Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
April 2005
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
The majority of oil and gas, produced from the development of offshore fields
is traditionally transported by subsea pipeline to onshore for
processing/distribution.
This routing necessitates a landfall or shore
approach.
Shore approaches are traditionally areas that have given rise to problems in
construction and operation. Not only are the wave and current conditions
which the pipeline must withstand the most severe, but the difficulties of
access and control of operations in the breaking wave zone render
construction and subsequent inspection activities potentially hazardous.
Issues of sediment movement and beach erosion make prediction of the
The sites are often prominent and so negotiation with stakeholders can be
protracted with high public visibility. Lastly, risks to the pipeline from all
causes including third party contact (vessels, digging incidents etc) are
higher than for most other parts of the pipeline and consequences from
pipeline leakage are severe. Hence, a conservative high integrity design is
needed.
1.2
wave modification
liquefaction
general survey techniques and requirements.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
2.0
DEFINITIONS
2.1
Figures
A1
4.1
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
6.1
Hjulstrom's Curve
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
2.2
Glossary
The following definitions are used in this guideline:
Shore Approach:
Surf Zone:
Water Depth:
Scour:
Erosion:
Nearshore Zone:
Beach:
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Backbeach
Liquefaction:
Bathymetry:
Aeolian:
Longshore:
Refraction:
Shoaling:
Celerity (C):
Diffraction:
Streamers:
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Sandwaves:
Engineering Backfill:
backfill
selected
by
engineering
characteristics, rather than native material
won from the adjacent seabed. Often, a
protective layer of facing of quarry stones
usually well graded, randomly placed to
prevent erosion or scour;
Coast:
sea/land interface
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
2.3
Notation
PARAMETER
Soil Relative Density
Cone Penetrometer Resistance
Effective Over Burden Pressure
Coefficient of Permeability
Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest
Soil Angle of Internal Friction
Soil Modulus of Elasticity
Poisson's Ratio for Soil
Pre Pressure Generation Constant
Effective Number of Wave Cycles
Average Drainage Path Length
Volume of Soil/Area of Drainage
Coefficient of Volume Compressibility
Unit Weight of Water
Pore Water Pressure
Density of Seawater
Density of Soil Particles
Rate of Porewater Pressure Generation
Mean Grain Size
Kinematic Viscosity of Seawater
Horizontal Component of Velocity
Bed Friction Factor
Orbital Amplitude
Density of Soil Particle
Critical Bed Shear Stress
Acceleration due to Gravity
Reynolds' Number
Deepwater Celerity
Wave Length
Deepwater Wave Length
Angle with Respect to Deepwater Angle
Breaking Wave Height
Breaking Wave Depth
Ratio of Breaking Wave Height/Depth
Critical Wave Period
Critical Breaking Parameter
Beach Slope
Grain Size such that 20% by Weight are Finer
Shear Stress
Significant Wave Height
Porewater Pressure
Initiation Pressure
Reference Cyclic Stress Ratio
Depth Below Seabed to which Liquefaction Extends
Pore Pressure Ratio
Number of Cycles to Liquefaction
Unit Weight of Water
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
SYMBOL
Dr
qc
v
k
ko
Es
v
Neff
L
L1
Mv
pw
p
w
s
D50
u
ff
a
lp
g
Re
Co
L
Lo
Hb
db
Tc
Fc
m
D20
Hs
Pd
Po
io
z
ru
Ni
w
UNIT
%
N/m 2
N/m 2
m/sec
degrees
N/m 2
m
m
N
N/m 2
kg/m 3
kg/m 3
mm
m2/sec
m/sec
m
kg/m 3
N/m 2
m/s2
m/s
m
m
degrees
m
m
secs
mm
N/m 2
m
N/m 2
N/m 2
m
N/m 2
SITE SELECTION
3.0
Landfall selection is the first step in shore crossing design. The process is
necessarily iterative since there are many factors to be balanced including:
directness of route
suitability of onshore pipeline alignment to the consumer
suitability of offshore alignment
suitability of landfall.
The landfall site will be selected initially for its proximity to both the offshore
site and the consumer location. In general, the shortest route is taken as a
first step and several candidate landfalls will be located and researched by
desktop study.
Since each landfall with have a different onshore and
offshore route, the attributes of all candidates are reviewed as a set and one
or two shortlisted options are taken forward for detailed review.
Once the area in which the landfall is desired has been chosen, the actual site
can be selected after consideration of a number of factors. These include the
following:
local geology
area use
Table 3.1 outlines the most and least preferred features associated with the
considerations mentioned above.
Table 3.1
PIPELINE SITING CONSIDERATIONS
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Shoreline Sediments
Barrier Islands
Heavy
sediment
ocean
front,
significant historical and tidal inlet
formation large wet land or bay
expanse
between
island
and
mainland.
Beaches
Accreting,
sandy
beach
with
historical stability (long-term and
during storm activity).
Wet Lands
Firm
soil
conditions
(high
trafficability) with no obstructions
such as tree stumps.
Cliffs
Submarine Topography
Submarine Sediment
Submarine
Waves
SHORE LINE
Onshore
Erosion/ Dunes
SPECIAL
USES
Commercial
Areas
Wrecks
Sand
Sand
COASTAL
Fishing
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Areas of Unexploded
Ordinance
Recreational Areas
Frequent highly
recreation.
Cable Areas
Rights of Way
OTHER
USES
used
areas
of
SPECIAL
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
4.0
environmental forces
Where site selection must be carried out, preliminary survey will often precede
more detailed survey and data collection. This Section contains discussion
about survey requisites and techniques. The sequence of investigations is:
4.1
Desktop Study
Preliminary Survey and Data Gathering
Engineering Geophysical and Geotechnical Survey
Construction Pre-survey
Preliminary Investigation
Before any field survey of a shore approach is undertaken, a desk top study
should be performed. Data may come from a variety of sources such as
Ordinance Survey Charts, the Hydrography Department of the Navy, the
DOIR, Dept of Fisheries etc. Previous civil work performed in the area should
also be reviewed. Research studies on the site may have been carried out in
allied fields, such as sedimentology, coastal engineering or oceanography.
It is very important to be able to predict the long term stability of the shore and
the best indicator of trends are beach profiles which can either be obtained
from previous surveys or from successive historical aerial photographs,
preferably stereoscopic.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Survey Zones
The survey for a shore approach can be divided into three regions:
Offshore Survey.
Shallow Water Survey
Land Survey
Broadly speaking, the information required from each is the same, but the
techniques of acquiring the information differ. Whilst the land and offshore
sections are relatively straightforward, the intermediate section is more
complex and will use a combination of techniques.
The three regions of survey must be tied into a datum both vertically and
horizontally, especially as they may be performed by different contractors
and/or at different times.
The timing of the land-intermediate zone survey should be considered in
relation to seasonal variations in topography and tide levels. These variations
should be identified during the preliminary investigations.
4.3
Equipment
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Pinger:
high frequency
low penetration
good resolution
b)
Boomer:
lower frequency
better penetration
lower resolution
c)
Sparker:
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Offshore Survey
The offshore survey will extend shorewards until limited by water depth.
These days, survey vessel are normally equipped with a Differential Global
Positioning System (DGPS) which provides a positioning accuracy to within a
few metres. Dedicated microwave positioning trains are therefore not
necessary.
A landbased survey system would be required if small craft were used in the
shallow water of the shore crossing.
Again if trenching is planned offshore, it is vital to have comprehensive soils
information and vibracores every kilometre with appropriate soils analysis are
a good investment.
4.6
Land Survey
Standard land survey techniques are employed to obtain the topography of the
route from the mean low water mark across the beach/shore line to the shore
point.
The positioning control should be tied into a local datum. This is generally the
Ordinance Survey National Grid in the UK. In remote regions, a local datum
may be required and which can often be established using satellite positioning
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
The soil resistivity along the route should be assessed to provide information
on the geo-electrical stratification and changes in the lateral resistivity.
This can be achieved using a constant electrode separation technique.
4.7
4.8
wind
wave
tide
residual sources (such as longshore drift, circulation currents, and storm
driven currents)
Knowing the wind and wave climate, it is possible but generally inaccurate to
predict velocities/frequency relationships for the first two components but the
last two will need direct measurements. These will preferably be taken over a
long period of time or at least over the spring tide cycle ideally at one of the
equinoxes.
The extreme still water levels (tidal and surge) will be required. Tidal
predictions may be available for a nearby site, but because tidal flow will be
highly influenced by coastal features, direct measurements should preferably
be used to determine tidal constants. The reference datum used should be
LAT or ISLW and it should be tied into the survey datum.
4.9
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
DESIGN ISSUES
5.0
Liquefaction: cyclic loading of the soil from wave action can reduce the
strength of the soil to a stage where the pipeline will sink, possibly over
stressing the pipeline, or float to the surface.
Once exposed, the pipeline will be subjected to full wave and current attack,
mechanical damage, accelerated corrosion and in the extreme could fail from
fatigue.
The Australian Oil and Gas Pipeline Code AS2885 allows the decision on
burial to be made on based on an assessment of the risks to the pipeline. A
landfall on the mainland will normally buried for a combination or reasons, not
just risk. However, some landfalls in remote sites on islands and outfalls have
been built as exposed pipelines.
The design needs to address:
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
6.0
6.1
refraction
shoaling
energy dissipation
diffraction
reflection.
The ratio of water depth to wave height at which the wave becomes unstable
and breaks must be quantified.
The limit of wave run up the shore is easier to quantify because the beach
profile may be measured but the incident wave height must be reliably known.
Ideally, these aspects will be discussed and the analysis performed by the
environmental specialists who compile the offshore data. The general process
is:
a. establish a bathymetric profile along the route;
b. establish the unbroken and shoaled wave parameters at required
points up the beach, for maximum and minimum water depths and all
required approach directions;
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Refraction
6.1.1
the velocity of the wave crest depends only on the wave length and still
water depth under the crest at each point;
At the beach, some of these assumptions will not be true, as discussed below.
Wind shear opposing the breaker travel direction causes the waves to
steepen earlier and thus to move the breakpoint offshore. Opposing wind
shear can be neglected for most lifetime design events, since at the arrival of
the extreme waves at the shore, the wind direction will probably be following.
The direction of the water particle travel will be predominantly in the direction
of wave travel except for along-crest motion due to short crestedness of the
wave and currents. Long crestedness will increase toward the shore as
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Shoaling
Shoaling analysis, as described in Ref 1 is essentially a linear phenomenon.
At the point of break and immediately prior to it, shoaling is not linear. Shallow
water waves are most readily modelled using Solitary Wave Theory and are
not oscillatory but rather translational waves, therefore, highly non-linear
phenomena. Since the true solitary wave is displaced water entirely above the
still water level, it is effectively independent of the preceding and following
wave in the train.
6.1.3
Energy Dissipation
As waves travel from one site to another, energy is lost through friction,
deformation of and percolation through the seafloor. If no energy is
transferred to the wave through wind shear, then the losses can be
considerable for travel across long fetches in shallow water.
Both wave height and wave period are modified. Estimation of losses from
attenuation is complex and if warranted should be referred to environmental
specialists.
As a rule, where the refraction analysis must be carried out over an extensive
region of seabed less than 20 m, frictional attenuation should be addressed.
6.1.4
Diffraction
For a landfall on an open beach, diffraction need not be considered. For a
landfall near a breakwater, in a bay or adjacent to a barrier island, diffraction
will affect the direction, long crestedness and height of the incident waves in
shore approach. Diffraction can be predicted in accordance with Ref 1.
6.1.5
Reflection
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
(6.1)
Where:
Hb
db
=
=
This limit is derived from the theoretical and empirical work and is a mid-range
value. In fact, Hb may range from 0.65db to 1.7db (Ref 1, Figure 4.18),
depending on wave period and beach slope.
6.1.7
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Water Level
6.2
The highest water levels occur during storm tides. Storm tide levels consist of
tidal variation, storm surge and set up. Storm surge is caused by the wind
stress on the sea surface and by the raising of the water level immediately
under a low pressure centre. Set up is super-elevation of the water surface
due to onshore mass transport of water by the wave action. Storm surge can
be either super-elevation or depression of the water surface.
When a high water level is combined with attack from large waves,
overtopping of beach protection structures or barrier dunes can occur, causing
flooding of low lying areas inland of the beach. It is particularly important to
establish the levels of likely run-up when breaching such dunes for tie-in
works; and contingency measures should be taken where flooding may result
from a severe storm occurrence.
Wave height is dependent on water depth and hence the worst wave forces
near the beach will generally be experienced at the highest water level.
Further offshore, the converse will be true.
The point of wave break is also affected by the slope of the beach berm which
will be modified during a large storm. At the highest water level, the beach will
normally be steeper initially, than the average slope.
6.3
Liquefaction
6.3.1
Introduction
Cyclic loading, due to the passage of waves or to seismic activity, may cause
liquefaction of seabed sediments.
Most pipeline problems involving
liquefaction occur in shallow water such as in shore approaches but
liquefaction has also been predicted at touchdown points of spans, during pile
driving, during blasting and at the base of structures experiencing wave
loading. Loose cohesionless soils are most susceptible to this phenomenon,
but the large number of loading cycles associated with storms can lead to
liquefaction in a wide range of soil conditions. Static loading can induce
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Data Requirements
The specific data requirements depend on the method used for determining
liquefaction potential.
o Pore Pressure Drainage Path Length: For a pipeline, this value can
be realistically estimated as the distance below the seabed of the soil
layer being investigated.
o Volume of Soil/Area of Drainage Surface: for a pipeline placed on a
locally uniform seabed, this ratio can be approximated as the distance
below the seabed of the soil layer being investigated.
o Coefficient of Volume Compressibility:
Relative density has been correlated with in-situ cone penetrometer test
results as follows.
DR 98 66 log
Where:
DR
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
qc
(6.2)
kN/m2.
The above relationship is valid only for normally consolidated, uniform, fine to
medium grained, completely dry or saturated sand, consisting mainly of a noncrushable material such as quartz.
Relative density can also be calculated from standard penetration test data,
nuclear density test results, electrical resistivity tests, or dilatometer test.
The dilatometer is a relatively new field testing device, wherein a blade is
driven into the soil to the desired testing depth by means of a drill rig or other
device. Gas pressure is then used to inflate and deflate a stainless steel
membrane. Several data readings are taken while the membrane is extended
horizontally into the soil.
Testing for soil relative density may also be performed in the laboratory.
The coefficient of permeability can be estimated from soil grain size data as:
K 77 D20
2 .32
(6.3)
Where:
k
D20
=
=
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
(6.4)
For descriptions of the soil testing procedures mentioned in this Section, refer
to any standard, geotechnical engineering text or to the American Standard
Testing Manual (ASTM) for Soils.
6.3.3
Analytical Methods
Gravesen and Fredsoe Semi Empirical Method
This method as described herein is applicable for determining the liquefaction
potential of cohesionless seabed sediment in shallow water (ie. the surf zone).
The first step is to determine the effective number of wave cycles:
neff
Where:
neff
l
l'
Mv
w
T
k
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
3.04. l.l' Mv . w
T. k
(6.5)
Next, the ratio of pore water pressure at the depth of interest to the pressure
at the seabed must be calculated. For pipelines, this ratio can be considered
to be unity since the depth of interest is very close to the seabed and the
design wave length is relatively long for ocean waves.
The ratio of design wave height to significant wave height is determined from
Fig 6.1(a).
The actual stress ratio is calculated as follows:
H n neff Pd
i
.
.
o
Hs
Po
'n neff
Where:
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
(6.6)
Pd =
H . .
L. cosh 2 d / L
(6.7)
Where:
H
L
d
=
=
=
wave height
wave length
water depth
0.5 d
0.16
. d 1.43
(6.8)
so that:
n neff
016
.
H n neff
Hs
(6.9)
The actual cyclic stress ratio is converted to an equivalent cyclic stress ratio
by means of Fig 6.1(b). The final step in the analysis is to determine whether
the soil falls within the range of liquefiable soils shown on Fig 6.2.
6.3.4
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
7.1
Introduction
Scour and erosion occur as a result of sediment transport. For sediment
transport to occur, the threshold velocity for mobilisation must first be
exceeded by the bottom current velocity (or wind velocity) acting in shear on
the bed, then, a sufficiently high velocity to transport the mobilised sediment
must be maintained. Sediment thrown into suspension by wave action will
settle out once the velocity of the current reduces below a predictable
minimum.
Both scour and erosion are the result of an imbalance in the sediment budget
at a site, and the two terms are loosely interchangeable. In the context of the
beach, erosion is used in this guideline to describe depletion of sediment in
the berm and cutting back of the shoreline. Scour is used to describe the
underwater removal of material by waves and currents, particularly localised
removal such as in scour holes.
The following sediment transport mechanisms are discussed below, broadly
described as scour and beach processes:
7.2
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
sediment budget
stabilisation.
7.3
prediction of volumes
Longshore Transport
7.4
effects of embayments
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
sand pumping.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
8.0
8.1
Introduction
It is usual, and in most locations required by statute, that a pipeline be buried
in the shore approach and shore crossing. Burial affords mechanical
protection to the pipeline, reduces the disruption to the sediment movement
patterns and improves the useability of the site as an amenity.
The pipeline should be trenched as deeply as is practical in view of the soil
conditions and backfilled using material which will either conform to the
changing beach profile or be resistant to scour under the worst expected
storm attack. This section discusses the requirements for trench depth and
selection and design of backfill material.
8.2
Protection Methods
The type and extent of protection depends on the adversity of the environment
and ease of construction amongst other factors. For instance, for an isolated
calm estuarine environment in clay material it may be acceptable to simply
trench the pipeline and provide dumped sand backfill over the pipeline in the
crossing itself. On the other hand, for the crossing of rocky shore, subject to
breaking wave attack, it may not be possible or may be prohibitively costly to
trench deeply; and a structure similar to a rock breakwater or provision to
secure the pipeline by clamps drilled into the rock may be acceptable as a
method to protect the pipeline.
These measures are site specific, it may be that protrusive rock beams are
visibly unacceptable, detrimental to longshore sediment drift, or dangerous to
marine activities. Protection method is integrally linked to construction method
that is discussed in detail in Section Eleven. A summary of protection methods
is shown in Fig 8.1. Primary protection will usually be by trenching.
8.3
Trench Depth
The trench must always provide an adequate depth of cover to act as a buffer
for mechanical loads in the beach zone and in depths where vessels may
ground on the pipeline. The depth must include allowance for lowering of the
beach level either due to long term trends or short term storm damage. The
vertical profile of the pipeline is influenced by the required onshore, offshore
elevations and extent which the pipeline will conform to the surface
topography within code permitted curvatures. To achieve an acceptable
profile, the trench may need to be deeper than required for offset scour.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Backfill
8.4.1
Considerations
The following are considered during backfill design:
8.4.2
Isbash Formula
Y - Yw
U = C 2g s
Yw
1
2
D2
(8.1)
Where:
U
C
g
Ys
Yw
=
=
=
=
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
. Ys
1
3
(8.2)
(8.3)
8.4.3
8.4.4
W=
wr . H 3
K D ( S r - 1) 3 cot
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
(8.4)
=
=
=
=
ww =
=
KD =
Equation 8.4 is intended for conditions when the cost of the structure is high
enough to prevent major overtopping.
Importance of Unit Weight of Armour Units
The basic equation used for design of armour units for rubble structures
indicates that the unit weight W r of quarrystone or concrete is important.
Designers should carefully evaluate the advantages of increasing unit weight
of concrete armour units to affect savings in the structure cost.
Concrete Armour Units
Many different concrete shapes have been developed as armour units for
rubble structures. The major advantage of concrete armour units is that they
usually have a higher stability coefficient value, thus permitting the use of
steeper structure side slopes or a lighter weight of armour unit. This has
particular value when quarry stone of the required size is not available.
The major concrete armour units are tetrapods, tribars, quadripods, and
dolosse - as shown in Fig 8.1.
Design of Structure Cross-Section
A rubble structure is normally comprised of a bedding layer and a core of
quarry-run stone covered by one or more layers of larger stone and an exterior
layer(s) of large quarrystone or concrete armour units. Typical rubble mound
cross sections for non-breaking and breaking waves are shown in Fig 8.2 and
8.3. The right hand column of the table in these figures gives the rock size
gradation of each layer as a percent of the average layer rock size given in
the left hand column. To prevent smaller rocks in an underlayer from being
pulled through an overlayer by wave action, the criteria for filter design may be
used to check the rock-size gradation given in Figs 8.2 and 8.3. This is given
by Sowers and Sowers as:
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
structure geometry;
evaluation of construction technique; and
evaluation of design materials.
As part of the design analysis indicated in Fig 8.4, the following structure
geometry should be investigated:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
when not in direct contract with the pipeline steel, it may pick up
strong currents which will lead to corrosion of the slag pieces;
2)
3)
when in direct contact with bare pipe steel, the cathode surface
is increased which may lead to increased current demand.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
9.0
CORROSION PREVENTION
9.1
Introduction
Corrosion prevention for subsea and buried land pipelines is achieved by the
use of a high quality anti-corrosion coating in conjunction with a cathodic
protection system. The extent of the cathodic protection system required will
depend largely on the standard of coating achieved.
This section provides an overview of the criteria important in the protection of
shore approach pipelines from external corrosion. The corrosion prevention
design guidelines provide a comprehensive discussion of all factors involved.
Coatings
9.2
A pipeline crossing the shore approach zone passes through three separate
(distinct) environmental regions:
the surf zone - permanently submerged
the beach - alternately submerged and dry
the back beach - landline conditions.
The region of intermittent wetting and drying tends to be the most problematic,
more so in the surf zone because the water is rich in oxygen. Therefore, the
coating chosen must be suitable for service.
Cathodic Protection
9.3
by impressed current
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
b)
c)
d)
e)
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
10.0
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Once the size, weight, length, routing and burial depth have been determined,
the designer and constructor can select the most suitable construction method
for the installation of the shore approach.
Timing and contractual constraints may dictate the stage of a project in which
the shore approach is installed, ie. ahead of the main offshore lay or as a part
of the main offshore lay (usually lay initiation). These considerations can also
have a bearing on the chosen method and have a commercial impact on the
project. Installing the shore approach and leaving the pipeline capped off may
be more expensive than using a laybarge.
10.1
It may be necessary to add buoyancy to the pipeline during pull out to reduce
the negative buoyancy of the line and hence the pull loads.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
10.2
By this method of installation, known as the float and lower method, the
pipeline may be installed in one length or in sections which are subsequently
tied-in underwater. The pipeline is constructed in strings as in 4.1.1 above,
but at a location removed from the landfall position. The strings are
progressively pulled into the water and either buoyancy tanks, or double
pontoons are attached to the pipeline. Each string is welded to the string
previously pulled out. When the entire length of pipeline to be installed is
floating, the pipeline is towed by a leading tug, with a trailing tug attached for
control, to the landfall location. A small winch onshore pulls the pipeline
ashore, preferably into a pre-dredged trench, and the offshore portion of the
line is aligned and then progressively lowered into its position on the seabed
or into a trench. To assist in alignment of the pipeline, it is common to pre-lay
anchors for the pontoons to set themselves on station.
The following activities are required:
The advantage of this method of installation is apparent when the area of land
at the landfall site is limited in size and not large enough to accommodate a
stringing site.
In addition, the shore approach can be carried out ahead of the mobilisation
of the main lay spread.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
10.3
Directional Drilling with the Drill Rig Onshore and the Pipe
String Towed Offshore for Subsequent Pullback by the Rig
By this method of shore approach installation, using land based purpose-built
drill rig, a pilot hole is drilled. This consists of a 2 7/8-inch diameter drill string
and a downhole mud motor powered by high pressure bentonite pumped from
the rig site. Steering of a pilot string is achieved by a bend (0.5 - 1.5) in the
casing behind the mud motor which can be rotated alter the direction of the
string.
Information on the heading and angle of drill string is relayed via a hard wire
to the control panel, thus enabling the operator constantly to update the
position of the drill bid. A 5-inch OD wash over pipe follows closely behind the
pilot string and is washed over the pilot string. This wash over pipe provides
rigidity to the pilot string, and once the pilot string punches out and is
withdrawn, is used to pull back a reamer and thereafter the pipeline.
The work required to carry out installation by this method is as follows:
remove pilot string, attach reamer and swivel to pull back pipe and pull
back pipeline
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
there are limits on what pipe diameter and what lengths can be drilled.
10.4
Installation by Laybarge
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
installation of winch anchorages (these may vary from drilled rock anchors,
marine anchors, sheet piled walls to purpose designed ground anchors)
and sheave anchor sizes
wire laying
pull ashore
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Disadvantages are:
danger of wire ropes being buried and the possibility of not being able to
move the wires and hence pipeline between pulls.
10.4.2 Pull Ashore using Barge Mounted Winch and Onshore Sheaves
This method of shore approach installation is generally used where access to
the landfall site at the time of carrying out the shore approach is limited and
where the pull loads are relatively low. Normally, a single winch is used and
this may be in some cases one of the laybarge anchor winches. Winches of
up to 250 tonne capacity and 75 mm diameter are not uncommon for anchor
winches on 3rd generation lay barges. It is common to anchor the onshore
return sheave using ground anchors. Care must be taken in the selection of
the sheave so that the wire rope is not over stressed by excessive bending
around a sheave of too small a diameter.
Advantages of this method are as follows:
The main disadvantage is that only limited pull loads are normally possible,
although these may be as high as 400 T if this size winch is installed on board
the laybarge.
10.4.3 Directional Drilling with Rig Onshore
See Sketch 9.2
This method of installation is very similar to that described in Item 4.1.3,
except that the pipe string is pulled directly from the laybarge. This method
has been used using conventional lay barges and reel barges. The
advantage of a reel barge for this application is that no stops are necessary
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
Dredging/Trenching
10.5
There are a number of methods of achieving pipe burial in the nearshore area
- namely pre-dredging or post trenching.
Whichever method is employed, thought needs to be given as to how the
interface between the onshore burial and the nearshore burial is to be
achieved. The following types of dredger are commonly employed for
nearshore pre-dredging:
grab dredger
bucket dredger
backhoe dredger.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
rock causeway
sand berm
open cut.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc
REFERENCES
11.0
1.
2.
3.
4.
/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_1/316970175.doc