensland
Thesis Title: The effect of duration of the vegetative phase on
growth and yield in grain sorghum.

Bachelor of Agriculture Science (1980)

University of Queensland
Major: Plant Physiology

Professional Association: Member Australian Institute of Agricultural Science

and Technologists (1980-present)

Current Appointment: Senior Horticulturist

Irrigation Research and Management
1990 - present

Job Profile:
- Determine water requirements of tropical tree fruit and vegetables.
- Conduct experiments on effects of water management and environmental variables
on tree physiological response.
- Assist growers in matters related to water management (water requirements,
irrigation scheduling, soil moisture measurement techniques, water quality).
- Present research findings at grower field days, research seminars and conferences.
- Manage technical staff assigned to irrigation research program.
- Manage program budget and apply for external funds as required.

Previous Appointments: Floodplains Agronomist

Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries
1986-1990

Research Assistant (half time)

University of Queensland
Department of Agriculture
August 1981 - December 1984, January 1986 - September
1996.
 2

Current Work Achievements/Experience:

Water requirement and management experiments (high frequency drip irrigation) on

rockmelons (Cucumis melo cv. reticulatus).

Mango water requirement (from flowering to harvest) research.

Irrigation monitoring of perennial crops using a range of techniques including;

evaporation based models, soil moisture tension and volumetric soil moisture
monitoring techniques. Range of crops includes mango, rambutan, mangosteen, durian
and cashew.

Effect of environmental variables on growth and yield of rambutan, Nephelium

lappaceum, (RIRDC funded project DNT-10a).

Effect of irrigation system and variety on Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) yield and
quality.

Banana water requirements and irrigation scheduling.

Research mango fruit maturity indicators with emphasis on the use of heatsums to
predict maturity (HRDC funded project No. FR605).

Effect of pre-flowering irrigation management and the growth regulator Paclobutrazol

on flowering, fruit set and yield of Kensington mangoes.

Experienced in the use of a wide range of environmental monitoring and plant

physiological measurement equipment including; temperature and humidity loggers,
automated weather stations, neutron moisture probe (Campbell DR504), electrical
capacitance probe (EnviroScan), tensiometers (Digital and analog meter types), sap
flow sensors and electronic dendrometers, portable photosynthesis equipment (Licor
6200 and 6400), plant canopy analyser (Licor 2000), pressure bomb, bulk density
sampling and gravimetric moisture sampling equipment.

Management of technical and field staff.

Budget management and research funding application experience with two successfully
funded projects.

Ability to install trial scale irrigation systems for research purposes.

Experience with fertiliser, chlorine and acid injection techniques.

Experience in the propagation and agronomy of a range of tropical crops and fruits.

Guest Lecturer (Horticulture Irrigation Management), University of the Northern

Territory, School of Horticulture and Landcare Studies, Faculty of Science.
 3

Past Work Achievements/Experience:

Design and implement rice research experiments in areas such as, varietal evaluation,
fertiliser response, pre-emergent herbicide efficacy, rainfed rice water management and
aerial sowing).

Design and implement applied projects on wet culture soybean cultivation.

Design and implement trials on legume pasture, livestock, rice rotation systems.

Manage agronomic trials on cassava (Manihot esculenta) and pigeon pea (Cajanus
cajan).

Publications: (Papers, Proceedings, Reports, Agnotes etc)

Diczbalis, Y. and Menzel, C.M. (1998). Low temperatures decrease CO2 assimilation and
growth in the tropical rambutan. Journal of Horticultural Science; in press.
Diczbalis, Y. (1997). Environmental factors influencing the growth and yield of rambutan
and cupuacu. Final Report for Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation, Project DNT-10a.
Diczbalis, Y. (1994). Mango irrigation management guidelines. NT Department of Primary
Industry and Fisheries, Agnote 587.
Diczbalis, Y. (1993). An introduction to irrigation of horticultural crops. NT Department of
Primary Industry and Fisheries, Agnote 558.
Diczbalis, Y. (1993). Irrigation management of bananas in the top end. NT Department of
Primary Industry and Fisheries, Agnote 567.
Diczbalis, Y. (1992). Tensiometers. NT Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries,
Agnote 520.
Diczbalis, Y. (1990). Report on a study tour of the irrigated crop management service,
Loxton , South Australia. Technical Bulletin No. 158. NT Department of Primary
Industry and Fisheries.
Diczbalis, Y., Eamus, D. and Menzel, C.M. (1996). Environmental factors influencing the
growth and yield of rambutan in the wet/dry tropics of northern Australia. in
Proceedings of the International Conference on Tropical Fruits, 23-26 July 1996,
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Volume II (Compiled by S. Vijaysegaran, M. Pauziah, M.S.
Mohamed and S. Ahmad Tarmizi). Malaysian Agricultural Research and
Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor.
Diczbalis, Y., Rann, R., Cameron, C. and Sawyer, B. (1996). Floodplain farming systems, a
rice-legume pasture rotation trial. in Conservation Farming for the Semi-arid Tropics:
proceedings of a workshop at the NT Rural College, Katherine 18-20 July 1995 (ed)
J.D. Sturtz and A.L. Chapman. Australian Institute of Agricultural Science.
Diczbalis, Y., Hofman, P., Landrigan, M., Kulkarni, V. and Smith, L. (1995). Mango
irrigation management for fruit yield, maturity and quality. in proceedings Mango
2000 marketing seminar and production workshop, 30 July - 3 August, Townsville,
Queensland. (Ed) by Rowland Holmes, Department of Primary Industries,
Queensland.
Lim, TK, Luders, L., Diczbalis, Y. and Poffley, M. (1997). Rambutan nutrient requirement
and management. Technical Bulletin No. 261. NT Department of Primary Industry
and Fisheries.
 4

Lim, T.K., and Diczbalis, Y. (1996). Rambutan, 2. Growing and Marketing. Agnote No. 662.
NT Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries.
Lim, T.K., and Diczbalis, Y. (1995). Rambutans in: Horticulture Australia. Morescope
Publishing.
 1

CURRICULUM VITAE

NAME: Ms.Ratiya Pongpisutta

BIRTH DATE : July 5,1963

BIRTH PLACE : Nakhon Si Thammarat

NATIONALITY : Thai

MARIATAL STATUS : Single

MAILING ADDRESS : Department of Plant Pathology

Kasetsart University
Kamphangsaen Campus, Nakhon pathom 73140
THAILAND
Tel: 66-34-351890 Fax: 66-34-351890
E-mail: agrryp@ku.ac.th

POSITION: 1993-1994 Researcher,The Royal Chitralada Projects

Chitralada Palace,Bangkok
1994-date Lecturer, Department of Plant Pathology
Faculty of Agriculture,
Kasetsart University

EDUCATION:

DEGREE FIELD INSTITUTION YEAR

B.S. Agriculture Kasetsart Univ. 1987
M.S. Agriculture Kasetsart Univ. 1992

INTERESTED FIELD:

Taxonomy and Diversity of Fungi

EXPERIENCE:

RESEARCH

Project co-worker: Integrated control of fruit rot of durian (Durio zibethinus L.) supported by
TRF (Thailand Research Fund)
Project co-worker: Molecular biology of plant disease resistant of pepper supported by
National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology
PUBLICATIONS:

Sangchote,S.,Pongpisutta,R., and Bunjoedchoedchu,R. 1996. Diseases of durian fruits after

harvest. The 34th Kasetsart University Annual Conference held at Kasetsart
University, Bangkok. pp.148-152.
 2

Sangchote,S., and Pongpisutta,R. 1996. Fungi caused fruit rot of mangosteens after harvest.
The 34th Kasetsart University Annual Conference held at Kasetsart University,
Bangkok. pp.153-160.
Sangchote,S.,Pongpisutta,R., and Bunjoedchoedchu,R. 1997. Glomerella cingulata: perfect
stage of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides causing anthracnose of durian fruit. Tthe 35th
Kasetsart University Annual Conference held at Kasetsart University, Bangkok. (in
pressed)

CONFERENCES AND SYMPOSIA PROCEEDINGS :

Pongpisutta, R., and Sangchote,S. 1993. Phytophthora Fruit rot of durian (Durio zibethinus
L.) In Champ,B.R., Highly,E., and Johnson,G.I., ed. Postharvest handling of tropical
fruits: proceedings of an international conference held at Chiang Mai, Thailand, 19-23
July 1993.ACIAR Proceedings No. 50,pp. 460-461.
Pongpisutta, R., and Sangchote,S. 1994. Durian diseases. In Johnson,G.I., and Highley,E.,ed.
Development of postharvest handling technology for tropical tree fruits; a workshop
held at Bangkok, Thailand, 16-18 July 1992. ACIAR Proceedings No.58,pp.80-83.
 1

CURRICULUM VITAE

Name: NGUYEN MINH CHAU

Designation: Director and Plant Physiologist

Date of Birth: 14th January, 1954

Age: 43

Qualification: MSc., Ph.D. (IARI, New Delhi, India)

Address: Long Dinh Fruit Research Centre

Box: 203 MyTho, Tiengiang, Vietnam

Phone/Fax: 84-73-855588

Experience: Research: 19 years

International Experience:

- Worked at IRRI, as non-degree research scholar for one month.

- Visited Laboratories in France, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, India
- Participated in International Fruit Symposiums in France, Malaysia.

Research Management:

- Head of Department of Research Management and International Relations,

Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Cantho, Vietnam.
- Director, Long Dinh Fruit Research Centre,
Box: 203 Mytho – Tiengiang – Vietnam

Special Assignments:

- Executive Member of International Society for Citrus Nurseryman

- Editorial member of Fruits (Published in France)
- Editorial member of Rau Qua Journal (Published in Hanoi, Vietnam)

Employment Record:

Employer Designation and Institution Period

Cuu Long Rice Research Institute Deputy Head of Agronomy 1978-1987

(Ministry of Agriculture and Department
Rural Development) MSc., Ph.D Student at IRRI 1987-1992
India
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Head of Research Management 1992-1994

Long Dinh Research Centre Director (First Director) 1994 – now

(Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Development

Total No of Publications:

- Book: 1
- Research paper: 1
- Seminar/Symposium: 30
+ International: 3
+ National: 10
- Popular articles: 5

List of Publications:

Book:
Chau, N.M. and D.K. Son. 1987. Floating Rice cultivation in the Cuu Long Delta river (in
Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City published, 186 pages.

Thesis:

Chau, N.M. 1992. Physiological basis of high yielding rice with special reference to grain
filling. Ph.D. thesis. IARI, New Delhi, India

Chau, N.M. 1989. Nitrogen induced physiological changes in lowland rice. MSc. Thesis,
IARI, New Delhi, India.

Research Papers:

Buu, B.C., N.T. Lang, and N.M. Chau 1995. Inheritance of some quantitave physiological
characters in rice (Oriza sativa l) Omon Rice No. 4.

Chau, N.M. 1985. Cultural practices for the double transplanted rice in the Mekong Delta (in
Vietnamese). Môt sô biên pháp canh tác lúa mùa lâp vu ó ÐBSCL. Khoa hoc phô
thông, 229:1-2

Chau, N.M. 1986. Double transplanted rice cultivation (in Vietnamese). Môt sô biên pháp
canh tác luá lâp vu. Tài liêu phô biên hoc ky thuât tính Kiên Giang. Sô 2 (33): 7-10.

Chau, N.M. 1995. Role of plant biotechnology in fruit trees improvement in the Mekong
Delta. Science News. Science Technology and Environment Service of Tiengiang.
(2): 14-15.

Chau, N.M. 1996. Fruit: present status and research plans for the Mekong Delta, in the year
1992-2000. In Science. Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, Hanoi,
Vietnam.
 3

Chau, N.M and B.B. Bong. 1982. IR 48 for acid sulfate soil (in Vietnamese) Giô lúa chiu
phèn IR 48. Khoa hoc phô thông (Jan. 1982).

Chau, N.M. and P.S. Deshmukh. 1989. Net assimulation rate during grain filling period and
grain yield of rice varieties in relation to nitrogen application. New Botanist – Vol (1-
4), 1989: 261-266. Today and tomorrow’s printers and Publishers, New Delhi.

Chau, N.M. and P.S. Deshmkh. 1991. Nirtogen inducedc physiological changes in lowland
rice. Oryza 28: 205-209.

Chau, N.M. and S.C. Bhargavar: 1993. The appearance of difference grades of grain filling in
short and medium duration varieties. Rice Res. Newsletter. 18(3): 11-12. IRRI.

Chau.N.M. and S.C. Bhargavar: 1993. Physiological Basis of higher productivity. India. J.
Plant physiuology. 36 (4): 215-219.

Chau.N.M. and S.C. Bhargavar: 1993. Effect of sink size and position on grain filling of rice.
Ind. J. Plant Physiology 36. (3): 166-169.

Chau. N.M. and L.T.T. Hong. 1995. Present status and future plans for citurs improvement in
the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. P8-12. In Citrus production and Marketing, Information
Center of MAFI, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Chau, N.M., P.N. Lieu, P.V. Vui, N.T. Thuan, P.D. Phap. 1995. Preliminary results of
collection, clonal section and introduction of fruit trees at Long Dinh Fruit Research
Center. J. Agri. And Food Industry. (9): 327-329, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Hong, L.T.T., N.M. Chau, T.P.A. Thu, T.T. Xuyen 1997. Preliminary result on the technology
package in cutrus free-disease planting materials production. Journal of Science,
Technology and Economic management No. 420 June 1997. Hanoi.

Chau, G.D. and N.M. Chau. 1995. Preliminary evaluation of citrus rootstock. J.Agri. and
Food industry. (9): 332 – 333, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Deshmukh, P.S., Chau, N.M. and F.U. Zaman. 1992. Effect of nitrogen level on the relation
between sink-source parameters and grain yield. IRRN 17 (1): 7-8 (February, 1992).

Luat, N.V., B.B. Bong, N.M. Chau. And J.C. Mohan. 1983. Performance of IR42 and IR48 in
Cuu Long Delta. IRRN, 8:1.

Luat, N.V., B.K. Singh, N.M. Chau, T.V. Hoa. 1995. Performance of promising varieties in
dep water rice areas of Cuu Long Delta. Deep water rice newsletter (Jan. 1985).

Laut, N.V.; B.K. Singh, N.M. Chau, T.V. Hoa. 1985. Effect of cultural methods and fertilizer
combination on yuield of deep water rice in the Mekong delta. Deep water rice
newsletter (Jan. 1985).

Singh, B.K., N.M. Chau, T.V. Hoa 1985. Effect of planting methods and fertility levels on
floating rice grown on acid sulphate soils in the Cuu Long Delta Vietnam. IRRN,
10(3):32 (Jan. 1985).
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Thuan, N.T., L.H. Phap, and N.M. Chau. 1995. Preliminary result of clonal selection of
mango in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. (in Vietnamese). J. Agri. And Food Industry
(9): 338-340, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Vui, P.V. and N.M. Chau. 1995. Preliminary result of clonal selection of durina in the
Mekong
Delta of Vietnam, J. Agri. And Food Industry. (9): 333-335, Hanoi, Vietnam.

Yamauchi M, P.V. chuong and N.M. Chau 1995. Ecophysiology of rice crop establishment in
direct seeding in Vietnam with emphasis on anaerobic seedling growth in Vietnam
and
IRRI: A partnership in Rice Research edited by G.L. Denning and Vo Tong Xuan
P89-
89 IRRI Philippines.