42

PHYSIOGRAPHY

pression, extending between Kendari and Kolaka

and occupied by alluvial swampy plains. The south
ern section is occupied by an irregular hilly mount
ainland with more East-to-West
trendlines, less
than 1000 m high (Mt Mendoke, 981 m).
5. BUTON ARCIDPELAGO AND TUKANG BESI
ISLANDS
(See fig. 177)

The Southeast arm of Celebes crumbles at its end

into a number of islands, forming the Buton Ar

chipelago.

Buton (or Butung), Muna, Kabaena and Wowoni

are the larger islands of this group. They are .separ
ated from the Southeast arm by narrow straits.
The islands form a rising anticlinorium, concave
to the NW. The truncated neogene folds are locally
capped by a carapace of pleistocene coral. reefs.
which rise, for example, in South Buton with 14
terraces to an altitude of 703 m above the present
sealevel (Mt Kontu).
From this Buton Archipelago submerged crustal
blocks radiate in eastern, southeastern, southern, and
southwestern directions. From Wowoni a submarine
ridge plunges eastward to the floor of the North
Banda Basin. Then follows a deep of 5,100 m. Next
come the block-slices of the Tukang Besi group,
which point from central Buton to the SE. The phy
siography of this interesting island group has been
discussed
by
ESCHER,MOLENGRAAFFR,UTTEN,HET
ZEL and KUENEN. We will postpone its treatment
to Chapter V.
The Buton trough stretches parallel with the
Tukang Besi blocks. separating them from a more
or less triangular
block, carrying Hagedis Island
(Batuata) and Kabia Island. The latter block has
its apex off the southernmost
point of Buton
and its base skirts the western end of the South
Banda Basin. This area has a depth of about
2000 m. In Batuata raised young coral reefs occur
to an altitude of 193 m above sealevel. From South
west Buton several ridges plunge southwestward via
the small islands Kadatuang and Siumpa towards
the Bone trough.
The orogenic meaning of this peculiar radial
arrangement of crustal slices (some of which are
rising in the present time, whilst the intervening
blocks are engulfed to depths of thousands of
metres) will be discussed in Chapter V.
6. SOUTH ARM

The South arm of Celebes is connected to the

trunk along a NE-SW line from Palopo to the Gulf
of Mandar. However, from a geological point of
view. the southwestern part of the trunk with the
Quarles Mts can better be discussed in relation
with the South ann.

So we consider the northern part of the South

arm as the area comprised between the SE-NW
line from Palopo to the mouth of the Karama
River at the West coast of the trunk on the one
side. and the Tempe depression on the o!her side.
The latter extends along the SE-NW line from
the mouth of the Tjenrana River via Lake Tempe
to the mouth of the Sadang River.
This northern part of the South arm is one of the
most-mountainous areas of Celebes.
The promontory between Madjene and Mamu~ju
shows Ssto-N trending ridges of tertiary strata WIth
a capping of raised coral reefs near Madjene. It is
further more characterized by Ieucite-bearing vol
canic rocks (Cape William). Farther East, the
granite massif of the Quarles Mts rises to an altit
ude of 3,107 m, The eastern part of the Quarles
Mts with Mt Kalando (2,963 m), consists largely
of t~rtiary volcanic rocks of andesitic comp~sit~on,
invaded by intrusions of diorites and granodiorites.
The Karua massif (over 2,500 m high) at its south
eastern side is a centre of eruption of large dacito
liparitic tuff-flows which fill the valleys, being in
their tum incised by deep canyons. The Quarles
Mts are separated from the Latimodjong ~ange by
the Sadang Valley, Large righthand tributaries
from the Quarles Mts are the Masupu and the Ma
maso.
Between the Sadang Valley and the Gulf of Bone,
the N-to-S trending Latimodjong Range rises to
altitudes of over 3000 m (Mt Rante-Mario, 3.440
m; Mt Latimodjong 3,300 rn).
The northern part of the South arm is separated
from its southern part by a notable NW -SE depress
ion. This depression has been a sea-strait until late
in the geological history, as is attested by the pres
ence of young clays with recent marine shells
around lake Tempe. The surface of this lake is
situated 9 m above sealevel and its depth is only
2 m. Northeast of it is Lake Sidenreng and North
of it the small Crocodile Lake. These lakes are
drained by the Tjenrana River.
The southern part of the South arm of Celebes
has a much smaller average elevation than the
northern part. There can be distinguisted. a West~rn
and an Eastern Divide Range with the intervening
valley of the Walanae River..
.
The Western Divide Range rrses to altitudes ot
. over 1000 m (Peak of Maros 1,377 m, Tonrong
Krambu + 1,660 m, Bulu Laposo 1,270 m). The
Eastern Divide Range or Bone Range is only about
800 m high.
. .
Both ranges unite in the South in the Bontorilni
Mts (+ 800 m) with Mt Bohong Langieng ( 1,973
m). The latter is a young-tertiary volcani? boss.
This southern mountain complex, from which the
Waianae River flows northward. is dominated by
the large volcanic cone of the Lompobatang or

CELEBES
deep sea conditions existed (Base of the cretaceous
Lower Matano Beds).
During this geosynclinal period the subsiding crust
was invaded from below by ophiolitic rocks (chiefly
peridotites and serpentines),
At the end of the Cretaceous strong folding, presumably
due to the uplift of adjoining areas; meanwhile in the
area of Lake Towuti a synorogenic calcareous clay
sandstone formation was formed, which might be the
equivalent of the Pornpangeo Formation in Central
Celebes.
Land conditions and baseleveling during the Lower
Tertiary.
Transgression of the sea in the Lower Miocene (Te2)
over the central part (East of Lake Towuti). In the
southern part (Kendari area) the transgression followed
later, in post-Lepidocyclina time (= post- Tertiary-Ft.
Renewed folding at the end of the Tertiary. South of
Kendari the mean trend of the neogene folds is E-W
or NE-SW.
General uplift and denudation during the Quaternary.
At the southern end of the Southeast arm also coral
reefs developed, which were, later on. raised above
sealevel. This uplift was accompanied by tensional
faulting, such as the \VNW-ESE faults bordering the
graben of Lake Marano, the surface of which lies at
382 m above sealevel, while its depth is 590 m. Next to
these, West to W 35" N trending faults, called "Matano
direction" by KOOLHOYEN, there are in this area also
N to NNW trending faults, called "Towuti direction"
by this author.
At the southern end of the southeast arm BOTHE
distinguishes a NNW-SSE trending fault, East of the
Kolono Bay, marked by thermal springs. A WNW
trending fault separates the Quaternary and Neogene
North of Torobulu from the Mesozoic in the Baito
Hills, ;

419

Upper Jurassic. and the (Middle-i Cretaceous is

proved by fossils.
The upper-triassic Winto Beds consist of an
intensely folded series of neritic bees in flysch
3.
facies (dark gray and variegated clay-shales. marly
shales, micaceous sandstones and arkose sand
stones, conglomerates. graywackes, and bituminous
light to dark gray platy limestones). Sometimes
plant remains and thin streaks of coal occur in thin
4.
bedded shales. The sandstones and conglomera tes
contain fragments of quartz, andesitic effusive rock,
5.
and quartzite. The best exposures are found in the
Winto River in South Buton.
The Winto Bells in North Buton are generally
6.
more calcareous than in South Buton. HETZEL
mentions: Haiobia sp., Daonella sp., Monotis sali
7.
naria SCHLOTli., Myophoria sp., etc. Further Am
monites ex gr. Clio niles and ex gr. Ceratites. W AN
;-;ER mentions also Halorites ex gr. Catenati and
Juvavites ceramensis WANNER.
Along the East coast of North Buton, between
the Bay of Doole and Cape Lokantjai. a strip of
sterile slightly metamorphic rock is found (gray
and reddish micaceous quartzites alternating with
phyllitic clay-shales). These Doole Beds are corn
pared with the epi-metamorphic Kendari Mesozoic.
BOTHE(1927) presumes a jurassic age, but HETZEL
(1936) emphasized its lithological resemblance with
the flysch-like Winto Beds. At any rate. they show
a marked difference from the regionally metamor
phic crystalline schists.
2. THE BUTON ARCHIPELAGO
The lower-jurassic Ogena Beds are well bedded
The geology of the islands of Buton and Muna
gray limestones, alternating with softer marls. They
is better known since the appearance of HETZEL'S lie probably conformably upon the Upper Triassic,
compilation in 1936; BOTHE(1927) published some
and contain a liassic fauna tPltytloceros sp .. Psilo
data on the islands Wawonii (Wawoni) and Ka
ceras ~p.. Arietites
sp., etc.: determinations
by
baena. UMBGROVE(1942) described corals from
GERTH).
the asphalt deposits of Buton; KEYZER(1945) gave
The upper-jurassic Rumu Beds consist of buff
a list of upper-cretaceous
smaller Foraminifera
gray, dense limestones, bedded red brown and
from this island; BEETS (1943 g. h, i) described
mottled marly limestones. and dark gray crumbling
upper-oligocene or mio-pliocene molluscs, and a mudstones. According to determinations by GERTH
new articulate brachiopod genus from Buton.
and STEHN they contain Belemnopsis gerardi OP
Stratigraphy. The following formations are found
PEL. B. aljurica BOEHM,Aucella cf. malayo maorica
on Buton:
KRUMB., indicating an oxfordian age. WANNER
(1940. p. 96) presumes the presence of Stomio
1. Crystalline sch.is1s, outcropping on the upper
sphaera moluccana and Cadosina [usca in these
course of the Mukito River (South Buton), They
Rumu limestones.
consist of schistose plagioclase-amphibolites
and
The cretaceous Tobelo Beds are white. grey. and
epidote-chlorite schists; of minor importance are
crystalline dolomites (with epidote. mica and se
rosa coloured. often porcellaneous, dense lime
condary quartz) and schistose sericite-quartzite.
stones without terrigenous constituents, containing
Crystalline schist'S are also known from Kabaena.
according to VANDER VLERK: Globotruncana cana
The schists are separated by an unconformity from
licuta REUSS, Globigerina cretacea D'ORB., Pseudo
the Mesozoic. which does not show regional meta
textularia globulosa EHRENB.
morphism. In general the Mesozoic of Buton is Jess
KEYZER(1945) published a list of smaller Forami
altered than the epi-rnetamorphic Mesozoic of the
nifera from these rocks.
southern end of the Southeast arm (Borne's Ken
Characteristic are intercalated beds and concret
dari Mesozoic).
ions of reddish and yellow chert, some of which
The. presence of Upper Triassic, Lower- and
are rich in Radiolaria.

420

CELEBES

The Tobelo Beds are probably separated by an

unconformity from the older Mesozoic. as they are
found in contact with the Winto-. Ogena-, and
Rumu Beds. It is, however. not certain whether
this contact is depositional or that it is the result
of tectonic complications.
The Tertiary is separated by an unconformity
from the Mesozoic.
The only occurrence of Lower Tertiari (WaDi
Beds) was found by BOTHEin the Tobelo Mts of
North Buton, where it forms presumably a strongly
crushed syncline amidst mesozoic rocks. It consists
of coarse sandstones and calcareous sandstones, and
polymict conglomerate. In the sandstones fragments
of cretaceous Giobotruncana-limestones and of
serpentine are present. This proves in the first place
an orogenic phase between the Cretaceous and the
Tertiary, and in the second place the pre-tertiary
age of the ophiolitic intrusions.
VANDERVLERKfound in the polymict conglom
erate a fauna of small Camerina, Isolepidina
boetonensis v. D. VL., and transitional forms bet
ween Discocyclina and Lepidocyclina, which were
called Orthocyclina (1928, p, 22; see also UMB
GROH, 1931, p. 71, and MARTIN.1933, p. 8).
A renewed study of the original samples by TAN
SIN HOK(1936 a) has shown them to contain. next
to Lep. (Lep.) boetonensis v. D. VL!, also creta
ceous Globotruncana, small radiate Camerina, (cf.
Borelis), and Asterocyclina (= Orthocyclina V. D.
VL.). This is probably a drifted fauna, the oligocene
age of which is by no means certain and which
might also be Eocene (TAN,I.e.p. 9-10).
There has been a phase of folding between the
Wani Beds and the Neogene, which covers three
quarters of the island. lying always unconformably
upon the pre-tertiary formations.
The Neogene begins with a transgressive member
of conglomeratic and sandy sediments. Then fol
lows a more pelagic marl-limestone series. The
lower part has been called Tondo Beds (sandy conglomeratic) and the upper part is named Sam
polakosa Beds (limestones and marls).
At the base of the Neogene. lying transgressively
upon cretaceous limestones of North Buton, an
isolated mass of limestones has been found contain
ing a rich foraminiferal fauna with Spiroclypeus
and Miogypsinoides (Tertiary eM lowermost Mio.
cene).
Everywhere else the base of the Neogene is form
ed by the Tondo Beds, consisting of conglomerates
and sandstones. alternating with scarce clay- and
marl beds. Sometimes the base is formed by thick
reef limestones. which were found also in the
middle pan and at the top of the T ondo Beds.
The conglomerates consist of boulders of meso
zoic sedimentary rocks, peridotites, and serpentines.
Amphibolite and quartz are rare constituents.

The thickness of the Tondo Beds varies. In the

Lasalimu Peninsula of South Buton it measures
about 800 m, diminishing southwestward to about
500 m in the Kapantoreh Mts and the Sampolakosa
Mts. South of Baubau the Tondo Beds wedge out
entirely, so that the Sampolakosa Beds rest directly
upon the Pre-Tertiary.
In Central Buton the thickness increases to 10001300 m, diminishing again in North Buton.
The Tondo Beds are characterized by small Lepi
docyclina and Miogypsina with lateral chambers
(Tertiary f).
The SampoJakosa Beds lie with a gradational
contact upon the Tondo Beds. In Southwest Buton,
South of Baubau, the Sampolakosa Beds overlap
the pre-tertiary basement and the basal layers
contain also fragments of the Tendo sandstones.
These beds are poorer in terrigenous material,
forming sometimes soft chalklike limestones, entire
ly consisting of Globigerina tests.
The thickness of the Sampolakosa Beds is about
800 m in Southwest and Central Buton. They
contain a rich fauna of smaller Foraminifera. but
Lepidocyclina or Miogypsina were never observed.
so that they are of post-Lepidocyclina age (Mio
Pliocene).
Next to smaller Foraminifera also a molluscan
fauna has been collected. According to a prelimin
ary survey by OOSTINGHit is of pliocene age.
Another molluscan fauna from the Waisiu field of
the Buton Asphalt Company has been described
by MARTIN(1933, 1935). The result of MARTIN'S
study is remarkable, as all 35 described species are
new. Not a single recent form was found in this
fauna so that its percentage number is zero. Al
though the fauna does not contain eocene, oligo
cene or lower miocene species, and on the other
hand several fossils show relations with neogene
and recent forms. MARTINconcluded to an oligo
cene age, chiefly on account of the zero percentage
of recent forms. However. the position of the Sam
polakosa Beds as established by the field relations
is certainly post Lower-Miocene. according to HET
ZEL (1936). MARTIN(1937) suggested that this
anomaly might be explained by interpreting these
molluscs as ejecta of lower strata by a mud-vol
cano. In this way they might have been embedded
in upper-neogene deposits.
The puzzle became still more intricate by the
examination by UMBGROV(E1942) of the
corals from the asphalt deposits; 9 species were
identified,
8 of which belong to still living species. Next to the
molluscs of apparently oligocene age, and the corals
of plio-pleistocene age, also Gkibigerinidae, and a
mould of Cocos nucijera (L.) occur in these asphalt
deposits.
"This curious assemblage supports MARTIN'S surmise
on the occurrence of these deposits. All facts are explained

CELEBES

421

if we suppose that eruptions of a mud-volcano broke

The mio-pliocene Sampolakosa
Beds were traversed by
through fossil-bearing layers of different ages and scattered
intrusions and extrusions of bituminous matter. bringing
the material hap-hazardly on the surface in the neighbour
fossils from these beds to the surface. The molluscs re
hood of the vent. Possibly the gass and oil, which gave
present a homogeneous fauna, which might even have been
origin to the present asphalt deposits, flowed from the
derived from a single layer, There is no quesnon of mixing
same vent. However, these events may have happened at
of "older" and "younger" molluscs.
a more recent date than the Upper Neogene and eventually
These are in a nutshell the results of the recent studies
the reef-corals were living in loco at that time. With this
by BEETS,REINHOLD,and KEYZER.For further details we
hypothesis in mind the opinions of HETZEL(that the
mollusc an fauna, amidst the mio-pliocene Sampolakosa
have to wait for their joint publication on this subject.
Beds owes its aberrant composition due to a peculiar
Elevated coral reefs are the youngest formation
facies) and OfTHOENES(1936) on the origin of the asphalt
deposits, will have to be revised 1). It is to be hoped that a
of Buton and the surrounding islands, apart from
detailed geological survey of the puzzling fossil locallities
the alluvial deposits, UMBGROVE (I946 a, table I)
will give
an undisputable solution of the problem". (UMBGROVE found 85.7 as the percentage of recent coral species,
which indicates a Pleistocene or more recent age
1942, p. 31-32.)
of the raised coral reefs.
BEETS (1942 g-h-i) studied more molluscs from these
asphalt deposits. Although the number of species could
Structure of Buton. After the deposition of the
be enlarged, from 35 described by MARTIN(1933, 1935),
mio-pliocene
Sampolakosa Beds and before the
with 51 new species, thus rising the total number of this
fauna to 86, not one living species was encountered, so
formation of the raised coral reefs a strong phase
that the percentage number remained zero. There are
of folding and upthrusting occurred. The present
hardly any relations between this molluscan fauna of
Buton and other paleogene faunae. Some relations do
island of Buton is a raised anticlinorium. The axes
exist with neogene faunas of other regions in the Indian
of
the upper-neogene folds form an arc, which is
Archipelago, such as Timor, Cerarn, East Borneo, and Nias.
concave
to the West. In the southern part of the
Thus, BEETSfirst adhered to MARTI"I'Sconclusion that
island the neogene structures ha ve a SW-NE trend,
these molluscs of Buton have an oligocene age and re
present an autochthonously
developed fauna, with a
in Central Buton about SoN, whereas in North
conspicuous endemic character.
Buton the mean strike curves in a SSE-NNW
However, afterwards BEETS revised this opinion,
direction.
considering the fauna as a mio-pliocene deep-water facies,
The folding has not been a mere epidermis
thus confirming HETZEL'S opinion on the age of the
folding, as the plane of transgression at the base
Sampolakosa Beds. In a written communication to the
of the Tondo Beds was also folded, and in the cores
author, dated Jan. 19, 1948, BEETS gave the following
,arguments for his new conception:
of the truncated anticlines and upthrusts pre-terti
"New material, the revision of the description of new
ary basement rocks are exposed.
species by MARTINand myself, comparison with species
The folds are often asymmetric with steeper
in the British Museum and the zoological museum at
West
flanks, and they pass in some places into
Amsterdam, have all added to this revised conception.
thrust-folds with eastward dipping thrust planes.
In
order
to
check
this
opinion
Dr
REINHOLD(Haarlem)
Therefore, the pressure acted from East to West.
has studied the diatoms and Dr KEYZER(Utrecht) the
Interpreting this folding as the effect of gravitational
smaller Foraminifera.
The results of these studies tally
excellently and will be published in due time. The most tectogenesis, the adjoining area East of Buton with the
present Tukang Besi Islands was raised during this plio
important facts are as follows:'
pleistocene folding, causing a lateral spreading toward
Mollusca. Some recent specks were found, and also
the subsiding Buton Basin, which was compressed.
some species occurring in the young-neogene collections
The neogene folds and upthrusts of Buton were slightly
from Nias, Timor, and East Borneo (partly recent ones).
pressed above sealevel by this lateral compression, so that
All appeared to be deep-water types. The character of the
some truncation of the folds occurred in lower-pleistocene
fauna seems to be a shallow-water facies at first sight, but
on closer study it appears to be a deeper- or deep-water
time. But due to continued subsidence, the sea invaded
fauna, presumably in the first place cold water. In other
again and the quaternary coral reefs were formed. Then,
words, this fauna lived at a depth which was up till the
in the younger Quaternary, the direction of the radial.
present not known in the East Indies and the entire region
primary tecto genetic movements was reversed. The Buton
of S- and SE-Asia; at any rate other faunae have not yet
anticlinorium was arched up, and the hinterland with the
been recognized as having lived under such ecological
Tukang Besi Islands subsided.
conditions. The age of the molluscs is young neogene,
The rise of the Buton anticlinorium occurred
certainly younger Upper Miocene and possibly Lower
Pliocene. It is comprehensible that this fauna contained
partly during, partly after the formation of the
so many new species, because so little is as yet known about
coral reefs. The latter attain a height of 703 m
the recent deepsea fauna of molluscs.
above sealevel in South Buton (Mt Kontu). The
Diatoms. Dr TH. REINHOLDconcludes that the diatomes
Castle Mountain (Kasteelberg) of Muna has a
are presumably as old as those found in the upper-miocene
height of 425 m, descending steeply with a number
"Globigerina marls" of Java (REINHOLD,1937). There are
clear indications for a relatively low bottom-temperature.
of terraces toward the Strait of Buton,
Foraminifera. Dr F. G. K. KEYZER concludes to
Along Buton Strait small dips in the quaternary
a mio-pliocene
age.
Clear,
cold
water,
relatively
reefs were observed, for instance near Baubau. On
deep (100-250 fathoms?).
the islet of Makassar in the Bungi Bay gently fold
MARTIN's suggestion about a mud volcano seems to be
ed Neogene crops out (dips of 10). unconformably
perfectly sound. Only a small modification is needed:
UBAGHS& ZEYLMANVS ANEMMlCHOVE(N1947) are of the opinion that the asphalt deposits of Butoo have
originated
[rom neogene oil.
1)

422

CELEBES

covered by quaternary coral reefs. The latter form

also a gentle anticline with dips of 50.
This indicates that the proceeding uplift of Buton and
Muna creates a new field of gravitational stress gradients
causing a tendency for spreading of the elevated parts
and compressive stresses in the intervening Buton Strait 1).
The pressing up of the Pulu Makassar syncline in the coral
reefs is the subrecent effect of this local compression in the
Strait of Buton.

On the other hand, the crest of the rising Buton

anticlinorium shows tension phenomena. A very
young, NNE-SSW trending graben extends across
South Buton between the Lawele Bay and the Sam
polawa Bay. It is 75 km long and 2-7 km wide,
and is called the Lawele Graben. The Sampolakosa
River flows through its southern part; in its north
ern part raised coral reefs reach a height of 682 m
(Mt Marimao). The asphalt occurrences of South
Buton are restricted to the fault zone along the
eastern margin of this Lawele Graben. Other. NE
SW trending, tension faults are also found East of
the Lawele Graben and the Lawele Mts (Kamaru
fault and Ondola fault).
The tectonic structure of South Buton is illustrat
ed by the cross-section in fig. 175.

KAPANTOR~t1

w.

rocks were found, but the relations with the peri

dotites were not studied.
The contacts with the mesozoic rocks, wherever
observed, are always tectonic. The lower-tertiary
Warn Beds contain serpentine detritus and the
conglomerates in the lower-miocene Tondo Beds
contain boulders of peridotite and serpentine.
Therefore, the age of the ophiolitic intrusions is
Pre-Tertiary.
Dikes and intrusive sills of diabase are a com
mon feature of the upper-triassic Winto Beds. In
strongly crushed cretaceous limestones of the To
belo Mts of North Buton, a basaltic rock and an
olivine diabase-porphyrite (gabbro-porphyrite) were
observed. If these rocks represent diapiric off
shoots of plutonic masses underneath, it is possible
that the basic and ultra-basic intrusions continued
until the end of the Mesozoic.
A small occurrence of calcified pumiceous tuff
was found on the Sampolakosa Beds in the penin
sula North of the DwaaI Bay. These tuffs are
younger than the Sampolakosa Beds. They were
possibly erupted during the plio-pleistocene oro
genesis, when the hinterland, Southeast of Buton,
was elevated and subjected to tensional stresses.

MT~.

.o..

~8

~
~

l'I

L:2;:_J

8
5

10 KH
6

FIG. 175. Section across South Buton. (Slightly altered after

~
i

7
--

HETZEL,

tI

c::::::J

1936, section G-H on Plate I)

Legend: 1. Crystalline schists. 2. Upper-triassic Winto Beds. 3. Jurassic Ogena Beds. 4. Cretaceous Tobelo Beds.
5. Peridotites and serpentines. 6. Lower-miocene Tondo Beds. 7. Mio-pliocene Sampolakosa Beds. 8. Raised young
quaternary coral reefs.

Igneous rocks of ButoD. Before terminating the

discussion of the geology of Buton, the igneous
rocks should be mentioned.
Ultra-basic rocks (peridotites and serpentines)
occur in a long chain of outcrops along the West
coast of Buton with the exception of the central
part The largest mass of these rocks is exposed
in the Kapantoreh Mts in jhe southern part of the
island. In some places in this massif also gabbroic

which caused a block-faulting of this area (see the

next paragraph on the Tukang Besi Islands),
A peculiar rock of ButOD.is the Butonite, described by
(1938). It occurs as dikes in the peridotite and
serpentine outcrops, and in their immediate surroundings.
It is also found in the Neogene and in older sedimentary
formations. Butonite is a glassy. often breccious rock,
consisting almost entirely of opal and chalcedony with
finely dispersed marcasite and also chromite. The dikes
are almost vertical and reach a width of more than 10 m.
HETZEL

1) Much stronger dips in the reef limestones near Pobaa at the Bay of Kapantoreh
faults and flexures.

are connected with very young

.0

[=::JUNO
CORA! RF.F

176. Bathymetrical chart

See also "Jaarboek

WITH ISOBATH
500m

~.?ooa-4000m

or

_~OOO-6()(){Jm
L_ ,10

0/ the Tukang Best Group. (From

Some of the dikes consist of a mixture of butonite and

carbonate.
A chemical analysis by WILLEMS gave 86.9 % Si02;
2.40 % Fe20a (FeO calculated as Fe20a); traces of MgO,
CaO, Na20, K.O, and MnO; 1.11 % Cr20a; 0.12 % Ni02
9.66 % H20 + &_1).
Moreover, the rock contains organic matter and sul
phur.
The chemical analysis shows some resemblance with
birbirite from Abessynia and Yugoslavia, which is related
to dunite and serpentine (VAN BOSSE,1932), and also to
similar rocks occurring together with the serpentines of
Manipa (RITTMANN, 1931, p. 18). RITTMANN is of the
'}

200-tO(JQm

mlIIllii IOOO-2OOQm

[I]]]]a-200m
FIG.

423

CELEBES

Mijnwezen in Ned. Indie",

,20

UMBGROVE.

,30 Am

1947 b, pl. 7)

opinion that the glassy rocks are of a supergene origm

by infiltration of colloidal silica formed during the weather
ing of the serpeatines. But HETZEL considered a hypogene
hydrothermal origin at low temperature more probable
(silicification and carbonatization of fault-breccias). The
organic matter and the sulphur of the butonites might be
derived from bituminous matter in the upper-triassic
flysch and in younger formations.
3. THE TUKANG BESI ISLANDS

In the preceding paragraph mention has already

been made of the Tukang Besi Islands, in relation

1930, gen. part, p. 253.

424

CELEBES

with the tectogenesis of Buton at the end of the

Tertiary.
This group of small islands and atolls has drawn
particular attention in relation with the coral-reef
problem (ESCHER. 1920; MOLENGRAAFF. 1922~
RUTTEN. 1927. p. 635-649; KUENEN.1928; HETZEL,
1930 a; KUENEN, 1933 a&b; ESCHER. 1934, p. 102103).
The islands form NW-SE trending rows. which
are partly subsiding so that they carry atolls. and
partly rising so that they form islands with elevat
ed coral reefs.
In the elevated islands Wangi Wangi, Kaledupa,
and Tomea, HETZEL (1930 a) observed Globigerina
limestones of upper neogene age, which are pro
bably the equivalent of the Sampolakosa Beds of
Buton. The strike is SW-NE and the dip SE in
the Neogene of Wangi Wangi; this direction is
parallel to the trend of the neogene anticlines on
the Lasalimu Peninsula of Buton.
On Kaledupa HETZEL and KUENEN found NW
SE as well as SW-NE strikes. KUENEN is of the
opinion that here an irregular anticline is present.
with a NW -SE direction. However, these scarce
observations of strikes and dips in the upper-neo
gene strata are insufficient for a definite opinion
about their structure. It is also possible that tilting,
flexures and faulting were responsible for these
strikes and dips.
In the preceding paragraph it has been supposed that
the Tukang Besi area was elevated at the end of the Neo
gene, causing a gravitational spreading towards the Buton
foredeep. Afterwards a reversion of the radial movement
occurred; the compressed Buton Zone was elevated and
the Tukang-Besi area sank down.

KUENEN (1933 b, p, 335) outlines the formation

of the Tukang-Besi group as follows:

"Towards the close of the Tertiary epoch the present

site of the Tukang Besi Islands was occupied by a slightly
undulating plateau closely below the surface of the sea.
Round the highest points of the anticlines grew reefs.
During the subsequent development of the region the
general level gradually sank several hundreds of metres.
A number of reefs grew up and formed either oblong
atolls on the initial anticlines or round atolls and small,
solid reefs on the plateau, while other reefs were slowly
but intermittently raised above sealevel. On the whole
these movements were in the nature of blockfaulting
although the original subdivision in anticlinal ridges was
more or less retained, so that the folding, deeper down
in the crust, probably continued. One of the reefs, Lintea
Zuid, was tilted as ESCHERpointed out, and now consists
of an atoll with an elevated rim on the side of the row of
islands, The islands sometimes sank a small distance,
giving rise to the formation of barrier reefs here and there.
We see, therefore, that ESCHER'Stheory of the origin
of the group has been hardly altered. Tectonic influences
produced the arrangement of the isla nds and atolls. The
latter were formed by the subsidence or'the basement.
The only additions to be -made are that the movements
were principally faulting (HETZEL'S suggestion), that the
northeastern anticline follows a different line, and that
the reefs are situated on inconspicuous elevations of the
sea bottom, which were later depressed by a general
sinking of the plateau (RUTTEN'S suggestion)."

The soundings by the Snellius Expedition and

KUENEN'S analysis of the results (1933 a) proved
that the formation of these atolls was due to the
subsidence of the sea floor down to depths of
several hundreds of metres, perhaps even one
thousand metres, thus corroborating
DARWlN'S
theory of subsidence as explanation for the format
ion of atolls.
However, the present author does not agree with
KUENEN'S opinion as regards the influence of folding.
As has been pointed out above, the measurements in the
neogene strata partly contradict a NW-SE anticlinal trend
(Wangi Wangi), and they are partly insufficient to establish
such a direction (Kaledupa). HETZEL'S suggestion that
block-faulting is the chief cause for tilting of the strata
seems preferable. Moreover, KUENEN'S suggestion that
blockfaulting in the later stages of the formation of the
Tukang Besi group was the surface effect of folding which
continued in deeper crustal levels, is entirely hypothetical.
It is based upon the conception that such block faulting
movements are the effect of compressive forces in the
competent and rigid sial layer, which is a questionable
point of view.
4, THE

BUTON SYsrEM

Regarding the Tukang Besi group as part of a more

extensive area (fig. 177) it appears to belong to a system
of structural units radiating from the Buton Archipelago
in southeastern, southern, and southwestern direction.
In neogene time the area of the Buton Archipelago and
the Tukang Besi group formed part of a subsiding basin
in which the Tondo and Sampolakosa Beds were deposited.
In the Upper Neogene this basin had its greatest extension.
Terrigenous constituents are of minor importance or
absent in the Sampolakosa Beds. In the West and North
west the Neogene overlapped the Pre-Tertiary of the South
east arm of Celebes. At the end of the Tertiary the central
part of this basin was pushed up, with the Tukang Besi
islands more or less in its centre. This primary tectogenesis
created a field of gravitational stress gradients, causing a
spreading and tensional faulting in the raised area, and
compression in the adjacent Buton Archipelago.
Thereafter, during the Quaternary, the direction of the
vertical movements was reversed. The Buton Archipelago
was elevated, now forming an anticlinorium, convex to
the West, with anticlinal trends changing from NW-SE
in Wowoni and North euton, via N-S in Central Buton
to NNE-SSW or NE-SW in South Buren. Meanwhile the
raised and blockfaulted area to the East, SE, and South
of the Buton Archipelago collapsed. Some crustal blocks
were engulfed to a depth of thousands of metres (over
5000 m East of North Buton, over 4000 m in the Buton
Trough SE of South Buton, over 2000 m South of Ka
baena).
In the intervening crustal blocks and slices the sub
sidence has been less, for instance the platform carrying
Hagedis (Batuata)- and Kabia Islands, the crustal block
with the oblong atolls of Kapotta and Karang Kaledupa
(-1000 m), and the tilted platform with the Kora Maha
atoll.
Some slices show oscillatory movements; the ridge
carrying Wangi Wangi, Kaledupa, Tomea, and Binongko,
shows raised coral reefs up to heights of over 200 m; the
ridge with Runduma Island also has a rising tendency.
In Batuata coral reefs have also been raised to almost
200 m (KUENEN, ]933 a, p. 62).
At the boundery between the Tukang Besi group,
and the Southern Banda Basin two submarine volcanoes
are known, "Emperor of China" and "Nieuwerkerk",

CELEBES
--------------

--

-----

---_-----

_--

425

BANDA

I
\

H'
!

\
\
\

(',

\,0

\"
\
\

.
\
\

r-;
-\
I '\.J "I.
I

\
\

\
\

r\

I
I
I,

~ I

\I

.....

\ ...

\.

\
~'''''
@\

I '.

, ",

i'
i

-26&0
I

'II

'JC.fR \
ISL.
\

II
--

_.

,"

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t""Pla"

..

...

NfOC.ENE

SOUTH
?

/"

,/

QN

eo

OPCH.INA
IIEuwtRIIUII.!IE

BANDA
tOO"

10.0

ANTI(LINt:.~ ----HYPOTfiETIC'AL

,............,. NORMAL FAULTSON LAtiO

!lUBI'IAIIINtVOLCANOES

BASIN

OF STIIUCTUI!AL

BOUNPARIES
UNITS

(PAAllY ~UBMARIN FAULrs)

FIG. 177. Structural sketch 0/ the Buton Archipelago, and the Tukang Besi group wit]: their surroundings.
Geotectonically the Tukang Besi group and the Buton
Archipelago belong to a system of crustal waves which
spread northwestward from a centre of orogenic disturb
ance in the southern Banda Basin. This direction is opposi
te to the shift of the orogenic zones on the southern side
of the Banda centre (the Banda arcs and the Lesser Sunda
Islands, belonging to the S.mda Mountain System).
The Buton Archipelago can be considered as the non
volcanic outer arc of an immigrating system of crustal
waves. The above mentioned submarine volcanoes re
present a marginal volcanic belt between the engulfed
Southern Banda Basin and the partially engulfed Tukang
Besi area. The post-neogene pumice tuffs on the peninsula
of North Buton, North of the Dwaal Bay, indicate that the
rifting and blockfaulting in the Tukang Besi belt has been
accompanied by volcanic explosions of acid magma.
This belt, together with the marginal submarine vol
canoes, can be considered as the (locally volcanic) inner
arc of the orogenic Buton System.
This system immigrated northwestward into the southern
end of the Celebes Orogene. The mean direction of its
outer arc is almost at right angles with the NW-SE direction
of the outer arc of the Celebes Orogene (viz. the Southeast
arm of Celebes), which spread eastward from the Pulu-Laut
centre of orogenic disturbance. The convergence of both
systems is responsible for the abnormal trend and concave
outline of the Buton anticlinorium. Apparently, the Buton
area does not belong to the Celebes Orogene; it forms

part of another orogenic system. The southern end of

the Southeast arm of Celebes (South of the line Kolaka
Kendari) represents the transitional area between both
systems.
The peculiar radial arrangement of the crustal blocks
in the Tukang Besi belt is also the result of the interplay
of forces, due to the convergence of two orogemc systems.
The crescentic shape of this inner arc with a concave front
towards the foreland in the NW, and the presence of the
engulfments of the Northern Banda Basin on the one side
and the Gulf of Bone on the other, have promoted a
stretching of this belt in an axial direction. This process
has caused rifting and blockfaulting of the crust into a
number of slices, the longer axes of which are more or less
perpendicular to the mean axis of this inner arc.
During the downwarp in the Quaternary some of these
slices were pulled down to great depths, forming extensions
of the adjacent engulfments; e.g, the deep between Kabaena
and the platform of Hagedis- or Batuata Island forms a
branch of the Gulf of Bone engulfment; the deep between
the last mentioned platform and the Tukang Besi group
is a branch of the Southern Banda Basin; and, finally,
the deep between Wowoni and the Tukang Besi group is
connected writh the Northern Banda Basin.
. Moreover, it seems that overlapping of the Buton
System upon the Southeast arm of Celebes has not entirely
obliterated the asthenolithic root under this outer arc of
the Celebes Orogene. This mountain root has a NW-SE

426

CELEBES

trend and it extends southeastward under the Tukang

Besi Islands, as is attested by the negative isostatic anom
alies 1). As a result of the interaction between the rising
tendency of this southeastern extremity of the mountain
root and the general subsidence of the inner arc of the
Buton System, the area of intersection (viz. the Tukang
Besi group), on the average, has subsided less than the
outer parts of this belt; two slices, i.e. that of Kaledupa
and that of Runduma, at present even show a tendency
to rise.
According to the above conception, the area between
the line Kolaka-Kendari and the Southern Banda Basin
owes its intricate structural pattern to the overlapping
of two orogenic systems.

to Palopo is generally considered as the morpho

logical boundary between the South arm and Cen
tral Celebes. But the high Quarles Mts (3.107 m)
in the southwestern part of the trunk stand apart
from the Molengraaff Mts of the Palu Zone. They
are separated by a belt in which the pleistocene
Barupu tuffs are found around Limbong and
Karua.
The base of the Tertiary around the Quarles Mts
is formed by coal-bearing paralic Paleogene, also
widely distributed in the South arm, whereas in the
Palu Zone and the Neck of the North arm the
5. THE SOUTH ARM OF CELEBES
Eocene has a marine facies. Moreover, leucite
We will now return to the southern part of the bearing igneous rocks are frequently found South
Celebes Orogene and discuss the geology of the of the line Marnudju-Palopo, whereas these potassic
South arm and neighbouring islands. It appears that rocks are rare in the Palu Zone.
this South arm consists also of two, structurally
Thus it appears that geologically speaking, the
different parts. The northern part, North of Lake southwestern part of Central Celebes, South of the
Tempe, joins on to the Celebes Orogene, whereas line Karama-Palopo, has distinctive features, on
the southern part shows affinities toward the oro account of which we combine it - structurally - with
genic belt of the Sunda Mountain System. The the northern pan of the South arm, extending bet
dividing line between both parts is the NW-SE ween the line Karama-Palopo in the North and the
depression from the mouth of the Sadang River line between the debouchment of the Sadang and
on the West coast via Lake Tempe to the mouth the Tjenrana in the South.
of the Tjenrana River on the East coast.
Stratigraphy of the northern part of the South
The literature on the northern part (ARENDANON,arm. Crystalline schists are the oldest rocks in this
1915Jl918, DE KONINGKNIJFF, 1914, VANWATER area, exposed on the eastern side of the Quarles
SCHOOTVAN DER GRACHT,1915, HOYIG, 1918, Mts (gneisses, mica schists, quartzitic schists) and
REYZER1, 920) has been reviewed by R
in the centre of the Latimodjong Mts (sericite
CTTEN(1927, Chapter XXXVIIIJ. Thereafter, the schists, quartzitic schists, and more basic epidote-,
only impor tant contributions are BROUWER'Sand chlorite-, and amphibole schists).
HETZEL'S observations in the surroundings of
On the East and West flank of the Latimodjong
Kalosi during the Celebes expedition in 1929
Mts ABEND ANONfound phyllites and phyllitic
(BROUWER1, 934, Chapter VI), and
clay shales alternating with metamorphic diabase
UMBGROVEr'Sevision of three corals from the
tuffs. This
series resembles the
Tinombo
Sadang area, described by DOLL FUS.He
Formation of the North arm of Celebes.
considered these corals to be of oligocene age. but
BROUWERand HETZELin 1929 made a trip
the only determinable species, Diploastraea heliopora from
Kalosi to Rante Lemo in the Latimodjong
(LAM.),is known to occur from Miocene
Mts
in
to recent, so that the concerning beds should be Maroro order to establish the relations between this
considered to be of neogene age (UMBGROVE.Formation (called "Koperlei" Or Copper shale
1943 b, p. 14).
Formation by DE KONINGKNIJFF, 1914) and the
eocene
Iimestones on the West foot.
The literature on the southern Dart of the South
arm with Saleyer (Salajar) and' Tanah Djampea
"Near Kalosi the majority of the limestones is of a
(WICHMANN1,890 and 1925, VERBEEK1, 908,
lower tertiary age, but also miocene limestones do occur
VON STEIGER1, 915, IDDINGS& MORLEY1, 915, (Tertiary f, according to the determinations by VAN DER
VLERK & DoZY, 1934). These authors point out that for
'T HOEN
none of the rocks of the Kalosi area a tertiary c, d or lower-e
& ZIEGLER1, 917, BROUWER1,924c), has also
age has been determined, so that for this area an interrupt
been discussed by RUTTEN(1927, Chapter
ion of the sedimentation in the Oligocene is possible, if
not probable. Farther North, West of Palopo (locality 38),
XXXIV). Afterwards, HETZEL(1930 b) published
a dark bluish-gray limestone occurs with Camerina sp.
some data on the islands in the Flores Sea,
and Fasciolites sp, of tertiary a-d age, probably Tertiary
c (VAN DBR VLERK & Dozy 1934, p. 198 and 217).
UMBGROV(1E930 a) on the coral reefs of the
The supposition that the "Volcanic Formation", which
Spermonde Archipelago, and KUENEN(1933 a) on
has a wide distribution in the northern part of the South
coral reefs in the Sper monde Archipelago,
arm, is at least partly aequivalent to the "Maroro"- or
Paternoster Islands, Postiljon
"Koperlei-Formation", is once more strengthened by
the discovery of feldspar crystals originating from andesitic
.Islands and Tiger Islands.
The northern part of the Somb ann of Celebes
This part joins on to the Palu Zone of Central
Celebes. The SW-NE line from the Gulf of Mandar
1)

-31

milligal East of Binongko, according to

eruptions in Tertiary b (locality 43).

The proximity of land and volcanic activity during

VENING MEINESZ'

map (1940 b).