STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Parr T Elementary Theory and Problems S. TIMOSHENKO Prefer of Thain and Roping Mechnien ‘iors meray SECOND EDITIONTRNTH PRINTING D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Inc. ‘ToRoNTO NEW YORK LONDON, Van Nostrand! Company, Ine, 250 Fourth Aven, New York 3 Yan Nostrand Company, (Cand), Ld, 228 Bor Stree, Tounto Macmillan & Company, 1d, St. Martin's Stree London, W.C. 2 eorrat. 109, 1840 oy D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, Ine Thich, tan te, may nt ‘Manon rom he eran the punks, Prt Pua, May 1920 Reprint March 192, Fay 1998 Pabroary 1888 Second Kain, June 1940 Reprint alr 1 aly 048 onony 184 Av 144, Mey 1046 Moy 1045, Peiray 1057, Ang 1967 “Aor 1048 y PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION In preparing the second edition of this volume, an effort thas been made to adapt the book to the teaching requirements of our engineering schools. With this in view, a portion of the material of a more advanced character which was contained in the previous edi- tion of this volume has been removed and will be inchided in the new edition of the second volume. At the same time, some portions of the book, which were only briefly discussed in the fist edition, have been expanded with the intention of making the book easier to read for the beginner. For this reason, chapter IT, desling with combined stresses, has been centirely rewritten.” Also, the portion ofthe hook dealing with shearing force and bending moment diagrams has been ex- panded, and a considerable amount of material has been added to the discussion of deflection curves by the integration method. A diseussion of column theory and its application thas been included in chapter VILL, since this subject is usually required in undergraduate courses of strength of materials, Several additions have been made to chapter X dealing with the application of strain energy methods to the solution of statically indetermined problems. In various parts of the book there are many new problems which may be usefl for class and home work. ‘Several changes in the notations have been made to con- form to the requirements of American Standard Symbols for ‘Mechanics of Solid Bodies recently adopted by The American Society of Mechanical Engincers. Te is hoped that with the changes made the book will be found more satisfactory for teaching the undergraduate course of stength of materials and that it wil furnish a better foundation for the study of the more advanced material discussed in the second volume. S. Tiwosuenko joes¥ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION At the present time, a decided change is taking place in the attitude of designers towards the application of analytical ‘methods in the solution of engineering problems. Desig nnolonger based principally upon empitieal formulas. The im portance of analytical methods combined with laboratory ‘experiments in the solution of technical problems is beeoming senerally accepted. ‘Types of machines and structures are changing very rap- idly, especially in the new fields of industey, and ususlly tne does not permit the accumulation of the necessary empirical data, The size and cost of structures are constantly inereas- ing, which consequently creates a severe demand for greater reliability in structures. The economical factor in design tunder the present conditions of competition is becoming of rowing importance, ‘The construction must be sufficiently strong and reliable, and yet it must be designed with the Breatest possible saving in material. Under such conditions, the problem of a designer becomes extremely difficult. Re Guction in weight involves an increase in working stresses, “which can be safely allowed only on a basis of eareful analysis ‘of stress distribution inthe structure and experimental investi. Bation of the mechanical properties of the materials em: ployed. eis the aim of this book to present problems such that the student's attention will be focussed on the practical applica. tions of the subject. If ths is attained, and results, in some ‘measure, in increased correlation between the studies of strength of materials and engincering design, an important forward step will have been made. ‘The book is divided inco two volumes. The first volume ‘contains principally material which is usually covered. in sd courses of strength of materiale in our engineering“ PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION schools, The more advanced portions of the subject are of interest chiefly to graduate students and research engincer, and are incorporated in the second volume of the book. This contains also the new developments of practical imporeance in the field of strength of material. In writing the frst volume of strength of materials, atten- tion. was given to simplifying all derivations as much a5 possible so that a student with the usual preparation in math matics willbe able to readit without difficulty.» Forexample, in deriving the theory of the deflection curve, the area moment method was extensively used. In this manner, a considerable simplification was made in deriving the deflections of beams for various loading and supporting conditions. In discussing. statically indeterminate systems, the methad of superposition was applied, which proves very useful in treating such problems as continuous beams and frames. For explaining combined stresses and deriving principal stresses, use was made of the ‘Mobr’s circle, which represents a substantial simplification in the presentation ofthis portion of the theory. Using these methods of simplifying the presentation, the author was able to condense the material and to discuss some problems of a more advanced character. For example, in discussing torsion, the twist of rectangular bars and of rolled sections, such as angles, channels, and T beams, is considered, ‘The deformation and stress in helical springs are discussed in detail, In the theory of bending, the case of non-symmetrica cross sections is discussed, the cewer of twist is defined and ‘explained, and the effect of shearing force on the deflection of ‘beams is considered. ‘The gencral theory of the bending of bbeams, the materials of which do not follow Hooke’s lay is ‘given andis applied in the bending of beams beyond the yielding point. ‘The bending of reinforced concrete beams is given consideration. Tn discussing combinations of direc and bend- ing stress, the elect of deflections on the bending moment considered, and the limitation of the method of superposition is explained. In treating combined bending and torsion, the cases of rectangular and elliptical cross sections are dis. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION vii cussed, and spplications in the design of crankshafis are given.’ Considerable space in the book is devoted to methods for solving elasticity problems based on the consideration of the strain energy of clastic bodies. These methods are ap- plied in discussing statically indeterminate systems, ‘The sercases produced by impact are also discussed. All these problems of a more advanced character are printed in small type, and may be omitted during the frst reading of che book. ‘The book is illustrated with a number of problems to which solutions are presented. In many eases, the problems are chosen so as to widen the field covered by the text and ¢o illustrate the aplication of the theory in the solution of design problems. Itis hoped that these problems wil be of interest for teaching purposes, and also useful for designers, The author takes this opporenity of thanking his friends who have asisted him by suggestions, reading of manuseripe and proofs, particularly Messrs, W.'M. Coates and Le Hi. Donnell, teachers of mathematics and mechanics in’ the Engineering College of the University of Michigan, and Mr. FL, Everett of the Department of Enginering Research of the University of Michigan. He is indebted also to Mr. F, C. Wilharm forthe preparation of drawings, to Mrs, ED. Webster for the typing of the manuscript, and to the Van Nostrand Company for its ear in the publication ofthe book. S. Trsosnexo, ‘Aun Anvos, Momcan May tinsNOTATIONS: en em €x----Normal stresses on planes perpendicular to 3, 9 and z axes, [Normal stress on plane perpendicular to direction oer Normal stress at yield point. « [Normal working stress + Shearing stress ‘Tan Ton Tas Shearing stresses parallel tox, and 2 axes on the planes perpendicular to y, 2 and x axes, Working seress in shear ‘Total elongation, total deflection Unit elongation Unit elongations in x » and 2 directions Unie shear, weight per unit volume ‘Modulus of elasticity in tension and compression ‘Modulus of elasticity in shear Poisson's ratio ‘Volume expansion Modulus of elasticity of volume Torque Bending moment in a beam Shearing force in a beam Cross sectional area ‘Moments of inertia of a plane figure with respect toy and 2a Radi of gyration corresponding to Jy I. Polar moment of inertia Section modulus Torsional rigidity Length of a bar, span of beam Concentrated forces “Temperature, thickness f PANEERP Pome Sty Dros >SRpPSshes NOTATIONS Coefficient of thermal expansion, numerical eoef- ficient Strain energy Strain energy per unie volume Depth of a beam, thickness ofa plate Load per unit length Angles Pressure Diameters Radi Weight, load CONTENTS: 1. Testow avo Cowprestion winuis mux Elastic Lair lastcty | 2 Hooke's Law| 1. The Tensile Test Diagram f Working Stes §. Stess and Strain Produced in a Bar by its Own Weight 6, Statially Indeterminate Problems in Tension and Compression = = anne 7 beaded Tena Ses - Extension of 2 Circular Ring IL, Awauvsts ov Seuss ano Sraaie « 9. Variation of the Stress with the Orientation ofthe ‘Gross Section for Simple Tension and. Compres- 10, The Cirle of Sess 11, Tension or Compression in Directions “The Cirle of Sere for Combined Stresses) | Principal Stresses : ‘Analysis of Stain in the Case of Simple Tension Strxin in the Case of Tension of Compression it “Two Perpendicular Directions Pure Shear. Modulus in Shear Working Stresses in Shear ss. ‘Tension or Compression in ‘Three Perpendicular Diese iinet hence wo Pependiclar IIL Sueanivo Force ax Bexoine Moxent 15. Types of Beams 22. Rening Memes ant Shain Force 21; Relation Between Bending Moment and Sheasing ‘Force . : 12, Bending Moment and Shearing Force Diagrams © TV, Seansses iy Teansvensatty Loaogo Beas « 23, Pure Bending 3 3 “ Pia e ss 8 6 6 66 6 n isvI vu. Pa 3 z 2. 28. 29. ° CONTENTS Various Shapes of Cross Sections of Beams. General Case of Tranewerally Losded Beare Shearing Stress in Bending’ Distribution of Shearing Stcses in the Case of & Circular Cros Section Distribution of Shearing Steses in I Beams Principal Streses in Bending Streser in Buileup Beams Derzzorion oF Transveasatty Loaneo Beams a” 3 Be oe 35 6 3 ea ‘Dicrensal Equation ofthe Deflection Carve Bending of « Uniformly Loaded Beam Dafeston of @ Simply Supported Beam Loaded witha Concentrated Load Daermination of Defectons bythe wie’ of dhe ening Moment Diagrams Method of Super- poston « Detection of a Cantever eam by thé Area? Moment Metind vc es cs yer Daten at Sin Sopra‘ the ‘AracMoment Metwad Dafcton of Bears with Over ‘Phe Deflection of Bears When the Loads Are Not Farle o One of the Two Priya Planes of Bending gece of 8 ‘Beans Srarteatuy INoerenonvare Prosteusix BENDING. - 46. Redundant Constraines 4 Beam Buln t One Eid and Supported t he ‘Other » 442, Beam with Both Ends Bui in 3h Brames “ EE. Beams on Three Supports Continuous Beams sans oF Varian Ctoss Secrion. Beans or Two 6 rn * » Maseniats a Beams of Varatle Cross Section Beams of Two Different Materials Reinforeed-Concrete Beams» Shearing Stresses in Reinforced. Concrete Beams 4 4 7 1 ug 5 8 my a 2 ne ery CONTENTS ai VI. Covstsso Bexore aro Tension ot Coursssion "Turon ov Covvnes = . 236 so. Bending Accompanied by Compresion or Tenion | 228, $f, Becente Loading of «Shore Strat ae $2 The Core of Section LL 5, Becentie Compression ofaSlender Column <<< 239 i Col Lal ee s7- Empitical Formulas for Golarsa Design < a8 IX, Torstox avo Connie Brwoixe axo Tosston 261 48, Torsion of « Circular Shaft Tit ast & Tee of alow Shaft 1 a8 ‘The Shafe of Rectangelar Crote Section | <1 S26 64, Helical Spring, Close Called i 62. Combined Bending and Twist in X. Exanor or Sra 6. Elastic Strain Energy in Tension Gq Tension Produced by Impact. 6. Elie Sun Eneray nha and Fis [Esti Strain Energy in Bending ae fp, Bending Produced by Impact == Ss ss 68; The Geteral Expression for Strain Energy = 65. The Theorem of Carighano 7: Appliation of Castilno ‘Theorem in Solon of ‘Seaticaly Indeterminate Problems 30 17h. The Reciprocal Theorem DIIIIT by FP. Exceptional Cases SS tM ‘Mowers or Inearis oF Puaxe Fiounes . - «<3 1. The Moment of Inertia of Place Area with Respect to ‘tn Ans in Ts Plane : a8 U. Polar Moment of Inertia ofa Plane Area 1211 as NE Transfer of Asis os ur IV. Product of Inertia, Principal Aves 'V. Change of Direction of Axis. Determination of the Principal Axes «= ss Avmion NOEX s+ eee 26 38S suneer DER ee a +397STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PART J CHAPTER 1 ENGION AND COMPRESSION WITHIN THE ELASTIC LiMIT 1, Blasticity.—We assunie that a body consists of small particles, or molecules, between which forees are acting. ‘These molecular forces resist the change in the form of the body which external forces tend to produce. If such external forces are applied to the body, its particles are displaced and the matual displacements continue untl equilibrium is estab- lished between the external and internal forces. It is said in such a case that the body is in a state of sirain. During deformation the external forces acting upon the body do work, and this work is transformed completely or partially into the potential energy of strain. An example of such an sccumulation of potential energy in a strained body is the case of a watch spring. If the forces which produced the deformation of the body are now gradually diminished, the body returns ‘wholly or partly tots iil shape and dure | ing this reversed deformation the potendal | Pe nergy of strain, accumulated in the body, |4]'T may be recovered in the form of external | [I work ie Take, for instance, a prismatical bar loaded at the end as’ shown in Fig. 1. Under the action of this load a certain clon gation of the bar will take place. ‘The point of application ‘of the load will then move in a downward direction and Positive work will be done by the load during this motion. Prat2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ‘When the load is diminished, the elongation of the bar dimin- ishes also, the loaded end of the bar moves up and the poten tial energy of strain will be transformed into the work of moving the load in the upward direction. ‘The property of bodies of returning, after unloading, to their initial form is called elasticity. Te is said that the body is perfectly elaitic if it recovers its original shape completely after unloading; it is partially clastic if the deformation, produced by the external forces, does not disappear com: pletely after unloading. In the case of a perfectly elastic body the work done by the external forces during deformation will be completely transformed into the potential energy of strain, In the case of a partially elastic body, part of the work done by the external forces during deformation will be dlssipated in the form of heat, which will be developed in the body during the non-elastie deformation. Experiments show that such sttuctural materials as steel, wood and stone may bbe considered as perfectly elastic within certain Timits, which depend upon the properties of the material. Assuming that the external forces acting upon the structure are known, itis ‘8 fundamental problem for the designer eo establish such proportions of the members of the structure that it will approach the condition of a perfectly elastic body under all service conditions. Only under such conditions will we have continued reliable service from the structure and no permanent set in ies members. 2. Hooke's Law.—By direct experiment with the exten- sion of prismatical bars (Fig. 1) it has been established for ‘many structural materials chat within certain limits the elon- gation of the bar is proportional to the tensile foree. This simple linear relationship between the foree and the elon tion which it produces was first formulated by the En scientist Robert Hooke in 1678 and bears his name. Using the notation P= force producing extension of bar, 1 = length of bar "Robert Hooks, De Parents restatva, London, 178 TENSION AND COMPRESSION 5 A = cross sectional area of bar, total elongation of bar, ‘elastic conatane of the material, called its Mod dus of Elasticity, Hooke's experimental law may be given by the following equation PL a3 @ The elongation of the bar is proportional tothe tensile force and to the length of the bar and inversely proportional to the eross sectional area and to the modulus of elasticity. In making tensile tests precautions are usually taken to scare central application of the tensile foree. In this manner any bending of the bar will be prevented. Excluding from coo sideration those portions of the bar in the vicinity of the applied forces? it may be assumed that daring tension all longitudinal fibers of the prismatical bar have the same jon and che cross sections of the bar originally plane and perpendicular to the axis of the bar remain so after exten “Tn discussing the magnitude of internal forces let us im= agine the bar cut into two parts by a cross section my and let us consider the equilibrium of the lower portion of the bar Fig. 1, J). At the lower end of this portion the tensile force P'is applied. On the upper end there are acting the forces representing the action of the particles of the upper portion of the strained bar on the particles of the lower Portion. ‘These forces are continuously distributed over the «ross section. A familiar example of such a continuous di. tribution of forces over a surface is that of « hydrostatic Pressure or of a steam pressure. In handling such contina- ously distributed forces the intensity of force, ie. the force per unit area, is of @ great importance. Im our case of axial tension, in which all fibers have the same elongation, the ste moe compcaad str dibton near che points of 200 ton of the cer Wi be dace intern Pare PoP4 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS tribution of forces over the cross section my will be wis farm. Taking into account that the sum of these forces, from the condition of equilibrium (Fig. 1, 6), must be equal to P and denoting the force per unit of cross sectional area by o, we obtain ® ‘This force per unit area is called stress. In the following, the force will be measured in pounds and the area in square hes so that the stress will he measured in pounds per square inch. The elongation of the bar per unit lengeh is deter- mined by the equation 5 ® and is called the unit clongaion or the tensile sain. Using fs. (2) and (), Hook's law may be represented in the following form? @ and the unit elongation is easily calculated provided the stress and the modulus of elasticity of the material are known. The ‘unit elongation « is @ pure number representing the ratio of two lengths (see eq. 3); therefore, from eq. (4), it may be concluded that the modulus of elasticity is to be measured in the same units asthe stress ¢ ie, in pounds per square inch. In Table I, which follows, the average values of the modulus E for several materials are given in the first column Equations (1)~(4) may be used also in the case of the com- pression of prismatical bars. Then 8 will denote the total Tongitudinal contraction, « the compressive strain and the compressive stress. ‘The modulus of elasticity for compression is for mast structural materials the same as for tension. In calculations, tensile stress and tensile strain are considered ‘i positive, and compressive stress and strain a9 negative. 5 Bore dete on the mechavial properties of materials are given Ia Pare TENSION AND COMPRESSION 5 Maceameat Phoremis or Mares Yiu Prine | imate Sungsh wea Teint Ton ce ae sex tx rte x 12 |e 16s x eked 3 thi | 3p tt| ge tah te | tons Desk, Toit] Sp hae to Fe thes Ho Capper od aie xt ose ome kta sexe Fei de pia ts Pt x Gina npn |g 1 peo ‘Problems 1, Determine the total elongation ofa see bar 25. long, i the tensile stress is equal to 15 % to Ibs. per ain, “Arwen eex re SE Zin aexras 2, Determine the tensile force on eylindsial stel bar of one inch diameter, ifthe une elongation is equal to 7 % 10" ‘Solution. "The tensile stress in the bar, Hot Cis ©F = 21 X 104 Ths per sin ‘The tensile force, fom eg. (2) is Pe A= 21 X 108 x = 16,500 4. What i the ratio of the moduli of elasticity ofthe materiale ‘fro bats ofthe same nse ander the action of eal ene oees the nit elongatios ofthe bare aren the ratio 1/8. Determine these lengttons if one ofthe bars of sel the okt of copper and ‘he tensile stray i 10,00 Ib. por nc, Selation. ‘The modal are nveteiy proportional to the wait ‘elongations. For steel * = 19000 Bx” See" for copper "Tee6 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 4A prlsmatial steel bar 2 in. Jong i elongated /49 in, under ‘the Action of a tenile force. Find the magnitude of the force if ‘the volume of the bar is 35 in? §-A piece of wire 10 f. long subjected to tense force P 1,200 le, longates by Vin. Find the modslus of elasticity of ‘the material if the eros sectional ares of the wie is 04 i 3. The Tensile Test Diagram.—The proportionality be- ‘ween the tensile force and the elongation holds only up to 2 certain limiting value of the tensile stress, called the limit of proportionality, which depends upon the properties of the material, Beyond this limit, the relationship between the . "Determine thee Gros sctional aes ef the ba tnd th defection of he Pint when P = 00 Ib ee tooo Tere tnd eal ge ‘tiation ef the bas #3 Salon. From Fig. 4 (representing the conven for ek10 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS librium ofthe hinge B, the tensile force in the bars is ‘The defection BB wil be found from the small right eviangle BB, in which the are BD, of radius equal tothe length ofthe bars, is considered as a perpendicular dropped upon 4B, which is the position of the bar /B after deformation, ‘Then the elongation of the bar 28 ie 10409 X18 X19 gin a pe ra tis seen thatthe change ofthe ange due tothe defection BB, is very small and the previous calculation of S, Based upon the assumption that 0 Jos is accurate enough. ‘3 Determine the total clngstion of the stcl har 4B having actos sectional area d = Yin? and submitted t0 the action of forces = 10,000 Tbs. tnd P = sce ibs. Fig 3), Solution. The tense force in the upper and loner portions of the bar is equal to Q and that inthe mide portion iv QP. Then the ctl XL He songation will ail t set0in L al 5900 X10 q Fxg xd i567 4. Determine'the cross setional dimensions of the wooden beam BC and of the steel bar 4 of the structure ABC, loaded at, when the working stress for wood is taken as.eq = 160, Ibs per sqrin. and for steel ev = 10,00 Ibs. per sq in. The load TENSION AND COMPRESSION " PP = 6909 ths The dimensions of the sectre are shown in Fig. 6°°Desernine the wert od che horoonal capenents of SE diane they aro tomo oh a i 1 Seen rom Pgs O) ging econo binge B similar tothe rangle 4BC of Eg. 8 (e), web pa Pa 9 librium of tooo Ibe 4j The cross sectional areas ofthe steel bar and ofthe wooden beam are an 5 19000. 22 in fe 1900 ne 168 7 ‘The total elongation ofthe steel bar and the total compression of the wooden eam sre sere io X12 13 15X10 = cots in, ‘To determine che displacement of the hinge B, due to deformation, ses are drawn with centers 4 and G (Fig. 6 a) and eal equal 0 the lengths of the elongated bar and of the compressed beam * spectively “Tey. inthe new pontion ofthe hinge 8 is shown on a larger scale in Fig. 60), where BB, is the elon:2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS tation of the steel bar and JB the compression ofthe wooden bear. ‘The dotted perpendicslars replace the arcs mentioned. above, ‘Then BB is che placement ofthe hinge B. The components of this dsplacemene may be easly obtained from the Bgure. ‘5: Determine in the previous problem the inclination of the ‘bar 2B to make its weight « minimum. Solution. If 6 denotes the angle between the bar and the horizontal beam and the lenge of the beam, then the length of the baris = hileos @ the tensile force inthe bar is 8 = PJsin Band the necesary cross sectional ares iv f= Plewsin 8, The volume of the bar wil be Tis seen that the volame and the weight of the bar beome ima nen tan as ra The square fame 4BCD (Figs 7, 2) consitng of vest bars oft neces sacioal area slated tothe tion of two force P ~ sozoo lin. n the direction of the diagonal. Determine the changes of the angls at--and C doe to deformation of the Frame Determine the changes of the came angles if the forces are flied a shown in ig. 7. Solution. In the ease shown in Fig. 7 (a) the diagonal will take the complete load P. Assuming that the hinge D and the Girection of the diagonal are stationary, the displacement of the hinge Bin the direction of the diagonal wil be equa w the elongation ‘of the diagonal 8 = PI/1E.- The determination of the new position of she hinge Cis indicated in the figure by dotted lines. Ieis cen from the small right triangle CC\C" that CC" = afya. Then the angle of rotation of the bar DC due to deformation of the frame sequal to TENSION AND COMPRESSION 8 jas Taian “Then the increase ofthe angle at Cwill be aaeian, ‘The so of the pole shows in 7 (set fo the sadn “pietermine the psion of the lad Pom the beam BD 3 that ihe force in the bar BC becomes 4 mati. Determine the tangle to make the volume ofthe bar BC a aintoom (Eg 8) Bat se APET Ph fons hr 2 come maxima ene ateie pion on the right st point. valine of the bar wil be minim when agen 1, Determine the neccary ero sctinal ate of he steel bar 20 (igo) ithe working sues on = "5p Tb. peso and the ceiieaiP Geeltced Seced” Se retin nd the loud per foot of the bam it By cote anioen d= 06 sin. 9: Determine the Mensary at sectional areas of the bars GB and Bo of the saucers nso 12009 6 teem in Fer 10 and WE nswer. Inthe ese. of srvctre To () the cots ta Sal so ode 9s Sin ant of the bar BC2.0 nga he cae of Fig. 10 econ seta an of te bal J shal og Seat the bare ay to. Sle prob jamming sa the miei ralainn and tae P='p = sogsolte pean“ STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 11, Find the comectona are ofthe bar CD in Fis toa and'1oB tnd heal gon of hse ba te natal ictal and y= Sons he. pero aS pole uring the hoe sappy one Jt of Bopper Chord nt inne fe fom pre ‘5. Stess and Strain Produced in a Bar by its Own Weight-In discussing the extension of a bar, Fig. only the load P applied atthe end nan taken into conse on, Ir the length of the bari large, x own weight nay produce Considerable additional stem and shosld be taken int ae- counts In ths ease the mania steel bea the bln tpper crs acetone Denoting by 7 the weight per anit telumeof the bar the complete weight wil bey andthe Iresimm sess Will be gion by the eon Pal P Pt at © “The second term onthe right side of eq (6) represents the sures produced by the weight of the bar. The weght of that portion of the bar Below's coms section at itance = from the lower end (Fg 1) sand the sree wl be given bythe equation Pape © Substituting the working stress oy for ome in ea. (6), the ‘equation for calculating the safe cross sectional area will be 4eata o Teis interesting to note that with inressing length! the bar's fown weight becomes more and more important, the deno nator ofthe right sie of en. (2) diiniohes and the necessary ross sectional area increases, When 21 = ou hey the Streas due to the weght of the bar alone Becomes equal fo the working stes, the right sie of eq. (8) becomes infite,”" Under sach circumstances iis imponsible to use 4 Prismatcal design and recourse to a bar of variable cross fection fs made. TENSION AND COMPRESSION 1s In calculating the total elongation of a prismatical bar submitted to the action of a tensile force P at the end and is own weigh, let us consider first the elongation of en ele- ment of length dx cut from the bar by two adjacent cross sections (see Fig. 1). Te may be assumed that along the very short length di the tensile stres is constant and is given by eq (7). Then the elongation dB of the element will be The total elongation of the bar will be obtained by summing. the elongations of all the elements. Then “Pie dow yt bo [Ea Retin. Comparing this with a. (1) tis cen tha the total elongation produced by the bar's own weight is equal to that produced by a load of half its weight applied at its end. Problems 1. Determine the eros sectional area of a vertical prismatic sees eg on lowe end ain Poco ln he 19.720 fet the woking sts = Too ba por eight of cable fot of see yobs. Determine al area, from eq. (8) is ye.800 4 = sarin we XT rope AXE wend Deering the conan of coil bar under th action iow welgh (Fig 1) the length of the bar the dameter ‘of the base fad an the weight per unit welume ofthe material16 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Soluion. The weight ofthe bar wil be th, real or any cross section at dintance «from the lower Cf eb the tense forces eal tote weight Sf the ker portion ofthe ba * oe Assuming that the temile force is uniformly distributed over the trons section * and considering the element of lengeh de as pri ‘matical bu, che elongation of this clemene wil be a= and he wl dng of he i piace el nie “This elongation is one third that of peismatical Bar of the same length (oe 9) 3. The vera prismatic ed of mine pomp iemoved up and down by a rane shat (lg 3) ‘Assuming tha the material tel and the werking resin ex = pon Ibs. pera ny determine the oss sectional ten of the rod ifthe restance of the piston daring motion downward is 0 Tbe nd = dori motion upard i 2,000 The. The length of fin the sed io go ct. Deter the necessary 1 length of th radiey of the crank f the stake of Fm, thepumplscqul cod in ‘elton. "The necesary cos sectional are of the rod willbe found fom eq, () by substituting P= 2,0 bs Then Spas 790 = oag8 int “The diference in rota elongation ofthe tod when it moves up and. ‘when it moves down is duet the restance ofthe pista and wil be mall Za asumpton is usifable when the angle of the cone TENSION AND COMPRESSION ” equl © = (20004 20):300018 ig ous X Og 7 “The radius ofthe crank should be SHEEN Sg aein 4 Lengths of wire of stel and aluminum ace suspended verti cally. Determine foreach the lengch at which the stres die tothe weight of the wire equals the ultimate strength if for steel wire Te 300}900 Ib. per sn andy = 490 lbs. pe cubic fot, and for ‘laminar wire ex = sooo Ibs. per‘. im andy = #70 Ibo. pee cn foo. Vdnomer. For steel = 88,00 fy for aluminum 1= 42900 ft Sin what proportion wil the maximum stress protean 4 prismatial barby te own wight incest fall the Gimensions of rebar ae increased in the proportion vs (Fig. 1)? dnswer The stress wil ncoase the rate a Norge pla consisting of wa piematin portions of equal length (Vig 13) i londed at the upper end by 2 compresive force P= Goozn lhe. Determine the touane of rasonry if he height ‘ofthe pili 120 fe its weight per cubic foot is 100 Ibs, and the {Sotpare evlume ith that ofa singh mae pal deine forthe same conditon Degas e ae ie mK Pe 1 Re 7. Solve the preceding problem assuming three prismatic pordons of equal length, 8. Determine the form of the pillar in Fig. 14 such that the stress in each cross section is just equal to 2x. The form satisfying this condition sealed the frm of egal srenth. Solution.” Considering 2 diferential clement, shaded in che18 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS figure, i is evident thatthe compressive force on the erots section aman is larger than that on the cross action mn by the magnitude cof the weight of the clement. Thos since the stress in both cross sections i tobe the same and equal to auy the diflerence df inthe ‘rosssectional area mast be such as 9 compensate forthe diference inthe compressive force. Hence Aes = dd @ here the right side of the equation represents the weight of the clement. Dividing this equation by es nd integrating we Sind Sa-Se log 4G from which and A= Conn, o where « isthe hase of natural logarithms and @-= e®, At x this equation gives for the eres-sectional area atthe top of the pill Dow = ¢. But the crosssectional area at the top is equal to Plous hence C= Plas and equation (2) becomes Aa Een, © ‘The crone-sectional area at the bottom of the pillar is obtained by substituting « = Zin equation () which gives > Anse os @ 49. Find the volume of the masonry fora yillar of equal strength desnad fone hc onion of eg Salon. ‘By tsing equation (i) the derence ofthe cose sectional arcasat the botom of the ilar andar steps found be ‘This diference multiplied by the working stress ex evidently gives the weight ofthe pila; its volume is thas 1 = eta) = goatee TENSION AND COMPRESSION 9 6. Statically Indeterminate Problems in Tension and Compression—There are cases in which the axial forces acting in the bars of a structure cannot be determined from the equations of statics alone and the deformation of the structure must be taken into consideration, Such structures are called statically indeterminate systems. A simple example of such a system is shown in Fig. 15, ‘The load P produces extension in the bars OB, OC and OD, which are in the same plane. ‘The conditions for equilibrium of the hinge O give ewo equa- tions of statics which are not sufficient to determine the three tunknown tensile forces in the bars, and for a third equation a consideration ofthe deformation of the system becomes neces- sary. Let us assume, for plicity, that the system is sym- metrical with respect to the vertical axis OC, that the ver- Pep tical bar is of steel with 4, and E, as the cross sectional area and the modulus of elasticity for the material, and that the inlined bars are of copper with 4, and E-as area and modulus. The length of the vertical bar is /and that of the inclined bars is Jcos a. Denoting by X the tensile force in the vertical bar and by ¥ the forces in the inclined bars, the only equation of equilibrium for the hinge O in this case of symmetry will be X42¥coa= 7, @ In order to derive the second equation necessary for deter- 1g the unknown quantities X and Y, the deformed con. figuration of the system indicated in the figure by dotted lines must be considered. Let 8 be the total elongation of the vertical bar under the action of the losd P; then the clongation’&, of the inclined bars will be found from the ‘wiangle OFO,. Assuming that these elongations are: very» STRENGTH OF MATERIALS small, the circular are OF from the center D may be replaced by a perpendicular line and the angle at O, may be taken ‘qual to the initial angle «then B= Beosa. ‘The unit elongations and the stresses for the vertical and the inclined bars will be 3 Es Beota | _ Bb costa wb and a tS, BEE, respectively. Then the forces in the bars will be obtained ‘by multiplying the stresses by the cross sectional areas as follows: Xae from which 4A aot, SEB, ¥ = Xeota $e Substituting in ¢q, (4), we obtain x 7 ro) iy aa 1+ 2 08 a Se Its seen that the force X depends not only upon the angle of inclination «but also upon the cross sectional areas and the mechanical properties of che materials of the bars, In the particular case in which all bars have the same cross section and the same modulus we obtain, from €q. (10), P X= prara When approaches 2er, cosa approaches unity, and the force in the vertical bor approaches 1/32. When « ap proaches 96% the inclined bars become very long and the Eomplete load will be taken by the middle bar. {As another example of statically indeterminate ayotem Jee us consider a prismaticel bar with builein ends, loaded ‘TENSION AND COMPRESSION a axially at an intermediate cross section mm (Pig, 16). ‘The load P will be in equilibrium with the reactions R and Ri at the ends and we have P=R+R. o In order to derive the second equation for determining the forces R and R, the deformation of the bar must be consid. cred. ‘The load P with the force R produces shortening of the lower portion of the bar and with the force R, clong of the upper portion. ‘The total shortening of one partis eal to the tol elongation of he eA ther. ‘Then, by wing eq (y weobeain, Raa _ Rb i aE" : Hence zm, @ a the forces R and Ry are inversely propor. tional to the distances of their points of appli cation from the loaded cross section mn. Now from eqs. (0) and (d) the magnitudes of these forces and the stresses in the bar may be readily calculated, Problems 1, A ste cylinder and x copper tube are compresed between the pte oa press (Figs 17). Determine the stcses tel aad iti 22 fe se eee tlt a nw siti Wateer acta — siete ee mn Euneisae capone ane kat Bee maine afl est ce Sah Bi Res mn d2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS is os aS TH tee Phe Erato Substituting numerical values, we obtain = Ecc = 30h Ibe pr ag ns ee = 1690 lbs. per sq. in unit compression c= et x 108 2 Acoluma of reinforced concrete come prescd by « force P= ooo Ibe. What part ofthis load wl be enemy the conerete Sd what pat by the ste if the eos sectional rea of the ste) is only 1/to of the rose ‘etional ares ofthe concrete? “yA rigid body 4B of weight Q hangs on thee vertical wites symmetrically situated Feit, with respect to the center of gravity C of the body (Big. 18). Determine the tensile forces inthe wires ifthe mle wie is of stecl andthe two others of copper.” Cros sectional areas ofall wines are eu. “Suggestion. Use method of problem 4. Bins he res nar et Y of siguate table, Big. ty prodoced By ‘he loa P acting on one agonal The °-S=a— top of the tale andthe or are as = ‘ned absolutely sgid andthe legs are “FP ached to the Mor that hey fan ‘undergo tension as well as compression : ‘Slaon. Assuming. that the new . position of the top of the table is that 7 Indicated by the dotted. line mn, the compresion of legs 2nd 4 will be the i Sverage of that of legs tant 3. Hence a¥=X4Z be | and since 2¥ + Xf Z = P we obtain Poe op a¥=X4Z= 40. cy) ‘An additional equation for determining X and Z is obtained by taking the momene ofall Uke forces with rexpert to the horizontal ‘xis 0 ~ O parallel to y and inthe plane ofthe force P. Then Xavi +o) + AP re = Zavt ~ 0, o TENSION AND COMPRESSION 2 From (2) and (8) we obtain es p ‘ er(j-sa) 2s an a(trs When ¢ > ly, X becomes negative. This indiates that there sa be resion ag Determine the cs inthe leg ofthe above table when the loads applied a the pint withthe coainats Hint. Yn solving thi problem ie should be note that when the point of application ofthe load Pis maton the diagonal oft {abl this loud may be replaced by two nds stacey efureon the oad # and applied at pnts onthe we diagnale "The fos roducedin the eu by each of these twolonds ure found asetplsiead Bove Sumaing he fet ofthe ro com vent loads, the foes nthe legs for any post fon of the lad P may be founda? A rectangular frame with diagonals is fubmitted tothe action of compressive res P (Fig! 20. "Determine the forces in the bars they ate all of the same material, the cron see tional area ofthe verdes, and that ofthe remaining bars. “elton. Let X be the compresive free in cach verticah ¥ the compremive fore a cael aga hd 2th ene foe nach horizontal bar. Then from the condition of cqulibium of one ofthe hinges Y= shinalP—X); 2 Yeora (P~ xX) cota (@) ‘The third equation will be obtained from the condition that the sc after deformation remaine rectangular by sieuc of symmetry; fore vy from this, neglecting the small quantities of higher order, we gee esr ex oz a aE AE o Pere rere e+u STRENGTH OF MATERIALS Solving eqs. (2) and (3), the following value ofthe forceina diagonal willbe obeaned Pp Yost a, a PF 48 Fcwatsina "The forges in other bars will now be easly determined from eqs. a) "7 Salve the above problem, assuming «= hy f= 5 and P= sooo Ibs 4, What stresies will be produced in a steel bolt and a copper tube (Fig. 21) by f of a turn of the ‘nut if the length of the bole /= jo in the pitch of the bole thread A= in, the area of the cross see- tion ofthe bolt, = 1sqc inch, the areaof the cross section of the tube = 2 sq inches? Solution. Let X denote the unknown tensile force in the bolt and the compresive force ia the tube. * ‘The magnitude of X willbe found from the condition ‘hat the extension of the bolt plus the shortening of the tube is equal tothe displacement of the nut along the bole. In ur cate, assuming the length ofthe tube equal tothe Jengeh of the bol, we obtain 16100 Ibs. per 9. in The tensile stress in the oleis = Xi, “aid = Bago Ibs per ‘The compressive stzes in the tbe is 9, What change in the stresses calculated in che above problem wil be produced by tensile forces P= 500 lbs. applied the The ofthe bole? ‘Solution. Let X denote the increase in the tensile force in the bole and ¥ the decrease jn the compressive force in the tube Then from the condition of equilibrium, X+Y=P. © ‘A second equation may be writtzn down from the consideration thatthe nit elongation of the bolt and tube under the application TENSION AND COMPRESSION 2s ofthe forces P must be equals Xe AE,” HE. o From eas, (a) and (8) the forces X and ¥ and the scomesponding stresses af easly calculated Je. A posnatal iar wih ble end onde silly at two intermediate cos section Fig. 2 feree P.and Pu. Determine the reactons aad Re Un, "Slatin wl betaine by singe.) on pge 3, calculating the eactns produced Up cag Determine the reactions when 47094 bm og and P= aPy= 1coobs 11. Determine the forces in the bars ofthe 19 system, shown ia Fig. ay where Oo isan au of Symmes sr, ‘The tn fen the ba O8 sail othe compesrive force in the bar fndis Pissing. he force inthe horoneal bar Spill nit a. 13, Solve problem 1o suming that the lower portion of length «ofthe bar has a cront-ectinal arta to time ger than eet sectional atea ofthe two upper pare of eng and 7. Initial and Thermal Stresses.—In a statically indeter- minate system it is posible to have some inital stresses Produced in assembly and due to inaccuracies in the lengehs of the bars or to intentional deviations from the correct values of these lengths. These stresses will exist when external loads are absent, and depend only upon the geometrical pro- Portions of the system, on the mechanical properties of the eaters and onthe magnitde ofthe insecure. Asin or example, that the system represented in Fig. 15 has, by. mistake, + 0 asthe length of the vertical bar instead of Then after asembling the bars BO and DO, the vertical bat can be put into place only after initial compression and due ‘© this fact it will produce some tensile fore in the inclined bars, Let X denote the compressive force in the vertical bar, which finally takes place after asembly. “Then the ‘corresponding tensile frcein the inclined bars will be Xs cos 4 pede + Pra a86 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS and the displacement of the hinge O due to the extension of these bars will be (see eq. J, p. 20) © ‘The shortening of the vertical bar will be XL ® From elementary geometrical considerations, the displace rent of the hinge O, together with the shortening of the ‘vertical bar, must be equal to the error ain the length ofthe vertical bar. This gives the following equation for deter- mining X: a xi Xx Ta carat Hence tte ay (+ ee) [Now the initial stresses in all the bare may be calculated. Expansion ofthe bars of a system due to changes in tempera- ture may have also the same effect as inaccuracies in lengths. ‘Assume a bar with built-in ends. If the temperature of the bar is raised from fy to # and thermal expansion is prevented by the reactions at the ends, there will be produced in the bar compressive stresses, whose magnitude may be caleulated from the condition that the length remains unchanged. Let 4 denote the coeficient of thermal expansion and ¢ the com- pressive stress produced by the reactions. Then the equation for determining o will be eve from which o= Bat 10 os Asa second example, let us consider the sytem represented in Figg and sone thatthe vera! bur 8 honed fom TENSION AND COMPRESSION 2 the assembly temperature % to a new temperature & ‘The corresponding thermal expansion will be partially prevented by the two other bars of the system, and certain compressive ll develop in the vertical bar and tensile stresses lined bars. The magnitude of the compressive force in the vertical bar will be given by eq. (11), in which instead of the magnitude @ of the inaccuracy in length we substitute the thermal expansion al{? — 4) of the vertical bar. Problems 1, Ther of tramway ae weed together at $0 Falreni ‘What stresses will be produced in these rails. ‘wher heated| by the nto 10s ifthe cockcnt of thermal epanton ofl yo to fasmey egos te pani 2. What change of serene willbe produced inthe case repre. sented in Fig 21 by increasing the tnperatre bom ty be fPeicint of expansion of stele and that of eoppet ak Solin, Baw t the fc ha o> ete neg tempera sare produces compreon inthe copper and tenon the ech. ‘The une lngation of the coppers of te stl sl be ea Denoting by 5 the ineran in he tn force nthe ble ue the change of tmpertre ne obtain x aut = 19 + Fe att from which ‘he change inthe stress in the bolt and inthe tube may be Caleaiatednow inthe ual way 2A stip of copper i soldered rms, been two wipe of ate (Eg 39) {ke Whar snes wil be produced fa the sland in the coppe by ae the temperate ofthe ate fom oF s The same method’ asin the ugetion, The same mthed a in the previous problem ‘should be used. Pe i “Wht sree wil be produced in the bare of the system28 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS represented in Fig. 15 i the temperatare ofall the bars be raised Fométo? lon. Let X denote the temsile force produced in the ste! fan increase in temperature. Then from the condition of ileum of the hinge Oe canbe seen then the copper bare compressive. forces act, equal to X/s-cosas_consequemtly the ‘ongaton of the sts bar Becomes snd the elongation of the copper buts is LM aa” Tet aE A= ale) Furthermore from previous consideration (se p. 20), B= dona; therfore aul sa + from which thse Toorade, “The streies in the stel and in the copper will now be obtained fom the following equations: a* x as Feed 5 Assuming cha inthe case shown in Fig. 17a constant load P= scojoe ie applied at an inital temperature fy determine at that increase intemperate the load will be completly transmitted tthe copper ifax = 9 X lo" and a= 92 1o™ Solution mai | tats >= FE f= tym 75.4 degrees Fahrenheit -ae- a= from which TENSION AND COMPRESSION » 6. A steel bar consisting of two portions of lengths‘, and f and cross-sectional areas dy and vis xed atthe ends.” Find the ‘thermal sresses ifthe temperature rises by 109 degrees Fabreaheit (Resume A= fy du Ady and an = 70% 10 "7 Find the thermal stress in the system shown in Fig. 24 if the temperature of ll these stripe rises by 100 degrece Fahrent helt. The thickness of each of the three step is the same and the cooficients of thermal’ expansion are ay — 70 X 10" and * acm ga X to Assume E, The temperature of the system shown in Fig. 16 rss by too ogres Falenhelt. Find the thermal stresses if al three bars are ‘ofsteel and have equal cross-sectional areas. "Take a, — 70% To? ZX ih pe ind the stresses in the wires of the system shown in Fig. 18 ifehecronactonal are ofthe wires. sq7iny the load = 9.00 Fhe, and che temperature of the system rises alter assembly by 19 degrees Fahrenhere To. Determine the stresses which wil be built up in the syters ‘represented in Fig. 20 if the temperature of the upper horizontal bar ses fom fs ¢0# degrees 8, Extension of a Circular Ring—If uniformly distributed radial forces act along the circumference of a thin circular ving (Fig. 25), uniform enlargement of the ring will he pro- © Fe 4 duced. In order to determine the tensile force P in the ring let us imagine that the ring is cut atthe horizontal diametral section (Fig. 25, 8) and consider the upper portion as a free body. If g denotes the uniform load per unit length of the