1

Chapter 1
Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile and the condition
that affects their motion. It is a science in itself for it is an orderly arranged
knowledge, which is a product of series of experimentation, observation and
testing. Ballistics is not an exact science rather it is applied physics or applied
science, which is subject to changes and improvement depending upon the
demands of the modern civilization. Ballistics is better to be described as an
applied physics for it study the motions of the projectile such as its velocity,
trajectory, approximate range, power, resistance to air and other circumstances
that will affect its travel. Initially, it was studied not for the purpose of identifying
firearms and ammunition in relation to certain crime rather it was earlier studied
mainly for its manufacture, for industry. Gun makers continuously study and
innovate on how to effectively propel a projectile through the use of firearms from
an ordinary single shot to automatic one. It was only later that its significance in
determining cases through identification of ammunition that Ballistics was finally
applied in the administration of justice especially on cases involving firearms.
Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile from the time it
leaves the shell empty, it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reach its target or fall
in the ground. A projectile is any metallic on non-metallic ball which is propelled
from a firearm. Its motion can be categories into three general types: Direct
motion, Rotatory motion and Translation motion.

3 Types of Motion
1. Direct Motion = is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the
shell by the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning
gunpowder.
2. Rotatory motion = is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled
bore barrel firearm which is either twisted to the left or to the right.
3. Translational = is the action of bullet once it hits a target and
subsequently ricocheted.

Origin of the Word Ballistics

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words. The word ballo
and the word ballein which literally mean, to throw.
The term also said to have been derived from the Roman war machine
called Ballista, a gigantic catapult that was used to furl missiles or large object
at a distance like stone, dead animal or even dead person.

Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date :_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #1

1. Describe briefly the three type of motion in projectile? ( 5 % each ).

2. Is Ballistics an Exact Science ? (Yes/No). Support your answer ( 5 % ).

3. Briefly discuss the origin of the word Ballistics? (5 % )

Chapter 2
Branches of Ballistics
The study of Ballistics in the early age is divided into (3) three Divisions:
Internal Ballistics, Exterior or External Ballistics and Terminal Ballistics. From the
time the gun was fired until it reach the target and have its maximum effect. At
present ballistics is branches into four (4) and this is due to its subsequent used
in solving problems in connection with the administration of justice particularly
cases involving firearms and ammunition which is termed as Forensic
Ballistics.

Branches of Ballistics
1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics = it treats of the motion of the projectile
while it is still inside the firearm (chamber /barrel) which extends from the breech
to the muzzle. The conditions attributed to internal ballistics are as follows:
a. Firing pin hitting the primer
Upon the squeeze of the trigger, the hammer will be released which,
causes the firing pin to be pushed and hit the base portion of the cartridge
where the primer is located.
b. Ignition of the priming mixture
The priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulfur and carbon)
located either at the cavity rim or at the center of the primer upon the
striking effect of the firing pin will ignites and such action is known as
Percussion action.

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c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant.
After the ignition of the priming mixture the ignition will be imparted to
the gunpowder by passing through the vent or flash hole thus burning the
gun powder and converts it into an expanded hot gas.
d. Expansion of heated gas.
Powder charge once burned will be converted into a heated gas,
which has a more elastic property for its particles are far apart, this will
then fill the entire container (shell).
e. Pressure developed
Outward push of the gasses to the burned powder pressure is
developed due to the great amount of gas that is expanding within the
shell causing the withdrawal of the bullet from the shell.
f. Energy generated
Is the measure of force in foot-pound necessary for an action.
g. Recoil of the gun
Is the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward
movement of the bullet upon explosion. The backward or rearward
movement of the gun in relation to the forward movement of the bullet may
be divided into two division: The first, which occurs while the bullet is still
inside the barrel and which is relatively small in intensity and the second,
which occurs just after the bullet leaves the muzzle of the gun and this is a
much violent backward impulse when the hot gases rush up-out of the
muzzle and set against the gun. Another reason and which of greatest

6
influence in the recoil of the gun is has something to do with the firing
mechanism of the gun such as the gas operated, recoil operated and the
blowback type. Among the three (3) it is the blow back type that has the
lesser recoil and this can be observed in pistol.
Jump is another portion of the recoil action characterized as the
backward and upward movement of that takes place before the bullet
leaves the muzzle.
h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel
It is the relative speed of the bullet per unit of time while it is still
inside the barrel expressed in feet per second.
i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel
It refers to the twist of the bullet caused by the cylindrical grooved
portion of the barrel of most firearms.
j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
Once the bullet passed though the barrel of any firearm whether
rifled or not will leave its mark to the cylindrical surface of the bullet
serving as its thumbprints.
2. Exterior (external) Ballistics = treats of the attributes or movement of
the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle.
a. Muzzle Blast
Is the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the
sudden escape of the expanding gas and its contact with the air?

7
b. Muzzle energy
Energy generated at the muzzle point measured in foot-pound.
c. Trajectory
Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it
leaves the muzzle until it hits the target. It is also described as the actual
curve path taken by a bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the
target. It has three stages: the straight travel, the curving of the bullet and
its drop to the ground due to its weight.
d. Range
Refers to the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the
gun and the target.
d.1. Accurate Range= the distance within which the shooter
or gunner has control of his shots.
d.2. Effective Range = the distance within which when the
bullet was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.
d.3. Maximum Range= the distance that a projectile can be
propelled from a firearm. The farthest distance the bullet could
travel.
e. Velocity
Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of
time usually express is feet per second (ft/sec.)

8
f. Pull of Gravity
It is the downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface
due to its weight.
g. Air Resistance
Refers to the force of the air encounter by the bullet in its flight.
3. Terminal Ballistics= is that branch of Ballistics which deals with the effects
of the impact of the projectile on the target.
a. Terminal Accuracy
It refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
b. Terminal Energy
Is the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target
same as striking energy.
c. Terminal Velocity
Is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
d. Terminal Penetration
Is the depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Forensic Ballistics
This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the ballistics to
law. The idea comes with the used of the word forensic. The word Forensic was
derived from the Latin word forum meaning a market place where people
gathered for public disputation or public discussion. When used in connection
with the word ballistics or other natural science, it suggests a relationship to the
courts of justice or legal proceedings.

9
Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the motion of the projectile
as applied to law or simply the science of firearm identification by means of the
ammunition fired through them.

Scope of Forensic Ballistics

1. Field Investigation
This is the work of the first officer on the case on the field. It is
primarily a routine job of an investigating officer. Such work includes
recognition, collection, markings, prevention, packing and transmittal of
ballistics exhibits. In the present practice in cases of highly sensational
case or big cases are involved the investigator on case may seek the
assistance of the Scene of the Crime Operation (SOCO). But everything
that will be undertaken by the SOCO shall properly be coordinated to the
investigator on case.
2. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits
This is the job being performed by a firearm identification examiner
in the laboratory. It is extended to markings of evidences, test-firing (to
obtain test bullets and test shells for comparison), photomicrography
under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of the comparative
chart, and final reports on the findings and observations of the firearms
examiners.

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3. Legal Proceeding
It is the most critical part in the field of firearm identification for
herein the examiner will go to court and testify as an expert witness
regarding the ballistics report he had prepared as well as the ballistics
exhibits which he has examined in the laboratory.

11
Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date :_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #2

1. Enumerate and discuss briefly the four branches of ballistics ( 20 pts.)
2. Describe the Scope of Forensic Ballistics Work. (15 pts)
3. Distinguished a Ballistician and that of Firearms Identification Expert.
(15pts)

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Chapter 3
The Evolution of Firearms
MAN BEHIND FIREARMS
1. John M. Browning - Wizard of the modern firearms and pioneered the
breech loading single shot rifled which was adopted by Winchester.
2. Samuel Colt - Patented the first practical revolver and maker of the Colt
Peace Maker, a famous revolver in the history.
3. Alexander John Forsyth - Father of the percussion powder.
4. Henry Deringer - Gave him name to a whole class of Rifles and pistols.
5. Major Uziel Gal - An Israeli army who designed UZI (Israel) in the year
1950.
6. Col. Calvin H. Goddard - Father of modern Ballistics.
7. John C. Garand - Designed and invented the Semi automatic U.S. Rifle
Cal. 30. M1 garand.
8. George Hyde - A well-known expert in the field of SMG, (also known as
grease gun) developed in 1941. M3A1 (USA).
9. Gordon Ingrams - Invented the Ingrams (USA)
10. Michael Kalashnikov - Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47
(Soviet Union) adopted by the Russian Army in the year 1951.
11. George Luger - Designed the Luger MPO8 (Germany)
12. John Wolfe Marlin - Founder of Marlin Firearms company.
13. Peter Paul Mauser - Invented and designed Mauser M1912 (Germany).

13
14. James Wolfe Rifley - Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 riflemusket.
15. Eliphalet Remington - One of the early rifle maker.
16. Elisha King Root - Designed the machinery for making Colt firearms.
17. Horace Smith - Founded the great firm of Smith and Wesson and
pioneered in making breech loading rifles.
18. Eugene Stoner - Designed the U.S. M16 Armalite under licensed by Colt
Company from July 1959 onwards.
19. L.C. Smith - Developed shotgun bearing his name now the Ithaca gun
Company.
20. John T. Thompson - Developed in the course of WW1 the Thompson
M1A1 and model of 1928 A1 (USA). Pioneered the making of Thompson
sub-machine gun.
21. Daniel B. Wesson - Associates of Horace Smith in the making of
Revolver.
22. David Carbine Williams - Maker of the first known Carbine.
23. Carl Walter - Designed Walther MP38.
24. Oliver Winchester - One of the earliest rifle and pistol maker.

IMPORTANT DATES IN THE EVOLUTION OF FIREARMS

1242 A.D.

Roger Bacon published the De Mirabili Potestate Artis et

Naturae (On the Marvelous Power of Arts and Nature), which
noted Black powder formula.

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1200

Roman Candle. A hallow tube, strengthened with wire or shrunken

rawhide, and loaded with alternate charges of powder and balls of
tallow wrapped in cloth. It is ignited at the muzzle. Chinese
reference used of Roman Candle is said to be at the mid of 1200s.

1326 AD

The oldest authenticated illustration of gun powder used to hurl

projectile in cannons was demonstrated in Walter de Millimetes
manuscript. In the same period the metrical life of Robert the
Bruce by John Barbour also indicates the used of cannon by
Edward III at Crecy. Although not completely authenticated.

1343 AD

Cannon locks were used in military as depicted in the Italian

Frescoes by Neri.

1390

Codex Germanicus 600 - Translates directions for Preparation of

Gun Powder How to load the gun and discharge them.

1450

The evolution of the Match Lock ignition.

1450-1500

Serpentine Lock was used to modified the Conventional match

lock, using an S- shaped instead of C- shaped piece with the
bottom portion serve as the trigger.

1469

A drawing from an English manuscript shows a ribauldegium, a

multi charged cannon lock weapon.

1498

Introduction of the rifling and sights became better and breech

loaders were attempted although never succeeded yet even multi
shots arms due to lack of good ignition system.

15
1500s

The development of the Wheel Lock, operates in the same

principle as the modern day cigarette lighter. At mid of 1500s
snaphaunce was developed.

1575

Paper Cartridge was developed. Ball and powder charged were

wrapped in chemically treated paper to allow the carrying of
numerous pre-measured charges or pre loaded rounds.

1750

The development of Breech-loading firearms leading to the

making of FERGUSON Rifle of Major Patrick Ferguson,
COLLIER Rifle, which is a flint lock repeating rifle operated on a
revolving principle and, the HALL Rifle patented in 1811 by Col.
John Hall and was the 1st breechloader adopted by the U.S. Army.

1805

The Percussion System. Alexander John Forsyth discovered a

compound that would ignite upon blow that would ignite the powder
charge. In 1840, it replaces the flintlock ignition and was adopted in
1838 by the British and in 1842 by the American.

1835

The first real cartridge was developed The Flobert Cap same
as the BB and was considered the forerunner of .22 short cartridge.

1835

Samuel Colt patented the first revolver and marketed in 1872, a

breech loading revolver.

1836

Pin fire Cartridge, was developed by Le Faucheux. A much real

pin fire cartridge was also developed in the same year by Houiller.

1845

Rim fire cartridge, Flobert developed the BB (bullet breech) cap,

which was considered the forerunner of the .22 cal cartridge. In

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the same year, New Havens Arms Company owned by Oliver F.
Winchester, through the effort of Tyler Henry developed a .44 cal
rim fire cartridge for Henry Rifle.
1846

Smokeless powder was discovered. It was used in shotgun first in

the year 1864 by Capt. Eschultze of Prussian Army and in Rifle by
the year 1884 by M. Vieille of France.

1857

The first patent grant on a center fire cartridge was issued in

France. Later developed the Snider conversation. The Morse
cartridge was also developed.

1873

Colt Peace Maker, model 1873, .45 cal. The most famous revolver
in history and legend was manufactured.

1884

Automatic Machine Gun. Hiram Maxim developed the first fully

automatic gun.

1937

M1 Garand was adopted by the American.

1960

Bill Ruger produced his Ruger Single Shot, which was followed
by Clerkes design and Christian Sharps dropping block system,
one of the earliest and most successful of the breech loading
designs. The Christian Sharps design is where the term
sharpshooters was derived.

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Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date :_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #3

I.

Give a short description on the contribution made by the

following personalities.
1. Horace Smith
2. Samuel Colt
3. Alexander John Forsyth
4. Col. Calvin H. Goddard
5. John F. Garand
6. John T. Thompson
7. David C. William
8. Eugene Stoner
9. George Hyde
10. Michael Kalashinov

II.

Match Column A with Column B. Write the letter of your chosen answer
before each item in Column A.
A
_______1. 1835
_______2. 1575
_______3. 1498
_______4. 1836
_______5. 1242
_______6. 1500s
_______7. 1450
_______8. 1845
_______9. 1857
_______10. 1846

B
a. Rifling
b. The first Real Cartridge
c. Wheel Lock
d. Paper Cartridge
e. Match Lock
f. Pin Fire
g. Smokeless Powder
h. Roger Bacons Black Powder
i. Rim Fire
j. Center Fire

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Chapter 4
Firearms
Legal Definition of Firearm
Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotgun, pistol, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball,
shot, shell, or other missiles maybe discharge by means of gun powder or other
explosives. This term also includes air rifle, except such of being of small caliber
and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes hereof. (Sec 877 Revised Administrative Code/
Sec. 290 national Internal Revenue Code).

Technical Definition
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by means of
the expansive force gases coming from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of
Firearms Identification).

Classification of Firearms
A. Two General Classification of Firearms
(According to Interior Barrel Construction)
1.Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves)
inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Shotguns and Musket
2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and other modern weapons.

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Fig. 1 The interior of Rifled Gun: (A) Land, (B) Groove (C)
Caliber

B. Main Types of Firearms

(According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)
1. Artillery = Refers to those type of firearms that propels projectile with more
than one inch diameter.
Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:
2. Small Arms = Are firearms that propels projectile with less than one inch
diameter and it can be handled, moved and operated by one man.
Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.
2.1 Machine guns
Machine gun is a type of
firearm that is primarily designed
for

military

use.

Even

in

investigation of shooting cases

done in the city, it is not usual or
common to encounter this type of
firearm having been used. It can be grouped in three general types:

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a. Recoil-operated = a type of machine gun devised with a
recoil spring that is responsible for forcing the breech block to move
forward causing another cartridge to be loaded only after the breech block
moves rearward and empty shell is extracted upon firing.
b. Gas-operated = is a type of machine gun equipped with
gas part at the anterior portion of the barrel. When a cartridge is fired and
the bullet reach the gas part some high-pressure gas will move to the gas
cylinder causing the piston to move to the rear moving or pulling the
breech block to the rear. At this time, the pressure in the chamber has
dropped to safe limits and the position by the action of the spring around
the piston.
c. Combined recoil and gas-operated action = in this type
of machine gun the gas operation merely serve to unlock the breech block
by the pressure moving to the gas port, passing through the gas cylinder
and causing the piston to move to the rear, moving the cam to raise the
lock through a stud. Once this is completed, recoil action caused the
beech block to move rearward and completed the opening cycle. The
spring will return the various parts to their closed position and cycle will be
repeated for the next shot.
The author did not make a very detailed discussion of this type of
firearm due to its uncommon used in ballistics investigation and the
students may find it of less potential value.

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Sub Machine Gun
Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol size
ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or may not be folded and
designed to be fired with both hands. Basically, there are two types of this
firearm

according

to

mechanism. One is having a

bolt operated by a trigger sear
causing the cartridge to be fired
in open bolt and the other is
fired with a closed bolt position.
2.2 Shoulder Arms
Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were normally fired
from the shoulder.

Rifles= A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy

through a long rifled bore barrel, usually more than 22 inches. Just like any other
type of gun, rifles appear in various forms. First, is the Single Shot rifle, this is
the simplest and yet of many types. Some with breechblock opened by means of
a lever, chamber feed type, breechblock opened and closed by hand etc.
Second, is the Repeating Rifles, a type of rifle loaded with several cartridges at
one time and carries the cartridge into the chamber when it is ready to be fired,
rather than for the shooter to do it by

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hand. This can be further divided into: Bolt action type, Lever type, Slide action
type and Automatic type.

Types of Repeating Rifles

1. Bolt action type
Bolt-action type may appear as either turning bolt or a straight-pull
bolt type. The turning bolt type is manipulated by turning the bolt handle
1st upward making the bolt in an unlocked position before pulling the
handle to open the chamber causing the cartridge to be exposed and be
ready for another loading and closing before firing. The straight pull action
type as its name implies, the bolt is directly pulled to the rear without being
turned. The chamber will open; loading will follow and then closed again
before firing. The Swiss army rifle called Schmidt-Rubin is a good example
of this type.
2. Lever type
The name was derived from its manipulation system. It is operated
by down ward-forward movement 1st of the lever by hand, causing the
opening, cocking and placing of the cartridge in its position for loading.
After which the lever is pull back to closed position moving the cartridge to
the chamber and putting the breechblock in place, ready for firing. An
example of this is the Winchester model 91.
3. Slide Action type
In this type of rifle, a box type magazine is being attached and
removed every time that loading and unloading is desired. The operation

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is imply done by pulling the slide backward to open the breech and
forward to move the cartridge from the magazine to the chamber at the
same time cocks the hammer and locks the breechblock. A good sample
of this is the Remington model 760.
Another type of a rifle is called Automatic type. It is a type of a rifle
in which firing can be made continuously by a single press of the trigger
and while the trigger is pressed. Firing will only be stop either by the action
of the gunner or when cartridges are all used.

Carbine = A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle, measuring not longer than 22
inches. It fires a single projectile though a
rifle-bore

either

semi-automatic

or

fully

automatic, for every press of the trigger.

Muskets = is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms

designed to fire a shots or a single round lead ball. A more detailed discussion of
musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion of ignition system.

Shotgun = A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder arms designed to fire
a number of lead pellets or a shots in one charge (FBA Manual)
A shotgun operates almost exactly in the
same way as another rifle. It only differs in some
extent such as the interior barrel construction.
Generally all shotguns are equipped with a
smooth bore barrel designed to fire a number of

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lead pellets in a single charge. This type of firearm also appears in various
mechanism types. They are as follows:

1. Single Barreled Shotgun

Similar to a single shot rifle, It is loaded with a single shotgun
cartridge, closed, and fired to be reloaded manually by the shooter. This is
common in a break type, breech-loading shotgun.
2. Double Barreled Shotgun
Appears in different variation defending on the barrel position.
There are double barreled shotgun positioned
side by side, one over the other (over/under
shotgun), with individual trigger pull or with
single trigger pull causing two hammer and
firing pin to fire at same time.
3. Pump Action Shotgun
Also known by the name slide action type. In this type of a
shotgun the hammer is completely built inside the receiver, which makes it
unexposed thus, making at known also as hammerless shotgun.
Operation is done by back and forth manipulation of the slide by the
shooter.
4. Auto-loading Shotgun

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This type of a shotgun has a mechanism similar to auto-loading or
self loading rifles that permits reloading by the action of the recoil without
the shooter taking added effort.
The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in different
bore construction. There are so called cylinder bore type in which the
bore size is the same through out the barrel and the other designed with a
diminishing or reducing bore diameter type towards the muzzle. This type
is designed to cause an effect to the travel of the shots. It makes the shots
travel longer before it spreads. This type of shotgun is otherwise known as
choke bored gun. Still in a very rear occasions another type of shotgun
can be observed to be having rifling only a few inch from its muzzle points.
Such type is known as the paradox gun.
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed or intended to
be fired using one hand.
Ex. Pistols and Revolvers (See Fig. 4 and 5)
a. Pistol
In early firearm history, all handguns are
generally called as pistols. There were three
classes of pistols in the period. The single shot

.45 cal. Pistol

pistol, the semi automatic and the revolving pistols now known as the
revolver. The single shot pistol is operated by depressing the lever causing
the barrel to be unlatched and tipped upward. In this position the cartridge is

26
inserted to the chamber and locked. The hammer is pulled rearward to
cocked and ready to fire.
The semi automatic pistol is the type of pistol most common in
existence. This is loaded through the magazine, a slide action is taken to
the first load cartridge to the chamber, upon firing the empty shell will be
extracted and ejected from the firearm at the same time another cartridge
is automatically loaded to the chamber without the gunner exerting
additional effort. Thus firing can be made successively for every press of
the trigger without again and again reloading.
b. Revolver
Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position cartridge into
position for firing with the aid of a
rotating cylinder serving as its
chamber. There are two types of
.357 Revolver

revolvers

according

to

its

mechanical firing action. They are

the single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual cocking of the
hammer before squeezing the trigger and the other is Double action, a
type of revolver that does not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger
and it both cocked and released the hammer causing a much faster firing.
Another classification of revolver is according to its construction for
loading and unloading. They are the Ejection Rod types, considered as
the oldest of this classification. It is loaded by an opened hinged gate at

27
the left side of the gun exposing the chamber and cartridge are loaded
one a time while rotating the cylinder. After firing, a rod at the bottom or
under the barrel is push to the rare to the chamber as the cylinder is again
revolved by hand. Another type of this ejection rod is one that has pin
through the center of the cylinder that is responsible for the complete
removal of the cylinder for loading and unloading. The second type is the
Break Open type, having a barrel and cylinder hinged with a latch holding
the barrel in place when in a firing position. Loading is done by swing
down of the barrel and cartridges are inserted to the cylinder and the
barrel is returned to its position for firing. The same thing is observed in
unloading the gun. The third type is the Solid Frame Revolver, Cylinder
Swings out with an ejector just as the break open in removing the
cartridge case, although the operation is by pushing the extension rod to
the rear to unlock and swing out the cylinder.

C. Types of Firearms
(According of Mechanical Construction)
1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to fire only one shot
every loading.
Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire several loads (shot)
in one loading.
Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and shotguns.

28
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a continuous firing in a
single press of the trigger and while the trigger is press.
Examples: Machine guns and rifles
4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading take place by back
and forth manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun.
Examples: Shotgun and pistols
5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which reloading takes place by
manipulating the both back and forth.
Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.
6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever action on the
firearms.
Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

29
Advantages and Disadvantages of Pistols and Revolvers
REVOLVER
PISTOL
Advantages
1. It is an old standard weapon
that its operation is common
and almost everyone knows
how to handle it.
2. Safer for in experienced users
to handle and carry than an
automatic pistol.
3. Its Mechanism allows the
trigger pull to be better than an
average automatic pistol.
4. A misfire does not put a
revolver out of action.
5. It will handle satisfactorily old
and
new
or
partially
deteriorated
ammunition,
which gives a reduced velocity
that, would jam an average
automatic pistol.
Disadvantages
1. It is more bulky to carry than
an automatic pistol.
2. Its grip or handle is generally
not a s good as that of pistol.
3. It is slower to load.
4. It is harder to replace worn out
or broken part --- it is a factory
job.
5. It is hard to clean.
6. Worn out or poorly made
weapon is subject to variable
accuracy due to improper
lining of cylinder.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Advantages
It has a better grip the hand points naturally.
It is more compact for the same firing power
It is easier to load than a revolver.
In case of worn out or corroded barrel, a new
can be put in at a little expense without sending
the gun to the factory.
It gives greater number of shots than a
revolver.
It is easier to clean than a revolver.
It gives greater firing power and greater case of
firing.
There is no gas leakage in its operation.

Disadvantages
1. Ammunition must be perfect otherwise, a jam
might be experience.
2. A misfire stops the functioning of the gun.
3. When kept loaded for long time, the magazine
spring is under tension and may deteriorate
and cause problems.
4. It cannot use blank or reduced loads.
5. It has poorer trigger pull.
6. The magazine requires a jacketed bullet, which
is not as good for practical use.
7. More dangerous to handle and fire.
8. It is not adopted to reloading.
9. Its mechanism ejects empty shell towards the
face of the shooter causing flinching.
10. It throws out empty shells on the ground to
remain as evidence.
11. It cannot be fired from the pocket without
jamming.

Fig. 4 Revolver and Pistol

30

NOMENCLATURE OF FIREARMS AND ITS FUNCTIONS

1. Barrel initiates the part of the bullet.
2. Bolt disengages center pin from allow opening of cylinder and blocks
hammer.
3. Center Pin serves as locking device for the cylinder.
4. Center Pin Spring holds the center pin in a locked position.
5. Cylinder serves as chamber and magazine (for revolver).
6. Cylinder Notch helps hold cylinder in the place and aligned for ready
firing.
7. Cylinder Stop stop and holds the cylinder in alignment for firing.
8. Double Action Sear built into weapon to allow double action firing.
9. Extractor pulls the empty shells to the cylinder simultaneously.
10. Frame houses the internal parts.
11. Hand (pawl) rotates the cylinder when the hammer is locked.
12. Hammer strikes the blow that initiated or ignites primer.
13. Hammer Block safety device that prevents hammer blows from the
primer.
14. Main Spring provides energy to the hammer to activate firing
mechanism.
15. Ratchet helps the withdrawal of the cartridge or shells to the chambers
of the cylinder.

31
16. Rebound Slide returns trigger, activates hammer block, and locked
hammer.
17. Side Plate provides access from the internal parts.
18. Side Plate Screws holds the side plate and yoke in place.
19. Strain Screws controls tension on the mainspring.
20. Thumb Latch actuates the bolt from release the cylinder.
21. Trigger activates the part necessary to fire the weapon.
22. Trigger Guard guard the trigger to unnecessary action to avoid
accidental firing.
23. Trigger Spring provides energy for return movement or rebound slide.
24. Trigger Level contacts rebound slide to return trigger forward.
25. Trigger Stop prevents excessive rearward movement after hammer
release.
26. Yoke pivot connection between the frame and cylinder.

Miscellaneous Types of Gun

1. Cane gun, knife pistols, cellphone gun, etc. = devices principally
designed for other purpose to which a gun mechanism is incorporated also
called as Freakish gun.
2. Flare gun = designed for tracing or sending signals or locating enemy
troops.
3. Gas gun = generally referring to all gun designed from firing tear gas.
4. Harpoon guns = refers to a barbed spear in hunting large fish.

32
6. Liberator = U.S. government made smooth bore gun used in Europe
during war designed to fire an automatic colt pistol cartridge caliber .45.
6. Multi Barreled gun = refers to all types of gun containing a number of
barrels.
7. Paradox gun = a type of gun which contains lands and grooves a few inch
from the muzzle point.
8. Tools = are those devices which resembles a gun designed but are
generally used for construction of furniture.
9. Traps = refers to gun used for trapping animals that are fired to woods.

33
Pistol
Front sight

Rear Sight

Main spring
Barrel
Rod
Frame
Firing Pin

Magazine
Trigger
Guard
Grip
Trigger

Revolver
Rear Sight
Front Sight
Barrel

Trigger

Frame

Cylinder

Trigger
Guard
Trigger

Grip

Fig. 5. Parts of a Pistol and a Revolver

34

Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date :_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #4

Direction : Use another sheet if necessary.
a. Differentiate the following Firearms:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Machine Gun from a Sub-Machine Gun

Rifle from that of Carbine
Musket from a Shotgun
Pistol from that of a Revolver

b. Enumerate and explain briefly the miscellaneous guns.

Essay

1. Explain in not less than 25 words the statement ---- A Firearm is not a Gun.

35

Chapter 5
Ammunition
Legal Definition
Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun,
revolvers and pistols from which a ball, shot shell or other missiles maybe fired
by means of gun powder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition
for air rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC
as well as Sec 877 RAC)

Technical Definition
Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single cartridge.
Cartridge is a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap),
cartridge case (shell) and gunpowder (propellant).

Origin
The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word Charta meaning
a paper and also from the French word Cartouche meaning a rolled
paper. This only indicates that the first type of cartridge was made up of a rolled
paper. It was about the turn of the 16 th century that the term cartridge comes to
use.

A. General types of Ammunition (Fig. 6)

a. Dummy a type of ammunition. It is very carefully made replica of a
cartridge, usually of tool steel and carefully dimensioned to be used by
weapons instructor, inspector and repairman when checking the functioning of
weapons.

36
b. Drill Ammunition this type of ammunition is completely inert, without an
explosive and is use in mill training to practice loading and manipulation of the
gun. Sometimes called dummy although in the strict sense there is a
difference.
c. Black Ammunition a cartridge without a bullet, containing gunpowder
that is designed to generate a loud noise to indicate firing. This cartridge is
used for theatrical performances or filmmaking, training dogs and military
training.
d. Live Ammunition is the term applied for complete unit of unfired
cartridge.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 6 (a) Dummy, (b) Blank, and (c) Live

B. Classification of Cartridge (Fig. 7)
I. According to the Location of the Primer
a. Pin-Fire = is a type of cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is
concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it. The pin
protrudes radially through the side and the gun chamber has a notch for the
pin to stand when loaded and it will be struck by a falling hammer. This type

37
of cartridge is said to have been used in France in the year 1830s in shotgun
ammunition and later revolver and pistol ammunition. At present, this is no
longer use.
b. Rim fire = is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is
located at the hallow rim of the case can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the
firing pin on the rim of the case (cavity rim). It maybe identified easily by the
smooth base of the cartridge case and which may or may not have a head
stump in imprinted on it (1860-1880). At present, this type of cartridge is
entirely confined to the col. . .22 short, long or magnum.
c. Center fire = t refers to a cartridge in which primer cup (ignition cap)
is centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture is
exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil. The
flame produce by the thought the vent or flash hole and which ignites and
combust the gunpowder.
Head stamp are frequently used consisting of the design or letter
imprinting on the shell head. It sometimes contains the manufacturer or
marker, the two digit numbers.

Fig. 7(a) Pin-fire, (b) Rim-Fire, and (c) Center Fire

38

II. According to Rim Diameter (See Fig. 8)

a. Rimmed Case type = a type of cartridge in which the case has a
well defined upstanding rim around the base or simply a cartridge with rim
diameter greater than the body diameter of the shell. A common example of
this is cal.22 and.38 cal. Used in revolver.
b. Semi-Rimmed type = a cartridge with a case slightly rimmed. At
first look, the cartridge is a rimless form but with a closer look the rim

is

slightly greater than the body diameter of the case. This was invented by
John M. Browning for an automatic pistol in 1903 for greater fit to the
chamber. Commonly seen in 6.35 mm, 7.65mm and 9 mm. and Browning
lone automatic pistol cartridges.
c. Rimless type = a type of cartridge with a case having a rim
diameter equal to diameter of the body, with an extraction groove cut around
the base. The advantage of its use is it allows the cartridge to slide magazine.
This is commonly used in 9mm and cal.45 pistols.
d. Rebated type = refers to the cartridge with rimless pattern, but
which has a rim diameter smaller than the body of the case. It is seen in some
Oerlikon 20mm cannon cartridge and later on some custom built sporting
rifles of unusual calibers.
e. Belted type = a cartridge with a prominent raise belt around its body
just in front of the extraction groove. This is used for two basic purposes: (1)
to position the case and the projectile accurately in the chamber and (2) to
strengthen the rear of the case for use with high-powered propelling chargers.

39

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 8 (a) Rimmed, (b) Rimless, and (c) Belted

III. According Caliber

Caliber designation ad their interpretation is one of the difficult factors
to explain to a layman for its inconsistence and varieties.
In English speaking countries, the caliber of the gun or cartridge use in
expressed in one-hundredth (. 01) or one thousands (. 001) of an inch.
Thus, we have cal. .22 inches, .25 cal, .38 cal., .45 cal., etc.
In countries using the metric system of the measurements, the caliber
is expressed in millimeters, thus we have 6.35mm, 7.62mm, 9mm, 11mm etc.
In cartridges, caliber is generally referred to the base diameter of the bullet.
This is measured with the use of a caliper.
Calibers in cartridges in inches and their approximate equivalent in mm
and use:
Inches

MM.

Cal. .22

about 5.59 mm- used in revolver, pistol and rifles

Cal. .25

about 6.35 mm- used in pistols and rifles.

Cal. .30

about 7.63 mm- (mauser) for carbines and other rifles

Cal. .30

about 7.63 mm (luger)

Cal. .32

about 7.65 mm for automatic pistols and revolvers

40
Cal. .380

about 9 mm- used for pistols

Cal. .357

used in magnum .357 revolvers

Cal. .45

about 11 mm used in automatic pistols

Cal. .50

used in .50 cal. Machine gun

(a)
(b)
Fig. 9 Cartridges and Their Parts

41

42

Fig. 10 Cartridge Its Composition and Parts

43

Shotgun Cartridge
It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets,
primer, case, wads and gunpowder (Fig.9b and 11).

Gauge of Shotgun
Compared with other types of firearms, shotgun has very unique
characteristics in terms of its diameter designation both for its firearm and
cartridge use. The unit of measurement used in shotgun is expressed in Gauge.
This is determined by the number of solid lead balls of pure lead, each with
diameter of the barrel that can be prepared from one pound of lead. If for
instance we have a 12 balls that can be made out of one pound of lead and each
ball exactly fitted to the inside of the barrel of a shotgun, the gun is called a 12gauge or 12 bore shotgun. Each lead ball for a 12-gauge should therefore weigh
1/12 of a pound. Such is applied in almost all type of shotgun in which the
diameter is express in a thousandth of an inch. At present the 10-gauge shotgun
is considered with the biggest diameter while the .410 as the smallest one. Listed
below are the equivalents of diameter in gauge to inch.
Gauge

Inch

10

.775 inch

12

.729 inch

16

.670 inch

20

.615 inch

28

.550 inch

.410

.410 inch

44

Types of Shots
1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure lead, to which a
small amount of arsenic has been added to make it take on the form of a
spherical drop as it falls down the shot tower. This type is easy to deformed or
flattened, loose their velocity quicker, low penetrating power and string out
more.
2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small amount of
antimony mixed with lead to increase hardness. It does no deform easily,
better patterns, less string and more uniform velocity and penetration.
3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as lubaloy shot. A chilled shot
coated with thin copper through electroplating design for greater strength and
elasticity, great resistance to deformation and leading and better pattern.
Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun
Closing Wad

Paper Tube

10 gauge = .775 inch

20 gauge = .615 inch

12 gauge = .729 inch

28 gauge = .550 inch

16 gauge = .670 inch

419 bore = .410 inch

Shot

Filler
Wads
Over Powder
Wads
Metal Base
Propellant
Powder
Battery Cup
Primer
Cup

Anvil
Priming mixture

CROSS SECTION OF SHOTGUN CARTIDGE

COMMON SHOTGUN GAUGES

Fig. 11 Shotgun Cartridge: Its parts and Common Gauges

45
Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #5

I.

II.

Differentiate Cartridge from an Ammunition.

Enumerate and illustrate the following.

1-3 Cartridge according to location of the primer.

4-8 cartridge According to their rim and body diameter.

9-12 Parts of the Cartridge.

13-15 Types of Shots.

46

Chapter 6
Bullets
The word Bullet was derived from French word Boullette which
means a small ball. This term is generally used when we are referring to
projectile fired from any small arms, which has a variety of form, especially during
the earlier history. In a more technical sense, bullet refers to a metallic or nonmetallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm it is sometimes called as shots
or slugs.
Bullets have various types depending upon their specific nature and
purpose. In general bullet can be classified as either Lead or Jacketed.

General Types of Bullets

1. Lead Type is a type of a bullet that is basically
composed of lead metal. Its used was due to its
density; having a good weight is a small size and
easy for casting. At present it is being mixed with a small
amount percentage of antimony or zinc in order to add
harness and prevent lead fouling. In some cases lead metal
are used as core for jacketed type of a bullet. Commonly
used in revolvers and in modern construction having its rear
section jacketed, leaving the lead core exposed.
2. Jacketed Type Is a type of bullet consisting
of the regular lead core, coated with a copper
alloy in order to prevent lead

47
fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and other high
power guns.

According to their Maximum Effect to their targets ( See Fig. 12)

1. Ball Type Is a type of bullet, which is intended for anti-personnel and
general use.
2. Armor piercing is a type of military bullet
designed to penetrate light steel armor. Its
mechanical construction makes it capable of
penetrating through some light vehicles. It is
formed by a hard steel core covered with a jacket
thus, giving its core the optimum power of
piercing while its shape has the optimum shape
for accurate flight. It was first patented in about
1903 by Roth of Vienna, although, it was largely introduced for snipers
countering the small armor shields in the year 1914-1918.
3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge of explosive,
which will detonate on impact.
4. Incendiary Bullet Type of military bullet used to cause fire in a target,
generally designed to use by aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to
ignite. It is constructed by having the front of the bullet be filled with white
phosphorous, a chemical capable of spontaneous ignition when comes into
contact with air.

48
4. Tracer Bullet a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or
traces while in flight giving the gunner the chance to observe the strike of
the shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss. It resembles a ball
type, although the rare portion of the core removed and the space filled
with mixture of magnesium powder, barium nitrate and metallic salts to
give the desired color of the flame or smoke.

Fig. 12. Armor-Piercing, Ball, Incendiary, and Tracer type

49

Miscellaneous Type of Bullets

1. Baton Round- is the proper name used
when referring to a rubber bullet. This type of
bullet was first developed for the Hong Kong
Police and was of wood, due to its ability to split
on impact with the ground thus, possible of inflicting wounds it was later
replaced by a rubber. This is generally a plain cylindrical rubber or plastic
used in 12-bore, 26mm or 37mm riot gun and fired by a low powered charge.
2. Compound Bullet- a type of a bullet having its core of dense metal
covered with jacket of lighter metal which does not bring
lead into contact with the rifling of the weapon and which
was designed by Major Rubin of the Swiss Army in the
year 1880s.
3. Discarding Sabot is a special
type of bullet in which a solid ball is place
in a case which separates when the
bullet was fired giving an extra velocity to
the bullet. A bullet of this type was manufactured by Remington and it was
given the name--- Accelerator Bullet.

50

4. Dum-Dum Bullet- is a type of bullet designed in India in the year 1890s

by Captain Bertie Clay. It consisted of a service ball having its nose
expose due to a trimmed jacket to the back. Now the term is
loosely used in describing any expanding bullet.
5. Frangible Ball type- is a type of bullet designed for training purposes
especially for aerial targets. It does not cause any damage to the target rather
leaving a paint mark for the purpose of assessing the gunners.
6. Flechette- a dark-like solid projectile, stabilized in flight by fins. It was in
used as early as 1914 and at present the
cartridge for 12 gauges is loaded with 20
steel flechettes.
7. Heel Bullet- is a type of bullet commonly used in pistol having its rear
portion reduced in diameter in order to fit into mouth of the shell, thus making
the rest of its part appears flush with the mouth of the shell.
8. Hallow Point- is the type of bullet in which the nose is drilled out to the
certain depth leaving a hole, the purpose is to be able for the bullet to deform
upon impact making a mushroom.
9. Lethal Ball- British term used when referring to a single shot used to
issue to the members of the Home guard anti personal use during World War
Two.

51
10. Multiple Bullet- is the term applied to a number or two (duplex) or
three (triplex) bullet formed a cartridge it was
patented to the early 1990s by George Luger.
11. Soft Point- refers to any type of bullet having its jacket short that have
nose is exposed thus capable deforming upon the impact and it is common
for hunting purpose.
12. Spitzer Bullet- is the term to use by the American and British
sportsmen when referring to a pointed bullet.
13. Streamlined Bullet- is a type of a bullet that has front section tapered
to a point and its rear section tapered to as smaller diameter thus reducing
the Base Drag.

52

53

Fig. 13. Types of Bullet according to shape.

Name:____________________
Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #6

I.

What is a bullet and what are other term used

synonymous to it?

II.

Enumerate the types of bullet according to their

maximum effect to their target and briefly explain.

III.

Enumerate and illustrate at least five miscellaneous

types of bullet.

IV.

Illustrate the types of bullet according to shapes.

54

Chapter 7
Cartridge Case
Cartridge Case is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container usually of
brass (70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to unite the bullet, primer and the
gunpowder into one unit. It is also known as shell or casing.
Cartridge Case maker is traditional of brass although there are some at
present, which are either plastic varnish steel, zinc-coated or even chemically
coated are at use.

Functions of the Cartridge Case

1. It locates the bullet properly relative to the bore of the firearm.
2. It is used to carry the means of ignition.
3. It provides gas seals at the breech against an unwanted escape of
propellant gas upon firing.
4. Serves as waterproof container for the propellant or powder charge.
5. Acts as the insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the
chamber in a rapid firing of firearms.

Parts of the Cartridge Case (See fig. 10)

1. Base= the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head
stamp marking on the base of the shell containing the caliber, manufacturer
and in some cases including the date, trade name, and batch number.
2. Rim= is the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement
of the cartridge to chamber.

55
3. Extracting grooves= is the circular groove near the rim of the shell
designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber.
4. Primer Pocket=is that part of the shell which provides the means for
the primer to be put in the central position. Its function is extended to: (a) hold
the primer in place; (b) to provide means to prevent the escape of gas; (c) to
provide solid support for primer anvil.
5. Body= is the cylindrical part of the shell which house the gunpowder.
6. Shoulder= that part of the cartridge case which support the neck of the
cartridge which is evident in a bottleneck type.
7. Cannelure= is the cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the
cartridge case designed to secure the shell to the chamber as well as prevent
bullet from being push down to the powder charge. In some instance it is
even being utilized for identification.
8. Neck= is that part of the shell which is actually occupied by the bullet.
This is obvious in a bottleneck type of shell but not with the straight type.
9. Crimp= is the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed for
two purposes: One (1) is to hold the bullet and prevent it from being pull out
from the shell and Two (2) to offers resistance to the bullet out of the neck to
ensure burning of the gun powder.
10. Vent or Flash hole= is the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket as
the passage way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant
charge.

56

Figure 14a
STRAIGHT

Figure 14b
BOTTLE NECK

Figure 14c
TAPERED

Fig. 14. Classification of Shell According to Shape

57
Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #7

I.

Define Cartridge Case.

II.

What are the Functions of a Cartridge case?

III.

Enumerate and Define the parts of a cartridge case.

58

Chapter 8
Primer
Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a
center fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would
easily ignite or bursts into flame when struck by the firing pin. It may either be
Berdan or Boxer type. It is also known as the percussion cup.
The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was designed in 1860s
by Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S Army Ordinance Department. Its
distinction over the Boxer is that, its anvil forms part of the cartridge case and a
number of flash holes to serves as the passage of ignition usually two (2). This is
common in almost all the military ammunition.
The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col. Edward M. Boxer of
the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in the year 1866. In this type the anvil
was formed separately from the shell and became part of the ignition cap making
a single flash hole to serve as the passage of ignition. Although its manufacture
seems to be quite difficult, it becomes more popular because of its adaptability
for reloading.

Origin of Ignition System

The term lock was the one used during the ancient time when referring
to ignition system. Ancient weapons such as the muskets were found in varieties
of ignition system. The earliest of these is the match lock also referred to as
refined serpentine lock with a- shaped piece of metal pivoted on the stave, the
forward end holding the hump fiber treated with saltpeter, twisted and tied by a

59
thread to retain the twists to make it slow burning. It burns at about 3 to 5 inches
per hour.
The matchlock was later superseded by a wheel lock in the early years
of the 16th century. This ignition system is comparable to the modern principle of
our cigarette lighters. A roughened wheel, driven by a spring that needs to be the
first wound up or spanned producing sparks igniting the priming powder and
passed through a touch hole burning the powder charge.
Fifty years later, the flint lock ignition system was developed (fast known
snap-lock) In this system a simple mechanical fire striking lick called
snaphaunce replace the wheel mechanism and an iron right-angle pan cover
hinged over the priming pan, constituted the flint lock. The hinged will be stricken
by the cock upon release of the trigger, causing the hinged cover to be thrown
back, exposing and igniting the priming powder by the sparks produced by the
scraping of flint along the iron. This system was used until the start of the 19th
century when the percussion system was finally been developed.
Alexander John Forsyth, a minister of Belhelvie in Scotland, known as
the father of percussion system developed a better system of ignition in the year
1805. He devised a formula composing of mercury fulminate that would easily
ignite upon a single struck. The percussion system was spread and almost totally
replaced the flintlock in the year 1840. This led to the making of the famous
percussion cap of Joshua Shaw in 1814 and finally adopted by British Army in
the year 1838 and by the Americans in the year 1842.

60

Parts of the Primer

1. Primer Cup= Is the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming
mixture, the disc and the anvil.
2. Priming Mixture= Is the highly sensitive chemical compound which
ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin. Also called as percussion
powder.
3. Anvil= Is that portion of the primer which provides solid support and
absorbs the blow of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.
4. Disc= Is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in
order to protect it from moisture attack.

Fig. 15 Distinction Between Berdan and Boxer Type

Types of Priming Mixture Compound
1. Corrosive = one containing potassium chlorate which when ignite
produce moisture causing the formation of rust in the bore of the firearm.
Other components are Antimony sulfide and mercury fulminate.
2. Non-Corrosive = one which is designed for less chances of rusting by
replacing the potassium chlorate with barium nitrate.

61
Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #8

I.

Discuss the Evolution of Ignition System in not less than 100 words.

II.

What are the parts of a primer and what are their functions.

III.

Differentiate the three types of Primer.

62

Chapter 9
Gun Powder
Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge) is that mixture of
chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of
its expansive force of gas when burned.

The Development of Gun Powder

If there is much of literary works on firearm identification, the history of
Gunpowder is the most controversial of all topics incorporated in this field of
study. Powders, explosives are at most times credited to the Chinese and the
Arabs, they have had pyrotechnic composition of sorts ---fireworks long before
anything of the kind was known in Europe, but there is no warrant for considering
that they had invented gun and gunpowder. On the other hand, according to
Frop. J. K. Partington, a British Chemist, at about 1000 A.D., the Chinese knew
about saltpeter based gunpowder.
A question of where it was discovered, who first used it for gun and who
invented it is still a mystery. Maybe this is caused by lack of proof beyond doubt
as to the claim of various writers as to who invented the gun powder and realized
its capabilities. Two of the most popular individual whose name is always
attached to gunpowder discovery were Roger Bacon and Berthold Schwartz.
Lets take a short description of how their names are always mentioned in the
history.
Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote the ---De
Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae (On the Marvelous Power of Art and Nature),

63
including an anagram. This anagram was only re-arranged and properly
punctuated by a British Artillery Officer named Colonel Hime, and it read- but of
saltpeter takes seven part, five of young hazel twig and five of sulfur, and so thou
wilt call up thunder and destruction of thou know the art. This is practically a
working gunpowder formula.
Bacon did not make any claim of its discovery but suggest that by 1226
the gunpowder was already of a common knowledge and he was merely
reporting it as a fact. Maybe another reason why he never makes any claim is
due to the prohibition existing during his time that no forms of an article involving
explosives should be made. If he was to directly print the same it might even
cause his life.
Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin Anklitzen), a
mysterious monk of Freiburg, who according to legend that is supported by an
engraving dated 1643, while experimenting on some powder in a cast iron
vessel, he ignited a charge and thus blew off the lid, and from this deduced the
principle of containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot (Encyclopedia of
ammunition). The engraver dated the scene 1380, and it was evident that well
before that date, cannons were already in use.
Another person in the year 1325 A.D. makes his own literary works
entitled De Officis Regnum , which illustrate the firing of a cannon. There is no
explanation of the picture but it is clearly shown a bulbous tube, with an arrow
protruding from the muzzle, being ignited by a man with a hot iron.

64

The Black Powder

Black powder, the oldest known explosive, was initially made from
saltpeter (75%), charcoal (15%) and sulfur (10%). This formula varies in
percentage and even in composition in different country throughout the world.
This mixture is being ground into fine dust, called Serpentine which was said to
have been used until the middle of the 16 th century. After such form, a corned
powder was used to replace serpentine, for being more stable. But due to its
high sensitivity leading to accidents modifications had been made to develop
other forms. Some used potassium nitrates while the other used sodium nitrate.
But whatever forms or composition of black powders there is generally great
disadvantage of this powder. It creates a dark smoke and causes fouling. This
creates a problem not only to the gunner but also to the gun itself.
These problems in the used of black powder was later remedied with the
introduction of the smokeless powder. According to Harrison, Captain E. Schultze
of the Prussian Army, made the 1st successful used of smokeless powder in
shotgun in the year 1864. (Although historically nitroglycerine compound was first
discovered in 1846). The basic ingredient used for smokeless powder is a
nitrocellulose that was first produced by adding a nitric acid to cellulose fiber.
Later, M. Vieille of French developed the first smokeless powder for riffle in
the year 1884 and named it poudre B taken after Gen. Boulangers name. In
1887, Alfred Nobel invented a smokeless powder with nitroglycerine ( 40%0 and
nitrocellulose (60%) as the main composition and called it Ballistite. In Great
Britain, they utilized picrid acid in addition to cellulose powder which they called

65
Lyddite and in germany TNT (Tri-nitrololeune ) was the one used, more
powerful than picric acid but much difficult to detonate. Also In the year 1889,
Prof. Abel, a British War dept. Chemist developed Cordite a smokeless powder
with same composition as Nobel in the form of cords or sticks. And in early
1890s smokeless powder had replaced black powder and became uniformly
used worldwide by the year 1900.

Fig. 16. Sample of Gun Powder

66
Name:____________________

Section:_________
Date:________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #9

I. Briefly discuss the history of Gun Powder.

II. Differentiate a Black powder from that of a smokeless powder.

67

Chapter 10
Firearms Characteristics
All barrel irrespective of the type of the weapons for which they are made,
are manufactured from a solid piece of metal. The metal from which the barrel is
made is carefully selected for its chemical and metallurgical properties, thus
assuring a high-quality product after the various machine operations and heat
treatment are completed.

Stages in the manufacture of barrel

A. Drilling
A special deep-hole is used through the center of which lubricating oil is
forced under pressure. This operation results to a comparatively rough hole of
uniform diameter from one end of the barrel to other. At this stage the interior
surface of the barrel will bears numerous sears and scratches resulting from
the irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chips, which mark the finish.

B. Reaming
In this process some of the scars or scratches left by the drilling operation
are remove. The reamer removes metal from the entire surface because it is
slightly larger in diameter than the drill, which completes the bore operations.
It includes roughly, finishing and burnishing reamer to have a smooth bore
barrel.

C. Rifling
This process necessary for the making of the helical groves inside the
barrel and such can be performed in any of the following methods:

68
1. Hook cutter system (cutter)
2. Scrape cutter system (scraper)
3. Broaching system (broach)
4. Button system (button)

D. Lapped
This is the polishing operation in which a lead plug closely fitting the
inside of the barrel is drawn back and forth on a rod carrying with is a
polishing compound. This will remove large imperfection on the side surface
of the barrel both to the lands and the grooves. What is important about this
process is that no matter how many times we polish or finish large
imperfections maybe eliminated but not the minute imperfections making a
series of striations that will be impressed on every bullet that will pass through
it. This is the basis for which firearms is identified.

The Breech face

Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the
same important. It is that portion of the firearms against which the shell or the
cartridge case and the primer is pressed backward every time that a cartridge is
fired in the chamber. If these things happen the base of the cartridge will be
marked by the gun.
This is due to the fact that every breech face of a firearm just like the
barrel are made up of a harder metal than any cartridge case or bullet, thus, the
principle that when a softer surface comes in contact with a harder on it is always
the softer surface that characteristic that harder surface has.

69

Types of Characteristics in Firearms

A.

Class Characteristics = are those properties or attributes of a

firearms which can be determined even before the manufacture of the gun.
This is true for such characteristics are considered to be a manufactures
designs or specifications and security.

Class Characteristics of Firearms

1. Bore diameter (caliber or gauge) it is diameter to which the bore
was reamed. The distance measured between two opposite lands inside
the bore in a hundredths or thousandths of an inch. In most express in
either caliber in inch or in millimeters such Cal.

.22, .25, .30, .32, . 38, .

380, .357, .44, .45, .50, etc. or 5.56mm, 6.35mm, 9mm, 11mm, etc. in
shotgun they are either in gauge or in inch , such as in 10 gauge (), 12
gauge (.729), 20 gauge (.615), 24 gauge (579), 30 gauge (.537)36 gauge
(.615), 30 gauge (.729), 20 gauge (.615), 24 gauge (.579),30 gauge (.537)
36 gauge (.506) and the smallest which is .410.

2. Number of lands and grooves = the number of lands an grooves

inside the barrel of a given firearm are always the same or equal. It may
run from 3 to 8, but the most in the modern firearm are five and six.
Lands = are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
Grooves = are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

70
3. Width of the lands = is dependent upon the bore diameter of the
gun, grooves, width and number. The lands are the remainders of the
circumference after subtracting all the grooves width.
4. Width of the Grooves = is measured as the shortest distance
between the two dies or edge of a grooves.
5. Direction of Twist = rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either
twisted to the left or to the right which cause bullet to rotate as it passes
through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight.
6. Pitch of Rifling = it is the measure of the twisting of the lands and
grooves. It refers to the measure of the distance advance by the rifling in
order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.
7. Depth of the Grooves = the grooves depth if measured on a radius
of the bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths of an inch deep, which
equal to the height of the lands.
B. Individual Characteristics = are meant for those characteristics which
are being determined only after the firearm was already been manufactured.
They are the product of machine imperfections and some later due to the
used of the firearms.

Types of Rifling
1. Steyer Type= is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves,
right twist and the width of the lands grooves. (4 RG=L)

71
2. Carbine Type = rifling having (4) lands and grooves, right twist, the
width of the grooves is two (2) times the width of the lands (4RG2X).
3. Smith and Wesson = rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right
hand twist , the width of the land and grooves are equal. (5RG=L)
4. Colt = type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the
width of the grooves is twice (2) the width of the lands. (6LG2X)
5. Browning = type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand
twist, the width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6RG2X)
6. Webley = Rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand
twist, the width of the groove is three time larger than the boarder of the
lands. (7RG3X)
7. Winchester = Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand
twist, the width of the grooves is three time larger the width of the lands.

Individual Characteristics in Firearms

Individual Characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the
test firing which will give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will
show the individuality of its property based on the left marks on every
bullet and shell fired from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the
lens with high magnification is necessary to discover individuality.
Marks left on fired shells or fired bullets are generally
categorized as to either accidental or repetitive. Accidental marks are
those marks that may bare some importance to the investigation but are

72
considered of not much value in the identification of the particular firearm
or weapon since they are not regularly formed in the operation of the gun.
On the other hand, Repetitive marks are those marks, which are very
useful in identifying a firearm. They show identity of performance.

Marks found of Fired Bullets

1. Land Marks = marks left on a

Land Mark

fired bullet caused by its contact to

the elevated portion (lands) of the
bore of the firearm. It appears as
slight depressions or scratches the
cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.

Groove
Mark

This considered as one of the most important mark found on a fired bullet
used for the purposes of identification.
2. Groove Marks = marks found on a fired bullet caused by the
grooves of the barrel which is the same number as that of the landmarks.
3. Skid Marks = Marks that are generally found on fired bullet from a
revolver. It is more or less located at the anterior portion of the fired bullet
due to its forward movement from the chamber to the barrel of the gun
before it initially rotates.
4. Stripping Marks = marks found on those bullet fired from a loosefit barrel wherein the rifling are already been badly worn-out.

73
Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by either chemical
reaction brought about by rust (corrosion) or through excessive use
(erosion)
5. Shaving Marks = marks commonly found on bullet fired from a
revolver cause by its forward movement to the barrel that is poorly aligned
to the cylinder.
6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing through
either on oily or oversize barrel.

Marks found on Fired Shells

1. Firing Pin Mark = mark generally
found at the base portion of the cartridge
case more specifically near center of the
primer cup in a center fire cartridge or at
the rim cavity of a rim-fire cartridge.
Considered as one of the most important
marks for identification of firearms using
fired shell.
2. Breech Face Mark = mark found
at the base portion of the shell cause by backward movement to the
breech face of the block of the firearm. This is also one of the important
marks in shell identification.

74
3. Extractor Mark = mark mostly found at the extracting groove of the
fired cartridge case. Cause by its withdrawal from the chamber.
4. Ejector mark = mark generally found on cartridge case fired from an
automatic firearms. It is located near the rim of the case cause by the
throwing of shell from the firearm to the area of shooting.
5. Shearing Mark = sometimes called Secondary Firing Pin mark
found in the primer near the firing pin mark.
6. Magazine Lip Mark = marking found at the two sides of the rim
cause by the magazine lips during the loading of the cartridge into the
magazine for firing.
7. Chamber Mark = mark mostly found around the body of the fired
cartridge case cause bi the irregularities of nips inside the walls of the
chamber.
In fired cartridge case either of the Firing pin mark and the
Breech face marks can be used as basis for identification, in the absence
or none use of these two, both the ejector and extractor marks can be
utilized as secondary choice.

75
Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #10

I.

What are the stages in the manufacture of Barrel?

II.

What are the types of rifling and their characteristics?

III.

Enumerate and illustrate the various marks found in fired bullet.

76

Chapter 11
Problems in Forensic Ballistics
Jack Disbrow Gunther and Carles O. Gunther mentioned in their book
entitled ----The identification of Firearms The Six types of Problems in the
identification of firearms. However certain Firearms Identification Examiner
believe that the problems should be seven for in all cases of shooting incident,
firearms is one of the most significant consideration. This is the reason for which
there are certain manuscript in our country, which refers to this as the Seven
types of Problems as listed below as the summary of the work objectives in the
field of firearm identification. This serves as a general guide to every firearm
examiner in determining the course of action to be taken to serve the ends of
identification.

Problems in Forensic Ballistics

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the caliber, type; make of firearm from
which it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the caliber, type, and make of firearm
from which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or
not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not
the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were
fired from one and the same firearm.

77
6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or
not they were fired from one and the same firearm.
7. Given a suspected firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not.

Discussion on the Problems in Forensic Ballistics

Problem no.1
Given: A fired bullet.
Objective: to determine the caliber, type and make of firearm from which
it was fired.
Procedure:
a. Identify the bullet based on its various features such as type, shape and
design.
b. Use a caliper to measure the base diameter of the bullet in determining
its caliber or simply used standard bullet at hand and match the base of the
bullets. In case of fragmented or deformed bullet, that it will be difficult to
determine its base diameter, use a torsion balance in order to get the equivalent
weight of the bullet and its approximate caliber.
c. After determining the caliber of the fired bullet, examined its cylindrical
surface for the landmarks and groove marks. Identify the type of rifling by
determining the number of lands and grooves, the direction of twist, the pitch of
rifling, the width of the lands and grooves and the depth of landmarks.

78

Problem no.2
Given: A fired shell/cartridge case
Objective: to determine the caliber, type and make of firearm from
which it was fired.
Procedure:
a. Determine the caliber of the shell utilizing the caliper to
measure its body diameter or the diameter of the mouth of the shell, or
match the fired shell with a standard shell.
b. Check on the base of the fired bullet for the head stamp.
This part of the shell will give the examiner information as to the caliber,
the maker, and at certain case even the date of its manufacture.

Problem no.3
Given: A fired bullet and a suspected firearm.
Objective: to determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from
the suspected firearm.
Procedure:
a. Examine the fired bullet as to its caliber, type and make
applying the procedure in problem no.1.
b. Examine the suspected firearm as to its condition and basic
characteristics as to whether there is probability of it being the one used in
the fired bullet. (Verify the type of rifling.)
c. Test-fire the suspected firearm using the bullet recovery box.
Use at least three (3) cartridges with the same caliber and make as the

79
fired bullet. Make sure to mark the cartridge with letter T1, T2, and T3 as
the case maybe plus the last two digit of the serial number of the
suspected firearm.
d. Get the test bullet from the recovery box and identify its
general characteristics to determine probability with the fired bullet.
e. Match the fired bullet with the test bullet using the bullet
comparison microscope or forensic comparator microscope.
f. If similar individual marks (striations) were observed on each
bullet, then we can conclude that the fired bullet was fired from the
suspected firearm. Otherwise another firearm was used in its discharged.

Problem no.4
Given: A fired shell and a suspected firearm.
Objective: to determine whether or no the fired shell was fired
from the suspected firearm.
Procedure:
a. Examine the fired shell as to its, caliber, type and make.
b. Examine the suspected firearm as to its conditions and
rifling characteristics.
c. Test-fire the suspected firearm using the bullet recovery box.
Used at least three (3) cartridges for test firing. Make sure to mark the
cartridge with letter T1, T2, and T3 as the case maybe plus the last two
digit of the serial number of the suspected firearm.

80
d. Get all the test shell and identify its general characteristics
to determine probability with the fired shell.
e.Match the fired shell with the test shell using the bullet
comparison microscope or forensic comparator microscope.

f. If similar individual marks, (striations) were observed on the

breech face or firing pin marks, then we can conclude that the fired bullet
was fired from the suspected firearm. Otherwise another firearm was used
in its discharged. If problem will be encountered as to the use of breech
face or firing pen marks, combined extractor and ejector marks can be
utilized as a secondary choice.

Problem no.5
Given: Two or more fired bullets.
Objective: to determine whether or not they were fired from
one and the same firearm.
Procedure:
a. Identify those bullets as to their caliber, type and make
applying the principle in problem no.1 (dont forget to mark the fired
bullets)
b. Bullets of the same caliber, type and make should be
compared at the bullet comparison microscope.
c. Those fired bullets that show a magnified image of similar
characteristics will be considered fired from one and the same firearm,

81
while those that would not match positively were fired from different
firearm.

Problem no.6
Given: Two or more fired shell.
Objective: to determine whether they were fired from one and the same firearm.
Procedure:
a. Identify each fired cartridge case or shell as to their caliber,
type and make applying the procedure in problem no.2 (dont forget to
mark each fired shells.)
b. Compare each fired shell of the same caliber, type and
make using bullet comparison microscope. Those fired cartridge case
having similar individual marks (striations) will proved that they were fired
from one the same firearms and non identity of their individual marks
would consider them to have been fired from different firearm.

Problem no.7
Given: A suspected firearm.
Objective: to determine whether it is serviceable or not.
Procedure:
a. Examine the suspected firearm, its caliber, type and make
and its condition.
b. Check its serial number and records of its identification.
c. Marked the suspected firearm for further reference.

82

A. BASIS OF FIREARM IDENTIFICATION:

1. Firearm identification is actually refined tool marks identification. It
means that the basis of identification of firearm is based on minute
imperfection cause by final polishing of the tools involved.
2. The natural wear and tear of the tools involved. Every firearm are not
permanent for they are subject to deterioration or worn out.
3. When the softer surface comes in contact with the harder surface, it is
always the softer surface that will be engraved or marked by whatever
impression or marks present on the harder surface. This is true in a sense
that every firearm is made up of harder material than any bullet or shell of the
cartridge.
4. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical or alike. There can
be some sort of similarity in general properties but not on the individuality or
minute imperfections.

B. PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN BULLET IDENTIFICATION :

1. No two barrels are microscopically alike or identical as to the internal
bore construction; all barrels possess individuality or characteristics marks of
their own.
2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel, it becomes engraved by
the rifling characteristics of that barrel with varying minute details. It means
that bullet fired from one barrel will have an engraving different from that of

83
another bullet fired from another firearm and conversely, bullets fired from
same firearm will bare same engraving as those that can be found on the
barrel.
3. Every barrel leaves its thumbprint of fingerprint on every bullet fired
on it.

PRINCIPLES OF SHELL IDENTIFICATION

1. The breech face and striker (or firing pin) of every single firearm have
microscopic individualities.
2. Every firearm leaves its fingerprint of thumbprint on every cartridge it
fires.
3. The whole principle of identification of shells is based upon the fact that since
the breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge cases
that it fires are imprinted with this individuality. The imprints of all cartridge cases
fired from the same weapon are the same, and those on cartridge cases fired
from different weapon are different.

84
Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #11

I.

Discuss Briefly the Problems in Forensic Ballistics.

85

Chapter 12
INVESTIGATION OF BALLISTICS CASE
PROCEDURE AT THE CRIME SCENE
In investigating criminal cases, procedure at the scene of the crime play a
very significant phase. In most cases, it is in this phase that the success or failure
of the investigation can be predicted in some extent. It is very important for any
person-in charge of the crime scene to have an open mind and be lenient in all
decisions and actions being undertaken. It is very important also for any peace
officer on case to work systematically and should follow a certain standard of
procedure in a logical pattern. The following procedures are mandated by less
than the PNP Investigative Manual with certain modification due to some
changes in our system of investigation.
At present the Philippine National Police has established a modified
system of scientific crime investigation with the creation of the Scene of the
Crime Operation (SOCO). The SOCO was envisioned for the establishment a
proper scene of operation based on scientific method of investigation geared
towards the identification and successful prosecution of the responsible person.
The works of the SOCO has been divided into two: (1) Field Laboratory Work
and (2) SOCO Assistance.

The Field Laboratory Works are those services that the SOCO can
offer on case in which no need for bringing the specimen to the Crime laboratory

86
instead the SOCO team will proceed to the place and conduct the examination
either on the immediate place or on the nearest laboratory such as :Paraffin
examination of suspect/s or victim/s of shooting incidents who are confined in
hospitals; Conduct of Qualitative or quantitative examination of fake products in
other government of private laboratories in cases of Unfair Trade Competition,
Collection of Urine Samples for drug Test; Collection of paint fragments, fibers
and glass fractures at the crime scene in cases if vehicular accidents; Collection
of Ashes and Debris in relation to arson cases; Bullet trajectory examination of
motor vehicles at the crime scene; Macro-etching examination of stranded or
defective motor vehicles at the crime scene or in the compound of the requesting
party; Conduct of autopsy at the PNP accredited funeral parlors; Exhumation of
Cadavers to determine the cause of death; Conduct of document examination or
fingerprint examination in the place of the requesting unit; Photographing of
evidence related to fingerprint or document examination cases and other forensic
fields where the physical evidence could not be removed or brought out of the
office; Lifting of latent prints in relation to qualified/simple theft cases and
robbery; Polygraph examination of suspect/s in the office of the investigator if the
name of the suspect is highly confidential; Withdrawal of fired bullet embedded in
the wall of a car or a building found at the crime scene after the crime scene
processing; Bringing of bulky evidence in court; and Bringing of important office
communication to other Private or Government Offices.

87
Cases Falling Under the SOCO Category
a.) Murder
b.) Homicide
c.) Rape with Homicide
d.) Arson
e.) Robbery with Homicide
f.) Other heinous / sensational cases as directed by higher headquarters
and other cases where SOCO assistance is necessary.
I.

Steps to be followed upon arrival at the scene of the crime:

a. Record the date and time of arrival including the weather condition
(if information was obtained through telephone call, note accurately
the time the call was received and who reported the incident before
leaving).
b. Look for living person immediately at the place ( Witness, victim,
suspect, if possible).
c. If an injured person is at the scene, arrange for medical attention,
identification and removal. The scene should be disturbed only to
the extent necessary to have medical aid rendered to the injured or
to have a doctor examine a deceased victim. Each alteration should
be accurately recorded.
In case of a person conscious of an impending death, better
asked immediately as to who committed the offense? for a possible
dying declaration. If the person survives , it will form part of the res
gestae.

88
d. If the offender is at the scene, apprehend him.
e. If the scene is not fully protected, ensure its protection by using
other policeman or other responsible persons to keep witnesses,
suspects, and victim/s who are present from disturbing the scene.
(I)

It may be necessary to re-route traffic, to prohibit

employees from entering their place of employment, or
to take other action to prevent any disturbance of the
scene until a complete examination is made. The body
of a deceased victim (if there is any) should not be
covered until thoroughly processed for evidence ( such
as photograph was taken).

(II)

Early action if taken to protect items of possible

evidentiary value that may be destroyed by rain; fire or
other causes before collection can be effected. For
example, a raincoat or piece of canvass may be used to
cover compressions on the ground that is exposed to
rain. Items that will melt should be shielded from the
sun or other heat sources. Objects such as food and
blood should be covered to protect them from
contamination. (Photograph should properly be taken
for record purpose).

(III)

Determine and record the names of those persons at

the scene who may be witnesses, and separate them.

89
These persons should be removed from the immediate
area of the scene as soon as practicable.
(IV)

Conduct a preliminary questioning of witnesses,

suspects and victim/s to determine in general the extent
of the incident or crime.

(V)

Note the names of all persons officially present. Those

present within the immediate area of the scene should
be only the minimum numbers needed to assist the
investigator. It may be necessary to request other
policeman or officials present to refrain from examining
or disturbing objects or aspects of the scene.

II.

Recording
The investigator begins the process of recording pertinent facts and
details of the investigation the moment he arrives at the scene of
the incident (of course, he has to record the time and date when he
was initially notified and who notify him prior to his arrival). He
writes down the identification of persons involved and what he
initially sees. He also drew a basic sketch of the crime scene and
takes the initial photographs (general, medium, close-up view and
extreme close-up view should be taken if a photographer is
available.). This is to secure that the image of the crime scene is
properly recorded before any further occurrence would disturb the
scene. As a rule, do not touch, alter or remove anything at the

90
scene until the evidence has been processed through notes,
sketches and photographs, with proper measurements.

III.

Search of Evidence
a. Each crime scene is different according to the physical nature of
the scene and the crime or offense involved. Consequently, the
scene is processed in accordance with the prevailing physical
characteristics of the scene and with the needs to develop essential
evidentiary facts peculiar to the offense. A general survey of the
scene is always made, however, to note the location of obvious
traces of action, the probable entry and exist point used by the
offender/s and the size and shape of the area involved.
b. In room, buildings, and small outdoor areas, systematic search of
evidence is initiated.

(In the interest of uniformity, it is

recommended that the clockwise movement be used.) The

investigator examines each items encountered on the floor, walls,
ceiling to locate anything that may be of evidentiary value. You
should:
(i) Give particular attention to fragile evidence that may be
destroyed or contaminated if it is not controlled when discovered.
(ii) If any doubt exists as to the value of an item, treat it as
evidence until proven otherwise.

91
(iii) Ensure that the item or area where latent fingerprints
may be present is closely examined and that action is taken
to develop the prints.
(iv) Carefully protect any impression of evidentiary value in
surfaces conducive to making casts or molds. If possible,
photograph the impression and make a cast or mold.
(utilizing casting materials such as plaster of paris).
(v) Note stains, spots, and pools of liquid within the scene
and treat them as evidence.
(vi) Note any peculiar odor emitting from the scene.
(vii) Treat as evidence all other items, such as hairs, fibers,
and earth particles, foreign to the area in which they are
found for example, matter found under the victims
fingernails and others.
(viii) Proceed systematically and uninterruptedly to the
conclusion of the processing of the scene. The search for
evidence a thorough examination for the scene, the rough
sketch, necessary photographs and investigative notes have
been completed and the investigator has returned to the
point from which the search began. Further search may be
necessary after the evidence and the statements obtained
have been evaluated.

92
d. In large outdoor areas, it is advisable to divide the area into strips
about four (40 feet wide. The policeman may first search the strip
on his left as he faces the scene and then the adjoining strips.
e. It may be advisable to make a search beyond the area considered
to be the immediate scene of the incident or crime. For example,
evidence may indicate that a weapon or tool used in the crime was
discarded or hidden by the offender somewhere within a squaremile area near the scene.
f. After completing the search of the scene, the investigator
examinees the object or person actually attacked by the offender.
For example, a ripped open or a room from which items have been
stolen, would be processed after the remainder of the scene has
been examined fro traces of the offender. In a homicide case the
position of the body of the victim should be outlined with a chalk or
any other suitable marking material before the body is removed
from the scene. If the victim has been pronounced dead by the
doctor or is obviously dead, it is usually advisable to examine the
body, the clothing and the area under the body after the remainder
of the scene has been searched. This is to enable the
policeman/investigator to evaluate all objects of special interest in
the light of all other evidence found at the scene.
g. Methods of Crime Scene Search

93
Different methods of search have been derived depending upon
the nature or circumstances surrounding the scene of the crime. The
following are some of the prescribed methods in searching for
evidence:
1. Strip Method
Applicable when the shooting incident took
place in a small closed area. This is done by
one, two or three numbers of searchers
standing side by side from the entrance to the
end of that path.
2. Double Strip Method
Finish

Applicable when the shooting incident took

place in a bigger area. Considered as one

Start

among the ideal methods of search in closed

area. In this method the rectangular area is
traversed first parallel to the baseline and then
parallel to the side.
3. Wheel Method
The searchers gather at the center and
proceed in outward radii and pokes. This
procedure should be followed or repeated
several times depending on the size of the
area.

94
4. Spiral Method
The searchers follow each other in the path of
a spiral beginning from the outside and then
spirally in toward the center.
5. Zone Method
If the incident took place in a bigger area, this
method can be used. The area is divided into
A

zones, and in each zone any one of the first

four methods can be used. This method is very

practical in an outdoor shooting incident or in

cases of running gun battles. One researcher
may be assigned a search zone.

IV.

Collection of Evidence
a. All articles that are or may at some future dates would be of
significance to the case.
b. Generally, evidence consist of the following:
(i) Any evidence or physical object that may tend to show
that a crime was/was not committed and, (direct evidence).
(ii) Anything that may connect some particular person with
the crime or crime scene. (indirect evidence).
In case of shooting incident the following physical evidence
are common to be observed:
The lethal weapon of fatal weapon

95
Fired bullet/s
Fired shell/s
Metal fragments
Broken glass or those allied item or objects
Holster
Magazine/s
Cartridge/s
Glove/s
Mask/s
And all other firearms accessory
c. When possible, designate one of the investigating men to collect
all evidences.
i. This makes the introduction of the exhibits in court
simpler.
ii. One officer will usually keep better records, and
remember when, where, and what was collected much
better than that if several men have handled the same
exhibits.
d.

In collecting physical evidence precautionary measure

should be made in order to maintain the condition of the
evidence when it was discovered. General rule said not
to MAC the physical evidence.

96
M

(Mutilate) Mutilation or cutting of physical

evidence is highly prohibited for it will greatly affect

the nature of the evidence and source of such
evidence can be of question.
A

(Alter) In no case should an investigator

change the very nature of the evidence either by

additional or removal of anything that makes up the
evidence when it was discovered. If changes had
occurred accidentally, such should be noted in his
record including the immediate cause of said
change/s.
C

(Contaminate) Evidences are not supposed to

be mixed together. It is better that each evidence to

be treated with great care. Different evidence requires
different method of collection and preservation
depending on their very nature.
e.

Photographing

and

sketching

are

very

necessary before anything at the scene of the

crime be touch, move of taken for it will serve
as a record of the evidence and later be a
proof n showing the origin or source of the
evidence in court.

97
f.

Note taking is likewise very important in the

course of collecting physical evidences. All
pertinent information regarding the condition,
location, nature of the evidence and others
should be recorded properly for the investigator
cannot just rely on his memory regarding all
things

that

transpired

in

the

course

of

investigation. And at the same time it will serve

as his guide in preparing his case and later
testifying in court.
g.

When firearm is found at the scene of the

incident, the investigator should take note of
important matters regarding its discovery and
condition. The following precaution should be
taken into consideration in collecting suspected
firearm/s.
(1)

The use of steel rod, pencil or any

other object to be inserted at the bore of the firearm is

not advisable. This method would only cause three
possible

problems:

(a)

Introduction

of

foreign

materials to the bore of the firearm causing

contamination; (b) Disturbance or removal of some
powder fouling inside the bore that bears a significant

98
importance for chemical analysis in determining
whether the gun was recently fired or not and; (c)
alteration of the internal bore construction due to
added scratches that would create confusion in the
identification of the said firearm.
(2)

The use of a handkerchief to pick up

firearm at its handle or its barrel is also prohibited.

Such procedure will tend to loss chances of
detecting and taking of latent prints, which is very
important in determining possible identity of the
perpetrator.
(3)

The use of a handkerchief of a string

straw to be inserted at the trigger guard of the firearm

(make sure that the muzzle of the gun is not pointed
to anyone) and putting it on a hard paper envelope or
a plastic bag. See to it that the firearm specially in the
case of revolver should not be left full-cocked, In
such case, make use of a crumpled paper, carton or a
handkerchief to be place immediately in front of the
hammer and press the trigger to avoid accidental
firing.
(4)

Information as to the location of the

gun when discovered, caliber, type and make, serial

99
number and whether it is loaded or not and how the
loads were arranged should be noted and tag to the
firearm.

h. When bullet/s is found at the scene of the crime. The following

should be observed.
(1) Bullet inside the body of the victim
should not be dig by the investigator
only

authorized

person

such

as

medico legal officer should do the

digging.
(2)

Bullet/s that penetrate into walls,

wood, furniture/s or tree should be
treated with care not to alter or cut a
tree, split-open the tree and let the
bullet freely fall into hands. If it would
be difficult to do so, cut a portion of
the object where the bullet penetrated
and bring it to the laboratory for
proper extraction.

(3) Bullet should be picked up and

wrapped individually using cotton,
tissue or a paper. Put it in an

100
envelope, pillbox or any appropriate
container. Sealed properly and faced
or tag necessary information such as:
caliber, type, shapes or form, place
and

date

of

recovery

and

the

recovering officer. Also includes the

name of the suspect and the victim if
applicable.
(4) Collect

metal

fragments

(bullet

fragment) as much as possible. Those

metal fragments if possible of fitting
together can be of importance to the
case.
When fired cartridge case is found at the scene of the crime.
Collection should be mad individually just like in a bullet. Information as to
the numbers of shells, caliber, type and make, place and date of recovery
should be noted.

5. Marking of Evidence
Marking of physical evidences such as fired bullet/s, shell/s,
firearm/s and other objects which have some bearing to the case is
very important for the investigator. Time and again he will be called
upon to the witness stand and be required to testify regarding the

101
case issue. In the presentation of evidences in court, identification
and termination of the source of the evidence is very necessary
before any evidence can be finally accepted in court. All efforts of
the investigator will be style and useless in collecting those physical
evidences if they will not be identified and be accepted in court.
Even if they will be accepted in court failure to properly identify
such evidence will render it no evidentiary value at all. And it is of
public knowledge that cases in our courts involving shooting
incidents, took a long years of trial before they will be finally be
properly adjudicated and solved. Cases being handled by an
investigator in a months or year/s is not one, two or three but even
more. It will be very impractical for any investigator to just rely on
his

mind.

Evidence

also

needs

protection

from

possible

replacement. Markings can be one way to protect them from any

attempt at concealing the case. In most cases defense counsel
even requires the establishing of the chain of possession or
custody of the ballistics exhibits in such was a complete note taking
and markings will be great used.

RULES IN MARKING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE (Ballistics exhibits)

1. Make use of a hard pointed instrument called
stylus in marking ballistics evidence such as
metallic/plastic cartridge case, bullet and firearm.

102
In case of proper cartridge case or shell a
Fountain pen will be a better one to be used for
marking.

2. Used distinctive Marks such as initials of the

investigator, victim or suspects if identified plus the
date of recovery. It is more advisable to use the
victims

initial

for

easy

distinction

between

evidences of one case to another. Do not make

use of the mark X for such marks is considered
universal that almost everybody is in use of it.
3. Put the mark on the surface of the evidence that
would not in any way alter its very nature.
4. Make a complete records of the mark used, where
it is placed and other distinctive marks that the
evidence has.
5. It tags are to be used to make the necessary entry,
attached it securely before putting on the evidence
bag or container. (mark the container or the
evidence bag for proper entry)
6. Keep a complete record of the chain of possession
of the ballistics evidence.

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6. PRESERVATION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Physical Evidences have varied of form and nature that the ways they are
to be preserved also call for some specification, precaution and even extreme
care. In Ballistics evidence such as fired bullet, fired shell and firearm, ( the
most common ) preservation is not so delicate compared to bloodstain, fibers,
seminal stains and others. Fired bullets and fired shells should be wrapped with
tissue individually. Place it in a pillbox, matchbox vial or any suitable container,
but not too big for evidence Container (but not too big for the evidences).
Container should be sealed in such way that it cannot be easily be open without
breaking the seal. Label properly the sealed container or box and marked with
initials and date of recovery.
In case of suspected firearm, proper tag should be made together with
vital information such as the type and make of firearm, the caliber, load in the
cylinder (in case of a revolver) or load in the chamber or in the magazine, date
of recovery name of the victim and suspect, and the serial number.

7. TRANSMITTAL OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCES

When all evidences has been collected, marked and properly sealed and
labeled, these should be transmitted to the proper authority. What was usually
practiced in our country is to transmit evidence to the office and submit the
same to the duty officer or duly designated receiving officer for proper entry in
the record and custody. A request will be made for the transmittal of the
evidence to the crime laboratory for proper technical examination and will be

104
return to the office upon completion of the examination, preparation of exhibit
and laboratory report dully assigned firearm examiner. The Officer in case
should be well aware of the CHAIN OF CUSTODY of the evidences. Its is very
important to have a record of all persons who have handled the physical
evidence. (From the time of its recovery till final disposition in court). Information
as to who received and accepted the evidence, date and time of received,
number of the physical evidence involved.

105

Fig. 15 . Sample of Marking and Packing of Ballistics Evidence

Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #12

I. What are the Steps to be followed upon arrival at the scene of Crime?

II. Enumerate and Illustrates the Various Methods of Search

III. Briefly explain the procedure in markings and preservation of ballistics

evidence.

106

Chapter 13
Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms Identification

Ballistics investigation will not be fully accepted recognized without the

utilization of different scientific equipment. Equipment that gives man an
extended view of what is beyond their sight. In the previous chapter it is
discussed that firearms identification is based on some imperfections that our
naked eye alone may not be possible of decipherment. Thus, men in search of
truth, ultimately develop scientific instrument that would help them identify and
proved in court cases involving ballistics evidence. Identification can only be well
established with the aid of scientific instruments and photographic enlargement.
Some of them are:
1. Analytical or Torsion Balance

107
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope
3. Bullet Recovery box
4. Chronograph
5. Caliper
6. CP-6 Comparison Projector
7. Electronic Gun maker
8. Helixometer
9. Micrometer
10. Onoscope
11. Shadowgraph
12. Stereoscopic Microscope
13. Taper Gauge
14. Torsion Balance
Analytical or Torsion Balance
It is an instrument used for determining weight of bullets and
shotgun pellets for possible determination of type of caliber and make of
firearm from which it was fired. It is also designed to help solve problem
involving fragment bullet that it will be
very difficult to determine its caliber by
measuring its base diameter.

Bullet Comparison Microscope

108
It is an optical instrument consisting of two compound microscopes
Old Comparator
with a single microscope field or monocular eyepiece capable of viewing
two objects side by side. It is designed to compare fired bullet/s or fired
shell/s with test bullet/s or test shell/s so as weigh their individual markings
and proved their identity.
A 5 X 7 camera can
also be attached on the
ocular for the purpose of
Lieca Comparator
Microscope

photographing
results

for

the
court

presentation. This is one

of the most important
scientific

equipment

used in examination of
ballistics evidence. Dr.
Calvin

H.

Goddard

introduced its used in the year 1925. This old instrument is up to now is
used for examination of fired bullets and fired shells. Although in the
present time a more advance form of comparison microscope are already
at used. The Leica Bullet Comparator Microscope with monitor attachment
in which viewing can be made either through the ocular or through the
screen and a printer can likewise be attached for printing purpose. Another
is the forensic comparator microscope (also called the 3 in 1 microscope)

109
which can be used only in bullet and shell identification by also in
fingerprint comparison and document comparison.
The process by which the result of the microscopic examination will
be brought in positive sensitized paper is of great importance for court
proving. This process is called Photomicrography. A magnified photograph
of small object showing its minute details by attaching a camera to the
ocular of a compound microscope. This process would give two possible
results. A condition in which two fired bullet/s or fired shell/s are examined
and compared under the bullet comparison microscope at the same time,
place, level, magnification, direction and same image called juxtaposition
and a condition of two specimen which are compared and shows different
image result called pseudo match.
Bullet Recovery box
An instrument used is Crime Laboratory as well in Firearms
Company for the purpose of test firing. It is usually made up of metallic
box with, 12X12X96 measurement. Some made with wooden box with
interior metal construction filled with ordinary cotton that is separated into
section by a cardboard, illustration board or a simple paper folder. The
very used of this instrument in crime laboratory is to be able to obtain test
bullets and test shells safely and without damage. In other agency they
filled the box with sawdust with oil, sand, waste treads, darak, banana
trunk and rubber strips. But of these, the cotton is the most widely used. It
is found to be safer for bullet and easily facilitate the recovery of the bullet.

110
Chronograph
An instrument designed to measure velocity of the bullet
CP-6 Comparison Projector
An instrument Designed with the same purpose as the bullet
comparison microscope, which only differ the process f showing the
comparison between two fired bullets of shells. Using CP-6 comparison
projector reduced the burden of examination for the image is projected in
a screen, thus, making it less tiring and photographing can be simpler with
the used of any kind of camera directly on the screen.
Caliper
One of the simple instruments used in laboratory design to
measure

caliber

of

firearms,

bullets and shells. In firearms, it

is the bore diameter which being
measured. In bullet, the base
diameter

and

in

shell,

the

diameter of the body of the shell

or in some cases the mouth diameter.
Electronic Gun Maker
Is an instrument used to in making bullets shells and firearms.
Helixometer
An instrument used to measure the Pitch of Rifling.
Micrometer

111
Instrument use in the same way as that of caliper.

Onoscope
A small instrument
used

in

examination

of

the inner surface of the barrel in determining the irregularities inside the
bore.
Stereoscopic Microscope
An instrument used for preliminary examinations of fired bullets and
fired shells as to determine the relative class characteristics or for so
called orientation purpose. It is likewise used for close-up examinations of
tampered serial number although unlike the bullet comparison microscope
this instrument has no camera attachment, thus, no photograph can be
obtain from it.
Shadowgraph
The shadowgraph also works almost the same as the bullet
comparison microscope. It only differs due to a large circular ground glass
that is 14 inches more or less in diameter, wherein observation and

112
comparison of the class characteristics is done. It is basically design for
preliminary determination of firearm characteristic.
Taper Gauge
Is an instrument designed to measure diameter of the bore of the
firearm.
Torsion Balance
Instrument designed to get the
equivalent weight of a bullet in order to
determine its caliber.

Name:____________________

Section:_______
Date:_________________

Assignment Sheet/Seat work #13

1. Distinguished Caliper, micrometer and torsion balance.

2. Explain the Principles involved in the use of Comparator microscope

in the identification of fired bullet and fired shell to that of test bullet
and test shell.

113

Chapter 14
The Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS)

Forensic Technologys Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS ) is

an advanced technological tool that provides a better means of handling cases
confronting law enforcement agencies involving the identification of firearms .
With its development increased workloads, shortages of firearms examiners, and
shrinking

budgets

by harnessing

computer, automation,

and

database

technologies can now be effectively answered. Ibis become an integral part of

modern firearms laboratory and its backbone of ATFs highly successful National
Integrated Ballistics Information Network (NIBIS). For over ten (10) years IBIS

114
has proven its ability to enhance the efficiency and productivity of firearms
laboratories, helping firearms examiners solve crimes in less time.

Having linked over 14,000 cases, IBIS is the world standard in the
automated Ballistics Identification and plays a key role in FTIs integrated product
philosophy. IBIS can be integrated with other FTI products to create a network of
solutions that stretch across the entire criminal justice system. From training and
evidence acquisition to information management and data analysis, FTIs
integrated family of products combine to form comprehensive crime fighting
solutions for an agency, state or country.

THE SYSTEM
IBIS captures digital images of bullet and cartridge case evidence, stores
them in a database, and performs automatic computer-based comparison that
are ranked according to the likelihood of a match. After receiving potential
matches, firearms examiners perform microscopic comparisons on this handful of
high-confidence evidence rather than manually examining hundreds, or
thousands, of unrelated specimens. IBIS makes it possible for firearms
examiners to quickly compare a mounting volume of firearms evidence that
would have been impractical, if not impossible, with manual methods.

115

The unique ability of IBIS to create a digital database of ballistic evidence

that can be searched for matches against newly entered evidence has been of
great value to law enforcement. A piece of evidence (POE) collected from a
recent gun related crime can be entered and correlated against thousands of
POEs collected over several years, much like an Automated Fingerprint
Identification System (AFIS). This allows firearms examiners to link and current
and past crimes, create new investigative leads, and solve crimes that may have
gone unsolved without IBIS technology.

NETWORKING IBIS

The highly efficient digital analysis conducted by IBIS can be done locally,
nationally, or internationally by networking IBIS units together. This feature opens
up tremendous opportunities to link crimes locally, nationally and internationally.
Examiners can routinely check cases with any IBIS on the network, allowing for
peer review and confirmation of matches between laboratories. Recently, this
networking feature has been employed internationally to link crimes between
Sweden and Denmark.

116
ANNEX A

National Bureau of Investigation

Medico-legal Division
Manila
October 31, 2001
TO; CHIEF FID

Respectfully referred and submitted in connection with case NO. 01-2021

the two (2) deformed slugs recovered from the cadaver of one WILFREDO
BALIKATAN Y MENDAVIA, 35yrs old, old, male, married, address #924
Tramo St., Brgy., San Dionisio, Paranaque City for Ballistics Examinations

ALLEGED CASE: Murder

Submitted By:
JAMES PRADO
Laboratory technician
MLD, NBI, Manila
EYMUND C.BARRIENTOS, M.D.
Medico-legal Officer

117
ANNEX B
Republic of the Philippines
National Police Commission
Philippine National Police
Paranaque City Police Station
Southern Police District office
Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo Blvd., La Huerta Paranaque City
November 21, 2001
OSIB
TO: The Director
NBI, Taft Ave.,
Manila
Attn. C. Technical Service Branch
Subject: Ballistics Examination, Request for
Sir/Madam:
May We request your good office to conduct Ballistics Examination on the
recovered COLT PISTOL Caliber .45 with Serial No. 772144 from the suspect
JUAN DELA CRUZ , and two (2) empty shells of cal. .45 marked as JC from the
crime scene, re-shooting incident that took place on or about 3:00 a.m., 24
October 2001 at Tramo St., Brgy. San Dionisio, Paranaque City Wherein the
victim was identified as WILFREDO BALIKATAN Y MENDAVIA, 35 yrs. Old of #
924 Tramo St., Brgy., Manuyo, Las Pinas City
Please furnish us copy of the results for cur ready reference relative to the
above cited case.
Anticipating your usual cooperation on matters of mutual interest.
SPO1 Alberto P. Ramos
Invest. On case
Noted:
Isabelo D. Silvestre Jr.
Police Chief Inspector
C, SIB

118
ANNEX C
Republic of the Philippines
Department of Justice
National Bureau of Investigation
Firearms Investigation Division
Manila
13 December 2001
FID REPORT NO.270-14-9-2001. (N-01-20210
SUBJECT:

Re-fatal shooting of one WILFREDO BALIKATAN Y MENDAVIA of

Tramo St., Brgy., Manuyo, Las Pinas City

REQUESTING PARTY:
SPO1 ALBERTO P. RAMOS
Paranaque City Police Station
Southern Police District Office
VICTIM:

WILFREDO BALIKATAN Y MENDAVIA (deceased)

SUSPECT:

JUAN DELA CRUZ

SPECIMEN SUBMITTED:
1. COLT PISTOL Cal. .45 serial number 772144
2. Two (2) cal. .45 empty shell marked as JC-1 and JC-2.
3. Two (2) deformed slug marked WB-1 and WB-2
DATE AND TIME RECEIVED:
1. Items no. 1 and 2 were received from SPO1 ALBERTO P.
RAMOS of Paranaque City Police Station on November 5, 2001
at 4:00 p.m.
2. items 3 were received from JAMES PRADO of MLD, NBI,
Manila on October 24, 2001 at 5:00 a.m.
PURPOSE:
1. To determine whether or not evidence two (2) bullets marked as
WB-1 and WB-2 were fired from COLT PISTOL cal. .45, SN772124.
2. To determine whether or not evidence shells marked as JC-1
and JC-2 were fired from above mentioned firearm.

119

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION:

1. Comparative examinations made between two (2) evidence
bullets marked WB-1, WB-2 with the test bullets fired from
COLT pistol caliber .45 SN-772124 revealed POSITIVE results.
Said evidence bullets were fired from this particular firearms.
2. Comparative examinations made between the two (2) evidence
shells marked JC-1, JC-2 with the test shells fired from the
COLT pistol caliber .45 SN-772124 revealed POSITIVE results.
Said evidence shells were fired from this particular firearm.
REMARKS
The specimen submitted are being retained in this office until their
release is authorized. This report consist of two (2) pages.

XX

XX

XX
Respectfully submitted:
BELLO D. SILVERIO JR.
Ballistician 1

NOTED:
ATTY. PERDO L. RIVERA
Deputy Director
Technical Services

APPROVED:
ROGELIO G. MUNAR
Chief
Firearms Investigation Div.

120

GLOSSARY

Accelaration . Rate at which the velocity of a body freely falling due to the force
of gravity, increase per unit of time. Its value is 32.16 foot
seconds.
Adapter. A device which alters in a way the original construction or function of a
gun. See Conversion unit; also grip adapter.
Air Space. Space within the cartridge not occupied by bullet, primer composition
or powder.
Anemometer. Instrument which measures wind velocity.
Anneal. To heat-treat metal to reduce its brittleness.
Anvil. A section of the primer against which the center of the primer cup is forced
by the firing pin, thereby causing a crushing action which ignites
the primer compositions.
Assembly. A number of collated parts assembled as a single unit.
Auto- loader. A self-loading, semi automatic firearms.
Automatic. Usually a misnomer for a semi-automatic weapon. A full automatic
discharges cartridges as long as the trigger is held back or until
the magazine is emptied.
B.A. R. Abbreviation for Browning Automatic Rifle. A gas operated
Barrel . Metal tube containing the chamber and bore of the firearm.
Barrel lug. A projection integral with the barrel used to secure the magazine,
forearm, or some movable part to the barrel.
Base wad. Compressed paper filler, which keeps the powder in position ahead of
the flashing end of the shotgun shell primer.
Bearing Surface. The portion of a bullets circumference, which contacts the
bore and receives the rifling impression.
Bent. A notch, usually in the hammer, in which the sear or trigger is held under
tension by the mainspring.

121
Blow Forward. A type of automatic action in which the barrel is blown forward
and then returns against the standing breech by spring pull,
reloading and cocking taking place during the return movement.
Blowback . An automatic action designed to blow back the bolt or slide by gas
pressure in the chamber. It is either Straight or retarded
blowback.
Boat tail . Tapered portion of the bullet near the base.
Bolt Action . A rifle and shotgun mechanism whereby the breech is opened and
closed by a manually operated bolt which travels back and forth
in the receiver on a direct line with chamber and barrel.. (1)
Turning boltlocking lugs are turned to lock the action. (2)
Straight pull --- locking lugs actuated by bolt studs which slide in
grooves cut into the bolt cylinder.
Bolt head. The rear portion of the bolt which, in bolt action gun, projects beyond
the bolt sleeve when the bolt is closed.
Bolt Sleeve. A metal tube containing the bolt and to which the bolt handle is
affixed.
Bolt Stop. A pin or lever which prevents removal of the bolt from the action
unless expressly desired.
Bore. The inside, or bored section of a barrel.
Bottleneck. Cartridge case design with a constricted neck line that of a bottle.
Box Magazine. A box-like metal container for holding cartridges that are fed into
the chamber by the action of the gun after the magazine is
inserted into the magazine well.
Breech. The rear portion of the bore where the cartridge or shell is inserted into
the chamber.
Breechblock. A metal block, against which the cartridge rests, closing the rear
of the bore against the discharge. Also called as breech bolt.
Brenneke slug. The original German rifled shotgun slug.
Broaching . A method of rifling the grooves of a barrel simultaneously with a
broach, a tool with a series of cutting teeth.

122
Buckshot. Large size lead shot for use in shotgun shells. Commercially
manufacture in five sizes such as No. 00 (.33); No. 0 (.32); No.
1 (.30); No. 3 (.25); No. 4 (.24).
Buffer. A part of the lower received group, which absorbs shock or recoil.
Bulk powder. Smokeless powder equivalent in results to equal bilk of black
powder.
Bull dog. Short pocket revolver, of English manufacture, in .44 caliber. Also
applied to Iver Johnson .22 cal. Revolvers made between 1800
and 1900, and German Pickert .22 center fire revolvers.
Bullet mold. A form in which bullets are cast by pouring molten lead or alloy into
it through a sprue hole in the top.
Bullseye. Center of a paper target; counts as 10 in pistol and .22 caliber rifle
shooting; 5 in .30 caliber target matches.
Butt. The shoulder end of a gunstock; the bottom of a revolver or pistol grip.
Cam. A rotating or sliding projection which either imparts or receives a desired
motion to, or from, a counteracting part, such as a roller, pin, etc.
Caps. Lowest powered .22 calliber rim fire ammunition. (BB, Bullet breech and
CB, Conical bullet developed in 1850 the first .22 caliber rim fire
cartridge and the first American cartridge to contain its own
primer).
Cast bullet. Lead alloy bullet without a jacket; the most inexpensive type for
handloaders to cast.
Cylinder. True diameter of the bore of a shotgun barrel, hence without any
degree of choke.
Decapping . The act of removing the primer, live or fired from a cartridge.
Deheading tools. A device for removing the rims of fired .22 caliber cases.
Ejector.

Mechanism which ejects, after firing the empty case from the gun
following withdrawal of the case from the chamber by the
extractor.

Expanding bullet . a soft point or hallow point bullet that expands to a larger
than a normal sectional diameter upon impact with animal tissue.

123
Extractor.

Mechanism which engages the rim of a cartridge seated in the

chamber. By opening the action, the extractor is moved rearward
and the case withdrawn from the chamber.

Field gun. A shotgun used for bird and animal hunting as distinguished from a
specialized trap, skeet or duck model.
Feed mechanism. Introduces a cartridge of shell from the magazine of a
repeating firearm into the chamber. Hence, feeding a cartridge
into the chamber.
Fouling. Particles of projectile metal, burned powder, etc, which adhere to the
bore of a gun. Adherence of lead is called. Leading.
Frame. Metal structure of a firearm that normally house the other parts of the gun
most commonly used in reference with handgun.
Gas cutting . Barrel erosion by hot powder gases.
Gas check . A copper alloy cup at the base of a lead bullet which prevents fusing
of the lead and the escape of gases around the bullet.
Gilding metal. An alloy (approximately 90-95 % copper, 5-10 % zinc) for bullet
jackets, (70 % copper and 30 % zinc) in primer of shell.
Gyroscopic. Rotating movement of the projectile.
Hammer. Part of a firing mechanism which, when released by the trigger, drives
the firing pin into the primer.
Hangfire. Delayed powder ignition following the trigger pull; may last several
seconds.
Hydraulic shock. As applied to shooting, the transmission of bullet energy, upon
impact with the animal tissue, through the body fluids with
sufficient force to fatally affect vital areas.
Jacket. Outermost material on a bullet; usually almost completely encases it.
Jumping clip. A clip that jumps out of the gun before the last round is fired.
Keyhole. An oval-shaped hole in a target made by a tipped or tumbling bullet. A
round hole which is made by a stabilized bullet.
Lip fire. A form of rim fire cartridge, now obsolete, in which the priming
Composition was held in a small lip on the case rim.

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Lock. The firing mechanism. The assembly which locks the barrel to the standing
breech in hinged frame gun.
Lumbricating groove. An indentation around the circumference of a lead bullet
containing a wax or grease which acts as a bore lubricant when
the bullet is fired.
Magazine. An integral or detachable assembly of a repeating type gun for storing
cartridges or shells fro direct insertion onto the chamber through
manual or automatic operation of the action.
Magnum. A larger than normal cartridge case for any given caliber. Originated
from England which literally means extra power.
Misfire. A cartridge which completely fails to fire.
Mushroom. An expanding bullet, such as a soft point or hallow point, which
flattens to a larger than normal sectional diameter upon impact
with animal tissue.
Nitrocellulose. An explosive compound of nitric acid and cellulose; a base for
smokeless gun powder.
Nitroglycerine . A nitrate of glycerol treated with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric
acid. Colorless, heavy, oily and explosive.
Nose. Head, or forward section of a bullet.
O.P.E. Open Point Expanding bullet. Patented by Western Cartridge Company.
Ogive. Curved portion of a projectile which is symmetrical and form an arched,
pointed head.
Operating rod. Transmit movement to the action of a gas operated, semiautomatic weapon.
Parabellum. The German Luger pistol; its 9mm cartridge may be referred to by
the same name.
Paradox. A type of shotgun bore in which most of the barrel is smooth bore
except for a short, rifled area near the muzzle. Used for firing
shot or rifled slugs.
Parallax. The diference in apparent direction of an object seen from two different
points.

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Patched. Same as metal jacketed or metal cased bullets.

Pressure. Outward thrust of a burning powder gases, measured one inch from
the breech and designated as pounds per square inch, against
case, chamber, and bore. It can be chamber pressure or a
residual pressure.
Projectile. A missile projected through and out of the gun barrel by powder
gases.
Proofmark. An identifying stamp mark, usually on the barrel, to show that the
arm has been test fired to withstand higher than normal gas
pressure.
Recoil. Backward movement of the firearm after firing.
Reloading. Strictly speaking, the loading of components into previously fired
cartridge or shell. Generally it is synonymous with handloading.
Resolving power. The ability of an optical instrument to define details.
Ricochet. Glancing off a surface at any angle. Used in reference to a deflected
or rebounding bullet.
Rifling. The spiral, parallel grooving of a barrel which impels rotation to a
projectile during its passage through the bore.
Ringed Barrel. One which has been enlarged at some specific point in firing the
arm while the barrel was obstructed in some manner.
Riot gun. A repeating shotgun with a 20 barrel for law enforcement
Safety. Is a manually operated or automatic device which prevents accidental
discharge of the trigger. And sear mechanism.
Sear. A connecting link between trigger and hammer or firing pin which, when
disengaged from the hammer notch or firing pin shoulder,
permits firing of the primer.
Semi-automatic. A firearm which is loaded automatically from magazine to
chamber by its action but which requires a separate trigger pull
to discharge each cartridge or shell.
Shots. Spherical lead pellets used in shotgun shell as projectiles.

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Single shot. A firearm which holds only one cartridge, necessitating reloading
after firing each shot.
Trigger. The Projecting part of a firing mechanism which, when moved by the
finger, releases the hammer or cocking piece.
Wadcutter. A sharp shouldered, cylindrical bullet. A semi-wadcutter has a shorter
nose.
X-ring. A circle within the bullseye for determining tie scores, the contestant
having the greatest number of hits within the X-ring being
declared the winner.
Yaw. Instability of a bullet in flight; rotating around the trajectory instead of being
stabilized head on.

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Bibliography
Foreign Textbook
I.

An introduction to toll Mark, Firearm and the Striagraph by John, E. Davis,

1958, Charles C.Thomas. Publisher.

II.

Book of Pistols and Revolvers completely updated by Joseph E. Smith

III.

Illustrated Encyclopedia of Ammunition by Ian V. Hogg, 1988, New

Burlington Books, Quarto Publishing plc.

IV.

Firearms Identification by Dickersen Cook, Institute of Applied Science,

Chicago Illinois

V.

Firearms Investigation, Identification and Evidence by Hatcher by Jury

Weller

VI.

Medicolegal Investigation of Gunshot Wounds by Abdullah Fitteh

VII.

Small Arms Design and Ballistics by Col. Townsend Whelen, 1946, Small
Arms Technical Publishing Company.

VIII.

The Identification of Firearms by Jack Disbrow Gunther and Charles O.

Gunther, 1935 John Wiley & Son , Inc.

Local Textbook
I.
Rosario

Forensic Ballistics by Del

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