8.1 Metal Semiconductor Contacts When metal is making contact with a semiconductor, a barrier will be formed at the rmetal-semiconductor interface. Because the importance of metal semiconductor contact in direct current and microwave applications it is necessary to study the dependence of barrier on metal-semiconductor contact. The formation of the barrier and its dependence ‘on the metal-semiconductor contact can be explained with the help of energy band diagrams of the metal-semiconductor junction. 8.2 Energy Band Diagrams of Metal semiconductor Junction When a metal is making intimate contact with a semiconductor, the Fermi levels in the two meterials must be coincident at thermal equilibrium. Here, we will consider two limiting cases for oar discussion f= Surface slates are absent Large density of surlace states is present ‘The Fig. 8.1 shows the electronic energy relations at an ideal contact between a metal ‘and an retype semiconductor in the absence of surface states. In Fig. 6.1 (a) the metal and semiconductor are not in contact, and the system is not in thermal equilibrium. The thermal equilibrium ean be established by connecting wire between the semiconductor and the metal. With connection of wire, the charge will flow from the semiconductor to metal resulting thermal equilibrium and Fermi levels on both sides will be same. In other words wwe can say that relative to Fermi level in the metal, the Fermi level in the semiconductor is lowered (by an amount equal to the difference between the two work functions) The work function is the energy difference between the vacuum level and the Fermi level. This illustrated in Fig. 8.1 () The work function is denoted by gfe (tm in volts) for the metal, and equal to ‘q(x+Vq) in the semiconductor. Here, qx is the electron affinity measured from the bottom of the conduction hand Ec to the vaccum level, and qVq is the energy difference between Ec and the Fermi level. The potential difference qbn—q (X+ Va) is referred to as a contact potenti Metal Semiconductor Contacts and Power Control Devices + Electron Devices (ECE)* 323> Figure 8.1 Energy bond diogroms of motalsemizondudor contd Vacuum|erel g, in contin = a . os | ee Nitype eomiconductor @ © ° © The Fig, 8.1 (b). () and (d) shows the energy band diagram with decreasing distance & Figures show that as the distance 6 decreases, the increasing negative charge built-up at the metal surface. This results an equal and opposite (positive) charge in thesemiconductor. Because of the relatively low carrier concentration. this positive charge is distributed over a barrier region near the semiconductor surface. When 6 is small enough to de comparable with inter atomic distances, the gap becomes transparent to electrons, and we obtain limiting case, as shown in Fig. 811 (@). The limiting value of the barrier height is denoted as q@By and is given by, = alGa—%) = ‘The barrier height is nothing but the difference between the metal work function and the electron affinity of the semiconductor. For an ideal contact between a metal and a type semiconductor, the barrier height qéu, is given by top = Fs -a-(n-%) = (2) Where E; is the bandgap and it is equal to the sum of the barrier heights on n-type and p-type substrates, Le. Ey =q (ten + 455) The Fig, 8.2 shows the second limiting case where a large density of surface states is ‘present on the semiconductor surface. The Fig. 8.2 (a) shows the equilibrium between the surface states and the bulk of the semiconductor without equilibrium between the semiconductor and the metal. Here, the surface states are occupied to a level Ep. When the ‘metal and the semiconductor are in contact thermal equilibrium is achieved and the Fermi level of the semiconductor relative to that of the metal is fell down by an amount equal to the contact potential. As a result, an electric field is produced in the gap & If the density of the surface slates is sufficiently large to accommodate any additional surface charges resulting from decreasing § without appreciably altering the Fermi level Er, the space charge in the semiconductor will remain unaffected, From the above discussion we can say that, the barrier height is determined by the property of the semiconductor surface and is independent of the metal work function if the density of the surface states is sufficiently large. (Please refer Fig. 82 on next page.) Let us see schottky diode as an one application of metal semiconductor junction 8.3 Schottky Diode [At low frequencies the conventional diode can be easily turn off by changing its bias from forward to reverse, But at very high frequencies conventional diode shows: a tendency to store the charge and there is noticeable current in reverse half cycle. During forward biased it is not possible for all the carriers in depletion region to recombine. Some ‘carriers exist in depletion region which are not recombined. Now if the diode is suddenly reverse biased, the carriers existing in depletion region can flow in the reverse direction for some time, But for large life time of these carriers, longer is the flow of current in reverse half cycle. Hence there is @ limitation on the frequency range for which a conventional diode can be used.Energy bond diagrams of metal-somconductor contacts considering lerge density of surface stotes It 26, Fo S a © o The time taken by a diode to turn off from its forward biased state is called reverse recovery time. For frequencies upto 10 MHz itis very small but above 10 MHz it is large and puts a limit on the use of conventional diode in such high frequency applications. The diodes which are specially manufactured to solve this problem of fast switching are called Schottky diodes. Its construction is different than the conventional p-n junctiondiode. It consists of a metal to semiconductor junction as shown in the Fig, 83 (b). These diodes are also called Schottky barrier diodes, surface barrier diodes or hot camier diodes. The symbol for the Scholtky diode is shown in the Fig. 83 (a). > rove a3 Shot de os stra cant saat) re ewes cvs ssa o—t— Srnec con \ ‘Metal contact Uo dymat eaounuatin Usually n-type silicon is used as a semiconductor. Different metals, such as molybdenum, platinum, chrome or tungsten are used with different construction techniques to get different sot of characteristics such as increased frequency range, lower forward bias ete In both the materials metal as well as n-type semiconductor the electrons are the majority carriers. In the metal, the minority carriers (holes) are very less in number. When the contact is made between the two materials, the electrons from the n-type semiconductor material immediately flow into the adjoining metal. This is because the kinetic energy level of the majority carriers ie. electrons in the n region is higher than the electrons in the metal. Hence a heavy flow of majority carriers is established from n region to the metal. Due to high kinetic energy the injected carriers are called hot carriers. In conventional diode, the minority carriers get injected into adjoining region while in Schottky diode, majority carriers get injected into metal. Thus in a conventional diode the conduction is due to minority and majority carriers while in Schottky diode the conduction is totally by majority carriers. The heavy flow of electrons into the metal creates a region near the junction surface, depleted of carriers in the silicon material. This ‘ similar to depletion region in a conventional diode. The additional carriers in the metal establish a negative wall in the metal at the boundary between the two materials. The net result is a surface barrier between the two materials, preventing any further current.8.3.1 Characteristics of Schottky Diode Due to the minority cartier free region, Schottky P_Flgure 8.4 diode cannot store the Comparizon of Chovocaiic charge. Hence due to lack of charge storage, it can switch off very fast than a conventional diode. It can be easily switched off for the frequencies above 300 MHz. The barrier at the junction foe 4 Schotthy diode ic lose than that of normal p-n junction diode, in both forwaed and reverse bias region, The barrier potential and breakdown voltage in forward bins and reverse bias region respectively are also less than p-n junction di barrier potential of Schottky diode is 025 V as compared to 0.7 V for normal diode. The Fig. 84 shows the comparison of charicterstcs of Schottky diode and a conventional p-n junction diode 8.3.2 Applications Due to fast switching characteristics, the Schottky diodes are very useful for high frequency applications such as digital computers, high speed TTL, radar systems, mixers, detectors in communication equipments and analog to digital converters. 5.19 Introduction to UJT (Unijunction Transistor) ‘A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a device which does not belong to thyristor family but {is used to tum ON SCR. 5.19.1 Construction It is a three terminal device, having two layers. It consists of a slab of lightly doped n type silicon material. The two base contacts are attached to both the ends of this n-type surface. These are denoted as B, and B» respectively. A p-type material is used to form a pn junction at the boundary of the aluminium rod and n-type silicon slab. The third terminal called emitter (E) is taken out from this p-lype material. The n-type is lightly doped while p-type is heavily doped. The basic construction is shown in the Fig. 5.80 As metype is lightly doped, it provides high resistivity and p-type as heavily doped, provides low resistiv The symbolic representation of UJI is shown in the Fig. 5.80 (a). The emitter is shown by an arrow which is at an angle to the vertical line representating n-type material. This arrow indicates the direction of flow of conventional current when the UJT is forward biased.Fig. 5.80 Construction of UJT Fig. 5.80 (a) Symbol of UJT 6192 Equivalont Circuit of UST ‘The Fig. 5.81 (@) shows the basic structure of UJT while the Fig. 5.81 (6) shows the equivalent cizcuit of UJT. & Be Rea 9. « A h% Fas 3, 5, (@) Structure (rE quivatent cut Fig. 5:81 “The internal resistances of the two bases are represented as Rey and Ryo. In the actual construction, the terminal E is closer to B; as compared to 0. Hence resistance Roy is more than the resistance Riz. The p-n junction is represented by a normal diode with Vo fs the drop across it. When the emitter diode is not conducting then the resistance between the two bases 1 and 8 is called interbase resistance denoted a5 Roo & Re = Rn+Re Its value ranges between 4 kQ and 12 kO.5.19.3 Intrinsic Stand Off Ratio (1) Consider UJT as shown in the Fig. 5.82 to which supply Von is connected. With Tx = 0 i.e, emitter diode is not conducting. Rw = Ro t+Re Fag =Fp) * Raz whenig=0 Fig. 5.82 ‘Then the voltage drop across Rn can be obtained by using potential divider rule. when Ip =0 Ruy 7h “The typical range of is from 0.5 to OS. The voltage Viyy 18 called intrinsic stand off voltage because it keeps the emitter diode reversed biased for all the emitter voltages less than Vig. 5.19.4 Principle of Operation While operating an UT, the supply Viu is applicd between Bz and By while the variable emilter voltage Ve is applied across the emitter terminals, This arrangement is shown in the Fig. 5.83. Let us see the effect of change in Vx. The potential of A is decided by n and is equal ton Vn. Case 1: Ve < Va AAs long 6s Vr is less than Vp, the p-n junction is reverse biased. Hence emitter current 1g will not flow, Thus UJT is said to be OFF.Fig. 6.83 Case 2: Ve> Vr The diode drop Vp is generally between 03 to 07 V. Hence we can write, Vp = Va+Vp=n Vee+Vo When Vr becomes equal to or greater than Vp the pen junction becomes forward biased and current Ir. flows. The UJT is said to be ON, 5.19.5 UJT Characteristics ‘The graph of emitter current against emitter voltage plotted for a particular value of fg is called the characteristics of UT. For a particular fixed value of Veg such characteristics is shown in the Fig. 5.84.‘The characteristics can be divided into three main regions which are, 1. Cutoff region : The emitter voltage Ve is less than Vp and the p-n junction is reverse biased. A small amount of reverse saturation current Ir» flows through the device, which is negligibly small of the order of yA. This condition remains till the ‘peak point. 2. Negative resistance region : When the emitter voltage Vz becomes equal to Vp the [pn junction becomes forward biased and Iy starts flowing. The voltage across the device decreases in this region, though the current through the device increases. Hence the region is called negative resistance region. This decreases the resistance Ry. This region is stable and used in many applications. This region continues till valley point. 3. Saturation region + Incroase in Ig furthor vallay point current ly drives the device in the saturation region. The voliage corresponding ‘o valley point is called valley point voltage denoted as Vy. In this region, further decrease in voltage does not take place. The characteristic is similar to that of a semiconductor diode, in this region. The active region fe. negative resistance region, the holes which are large in number on prside, get injected into rvside. This causes increase in free electrons in the mtype slab. This increases the conductivity ie. decreases the resistivity. Hence the resistance Ry: decreases in this region. ‘As the Vis increases, the potential Vp corresponding to peak point will increase. 4.3 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) The SCR is an unidirectional device and like diode, it allows to flow current in only one direction. But unlike diode, it has « built in feature to switch ‘ON’ and ‘OFF. The switching of SCR is controlled by the additional input called gate and biasing conditions. itching. property of SCR allows to control the ‘ON’ periods of the SCR thus controlling average power delivered to the load. It an be used as a rectifier cloment like diode to convert a.c. signals to dc. signals 4.3.1 Construction ‘The SCR is a four layer p-ncp-n device where p and n layers are alternately arranged. ‘The outer layers are heavily doped. There are three pen junctions called J,, Jz and J. The ‘outer p layer is called anode while outer n layer i called cathode. Middle p layer is called gate. The thvee terminals are taken out respectively from these three layers, as shown in the Fig, 49, a ee ee shee Ando Titt Cathode(K) ry “jie me TT Smee me TS Ne Fig. 4.9 Construction of SCR‘Anode must be positive with respect to cathode to forward bias the SCR. But this is not sufficient criterion to turn SCR ON. To make it ON, a current is to be passed through the gate terminal denoted as Icy. Thus itis a current operated device. Three types of constructions are used to manufacture SCR, 1) Planar type 2) Mesa type 3) Press pack type. 4. Planar type = This construction is used for "ow current SCRS. In this type. all the p-n junctions come to the same surface on the cathode side. This is shown in the Fig. 4.10. All the junctions are diffused in this type of consiruction. The disadvantage of this type is more silicon per ampere current is required. The advantage is that the mass production is possible and large number of SCRs can be manufactured with uniform characteristics. Fig. 4.10 Planar type construction 2. Mesa type : In this construction, the junction J, is diffused while the outer layers are alloyed o it. ‘This is shown in the Fig. 4.11. To handle the large currents, the molybdenum or tungsten plates are braced to p-pn silicon pellet. This provides the additional mechanical strength. When SCR is ON, the area around the gate starts the conduction first. But in this construction, area around the gate is small hence this construction is not suitable for high di/dt ratings,Cathode juretion termed by aloying n type ito onp poet — arose Fig. 4.11 Mesa type construction This construction Is used for the conter gate SCRs. The entire circular aren around the gate takes part in the initial conduction hence di/dt capability of such ‘SCRs is large. This is shown in the Fig. 412. The construction is used for high power SCRs. A alicon wafer is used to take such a high power SCR. This type of construction provides double sided cooling Fig. 4.12 Press pack type construction ae. which is necessary for high ate “The Fig. 4.12 (a) shows the symbol of SCR. The tor Iggy is the gate trigger current required to make the SCR ON. Basically itis 2 diode symbol, with a third Cothode terminal gate connected to it. Thus the basic material used for the SCR fabrication is silicon whose reverse Fig. 4.42 (a) Symbol of SCR rent is very small compared to the other important ‘Semiconductor material like Germanium. The SCR conducts only in one direction and not only that the point at which it starts conduction can be controlled. Due to this, the device 1s called silicon controlled rectifier (SCX).4.3.2 Operation of SCR ‘The operation of SCR is divided into twa categories. 4, When gate is open : Consider that the anode is positive with respect to cathode and gate is open. The junctions J; and J, are forward biased nd junction J, is reverse biased. There is depletion region around J, and only leakage current flows which is negligibly small. Practically the SCR is said to be OFF. This is called forward blocking state of SCR and voltage applied to anode and cathode with anode positive is called forward voltage. This is shown in the Fig. 4.13 (a). (See Fig, 4.13 on next page.) With gete open, if cathode is made positive with respect to anode, the junctions Jy. Jy become reverse biased and J, forward biased. Stil the current flowing is leakage current, ‘which can be neglected as itis very small. The voltage applied to make cathode positive is called reverse voltage and SCR is said to be in reverse blocking state. This is shown in the Fig. 413 (). In forward blocking state, if the forward voltage is incr.ased, the current remains almost zero upto certain limit. At a particular value, th> reverse biased junction J breaks down and SCR conducts heavily. This voltage is called for var. breakover voltage Vyo of SCR. In ouch condition, SCR is said to be ON 9. Wiggcred Jy forward biased Jy. J roverse biased J; reverse biased 4; forward biased @ © Fig, 4.13 Operation of SCR when gate Is open2. When gato is closed : Consider that the voltage is applied between gate and cathode when the SCR is in forward blocking state. The gate is made positive with respect to the cathode. The ‘electrons from n-type cathode which are majority in number, cross the junction J, to reach to positive of battery. While holes from p-type move towards the negative of battery, this constitutes the gate ‘current. This current increases the anode current as some of the electrons cross junction J ‘As anode current increases, more electrons cross the junction J, and the anode current further increases. Due to regenerative action, within short time, the junction J, breaks and ‘SCR conducts heavily. The connections are shown in the Fig. 4.14. The resistance R is required to limit the current. Once the SCR conducts, the gate loses its control. Fig. 4.14 Operation of SCR when gate is closed43.3 Characteristics of SCR ‘The Fig. 4.15 shows the characteristics of SCR. Fig. 4.15 Characteristics of SCR ‘The characteristics are divided into two sections 1. Forward characteristics : Ik shows a forward blocking region, when Ic = 0. It also shows that when forward voltage increases upto Vio, the SCR turns ON and high current results. The crop across SCR reduces suddenly which is now the ohmic drop in the four layers. The current must be limited only by the external resistance in series with the device. It also shows that, if gate bias is used then as gate current increases, less vollage is required to turn ON the SCR. If the forward current falls below the level of the holding current I,), then depletion region begins to develop around J, and device goes into the forward blocking region. When SCR is tumed ON from OFF state, the resulting forward current is called latching current I,. The latching, current is slightly higher than the holding current.2. Roverse characteristics : Wf the anode to cathode voltage is reversed, then the device enters into the reverse blocking region. The current is negligibly small and practically neglected. If the reverse voltage is increased, similar to the diode, at a particular value avalanche breakdown cccurs and a large current flows through the device. This is called reverse breakdown and the voltage at which this happens is called reverse breakdown voltage Ven: Key Point: The forward breakover voltage is greater than the reverse breakdown voltage. ‘This is because the depletion layer width of J, is more in forward blocking state than the ‘widths of depletion layers of J, and J im revert blocking state 43.4 Two Transistor Model ‘The easiest way to understand how SCR works is to visualize it separately into two halves, as shown in the Fig. 4.16 The left half is a pnp transistor and right half is npn transistor. This is also called two transistor model of SCR The collector current of T, becomes base current of T, and collector current of T, becomes base current of T,. Consi positive voltage on the anode with respect to the cathode and gate current is zero. AS gate current is zero, base current of Ts, Ip is 2er0 and Tey is approximately. ley. The base current of Ty, Ip, = lex = len + is too small to tum T, ON. Both transistors are therefore in the Fig. 4.16 Two transistor model of SCR “OFF” state; resulting in a high impedance between the collector and emitter of each transistor, The anode current is then just the sum of the leakage currents of the two transistors, loy + lo Let us see what happens when we apply positive voltage from gate to cathode. Upon applying positive gate voltage holes are injected into the base of T,. This forward biases the base emitter junction of T,, increasing Icy This collector current is the base current for ,, therefore increase in Icy (In) will increase collector and emitter currents of Ty, resulting increase in base current of T,. The increase in base current for T, will result in a further increase in Iq. The net result is a regenerative increase in the collector current of each transistor. This regenerative process is continuous until both transistors are driven into saturation making all junctions forward biased. This results in large anode current (IA) ‘which is limited only by the extemal circuit resistance and voltage.Mathematical analysis Let icy and Iz are collector currents, Igy and Igp are emitter currents while Ip, ard Ing are base currents of transistors T, and T;, Let both the transistors are operating in active region. From transistor analysis we can write, Te where ls and a Now Te In Ik Ig Now Ik i Ip But Ie Inte yl te, and ey = 3hhs Hee Reverse current or leakage current abe i eens ‘Anode current = Iyy (Cathode current = I, Gate current Ite Inthe *la the Jer te Jaa tler He Substituting fey and cz, Giles tear + Gales How (ly He) +04 Hom Hoe alg Hen tow fale Hon How 1 +05) a) ~@) ~@) od) o- B) 6) = Using (3) a) In blocking state a and a; are small. Thus 1, is small. As a, +c, approaches unity, the SCR is ready to enter into conduction. Then due to positive gate current, the regenerative action takes place and SCR conducts.6.18 Triac ‘The triac is another important member of the thyristor family. It is basically two parallel SCRs tuned in opposite directions, with a common gate terminal. Key Point : It is bidirectional device and can conduct in both the directions. The Fig. 6.49 (a) shows the basic construction of a triac. The Fig. 6.49 (b) shows the symbol of a triac. The Fig, 649 (¢) shows an equivalent circuit of a triac which is antiparallel connection of the two SCR. ur, sor, 6 be ie wry ‘SCR, a (Main termina! 2) (@) Construction (&) Symbot (€) Equivalent circuit As triac conducts both ways, anode-cathode terminology is not used. The two main electrodes are called main terminals MT, and MT; while common control terminal is called gate G. The gate terminal is near MT,. The trisc can be turned ON by applying either a positive or negative voltage to the gate G with respect to the main terminal MT. 6.18.1 Working of Triac With gate open, either MT, is positive with respect to MT; or MT; is positive with respect to MT. Forward blocking region : When gate is open and MT, is positive with respect to MT, but the voltage is less than forward breakover voltage then triac does rot condiict. This region is called forward blocking region. If this voltage is increased beyond breakover voltage, the triac conducts in the forward direction similar to SCR. Reverse blocking region: When gate is open and MT; is negative with respect to MT, but the voltage is less than breakover voltage then triac does not conduct. This region is called reverse blocking region. But note that if this voltage is increased beyond the breakover voltage, triac conducts in reverse direction while SCR does not conduct in reverse direction at all. In forward oF reverse blocking. now if gate is made positive or negative with respect to MT, then also the triac conducts. This is the gate control of triac and easy way of switching triac ON. ‘The connections for forward and reverse blocking are shown ln the Fig. 650(a)and (b).(0) Forware blocking () Reverse blocking Fig. 6.50 Key Point : When MTs is positive and MT, is negative triac is forward biased wile when Mh; positive and MT; is negative, trac is reverse biased. Operating modes of triac : In each biased state, gate can be positive or negative, This sives four different operating modes of triac. 4. Mode | ; In this mode, triac is forward biased and gate is made positive with respect to MT This is shown in the Fig, 651 (a). The terminal MT; is positive with respect to MT, as tric is forward biased. e wt (a) Mode 1 (8) Circuit diagram Fig. 6.51 ‘This arrangement forward biases py-n3 junction and the breakdown occurs as a rormal SCR. ‘The gate current is positive and the triac is said to be operating in the first quadrant of its V-l characteristics. Hence this mode is also called I* mode of operation.2. Mode Il: In this mode, triac is forward biased and gate is made negative with respect to MT;, This is shown in the Fig, 652 (a. Load — wT Nee “tT 3 Lope ‘= os (0) circuit diagram Fig. 6.52 The negative gate in this arrangement forward biases pz-n. junction. This injects ‘artiers in py to turn SCR ON. ‘Thus pin;pan s acts as pilot SCR and later on the final conduction takes place as Pimp:Mz, which is main SCR. The sensitivity to gate current is less in this mode. The gate ‘current is negative but triac still operates in first quadrant of its V-I characterisitcs. Due to negative gale, this mode is also called I~ mode of operation. 3. Mode Ill ; in this mode, triac is reverse biased Le. MT, is positive with respect to MT; and the gate is made positive as shown in the Fig. 653. (8) Chet diagramFig. 653 The gate current flows from p: ton; while due to reverse biasing of SCR, p74 forms a main SCR. The gate cartent initiates the conduction and due to regenerative action, the trite is turned ON. In this mode, direction of main SCR ie. triac current reverses compared to mode Tand It and polarities of voltage between MT, and MT; are also reversed compared to ‘mode I and Il hence triac operates in third quendrant ofits V-I characteristics. But due to positive gat, itis called III” mode. 4, Mode IV : In this mode, triac is reverse biased but gate is made negative as shown in the Fig. 6.51 (a) and (). (0) Mose 1v {t) Ciruiteiagram Fig. 6.54 In this mode, gate current is negative and p,n 5 junction is forward biased. This injects the carriers to initiate the conduction of main SCR formed as p2n,pyny. Due to regenerative action, the triac starts conducting, Compared to Ill* mode, in this mode only gate current direction is reversed. Hence this mode is called IlI~ mode. The triac operation is in the third quadrant of its V-I characteristics. In this mode triac is more sensitive than IlI* mode.40.2 V-l Characteristics of Triac ‘The triac has its characteristics in first quadrant and third quadrant. The characteristics. are exactly similar to that of SCR, but in both the quadrants I and Ill and not like SCR only in first quadrant. The mode I and II operations exist in first quadrant while mode Ill and IV operations exist in the third quadrant. The entire V-1 characteristics of triae are shown in the Fig. 440 Forward curent Raversevotag Forward voto 1, WworenVecirss Voce “he Reverse curent 46.3 Applications of Triac ‘The triacs are also used to control average power to a load by the method of phase control, ike SCRs. Controlling the trigger points in each half cycle. the power to the load can be controlled. The angle by which triggering is delayed in each half cycle is called delay angle while the angle for which triac conducts in each half cycle is called conduction angle.45 Diac ‘The diac is a two terminal, four layer device. It conducts in either directions hence it is ako called bilateral trigger diode. It has a pair of four layer diodes a shown in the Fig. 428 (a). The two different symbols used for the dise are shown in the Fig, 428 (b). (21 Construction (©) Symbols Fig. 4.28 Dine ‘The terminals of the diac are not named as it can be used in any direction. It is low power triggering device. There is no control terminal on the diac. 4.5.4 Basic Operation The diac can be treated as parallel inverse combination of the semiconductor layers) that permits triggering in either direction. The Fig. 4.29 (8) shows the diac equivalent circuit as two parallel Shockley diodes, connected in opposite directions. The Shockley diode is basically a four layer pnpn diode, with only two external terminals. The characteristics of Shockley diode are similar to SCR with I; = 0. It acts as a switch which is fon in one direction and off in the other. Both the Shockley diodes act as a switch as shown in the Fig. 429 (b). The V is the applied volkage across Ay and Ay. . Foulayerdoses MY | 7 v 2 ie | - , a cs « ° Fig. 4.29 Diac operationWhen the polarity of applied voltage is as shown in the Fig. 429 (a) then Shockley diode Ds, becomes ON when V is more than Vpgi1) of Ds. Thus current flows from A, to Az a5 Ds; acts as closed switch S,. If the polarities of applied voltage V are reversed then for applied voltage more than Vagip) Of Day, the Dez conducts and its acts like @ Closed switch S;. The current flows from A, to Ay. Thus device can conduct in both the directions, depending on the polarities of the applied voltage ecross it. 45.4.2 Four Transistors Analogy The diac operation can be explained using four transistors analogy. Each pair of transistors form a Shockley diode. The four transistors analogy and the biasing conditions shown in the Fig. 430 (a) and (b) also can be used to explain the basic operation of diac. A « ” Fig. 4.30 Four transistors analogy ‘The transistors Q,,Q; form a Shockley diode D,, while the transistors Q,, Q, form 1a Shockley diode Dz. The basic operation remains same as explained earlier45.2 Characteristics ‘The diac characteristics are exactly similar to the Shockiey diode. But for one Shockley diode, they are in 1" quadrant while for other they are in 3° quadrant due to opposite polarities of voltage and current. The diac characteristics are shown in the Fig. 431. Fig. 4.31 Diac characteristics 4.5.3 Applications The diac is not a control device, it is used as a triggering device. It is used in, 1. Triggering of trine 2. Motor speed control 3. Temperature contro! 4, Light dimming circuits.