Running Header: MOTIVATION IN SPORTS ORGANIZATIONS

MOTIVATION IN SPORTS ORGANIZATIONS

Rebekah Duclos
LEI 3542
Professor Calabrese
November 28, 2014

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Motivation in Sports Organizations

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Motivation in Sports Organizations

Motivation is, according to Merriam-Webster (2014), the act or process of giving
someone a reason for doing something or the condition of being eager to act or work. Leaders
in sports organizations are tasked with leading a group of people to further the goals of the
organization. Without motivation, these people and their leader cannot get their job done to their
best ability. Motivation is a necessary component in any leaders arsenal. Sports organizations,
like any other organization, has a purpose that the employees and managers work to achieve. In
order to ensure these goals are met, leaders should be aware of how well the employees are
motivated to work. There are numerous ways to motivate employees, because individuals have
different ways in which they are motivated. Some may only be motivated by their salary, others
may be internally motivated to do their best, and others still may be motivated by the need to aid
in athlete or youth sports. In order to be a successful motivator, a leader has to know their
employees and have an understanding of the different theories of motivation. Some of the
theories are need-based, such as the Need Hierarchy Theory and the Two-Factor Theory, and
some are process, like Vrooms Expectancy Theory and Adams Theory of Inequity. These are
just four of the theories, chosen to highlight how to approach motivation in the sport
organization.
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs is a well-known theory in its proposal that there is a
specific five-tier behavioral system. In order to move up the tiers, one has needs that should be
filled. Through obtaining one set of needs, a person then realizes a new set of needs. These tiers
are physiological needs, safety and security needs, love needs, esteem needs, and selfactualization. Physiological needs are basic needs such as food, shelter, and the need to avoid
pain (Chelladurai, pg. 251) or in organizational terms, salary and availability of housing
(Chelladurai, pg. 253). Safety and security needs are, according to Maslow (1943) a safe,

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orderly, predictable, organized world, which he can count on, an in which unexpected,
unmanageable or other dangerous things do not happen (Chelladurai, pg. 251). This can be
correlated with job security, safety of housing and working conditions (Chelladurai, pg. 253).
Love and social needs refer to the desires of people for friendship and warm interpersonal
interaction with others (Chelladurai, pg. 251) which depends on the people around them at
home and at work (pg. 235). These three tiers are considered lower-ordered needs which require
fulfillment before reaching for the next two tiers. Self-esteem needs are a persons desire to be
recognized by others and to have status among them (Chelladurai, pg. 251). This is attained
through job promotion or increase in salary (Chelladurai, pg. 253). Finally, after all of these have
been met a person has achieved self-actualization, the best they can be. They are challenged at
work to be creative and get their job done the best and most effective way.
Unfortunately, there are number of problems with Maslows Hierarchy of Needs. One of
which is that people have different ideas of what is essential for themselves. It is not universal. A
person may need to have the respect of their coworkers more than a large salary. And how can it
be known if a person follows through the tiers to self-actualization? By monitoring their entire
life and that could take a very long time. In order to see the actual need met and the next need
open up would be extremely difficult. Meanwhile, another need may be filled that is above the
both of the former. What this means for the sports organization, however, is that they are exposed
to the types of needs that are important to employees, in whatever order they may be, but they
will need for money to secure their homes, families, eating habits, et cetera. The sports
organization is also able to help with interoffice relationships by providing socialization and
crisis response coordinators.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory developed by Herzberg and his associates describe a
satisfaction-dissatisfaction dilemma between lower- and higher-order needs (Chelladurai, pg.

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255). Herzberg (1968) found[T]he things that make people satisfied and motivated on the job
are different in kind from the things that make them dissatisfied (Harvard Business Review, pg.
88). Strictly speaking, a bad manager is dissatisfying, a challenging job is satisfying, but they do
not exclude the other. A good manager is motivating, unless their job is boring. Further, Herzberg
(1968) states that job satisfaction is not the opposite of job dissatisfaction, but rather no job
satisfaction is the opposite and no job dissatisfaction is the opposite of job dissatisfaction
(Harvard Business Review, pg. 91). As the name of the theory suggests, the two factors
determining job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are hygienes and motivators. The hygiene
factors are stemming from humankinds animal nature, in essence the need for food, shelter,
and avoidance of pain (Harvard Business Review, pg. 91). Today, what this means is that gaining
monetary funds to reach these needs is a much a hygiene factor and the need for the job to help
with monetary gains (Harvard Business Review, pg. 91). Motivators, on the other hand, pertain
to achievement, recognition of achievement, work itself, responsibility, and growth or
advancement (Harvard Business Review, pg. 91-92). Satisfaction comes from achieving
motivators, while dissatisfaction comes from hygiene factors.
Leaders in sports organizations should be aware that the Motivation-Hygiene Theory has
two dilemmas; one, depending on the person both factors can be detract from their satisfaction or
add to their dissatisfaction and two, people generally attribute good things that have happened to
them as a result of their actions and bad things that have happened to them a result of outside
forces such as regulations, administration, and the like (Chelladurai, pgs. 257-258). This said,
Herzbergs theory has standing in todays businesses. Being aware of the employees
surroundings and making them a positive part of their job goes a long way in satisfaction.
Knowing if the employee will welcome more challenges to their job or if the added work will be
a detriment is critical in satisfaction as well.

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The two previous theories deal with what motivates a person, however the next two
theories deal with how people decide between different options. Vrooms Expectancy Theory
postulates that people will choose the option that will lead them to what they want most. It
incorporates four major variables (or concepts)- valence, outcomes (or results), expectancy, and
instrumentality (Chelladurai, pg. 259). According to Vroom, a valance is the preferences for
particular outcomes either positively or negatively (Chelladurai, pg. 259). These outcomes are
the results of actions taken to achieve a wanted need and have two levels, first and second that
deal with the organization wants and the individual wants, respectively. Expectancy is the
probability estimate that effort will lead to the first-level outcome or result but is not a given
(Chelladurai, pg. 260). It is only what is perceived to happen. The relationship between firstlevel and second-level outcomes, from the individuals point of view, is instrumentality
(Chelladurai, pg. 260). These work together, as Vroom posits, as a mathematical equation
wherein force (or motivation) equals valence multiplied by expectancy multiplied by
instrumentality (Chelladurai, pg. 260).
For sports organizations, Vrooms Expectancy Theory allows leaders to help individuals
motivation by providing opportunities and performance standards that are within an individuals
repertoire. This can allow the organization to groom an individual into fulfilling their potential
for the good of the company and also the individual. People, however, can be difficult to
convince that either their work is good enough or that their work will be rewarding to them. This
can pose a serious block to productivity. Vrooms theory provides the relationship between
valence, expectancy, and instrumentality can be used to prove that certain actions, their work,
can lead to a desired reaction, a promotion for the individual and the goal met for the
organization. This model is incredible useable and adaptable so it can be used anywhere.

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Adams Theory of Inequity is a content theory that realizes people compare their efforts
and their rewards. A feeling of inequity results from a simple comparison of personal cost
versus personal benefit (Chelladurai, pg. 263). People compare what they do and receive to
what other people do and receive as well, which can make them feel better or not. The input, or
effort, is compared to the outcome, or benefit. If there is a disparity, real or perceived, there is
inequity (Chelladurai, pg 264). Inputs refer to personal contributions like intelligence and
outputs refer to pay, seniority, and other fringe benefits; working conditions; and the
psychological or intrinsic rewards of the job which can be negative (Chelladurai, pg 264).
For sports organizations, Adams Theory of Inequity means that there are three
possibilities: equity, inequity unfavorable to the individual, and inequity favorable to the
individual (Chelladurai, pg. 264). With the feeling of inequity, people will do what they can to
manipulate the circumstances in order to balance the scales or even tip them in their favor. This
can be true of people if it is someone else is has been in inequity. Usually, though, when an
individual is faced with inequity favorable to themselves they do not complain or bring it to their
superiors attention. They can in fact work harder to make it seem more equal. When it is
unfavorable to the individual Some actions that people may take can include, but are not limited
to, working harder, working less, or going to a supervisor to complain.
Implementing these theories, and the many more there are, into the workplace would be
too time consuming and complicated. However, a leader can provide an environment that fosters
good relationships and opportunities. Keeping the employees content and striving to meet the
organizations goals and mission is a balancing act that each leader must find. Making sure to
address the big concerns most people have, as described by the needs and content theories above
such as money, safety, and challenged, can keep employees at the very least not dissatisfied.
Employees perception of their leader can have a huge impact on their motivation as well. The

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leader should not believe that a job cannot be changed. Herzberg believed that leaders should
approach jobs as changeable, and that job content is not the only way to motivate employees
(Harvard Business Review, pg. 95). Fairness in treatment of every employee should be a given,
though leaders are fallible, this should be avoided. Through careful consideration and planning, a
leader can provide employees a job that is motivating to complete.
Motivation in sports organizations is complicated to keep. Athletes are motivated
differently from one another; trainers, managers, scouts, they all have their own wants and needs
that dictate how they are motivated and by what. By becoming familiar with the different
theories of motivation, a leader is able to see and understand how an employee will perform for
the organization. Removing obstacles and implementing positive reinforcements for positive
actions, fair treatment, and individual consideration are all part of a solid starting place to
motivate an organization. By learning how motivation is fed by needs and contents, fairness and
equality, a leader is gaining insight in how to approach the organization and individuals.
Motivation is a reason, a reason that the leader can cultivate with proper action.

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Reference Page
Chelladurai, Packianathan. (2014) . Managing Organizations: For Sport and Physical Activity.
(4th ed.) . Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway Publishers.
Herzberg, F. (1966). One More time: How Do You Motivate Employees? Harvard Business
Review, Best of HBR January 2003, 87-96.
Motivation. (n.d.). Retrieved November 25, 2014, from http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/motivation