1.

OBJECTIVE
i. To examine how shear force varies with an increasing point load
ii. To examine how shear force varies at the cut position of the beam for various
loading condition
iii. To establish the relationship between strut length (Columns length) and
buckling load.
iv. To study the effect of end condition on the buckling load
v. To inelastic buckling of a strut.

2.0

LEARNING OUTCOMES
i. Able to apply the engineering knowledge in practical application.
ii. To enhance technical competency in structure engineering through laboratory
application.
iii. Communicate effectively in group.
iv. To identify problem, solving finding out appropriate solution through
laboratory application.

3.0

INTRODUCTION
In this section we will determine the critical buckling load for a column
that is pin supported as shown in Fig. 1a. The column to be considered is an ideal
column, meaning one that is perfectly straight before loading, is made of
homogeneous material, and upon which the load is applied through the centroid of
the cross section. It is further assumed that the material behaves in a linear-elastic
manner and that the column buckles or bends in a single plane.
In reality, the conditions of column straightness and load application are
never accomplished; however, the analysis to be performed on an ideal column
is similar to that used to analyze initially crooked columns or those having an
eccentric load application. These more realistic cases will be discussed later in
this chapter.
Since an ideal column is straight, theoretically the axial load P could be
increased until failure occurs by either fracture or yielding of the material.
However, when the critical load Per is reached, the column is on the verge of
becoming unstable, so that a small lateral force F, Fig. 1b, will cause the column
to remain in the deflected position when F is removed, Fig. 1c. Any slight
reduction in the axial load P from P. will allow the column to straighten out, and
any slight increase in P, beyond Per, will cause further increases in lateral
deflection.

Figure 1

Whether or not a column will remain stable or become unstable when

subjected to an axial load will depend on its ability to restore itself, which is based
on its resistance to bending. Hence, in order to determine the critical load and the
buckled shape of the column, we will apply EIdv/dx = M(X), which relates the
internal moment in the column to its deflected shape, i.e.,
EIdv/dx = M

(0)

Recall that this equation assumes that the slope of the elastic curve is
small* and that deflections occur only by bending. When the column is in its
deflected position, Fig. 2, the internal bending moment can be determined by
using the method of sections. The free-body diagram of a segment in the deflected
position is shown in Fig. 2. Here both the deflection v and the internal moment M
are shown in the positive direction according to the sign convention used to
establish Eq. (0) Summing moments, the internal moment is M = -Pv. Thus Eq.
(0) becomes
EIdv/dx = -Pv,
dv/dx + (P/EI)v = 0

(1)

This is a homogeneous, second-order, linear differential equation with

constant coefficients. It cans he shown by using the methods of differential
equations, or by direct substitution into Eq. (1), that the general solution is
V = c1sin((P/EI)x) + c2 cos ((P/EI)x )

(2)

The two constants of integration are determined from the boundary

conditions at the ends of the column. Since v = 0 at x = 0, then C2 = 0. And since
v 0 at x = L, then
C1Sin((P/EI)L) = 0

This equation is satisfied if C1 = 0; however, then v = 0, which is a trivial

solution that requires the column to always remain straight, even though the load
causes the column to become unstable. The other possibility is for
Sin((P/EI)L) = 0
which is satisfied if
(P/EI)L = n

FIGURE 2
Or

P = nEI/L

n = 1,2,3. (3)

The smallest value of P is obtained when n = 1, so the critical load for the column
is therefore
P = EI/L

This load is sometimes referred to as the Euler load, after the Swiss
mathematician Leonhard Euler, who originally solved this problem in 1757. The
corresponding buckled shape is defined by the equation
V = C1Sin(x/L)
Here the constant C1 represents the maximum deflection, Vmax, which
occurs at the midpoint of the column, Fig. 3a. Specific values for C1 cannot be
obtained, since the exact deflected form for the column is unknown once it has
buckled. It has been assumed, however, that this deflection is small.
Realize that n in Eq. 3 represents the number of waves in the deflected
shape of the column. For example, if n 2, then from Eqs. 2 and 3, two waves will
appear in the buckled shape, Fig.3, and the column will support a critical load that
is 4Pcr just prior to buckling. Since this value is four times the critical load and
the deflected shape is unstable, this form of buckling, practically speaking, will
not exist.
We can represent the load-deflection characteristics of the ideal column by
the graph shown in Fig. 4. The bifurcation point represents the state of neutral
equilibrium, at which point the critical load acts on the column. Here the column
is on the verge of impending buckling.
Also note that the load-carrying capacity of a column will increase as the
moment of inertia of the cross section increases. Thus, efficient columns are
designed so that most of the columns cross-sectional area is located as far away
as possible from the principal centroidal axes for the section. This is why hollow
sections such as tubes are more economical than solid sections. Furthermore,
wide-flange sections, and columns that are built up from channels, angles,

plates, etc., are better than sections that are solid and rectangular.

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4

It is also important to realize that a column will buckle about the principal
axis of the cross section having the least moment of inertia (the weakest axis). For
example, a column having a rectangular cross section, like a meter stick, as shown
in Fig. 137, will buckle about the aa axis, not the b b axis. As a result,
engineers usually try to achieve a balance, keeping the moments of inertia the
same in all directions. Geometrically, then, circular tubes would make excellent
columns. Also, square tubes or those shapes having Iy Ix are often selected for
columns.

4.0

THEORY
4.1

To predict the buckling load Euler buckling formula is used. The critical
value in Euler Formula is the slenderness ratio, which is the ratio of the
length of the strut to its radius of gyration (L/K).

4.2

The Euler formula become inaccurate for struts with L/K ratio of less than
1.125 and this should be taken into account in any design work.

4.3

Euler buckling formula for pin struts :

Pe = 2EI / L2
Where ;
Pe = Euler buckling load (N)
E = Youngs Modulus (Nm-2)
I = Second moment of area (m4)
L = Length of strut (m)

Eulers Theory
The simple analysis below is based on the pinned-pinned arrangement. The other
arrangements are derived from this by replacing the length L by the effective
length b.
For the pinned-pinned case the effective length b = L.
For the Fixed -Fixed case the effective length b = L/2.
For the Fixed-Free case the effective length b = L x 2.
For the Fixed-Pinned case the effective length b approx. L x 0,7.

Curvature
Quick derivation for curvature (1/R)

Beam equation
M/I=/y=E/R

When x = 0 y = 0 and 0 = A cos0 + B.0 = A therefore A = 0

When x = b , y = 0 and so B sin b = 0.
B cannot be 0 because there would be no deflection and no buckling which is contrary to
experience.
Hence sin b = 0.

therefore b = 0, , 2, 3 etc

(W/EI) b 2 = 2, 4. 2, 9. 2 etc

therefore W = 2 E.I / b2 , 2 E.I / (b / 2) 2, 2 E.I / (b / 3) 2,

As the moment of inertia I = A.k 2 and the end force W = A. The formula can be
rewritten
W = A = 2 E A k 2 / b2
Therefore
= 2 E / (b / k)2

5.0

APPARATUS

Point load
gauge
Panel
control

Reading
meter

Fig 1: Machine Of Buckling Of Struts

Fig 3: Struts

Fig 4: Top & Bottom Chuck

6.0

PROCEDURE

6.1

Fit the bottom chuck to the machine and remove the top chuck (to give
two pinned ends). Select the shortest strut, number 1, and measured the
cross section using the vernier provided and calculated the second moment
of area, I, for the strut. (bd3/12)

6.2

Adjust the position of the sliding crosshead to accept the strut using the
thumbnut to lock off the slider. Ensure that there is the maximum amount
of travel available on the handwheel threat to compress the strut. Finally
tighten the locking screw.

6.3

Carefully back-off the handwheel so that the strut is resting in the notch
but not transmitting any load. Rezero the forcemeter using the front panel
control.

PANEL
CONTROL

6.1.4

Carefully start to load the strut. If the strut begin to buckle to the left,
flick the strut to the right and vice versa (this reduces any error
associated with the straightness of strut). Turn the handwheel until there is
no further increase in load (the load may peak and then drop as it settles in
the notches).

6.1.5

Record the final load in Table 1. Repeat with strut numbers 2,3,4 and 5
adjusting the crosshead as required to fit the strut.

7.0

RESULT AND CALCULATION

7.1

RESULT (PART 1)

Pinned-Pinned:
Strut
Length

Buckling Load (N)

Buckling Load (N)

1/L2

Number

(m)

(Experiment)

(Theory)

(m-2)

0.32

- 94.00

88.48

9.77

0.37

- 68.00

68.12

7.30

0.42

- 50.00

51.36

5.67

0.47

- 44.00

41.01

4.53

0.52

- 32.00

33.51

3.70

Table 1
Pinned-Fixed:
Strut

Length

Buckling Load (N)

Buckling Load (N)

1/L2

Number

(mm)

(Experiment)

(Theory)

(m-2)

0.30

- 186.00

201.22

11.11

0.35

- 122.00

147.84

8.13

0.40

- 81.00

113.19

6.25

0.45

- 60.00

89.43

4.94

0.50

- 54.00

72.44

4.00

Table 2
Fixed-Fixed:
Strut

Length

Buckling Load (N)

Buckling Load (N)

1/L2

Number

(mm)

(Experiment)

(Theory)

(m-2)

0.28

- 407.00

462.00

12.76

0.33

- 340.00

332.69

9.18

0.38

- 232.00

250.50

6.93

0.43

- 183.00

195.94

5.41

0.48

- 137.00

157.24

4.34

Table 3

PIN : PIN CONDITION

Given; E = 69 GNm-2 = 69x109 Nm-2

B = 2cm = 0.02m
7.2

Lequ

D = 0.2cm = 0.002m
CALCULATION
L = 0.32m

Moment of Area, I = bd3

12
= 0.02 x (0.002)
12
= 1.33x10-11m4

Euler Buckling Load, P = EI

L
= x (69x109) x (1.33x10-11)
0.32
= 88 N

PIN : FIX CONDITION

P
Given; E = 69 GNm-2 = 69x109 Nm-2
B = 2cm = 0.02m

Lequ

D = 0.2cm = 0.002m
L = 0.30m

Moment of Area, I = bd3

12
= 0.02 x (0.002)
12
= 1.33x10-11m4

Euler Buckling Load, P = 2EI

L
= 2 x x (69x109) x (1.33x10-11)
0.30
= 201.27 N

FIX : FIX CONDITION

P

Given; E = 69 GNm-2 = 69x109 Nm-2

B = 2cm = 0.02m
D = 0.2cm = 0.002m

Leq

L = 0.28m

P
3

Moment of Area, I = bd
12

= 0.02 x (0.002)
12
= 1.33x10-11m4

Euler Buckling Load, P = 4EI

L
= 4 x x (69x109) x (1.33x10-11)
0.23
= 462 N

7.3

RESULT (PART 11)

Pinned Pinned*

Experimental gradient
Experimental ratio
Theoretical ratio

8.0

9.31
1.00
1.0

Pinned Fixed
13.5
1.45
2.0

Fixed Fixed
33.0
3.54
4.0

DISCUSSION
Referring to the results from the calculation, we can conclude that, the
different between the theoretical and experimental results are very big for all of
the Experiment 2 and 3. Thus, the percentage (%) of the difference between the
theoretical and experimental results are extremely big and high. For experiment 2
the ratio percentage is 27.5% and for experiment 3 is 11.5%. From the experiment
done, we can notice that, the span with longer length will give us the bigger value
of deflection when the load is place at the mid span for both theoretical and
experimental results. While for the span with shorter length, the deflection is
slightly small compare to the longer span.
From the experiment that we have done, we can conclude the buckling
load (N) are linear to values of I/L 2 (m-2). Its can show from the graph when
values of I/L2 (m-2) increased then the buckling load (N) become high.

10.0

CONCLUSION
From this experiment, our group managed to determine the relationship
between span and deflection. In determining the deflections of the beams under
load, elastic theory is used. From the experiment and the results we get from this
experiment, we notice that, the span with longer length will give us the bigger
value of deflection when the load is place at the mid span for both theoretical and
experimental results. While for the span with shorter length, the deflection is
slightly smaller compare to the longer span though the load used is same with the
longer one. Though the different between the theoretical and experimental results
are very big, but the deflection in the span also increase when the load is increase.
Thus, the conclusion is the buckling load (N) are influence to values of I/L2 (m-2).

11.0

REFERENCES
Yusof Ahamad (2001). Mekanik Bahan Dan Struktur. Malaysia: Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia Skudai Johor Darul Tazim.
R. C. Hibbeler (2000). Mechanic Of Materials. 4th. ed. England: Prentice Hall
International, Inc.