Exam4Review

Theadvantageofthefourchamberedheartofmammalsoverthethreechamberedheartofamphibiansis
that:
Thereisnomixingofoxygenatedandunoxygenatedbloodintheventricles
Becausediffusionisresponsiblefordeliveryofnutrientstothetissuesandremovalofwastesallcellsinthe
bodymustbewithin__________ofacapillary.
1mm

Respirationrateiscontrolledbythebrainstem,
WhichsensestheconcentrationofCO2intheblood.

Inmammals,Mostoftheoxygeninbloodis:
Boundtohemoglobin

Theenzymecarbonicanhydrase
IskeytothetransportofCO2transportedintheblood
CO2+H20<>H2CO3

SinoatrialNodeEmitselectricalsignalsthatinitiatethecardiaccontractioncycle
Locatedinrightatrium

Functionofthedistaltubuleofthenephron:
RegulatebloodpHandosmolality

Inasecondaryimmuneresponseantibodiesbegintobuildupinonlyadayortwobecause:
TherearealreadylargenumbersofmemoryTcellspresentthatrecognizetheforeignsubstance

Adrugthatstimulatedthehypothalamustoreleaseantidiuretichormone(ADH)wouldbeexpectedto:
Increaseconcentrationofureainurine

Whenbloodglucoseistoohighthepancreassecretes:
Insulin

Thecellularreceptorsforlipidsolublehormoneslikeestrogenarelocatedin:
Insidethecytoplasmoftargetcells

Secretedfromthehypothalamusinresponsetostress:
ACTH

TheNeuron:
AxonInitiatesandtransmitsactivepotential
Dendrites
CellBody
SchwannCells

Neuronreceivesastimulusthatpreventsanactionpotentialfromoccurring:
ThestimuluscausesK+channelstoopen
o

Inplasmamembraneofneuron

ActionPotentialReachestheTerminusofanAxon:
CausesCa+2channelstoopen
RisingCalciumconcentrationinthecytoplasmoftheaxonalterminus
o

Resultsinreleaseoftheneurotransmittermolecules

Whenactionpotentialisreached:
Afterwhich,isadrasticmembranepotentialdecrease
Causedby:
o

MostKchannelsareopen

MostNachannelsareclosed

Whenthebodyisatrestwhichpartoftheautonomicnervoussystemisactivated?

ParasympatheticNervousSystem

Myosinheadsreleasedfromactin:
HeadsneedtobindATP
Tostartanewroundofcontraction

Musclecellisatrestandisnotcontracting:
Highconcentrationofcalciumislocatedinthesarcoplasmicreticulum

TheMuscleFibersnameoftheindividualcellsofamuscle

RespiratoryandCirculatorysystems:
Flowofbloodthroughthemammalianheart:

Beabletonamethefourchambersoftheheart:

Twochambersatrium+ventricle
ThreeChambersleftandrightatrium,oneventricle
FourChamberstwoatriaandtwoventricles

BeabletoexplainhowoxygenistransportedtothetissuesandhowCO2istransportedfromthetissuesto
thelungs(loadingandunloadingofhemoglobin,transportoftheCO2ascarbonicacidandbicarbonatein
theredbloodcellandbloodplasma).

Differenceinopenandclosedcirculatorysystems:

 Open:Hemolymph(interstitialfluid)
o
Closed:Bloodandinterstitialfluid
o

Bloodcompletelyenclosedbybloodvessels,capillaries

Whyclosedcirculatorysystemsaremoreeffective:

PumpingDependsonHydrostaticPressure
Bloodcellsareformedinbonemarrow,bystemcells

Immunesystem:
Differencebetweentheinnateandacquiredimmunesystems

InnateImmunity
o

Recognitionoftraitsbybroadrangesofpathogens

Usingsmallsetofreceptors

RapidResponse

AcquiredImmunity
o

Recognitionoftraitspecifictoaparticularpathogen

Usingvastarrayofreceptors

SlowerResponse

HumoralResponse:antibodiesdefendagainstinfectionofbodyfluid

CellMediatedResponse:cytotoxiclymphocytesdefendforcells

Beabletonamethemajorcellsinvolvedinboth(macrophages,mastcells,andneutrophilsintheinnate
immunesystem,andBandTcells(lymphocytes)intheacquiredsystem)
Knowinbroadoutlinewhatthesecellsdo.

Lymphaticsystemandwhitebloodcells(macrophagesandneutrophils(botharephagocytes):

TheLymphaticSystem:carriesexcessfluidsfromthetissuesbacktothebloodandispopulatedwitha
varietyofwhitebloodcell

Whitebloodcellsoftheinnateimmunesystemrecognizeinvadersusingafamilyofreceptorproteins
thatbindmolecules:

TLRProteins

Signalsphagocytosisandreleaseofantimicrobialproteins

Lymphocytes(BandTcells)andmastcells

Mastcellsactivatemacrophagesandneutrophils

BCellssecreteantibodiesthatcirculateinthebloodandlymph
o

Matureinbonemarrow

TCellshaveantibodies(antigenreceptors)intheirplasmamembrane
o

Matureinthymus

AcquiredImmunityDependsonLymphocytes:

Antibodiesproteinsthatbindtospecificnonselfsubstances.

Eachantibodyismadebyadifferentlymphocyteandrecognizesandbindstoaspecific
substance.

Antigensthesubstancethatisrecognizedandboundbyanantibody

Blymphocytes(BCells)secreteantibodiesthatcirculateinthebloodandlymph

HumoralImmunity

Tlymphocytes(TCells)haveantibodies(antigenreceptors)intheirplasmamembrane
o

CellularImmunity

Beabletoexplainthebasisofaprimaryandasecondaryresponseoftheacquiredimmunesystem.
PrimaryImmuneResponse:

Macrophagesdisplayantigensfromcellstheyhavegobbledup
o

TheseantigensstimulatespecificHelperTCells

HelperTCellsinitiatetheprimaryimmuneresponse
o

ActivateCytotoxicTCellsandBCellsthatmakethesameantibody

CytotoxicTCells
o

KillBacteriaandCellsInfectedbyVirusesbyLysingtheTargetCells

ActivatedBCellsreleaseHumoralantibodies
o

Whichinactivatebacteria,viruses,toxins

ExcretorySystem:

Osmolaritytotalconcentrationofdissolvedsubstancesinwater
Osmoconformersanimalswhoseinternalosmolarityisequaltotheenvironmentmanymarine
invertebrates,alsosharks
Osmoregulatorsanimalsthatmaintainaconstantinternalosmolaritydespitetheenvironmentfish,
aquaticamphibians,andalllandanimals

Knowthepartsofthemammaliannephron(Bowmanscapsuleandglomerulus,proximaltubule,loopof
Henleanddistaltubuleandthefunctionofeach.

Nephron:Basicfunctionalunitofkidney

Bowmanscapsule:
o

Glomerulus:
o

Filtration(proteinsandcellsstayinblood)

Proximaltubule:
o

Wasteandtoxinsaretransportedout

Nutrientsbackin

LoopofHenle:
o

NaClconcentratesbyactivetransport

Createsosmoticgradient

Removesmostwaterfromfiltrate

Concentratesureaincollectingtubule

Descendinglooppermeabletowater(notsalt)

Ascendinglooppumpsoutsalt(notwater)

Distaltubule:

RegulatesNa,K,osmolarity,andpHofblood

CollectingDuct/Tubule:
o

ConcentratesUrea

Antidiuretichormone(ADH)increasesbloodvolumeandwaterretentionbythebody

Byincreasingthewaterpermeabilityofthecollectingduct

Renin/angiotensin/aldosteroneacttoincreasebloodpressure:

ByincreasingNatransportbackintothebloodbythedistaltubule.

Endocrinesystem:

Hormone(releasedbyanendocrinegland)travelthroughthebloodtoatargetorganandproducea
response

Insulinandglucagonregulatebloodglucose:

Bloodglucoserises
o

Betacellsofpancreasreleaseinsulin

Livertakesupglucoseandstoresasglycogen

Bodycellstakeupmoreglucose

Bloodglucosedeclines

Returningtohomeostasis

Bloodglucosedrops
o

Alphacellsofpancreasreleaseglucagon

Liverbreaksdownglycogenandreleasesglucose

Bloodglucoserises

Returningtohomeostasis

Epinephrineinstressresponse:

Secretedbyadrenalmedulla

Glycogenbrokendowntoglucose
o

Increasedbloodglucose

Increasedbloodpressure,breathing,metabolicrate

Increasedalertness,decreasedkidneyanddigestiveactivity

Glucocorticosteroidesinstressresponses(Longterm):

SecretedbyAdrenalcortex

Proteinsandfatsbrokendownandconvertedtoglucose
o

Increasedbloodglucose

Immunesystemmaybesuppressed

Nervoussystem:
BeabletoexplaintheroleofNaandKchannelsinthefiringofanactionpotentialbyaneuronandhow
signalsaretransferredfromoneneurontothenextatthesynapse.

Neurons:

Cellbody

Dendrites

Axon

Synapticterminals

Synapses

Neurotransmitters

AsK+flowsoutofthecellVmgetsmorenegative(hyperpolarizes)
AsNa+flowsintothecellVmgetslessnegative(depolarizes)

Hyperpolarizationmorenegative(Kchannelsopen)
Depolarizationlessnegative(Nachannelsopen)

AtThresholdNaChannelsallopenActionPotentialoccurs
TheNaandKchannelsintheaxonareVOLTAGEGATEDionchannels

ActionPotentialStages:
1.

Restingstate(allclosed)

2.

Depolarization

3.

Risingphaseofactionpotential

4.

Fallingphase

5.

Undershoot(Kchannelsclosing)

(SomeNachannelsOpen)
(AllNachannelsopen)

(KchannelsOpen)

Muscularsystem:
Beabletoexplainthebasicstructureofthesarcomereinamusclefiber

HowATPcausesmyosintopullonactin:
1.

MyosinheadbindstoATP

2.

MyosinADPattachestoactin

3.

MyosinreleasesADPandpullsonactin

4.

MyosinheadbindsATP,releasesactin

Howcalciumregulatesmuscularcontraction:

Calciumuncoversthemyosinbindingsitesonactin
o

Bybindingtotroponinwhichmovestropomyosin

Nervestriggercontractionbycausingthereleaseofcalciumfromthesarcoplasmicreticulum

ActionPotentialreachingthesynapsecausesreleaseofacetylcholine
o

Triggersanactionpotentialinthemusclecell,whichtravelsdowntheTtubulesand
opensNachannelsintheSR