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The Scientific Method

1. Observation
2. Question
3. Hypothesis
4. Procedure
5. Experiment
6. Data Analysis
7. Conclusion
8. Communicate Results
A hypothesis must be testable.
The independent variable is the one that is changed by the scientist. To ensure a fair test, a good
experiment has only one independent variable. As the scientist changes the independent variable,
he or she observes what happens.
The scientist focuses his or her observations on the dependent variable to see how it responds to
the change made to the independent variable. The new value of the dependent variable is caused
by and depends on the value of the independent variable.
Controlled variables are quantities that a scientist wants to remain constant, and he must observe
them as carefully as the dependent variables.
An experimental group is the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested.
The Characteristics of Life
1. Made of one or more cells
a. All organisms of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of
life.
2. Displays organization
a. The levels of organization in biological systems begin with atoms
and molecules and increase in complexity. Each organized structure in an
organism has a specific function.
3. Grows and Develops
a. Growth results in an increase in mass. Development results in
different abilities.
4. Reproduces
a. Organisms reproduce and pass along traits from one generation to
the next.
5. Responds to Stimuli
a. Reactions to internal and external stimuli are called responses.
6. Requires Energy
a. Energy is required for all life process.

7. Maintains Homeostasis
a. All organisms keep internal conditions stable by a process called
homeostasis.
8. Adaptations evolve over time
a. Adaptations are inherited changes that occur over time that help
the species survive.
The 6 Kingdoms
1. Animalia
2. Plantae
3. Fungi
4. Protista
5. Eubacteria
6. Archaebacteria
Eubacteria

Archaebacteria

Protista

Fungi

Plants

Animals

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes

unicellular

unicellular

uni/multi

Both

multi

multi

Auto/Hetero

Auto/Hetero

Auto/Hetero

Hetero

Autotrophi
c

Heterotrophic

Cell Walls

Cell Walls

Cell Walls
Bonding

1. Covalent - A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of


electron pairs between atoms.
2. Ionic - A chemical bond involving the transfer of one or more electrons to form
the bond. It forms between a positive and negative ion.
3. Hydrogen - a weak interaction between a Hydrogen atom and a fluorine, oxygen,
or nitrogen atom.
Polar molecule - Molecules that have an unequal distribution of charges

Water
Bonds within water are polar covalent
Polar covalent is unequal sharing
Bonds between water are hydrogen bonds

They allows for cohesion, the ability of water to stick to itself, and adhesion, water's ability to
stick to other objects.
Cohesion and Adhesion allow water to climb up the stem of a plant. Water has a high specific
heat which moderates the temperature of the ocean and lakes.
In water the majority of the negative charge is around the oxygen atoms .Oxygen has a partial
negative and hydrogen has a partial positive.
Enzymes
Enzymes are made of proteins.
The reactants that bond to an enzyme are substrates. They bond to the enzymes active site. This
group is called and enzyme-substrate complex.
Explain how factors such as pH, temperature and concentration levels can affect enzyme
function
-

pH levels can affect the R-groups that make up enzymes


As temperature speeds up so does the rate of reaction, but if temperature gets too

high enzymes can be denatured.


- Low concentration levels can prevent an enzyme from doing its job.
Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides - Glucose, fructose, galactose (Glucose)
Disaccharides - Sucrose, maltose, lactose (Sucrose)
Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains of
monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages and on hydrolysis give the
constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides. (Glycogen)
Carbs are made of glucose / C,H,O They provide energy
Lipids
lipids are made of C,H,O and provide energy storage
The monomer of lipids are fatty acids. Phospholipids make up cell membranes.
Saturated fats are saturated with hydrogen and are straight.
Unsaturated fats are not saturated with fats and the double bond between carbon causes a kink in
the structure
Triglycerides are the main constituent of body fat in humans and animals, as well as vegetable
fat.
Protein
The shape of a protein determines their function.

Amino Acid - small compounds made of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sometimes
sulfur.
Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are
made from monomers known as nucleotides.
Cell Theory
All organisms are composed of one or more cells ( Schleiden, Schwann, Hooke, Leeuwenhoek)
The cell is the basic unit of organization of organisms (Schleiden, Schwann, Hooke,
Leeuwenhoek)
All cells come from preexisting cells (Virchow)
Hooke
Named cells cells after observing cork cells.
Leeuwenhoek
Dutch microscope maker who was the first person to observe a living cell.
Schleiden
German botanist who concluded that all plants have cells
Schwann
German zoologist who concluded that all animals are made of cells
Virchow
Discovered cell come from existing cells.
Organization - cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organism
Cell size is governed by surface are to volume ratio and DNA.
Organic Molecules contain carbon.
Independent Variable - What is being changed/ measured.
Dependent Variable - The result of the experiment.
Controls - Variables kept the same in an experiment.
Plant Cell vs Animal Cell
Plant cells have a cell wall and a large central vacuole. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts.
The common features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are: DNA, the genetic material
contained in one or more chromosomes and located in a non membrane bound nucleoid region in
prokaryotes and a membrane-bound nucleus in eukaryotes.

Cell
Membrane

Protective layer that covers the cells surface and acts as a selective
barrier between the cell and its environment. It separate the cells
content from its environment and controls materials going into and
out of the cell.

Nucleus

The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell by


controlling protein synthesis and contains the hereditary material or
DNA in chromosomes. It contains most of the genes that control of
the eukaryotic cell, the most conspicuous organelle in a eukaryotic
cell, and contains the nucleolus and chromatin.

Nucleolus

Found in the nucleus, the nucleolus produces ribosomes, which


move out of the nucleus to positions on the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. The components of the ribosomes are synthesized and
assembled.

Lysosomes

Membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of hydrolytic


enzymes capable of breaking down proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and lipids. Lysosomes function as the digestive
system of the cell. It degrades material taken up from outside the
cell as well as digesting old cell parts.

Ribosomes

The smallest of all organelles. They make the proteins by linking


together amino acids. They are not covered by a membrane.

Rough
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(ER)

The rough endoplasmic reticulum working with its membrane


bound ribosomes takes polypeptides and amino acids and continues
the process of protein assembly.
The ER is place where the chemicals reactions take place in a cell.
It is a system of folded membranes where proteins, lipids, and other
materials are made. The ER delivers these proteins throughout the
cell.
Channels proteins to transport vesicles; attaches carbohydrate to
some proteins, involved in membrane production through the
production of vesicles.
Endoplasmic reticulum is either rough ER or smooth ER. Unlike
smooth ER, rough ER is covered in ribosomes. Rough ER is found
near the nucleus.

Smooth

Attached to the outside surface of the endoplasmic reticulum, the

Endoplasmic
Reticulum
(ER)

smooth endoplasmic reticulum manufactures and metabolizes lipids


(including phospholipids and steroids) and breaks down toxic
materials (drugs and poisons) that could damage the cell. It is also
involved in the production of steroid hormones. It is the site of
protein synthesis, stores calcium, and produces proteins for use
within the cell.
Lacks attached ribosomes.

Mitochondria

The main power source of a cell. The sugar or glucose molecules


are broken down to produce energy. The energy released is stored
in a substance called adenosine triphosphate. The cell then uses
ATP to do work. Site of aerobic cellular respiration.

Golgi Bodies

This organelle which consists of flattened membranous sacs


packages and distributes proteins to where they are needed,
including out of the cell. The lipid and proteins that are delivered
to the Golgi complex from the ER may be modified to do different
jobs. The final products are enclosed in a piece of the Golgi
complexs membrane. The membrane pinches off to form a small
bubble that transports its contents to other parts of the cell or out of
the cell.
It receives transport vesicles from the ER; modifies ER products;
produces certain molecules, and produces lysosomes and secretory
vesicles.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the entire region inside the cell within the
membrane that includes the fluid, the cytoskeleton, and all of the
organelles except the nucleus. It supports and protects cell
organelles and consists of the cytosol.

Cytoskeleton

Network of protein strands in the cytoskeleton that act as both a


muscle and a skeleton. It keeps the cells membrane from
collapsing. It plays other important roles in moving organelles
within the cell and in cell division.

Vacuole

Larger than vesicles, the vacuole is a fluid-filled, membrane


surrounded cavity located inside the cell. The vacuole stores water,
the food being digested and waste material that are on its way out of
the cell.

Vesicle

The vesicle is used by the cell for the organizing of cellular

substances. They are also involved in metabolism, transport, and


enzyme storage. They also act as chemical reaction chambers.
Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell. The organelles are
only found in plant cells and some protists such as algae. Animal
cells do not have chloroplasts. Chloroplasts work to convert light
energy of the Sun into sugars that can be used by cells.

Cell Wall

Cell walls are a rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside the


plasma membrane of the cells of plants, fungi, and bacteria. In the
algae and higher plants, it consists mainly of cellulose.

Characteristics of Life
Made of cells - Contain DNA.
Organization - cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organism
Growth and Development
Reproduction
Sexual or Asexual
Responds to stimuli
Requires energy
Inside of Mitochondria glucose is turned into ATP.
Inside of Chloroplasts energy from light is turned into chemical energy(food).
Maintains homeostasis - Organisms try to maintain the conditions necessary to live. The reaction
is innate and is uncontrollable.
Adaptations evolve over time - Thumbs in humans. Adaptations that make a species better.
All living things have DNA, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
Cladogram
Traits are possessed by everything above them.

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