Artificial Intelligence

Machine Learning
Institute of Information and Communication Technology
University of Sindh, Jamshoro

Dr. Zeeshan Bhatti

BSSW-PIV
Chapter 5
By:DR.Dr.ZEESHAN
ZeeshanBHATTI
Bhatti

MACHINE LEARNING: A DEFINITION

Definition:
A computer program is said to learn from
experience E with respect to some class of tasks T
and performance measure P, if its performance at
tasks in T, as measured by P, improves with
experience E.

DR. ZEESHAN BHATTI

WHY IS MACHINE LEARNING IMPORTANT?

Some tasks cannot be defined well, except by examples (e.g.,
recognizing people).
Relationships and correlations can be hidden within large amounts
of data. Machine Learning/Data Mining may be able to find these
relationships.
Human designers often produce machines that do not work as well
as desired in the environments in which they are used.

Why is Machine Learning

Important (Contd)?
The amount of knowledge available about certain tasks might be
too large for explicit encoding by humans (e.g., medical diagnostic).
Environments change over time.
New knowledge about tasks is constantly being discovered by
humans. It may be difficult to continuously re-design systems by
hand.

WHY LEARN?
Machine learning is programming computers to
optimize a performance criterion using example
data or past experience.
There is no need to learn to calculate payroll
Learning is used when:
Human expertise does not exist (navigating on Mars),
Humans are unable to explain their expertise (speech recognition)
Solution changes in time (routing on a computer network)
Solution needs to be adapted to particular cases (user biometrics)
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WHY MACHINE LEARNING?

No human experts

industrial/manufacturing control
mass spectrometer analysis, drug design, astronomic discovery

Black-box human expertise

face/handwriting/speech recognition
driving a car, flying a plane

Rapidly changing phenomena

credit scoring, financial modeling

diagnosis, fraud detection

Need for customization/personalization

personalized news reader
movie/book recommendation

RELATED FIELDS
data
mining

control theory

statistics
information theory

machine
learning

decision theory

cognitive science

databases
psychological models
evolutionary
models

neuroscience

Machine learning is primarily concerned with the accuracy and

effectiveness of the computer system.

WHAT WE TALK ABOUT WHEN WE TALK

ABOUTLEARNING
Learning general models from a data of particular
examples

Data is cheap and abundant (data warehouses, data

marts); knowledge is expensive and scarce.
Example in retail: Customer transactions to consumer
behavior:
People who bought Da Vinci Code also bought The Five People You Meet in
Heaven (www.amazon.com)

Build a model that is a good and useful approximation to

the data.
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DATA MINING/KDD
Definition := KDD is the non-trivial process of
identifying valid, novel, potentially useful, and
ultimately understandable patterns in data (Fayyad)

Applications:
Retail: Market basket analysis, Customer relationship management (CRM)
Finance: Credit scoring, fraud detection
Manufacturing: Optimization, troubleshooting

Medicine: Medical diagnosis

Telecommunications: Quality of service optimization
Bioinformatics: Motifs, alignment

Web mining: Search engines

...
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WHAT IS MACHINE LEARNING?

Machine Learning

Study of algorithms that

improve their performance
at some task
with experience

Optimize a performance criterion using example data or past

experience.
Role of Statistics: Inference from a sample

Role of Computer science: Efficient algorithms to

Solve the optimization problem

Representing and evaluating the model for inference
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GROWTH OF MACHINE LEARNING

Machine learning is preferred approach to

Speech recognition, Natural language processing

Computer vision
Medical outcomes analysis
Robot control
Computational biology

This trend is accelerating

Improved machine learning algorithms

Improved data capture, networking, faster computers
Software too complex to write by hand
New sensors / IO devices
Demand for self-customization to user, environment
It turns out to be difficult to extract knowledge from human expertsfailure of expert
systems in the 1980s.
Alpydin & Ch. Eick: ML Topic1

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APPLICATIONS
Association Analysis
Supervised Learning
Classification
Regression/Prediction

Unsupervised Learning

Reinforcement Learning

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LEARNING ASSOCIATIONS
Basket analysis:
P (Y | X ) probability that somebody who buys X also buys Y where X and Y
are products/services.

Example: P ( chips | beer ) = 0.7

Market-Basket transactions
TID

Items

Bread, Milk

2
3
4
5

Bread, Diaper, Beer, Eggs

Milk, Diaper, Beer, Coke
Bread, Milk, Diaper, Beer
Bread, Milk, Diaper, Coke

CLASSIFICATION
Example: Credit scoring
Differentiating between lowrisk and high-risk customers
from their income and savings

Discriminant: IF income > 1 AND savings > 2

THEN low-risk ELSE high-risk
Model

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CLASSIFICATION: APPLICATIONS
Aka Pattern recognition
Face recognition: Pose, lighting, occlusion (glasses, beard), make-up,
hair style
Character recognition: Different handwriting styles.
Speech recognition: Temporal dependency.
Use of a dictionary or the syntax of the language.
Sensor fusion: Combine multiple modalities; eg, visual (lip image) and acoustic for
speech

Medical diagnosis: From symptoms to illnesses

Web Advertizing: Predict if a user clicks on an ad on the Internet.
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FACE RECOGNITION
Training examples of a person

Test images

AT&T Laboratories, Cambridge UK

http://www.uk.research.att.com/facedatabase.html

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SUPERVISED LEARNING: USES

Example: decision trees tools that create rules
Prediction of future cases: Use the rule to predict the
output for future inputs

Knowledge extraction: The rule is easy to understand

Compression: The rule is simpler than the data it explains
Outlier detection: Exceptions that are not covered by the
rule, e.g., fraud

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UNSUPERVISED LEARNING
Learning what normally happens
No output

Clustering: Grouping similar instances

Other applications: Summarization, Association Analysis
Example applications

Customer segmentation in CRM

Image compression: Color quantization
Bioinformatics: Learning motifs

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REINFORCEMENT LEARNING
Topics:
Policies: what actions should an agent take in a particular situation
Utility estimation: how good is a state (used by policy)

No supervised output but delayed reward

Credit assignment problem (what was responsible for the
outcome)
Applications:
Game playing
Robot in a maze
Multiple agents, partial observability, ...
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ARCHITECTURE OF A LEARNING SYSTEM

feedback

learning
element
learning goals

problem
generator

changes

knowledge

critic

performance standard
percepts

ENVIRONMENT

performance
element

actions

LEARNING ELEMENT
Design affected by:
performance element used
e.g., utility-based agent, reactive agent, logical agent

functional component to be learned

e.g., classifier, evaluation function, perception-action function,

representation of functional component

e.g., weighted linear function, logical theory, HMM

feedback available
e.g., correct action, reward, relative preferences

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING SYSTEMS

type of feedback
supervised (labeled examples)
unsupervised (unlabeled examples)
reinforcement (reward)

representation
attribute-based (feature vector)
relational (first-order logic)

use of knowledge
empirical (knowledge-free)
analytical (knowledge-guided)

DESIGNING A LEARNING SYSTEM:

AN EXAMPLE
1. Problem Description
2. Choosing the Training Experience
3. Choosing the Target Function
4. Choosing a Representation for the Target

Function

5. Choosing a Function Approximation Algorithm

6. Final Design

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1. PROBLEM DESCRIPTION:
CHECKER LEARNING PROBLEM

Task T: Playing Checkers

Performance Measure P: Percent
of games won against opponents
Training Experience E: To be
selected ==> Games Played
against itself
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2. CHOOSING THE TRAINING EXPERIENCE

Direct versus Indirect Experience [Indirect

Experience gives rise to the

credit assignment problem and is thus more difficult]
[the teacher might
provide training examples; the learner might suggest
interesting examples and ask the teacher for their outcome;
or the learner can be completely on its own with no access to
correct outcomes]
Teacher versus Learner Controlled Experience

How Representative is the Experience? [Is

the training experience

representative of the task the system will actually have to
solve? It is best if it is, but such a situation cannot
systematically be achieved]
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3. CHOOSING THE TARGET FUNCTION

Given a set of legal moves, we want to learn how to choose the
best move [since the best move is not necessarily known, this is an
optimization problem]

ChooseMove: B --> M is called a Target Function [ChooseMove,

however, is difficult to learn. An easier and related target function to learn

is V: B --> R, which assigns a numerical score to each board. The better the
board, the higher the score.]

Operational versus Non-Operational Description of a Target

Function [An operational description must be given]
Function Approximation [The actual function can often not be learned
and must be approximated]

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4. CHOOSING A REPRESENTATION FOR THE

TARGET FUNCTION
Expressiveness versus Training set size [The

more expressive the

representation of the target function, the closer to the truth
we can get. However, the more expressive the representation,
the more training examples are necessary to choose among
the large number of representable possibilities.]
Example of a representation:

x1/x2 = # of black/red pieces on the board

x3/x4 = # of black/red king on the board
x5/x6 = # of black/red pieces threatened by
red/black

wis are adjustable

or learnable
coefficients

V(b) = w0+w1.x1+w2.x2+w3.x3+w4.x4+w5.x5+w6.x6
^

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5. CHOOSING A FUNCTION APPROXIMATION

ALGORITHM
[e.g. <x1=3,
x2=0, x3=1, x4=0, x5=0, x6=0, +100 (=blacks won)]
Generating Training Examples of the form <b,Vtrain(b)>

Useful and Easy Approach: Vtrain(b) <- V(Successor(b))

Training the System

Defining a criterion for success [What is the error that needs to be minimized?]
Choose an algorithm capable of finding weights of a linear function that minimize that error [e.g. the Least
Mean Square (LMS) training rule].

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6. FINAL DESIGN FOR CHECKERS LEARNING

The Performance Module: Takes as input a new board and outputs
a trace of the game it played against itself.

The Critic: Takes as input the trace of a game and outputs a set of
training examples of the target function
The Generalizer: Takes as input training examples and outputs a
hypothesis which estimates the target function. Good generalization
to new cases is crucial.
The Experiment Generator: Takes as input the current hypothesis
(currently learned function) and outputs a new problem (an initial
board state) for the performance system to explore

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ISSUES IN MACHINE LEARNING (I.E.,

GENERALIZATION)
What algorithms are available for learning a concept?
How well do they perform?
How much training data is sufficient to learn a concept
with high confidence?
When is it useful to use prior knowledge?
Are some training examples more useful than others?
What are best tasks for a system to learn?
What is the best way for a system to represent its
knowledge?
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