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TheRevolutionaryMovementinIndiaEssay

The Revolutionary
Movement in India Essay
bySailendraT

Therevolutionarieswerethosepersonswhobelievedinoverthrowing
theBritishgovernmentinIndiabymeansofmassuprising.
Theywantedtoorganisearebellionagainsttheforeigngovernment
andeventamperingwiththeloyaltyofthearmyandguerillawarfare
foroverthrowingtheforeignrule.
Thismovementwastheby
productofrepressivepolicyfollowedbythe
GovernmenttowardstheextremistinthewakeofCongresssplitat
Surat.Bytheclosingof19thandbeginningof20thcenturycertain
eventsintheforeigncountriesprofoundlyinfluencedtherevolutionary
ideainthecountry.
Revolution
southasiarev.files.wordpress.com

ThelargenumberofpoliticalassassinationinEurope,Emperorof
Italy,PrimeMinisterofSpain,presidentofFrance,convincedyoung
Indiansthattheycanalsoachievesameobjectivebyviolenceand
force.Theirconvictionwasfurtheremboldenedbythefailureof
moderates.
Theirmainobjectivewastooverthrowthecolonialrulebyarmed
revolution.Theyopenlypreachedsedition,disloyaltyandrevolution
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andsoughtthesupportofIndiansoldiersinorganizinginsurrection.
Throughsheercourageandselfsacrificetheyoungrevolutionaries
wereabletoinspirealargenumberofpeople.Theyorganiseda
numberofsecretsocietytofulfiltheirobjectives.Theythereforetried
tocreatearevolutionaryspiritamongthepeopleofthecountryand
impartnecessarytrainingtopreparethemforanystrike.
Thesocietymettheirrequirementsofarmseitherbymanufacturing
themsecretly,orbylootinggovernmentharmony.Naturallythese
activitiesinvitedforheavypunishmentbuttherevolutionacceptedthis
withopenheart.
Therevolutionarymovementwasnotconfinedtoanyparticularpartof
thecountry,butflourishedindifferentpartofIndiaaswellasforeign
lands.

RevolutionaryMovementinMaharashtra:
Maharashtrawasinfactbirthplaceofrevolutionarymovementin
India.BalGangadharTilakwasthefatherofIndianrevolutionary
movementinMaharashtra.Hetriedtoplantrevolutionaryideaamong
theyoungpeople.
HehighlightedtheancientgloriesofIndiaandappealedtothemto
revivethesameandtaketheircountrytothenewheight.He
organisedGanapatiandShivajfestivaltoarisepatrioticfeelingofthe
people.
ButtheMaharashtraproducedtwoChepkarbrothers(Damodar&BAL
Krishana)whofoundedthesocietyfortheremovalofobstaclesto
Hindureligion.TheseBrahminsweredescendantsofthePeshwas.
ThePeshwaswhichwereoverthrownbytheEastIndiaCompany.
Initially,thissocietymerelyprovidedphysicalandmilitarytrainingbut
laterresortedtoterroristactivities.Theycommittedfirstpolitical
murderon22ndJune1897.TheytargetedMr.Randtheplague
commissionerofPoona.
Theirmaingrievancewasthattheplaguecommitteesendingsoldiers
toinspectthehousesofplagueafflictedpersons.TheChepkar
brotherswerebought,convictedandhanged.Tilakwhopraisedthese
twobrothershadwritteninhisnewspaperMarahatta,Plagueismore
mercifultousthanitshumanephototypesnowreigninginthecity.
SubsequentlyTilakwasalsoimplicatedforwritingagainsttheBritish
Government.
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ShyamjiKrishnaVermawasanotherrevolutionaryinMaharashtra.
KrishnaVermawasconnectedwithRandmurdercaseandwentto
Englandtoavoidpunishment.In1905,hestartedIndiaHomerule
societywhichispopularlyknownasIndiaHouseinLondon.
HealsostartedamonthlyjournalcalledIndiansociologisttospread
hisview.LateronheinstitutedafellowshiptoenableIndianyoungmen
togoabroadtotrainthemselvesformissionaryactivities.
AgroupofIndianrevolutionaryincludingV.D.Savarkar,Hardayaland
MadanLaiDhingrabecamememberoftheIndianHouse.V.D.
SavarkaralongwithShyamjiKrishnaVermacontinuedvigorous
revolutionarypropagandatill1907andtheyshiftedtoParis,dueto
fearofBritishpolice.
InMay1907theIndiahousecelebratedthegoldenjubileeofthe
Indianrevoltof1857andV.D.Savarkardescribedit,asawarof
Independence.Hisideasandphilosophywerepublishedinhisbook
entitled,TheIndianwarofIndependence.
V.D.SavarkarestablishedAbhinavBaratSocietyinIndia.The
membersofthesocietyinIndiadidacommendablejobduringthe
Swadeshimovement.Thesocietycontinuedtoimparttrainingtothe
membersinarmsandexplosions.
Thesocietygrewverypopularinshortperiodoftimeandbranches
wereestablishedalloverMaharashtra.TheSocietyinspiredthe
peopleforrevolutionarymovement.
AnotherimportantmemberofIndiaHousewasMadanLaiDhingra.In
1909heshortdeadCol.WilliamCurzon,PoliticalA.D.C.toIndia
office.Dhingraarrestedandhanged.In1909,theunpopularDistrict
Magistrate,Mr.JacksonwasshortdeadbyAnantLaxmanKanhera.
TheAhmedabadBombcase,theSataraconspiracycasewere
importantterroristactivitiesinwesternIndia.Despiterepressivepolicy
oftheBritishGovernment,Maharashtracontinuedtobeanimportant
centreforrevolutionarymovement.

RevolutionaryMovementinBengal:
Bengalprovidedsuitableatmosphereforstrongrevolutionary
movement.Growingeducation,unemploymentandgrowthofhostile
attitudeprovidedaclimateforterroristactivities.Itsearlyhistoryis
associatedwiththenameofPramathaMitra.WhenSurendraNath
Banerjeewasimprisonedfordefamation,hehatchedplottorescue
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him,fromthejail.
ForthepurposeoforganizingitheproceededtoBarisalbutwaitedin
vainforthepromisedsignalfromtheleadersinCalcutta.Healso
organizedasecretrevolutionarysocietynamedAnusilenSamiti.
ThemembersofAnusilanSamiti,mostlyyoungstudentsweretrained
inmilitarydrill,swordplay,boxing,wrestlingandotherkindsof
exercise.TherewerevariousbranchesofAnusilanSamitiandthere
areprobablyseveralsecretsocietiesactingindependentlyofone
another.
Thespreadofrevolutionarymovementwasformedbyabandof
youngmenundertheleadershipofBarindraGhose,youngerbrother
ofArbindaGhose.Thechiefmeansofpropagandawasthepublication
booksandperiodicalstopreachthegospelofrevolution.
ThefirstbookentitledBhawaniMandirpublishedin1905,gives
detailedplanofestablishingareligioussanctuaryasthebasicor
centreofrevolutionaryactivities.AnotherbookwrittenbyAbinash
ChandraBhattacharyaentitledBartamanRananitlwhichwas
publishedin1907.
Theentirebookisaneloquentpleaformilitarytrainingandnecessity
ofwarforachievementofIndiasfreedom.Itdiscussesvariousmilitary
details,especiallythoseofguerillawarfare,whichtheyouthswill
graduallybecamefearlessandexpertsinswordplayandothertactics.
TheYugantar(NewEra)startedinMarch1906,openlypreached
seditionanddisloyaltyinordertocreaterevolutionarymentalityamong
thepeople.
AnumberofselectarticlesfromtheYugantarwerepublishedinthe
formofabookentitledMuktiKonpathe.(Whichwayliessalvation).It
denouncedsmallnessandlownessoftheidealsoftheNational
Congress.Itfurtherexhortsitsreaderstoobtainthehelpofnative
soldiers.
BarindraKumarGhoseandhisfriendswereengagedinmanufacturing
bombwithaviewtokillingtheBritishGovernmentofficials.Thefirst
bombwaspreparedwiththeobjectofkillingSirBamfyldeFullerforhis
oppressivemeasures.ProfullaChaki,wasespeciallydeputedtocarry
outthescheme.
Buttheplanfailed.Next,anattemptwasmadetoblowupthetrainin
whichtheLieutenant.GovernorofBengalwastravellingonDecember
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6,1907.ThetrainwasactuallyderailedbyabombnearMidnapur.
TheirnextattemptwastomurderMr.Kingsfordwhoaschief
presidencyMagistrateseverelyflaggedaboyforacomparatively
minoroffence.Mr.KingsfordwasthenaJudgeatMuzaffarpur.
ProfullaChakiandKhudiramBosewerechargedwiththedutybomb
throwing.Theythrewabombatacarriage,whichresembledthatof
Kingford,butreallybelongedtooneMr.Kenedy,withtheresultthat
thewifeanddaughterofthelatterwerekilled.SoonafterProfullawas
arrestedwhenheshothimselfdead,andKhudiramwasofand
hanged.TheincidenttookplaceonApril30,1908.
AftertwodaystheMuararepukkergardenwassearchedbythepolice.
ThirtyfourpersonsincludingArbindoGhose,Barindra,andhis
principalassociateswerearrestedandtriedintheAliporeconspiracy
case.
TheaccusedintheAliporeconspiracywereregardedasmartyrsto
theircountry,andthoselikePraffullaChakiandKhudiramwholost
theirlivesbecameheroesoffolksongssungalloverthecountry.
Duringtheirtrial,NarendraGosain,whohadfirstdivulgedthesecretto
thepoliceandturnedouttobeanapproverwasmurderinsidethejail,
bytworevolutionaryprisoners,KanaiLaiDattandSatyamBose.The
newsofhisdeathwashailedwonjoyalloverBengal,andhis
murdererswereregardedasheroesandmartyrs.BalGangadharTilak
praisedtheBengalterroristthroughhispaperKesari.
InMadrasprovincethepeoplewereexcitedbytheeloquentspeeches
ofBipinChandraPal,ChidambramPilaiopenlyspokeofabsolute
independence.HisarrestledtoaseriousriotinTuticornand
Tinnevellyinwhichpoliceopenedfireinadefiantcrowd.
AshewhohadorderedthefiringatTinnevelly,wasassassinatedby
VanchiAiyaroftheBharathaMathaAssociations.Unabletoescape,
VanchiAiyarshothimself.
ThesecretorganisationofPunjabthrivedonrepeatedfaminesand
increaseofLandrevenueandirrigationtaxes.ThesettlersofCanal
coloniesapprehendedrestrictionsonownershipright.
Thebeggarsystemcausedirritation.IncidentsinBengalfurther
inflamedthePunjabis.The50thanniversaryofrevoltof1857was
approachingandspeechesfrequentlycalledupontheSikhregiments
torevolt.

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AssaultsonEuropeanstookplaceatLahoreandriotbrokeoutin
RawalpindifollowingtheprosecutionofLajpatRaisPunjabi.AjitSingh
wastheheartandsoulofthismovementandhewashelpedbyAga
HaidarandSyedHyderRiza.DeportationofRajputRaiandAjitSingh
quickenedthingsforawhile.

TheGhadrParty:
LalaHardayal,wasmovingspiritbehindtheGhadrParty,in1913at
SanFranciscointheU.S.A.Ameetingwasheldthereon13thMarch
1913,towhich120Indiansincludingfortyrepresentativesfromtown
andfactorieswereattended.Anotherbiggerandmorerepresentation
gatheringwasheldon1stNovember1913atSan
Franciscotoconfirmthedecisionofthefirstmeeting,itwasdecidedto
bringoutaweeklypaperGhaddarnamedincommemorationofthe
mutinyof1857,inUrdu,MarathiandGurumukhi.Thisgavethe
associationitsnowhallowednametheGhadarParty.
TheresolutionsfoundingtheGhadarPartylaiddownitsaimasthe
overthrowofimperialistRajinIndiaandbuildingupinitsplaceofa
naturalpublicbasedonfreedomandequality.Thiscouldbeachieved
anarmednationalrevolution.
EverymemberoftheGhadarPartywasdeclaredtobeinhonourand
dutyboundtoparticipateinthefightagainstslaverycarriedon
anywhereintheworld.
Hardayal,whopropagatedrevolutionaryideasabroad,wasbornin
1884.In1904hestoodfirstamongthesuccessfulcandidatesforthe
M.A.degreeinEnglishLiterature.Attheageof28,hearrivedin
U.S.A.andappointedaslectureratStranfordUniversity.
ButhewasdismissedfromtheUniversity.Thiswasabitenigmatic,
butevidentlymeansthathewastakingadvantageofhisstatesand
positionintheUniversitytofurtherhisrevolutionarycampaignamong
inU.S.A.
TheGhadarbecameverypopularparticularlyamongtheIndiansliving
abroad.ThefactsandideaspublishedintheGhadarweretakenby
othersanditbecameacentreofrevolutionarypropaganda.Barkatulla
wasanativeofBhopalandstrongadvocateofGhadarParty.Another
advocatewasRamChandra.
HewasleftbyHardayalinchargeoftheaffairsoftheGhadarParty.
RamChandraalsoinvitedBhagwanSingh.LaterBhagwanSinghwas
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electedpresidentandBarkatullaVicePresidentoftheGhadarParty.
WiththeoutbreakofFirstWorldWartheIndianrevolutionaryleaders
likeLalaHardayalsoughtthehelpofGermanyEmperorWilliamII.An
organisationknownasIndianIndependenceCommitteewassetupat
BerlinwhichestablishedcontactwiththerevolutionariesinU.S.A.
UltimatelyanagreementwasreachedandtheIndianIndependence
CommitteeandGhadarpartyagreedtoworkjointly.Theyalsoagreed
tosendmoremoneytoIndiatohelptheIndianrevolutionary.
ButonApril4th1914,theKomagataMarucasecreatedexplosive
situationinPunjab.BabaGurditSinghchartedaJapaneseshipfrom
Hongkong.AtintermediateportsconsignmentofGhadarnewspaper
werereceivedonboard.Onthe23rdofMaytheKomagata
MaruarrivedatVancouverwith351Sikhsand21Punjabi
MuhammadanonBoard.TheCanadianauthorityrefusedpermission
tolandtheshipwhichreturnedtomouthofHooghlyon27September
1914.
ThepassengeroftheshipbelievedthattheBritishGovernmenthad
inspiredtheCanadianauthority.ThegovernmentofIndiaorderedall
thepassengerstobecarriedbytraintothePunjab.TheSikhsrefused
toenterthetrainandtriedtomarchonCalcuttainabody.
Theywereforciblyturnedbackandariotensuredwithlossoflifeon
bothsides.ManyoftheSikhswerearmedwithAmericanrevolver.
Only60passengersinall,includingthe17Muhammadansonboard,
weregotoffintheriotmanywerearrestedeitherthenor
subsequently29includingGurditSinghdisappeared.Thirtyonewere
internedinjail.
Threeimportantfactorswhichprovidedtemporaryrespitetothe
terroristactivity.One,theemergencyofGandhionthenational
movementwithhisnewfaithastruthandNonviolencegavea
temporaryhalttothemovement.
Furthertheprovisionofconstitutionalreformbefore1919created
suitableatmosphereforcompromiseandconciliation.Thirdly,withthe
closeofWorldWarI,theGovernmentreleasedallthepolitical
prisonersarrestedundertheDefenceofIndiaAct.

PostwarRevolutionaryMovement:
ThepostWorldWarIperiodwitnessedsporadicgrowthofterrorist
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activitiesindifferentpartsofIndia.Therevolutionaryleaderscalledon
thepeopletomeettheterroroftheGovernmentbycounterterrorist
withaviewtoemphasisthattheydidnotbelieveinterrorismassuch
andwereresortingtosuchmethodtodrivetheBritishGovernmentout
ofIndiansoil.
TherevolutionariesofthepostWorldWar1periodhaddifferent
philosophyoftheirown.Theydidnotreceivetheirinspirationfrom
BhagwatGita,VivekanandaandAurobindoGhose.Ontheotherhand
MarxandEngelswerehismainsourceofinspiration.
ThisisclearfromthefollowingmessagesentbytheBhagatSinghthe
youngrevolutionaryfromtheLahoreJailon9February1931.Hesaid
Wewanttooverthrowthepresentstructureofsociety.Forthis
purpose,wewanttoacquirepowerfirst.
Atpresenttheadministrativemachineryisinthehandsofrich.We
wanttotaketheGovernmentmachineryinourownhandssothatwe
maydefendprerogativeofthepublicandmaygiveapracticalshape
toourideals.
Fororganisingandspreadingtherevolutionarymovementabroad,the
revolutionarieswereindireneedofmoney.Sotheyconductedraidsin
differentplaces.Onsuchraidwasorganisedon9thMay1925.
TheU.PrevolutionariesconductedaraidatKakoriRailwayStationon
theLucknowSaharanpurline.SoonafterthetrainleftKakorirailway
stationoneoftherevolutionariesbrokeopentheIronBoxandlooted
someamount.
TheGovernmentarrestedmorethan40persons.Asaresultofthe
trialwhichconcludedon7April1927therevolutionaryleaderRam
PrasadBismil,RoshanSingh,RajendraLahiriwassentencedtodeath
andothersweretransportedforlife.
InKanpurameetingofalltherevolutionariesofnorthernIndiawas
heldinwhichRamPrasadBismill,SachidanandaSanyalandJogesh
ChandraChatterjee,attended.Themeetingresultedintheformation
oftheHindustanRepublicanAssociationwhichsubsequently
reorganisedastheHindustanSocialistRepublicanAssociation
(H.S.R.A)whichhadprovincialbranchesinPunjab,Bengal,U.P.,
BiharandDelhi.
TheH.S.R.Ahadathreefoldobjective(1)inspiredbytheRussian
Revolutionandsocialistideology,theAssociationhopedtosubstitute
BritishimperialisminIndiabyafederatedRepublicoftheUnited
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StatesofIndia.(2)Toenhancetheconsciousnessofthepeopleof
IndiatothefutilityoftheGandhimethodofnonviolence.(3)They
advocatedfordirectactiontoousttheBritishGovernment.
Thepartyplayedanactiveroleinorganisingdemonstrationagainst
theSimonCommission.WhenSimonCommissionpaidavisitto
LahoreonOctober20,1928partyorganisedahugeprocession
demandingreturnofSimonCommission.InthisdemonstrationLala
LajpatRaireceivedaseriousLathiblowandhedeclaredThe
Governmentwhichattacksitsowninnocentsubjectshasnoclaimto
becalledacivilisedgovernment.
ToavengethefatalonLalaLajpatRaiduringtheantiSimon
Commissiondemonstration,abandofPunjabirevolutionariesledby
BhagatSinghshotdeadMr.SaundersAsst.SuperintendentofPolice.
SoonafterthemurderofSaunderstheHindustanSocialists
RepublicanPartyinanoticejustifieditsaction.ItdescribedtheLathi
blowsgivenonthechestofLalaLajpatRaiasanaffronttothenation
andassertedbythatassaultoftheIndiannation,theforeignpowers
hadasifthrownachallengetotheselfrespectingandbravesonsof
thesoil.
Thisreplywillsurelyconvincethepeopleandforeignpowerthatthe
IndianNationisindeednotyetdeadorspiritlesstobearsuchinsults.
ThepeoplesofIndiahavefreshbloodfollowingintheirveins,Young
Indiaisupandreadytoguardthehonourofthenationeveratthe
stakeandsacrificeoflife.
BhagatSinghandhisfriendon8thApril1929threwaBombinCentral
LegislativeAssembly.Theyhadnointensiontokillanybodybutjust
wantedtodemonstrateinthefashionoftheFrenchanarchistMartyr
valiantthatittookalordnoisetomakethedeafhear.
AfterthrowingtheBombBhagatSinghsurrenderedhimselftothe
policealongwiththecompanions.Atrialwasheldandallofthem
weresentencedtodeath.TheywereexecutedintheLahoreJailon
23rdMarch1931andtheirdeadbodiescreatedatHussainiwalain
Punjab.
Bengalwasanotherfertilecentreforterroristactivities.Theterrorist
murderedanumberofunpopularofficers.BinaDaswasshotatstack
byJackson,theGovernorofBengal,whilehewaspresidingatthe
convocationofCalcuttaUniversity.Butthemissionwasfailedand
BinaDaswastriedandsentencedforlifeimprisonment.

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SuryaSen,LokNathBalandGaneshGhoshetc.preparedagrand
plantolaunchsimultaneousattacksonBritisharmouries.
SoSuryaSenalongwithhiscomradesraidedarmoury.OnApril1930
anddeclaredhimselfthepresidentoftheprovisionalIndependent
GovernmentofIndia.TheyalsoattackedtheEuropeansatChittagong.
Forsometimetherevolutionarycarriedonguerillatypefoughtbut
ultimatelythepolicewasabletocapturemostoftherevolutionary
leaders.LokNathBalwaskilledintheencounterwiththepolice
SuryaSenwascapturedandhangedatDacca.BenoyBose,astudent
ofDaccashotatandkilledaseniorBritishpoliceofficerinAugust
1932.
AfterthatheenteredtheGovernmentHeadquartersalongwithBadal
andshotdowntheInspectorGeneraloftheprisonsinhisoffice.To
escapepolicearrestBenoyBoseandDineshshotthemselves.While
Bosedied,Dineshrecovered.Criminalproceedingswereinstituted
againstDineshandhewashanged.
ChandraSekharAzad,BhagatCharanandYashPalconstituted
anotherimportantgroupofrevolutionary(whodeterminedtofreetheir
countryattheirowncost.ChandraSekharAzadhadearlier
participatedinKakoriConspiracyaswellasattackonSaunders.
Thisgrouptriedtoblastthetrainoftheviceroyassoonasitleftthe
NizamuddinstationnearDelhi.ButmiraculouslyLordIrwinescaped
unhurt.InFebruary1931thisgroupofrevolutionariespreparedaplan
tosecurehelpfromRussiaforthefreedomofIndia.
ButbeforetheimplantationofthisplanAzadwassurroundedby
armedpoliceinAlfredParkatAllahabad.Buthekilledhimselfbythe
Bullet.Subsequently,afterthedeathofAzadotherrevolutionary
recoganisedtheRevolutionaryArmy.Howeverhemaycatchbythe
policeandsentencedtofourteenyearsofrigorousimprisonment.
TheterroristaddedacolourfulandinspiringChaptertothehistoryof
ourfreedommovement.Theirdesperatedeedsanddaringplans,cool
actionandindifferencetodeathwonthemalastingplaceinthe
memoryofthenation.
Butwithalltheiridealismandsuffering,theywereboundtofail.They
failedtogetthesupportofthemassesforthepartyasdistinctfrom
gettingpopularityasherofiguresdevoidofdistinctideologyand
politicalpersonality.

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Thisamplytestifiedbytheperpetualandextremepovertywhich
engulfedthemallthetime.Nordidtheysucceedinorganisingasingle
massrevolutionaryactionorevenaminorarmedactionagainstthe
BritishGovernment.
TheleadershipoftheH.S.R.Awentwronginnottryingtorapidly
changethesituationandcombinetheiractivitywithmassorganisation
andmassrevoltorarmedaction.Theyfailedtodeveloporganized
armedaction,orhoweversmallscale,againstthegovernmentas
distinctfromitsofficials.
Theachievementoftherevolutionaryterroristwasinrousinganti
imperialistconsciousnesstonewflights.Theysucceededin
awakeningthecountryandinwinningtheloveandrespectoftheir
countrymen.
Forthecauseofnationalism,thiswasnomeansuccess.Ironicallythe
fruitoftheirsuccessweregatheredbythetraditionalCongress
leadershiptowhichtheydenouncedasbourgeoesandmiddleclass
andwhichtheyhadhopedtoreplace.
Thisledtoaninterestinghistoricalparadox.Whilenearlyninetyper
centoftherevolutionaryterroristlatergavetheirallegiancetoMarxin
orcommunalism,theirownyouthfuldeedsandslogansbecamethe
inheritanceofleftistCongressmenweddedtoGandhianleadership.
However,theirfailurewasnotmerelythatofnotlinkingtheirpractice
withtheirtheoryitwasalsothatofnotintegratingnationalismand
socialismattheoreticalandpracticalplanes.Intheirprogramme,they
hopedtoaccomplishatonestrokethenationalistandsocialist
revolutions.
Stillanothermistakeoftherevolutionaryterroristslayinthebeliefthat
propagandabydeedorbydeathbydaringyoungmencouldleadto
thecreationofarevolutionarysocialistmovement.
Inconclusion,itcanbesaidthattherevolutionaryterroristssucceeded
inarrivingatthebasicelementsofasocialistunderstandingofsociety.
Thestate,nationalism,imperialismandrevolution.
Butadeeperunderstandingcouldonlycomeoutofthedevelopment
ofrevolutionarytheoryinpractice.Ontheotherhandthetotal
mechanismofrevolutionarypoliticalaction,organizationandtherole
ofrevolutionarypartyescapedthem.Allthetime,however,theykept
intacttheirrevolutionaryconsciousness.

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