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    12 Emotional Intelligence

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    12 The Positive Psychology of Emotional Intelligence Peter Salovey, John D. Mayer, & Out of the marriage of reason with affect there issues clarity with passion. Reason with- out affect would be impotent, afect without reason would be blind. 5.5. Tomkins, Affect, Imagery, ‘and Consciousness For psychologists, the 1990s were best known as the "Decade of the Brain.” But there were ‘moments during those 10 years when the pop- ular press seemed ready to declare it the “De- cade of the Heart,” not so much for « popular interes in cardiovascular physiology but rather as a reflection on the growing interest in emo- tions and emotional intelligence, in particular. During the second half of the 19906, emotional intelligence and EQ (we much prefer the former term to the latter) were featured as the cover story in at least wo national magazines (Gibbs, 1995; Goleman, 1995b); received extensive cov- erage in the international press (eg, Aleade, 1996; Mikerta, Gottschling, Wagner-Roos, & Gibbs, 1995; Thomas, 1995); were named the ‘most useful new words or phrases for 1995 by the American Dialect Society (1995, 1999; Bro- ie, 1996); and made appearances in syndicated David Caruso ‘comic strips as diverse as Zippy the Pinhead and Dilbert ‘What is this construct, and why has it been s0 appealing? Emotional intelligence represents the ability to perceive, appraise, and express emotion accurately and adaptively: the ability to tunderstand emotion and emotional knowledge; the ability to access and/or generate feclings ‘when they faclitate cognitive activities and adaprive action: andthe ability to regulate emo- sions in oneself and others (Mayer & Selovey, 1997), In other words, emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotion-laden information competently and to use it to guide cognitive activities like problem solving and to focus energy on required behaviors. The term suggested to some that there might be other ways of being intelligent than those emphasized by standard 10 tests, chat one might be able to develop these abilities, and that an emotional ‘intelligence could be an important predictor of success in personal relationships, family func- tioning, and the workplace, The term is one that instills hope and suggests promise, at least as compared with traditional notions of crystal- lized intelligence. For these very reasons, emo- tional intelligence belongs in positive psychol- 160 PART Ill. EMOTION-FOCUSED APPROACHES ‘ogy. The purpose of this chapter is to review the history of and current research on emo tional intelligence and to determine whether ‘our positive assessments are appropriate or mis placed. History of the Concept ‘Turning to the field of psychology, there are ‘wo references to emotional intelligence prior to ‘our work on this concept. First, Mowrer (1960) famously concluded that “the emotions. ..do not at all deserve being put into opposition with ‘intelligence’... they are, it seems, themselves ‘high order of intelligence” (pp. 307-308). Sec- ‘ond, Payne (1983/1986) used the term in an un- published dissertation, A framework for an emotional intelligence, a formal definition, and suggestions about its measurement were first described in two articles that we published in 1990 (Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey, 1990; Sa- lovey & Mayer, 1990) ‘The tension between exclusively cognitive views of what it means to be intelligent and broader ones that include a postive role for the emotions can be traced back many centuries. For example, the Stoic philosophers of ancient Greece viewed emotion as too individualistic and self-absorbed to be a reliable guide for in- sight and wisdom. Later, the Romantic move- ‘ment in_late-18th-century and early-19th- century Europe stressed how emotion-rooted intuition and empathy could provide insights that were unavailable through logic alone. ‘The modern interest in emotional intelligence stems, pethaps, from a similar dialectic in the field of human abilities research. Although nar- row, analytically focused definitions of intel ‘gence predominated for much of this century, following Cronbach's (1960) often cited conclu: sion that a social intelligence was unlikely to be defined and had not been measured, cracks in the analytic intelligence edifice began to appear in the 1980s. For example, Sternberg, (1985) challenged mental abilities researchers £0 pay ‘more attention to creative and practical aspects of intelligence, and Gardner (1983/1993) even defined an inerapersonal intelligence that con cerns access to one's feeling life, the capacity to represent feelings, and the ability to draw upon them as a means of understanding and a guide for behavior. Shortly thereafter, in their con- troversial book, The Bell Curve, Herenstein and ‘Murray (1994) revived debate about the genetic basis for traditionally defined intelligence and the degree to which intelligence is affected by ‘environmental circumstances. Paradoxically, in- stead of crystallizing support for the genetic in- telligence postion, the effec of The Bell Curve ‘was to energize many educators, investigators, and journalists to question whether the tradi- tional view of intelligence was conceprualized 100 narrowly and to embrace the notion that ‘there might be other ways to be smart and suc- ceed in the world Te was in this context that we wrote our 1990 articles, introducing emotional intelligence as the ability to understand feelings inthe self and others, and to use these feelings as informa- tional guides for thinking and action (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). At that time, we described three core components of emotional intelli sgence—sppraisal and expression, regulation, and utlizaion—based on our reading and or- ganizing of the relevant literature rather than fn empirical research Since this original article, ‘we have refined our conceptualization of emo- sional intelligence so that it now includes four dimensions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997), which we will discuss later in this chapter. ur work was reinforced by neuroscientists’ interest in showing that emotional responses were integral to “rational” decision making (¢g., Damasio, 1995). Through our theorizing, wwe also helped to stimulate the writing of the best-selling, book Emotional Intelligence, in which Goleman (1995) promised that emo- tional intelligence rather than analytical intl- ligence predics success in school, work, and home. Despite the lack of data to support some cof Goleman’s claims, interest in emotional intelligence soared, with books appearing ‘monthly in which the authors touted che value ‘of emotional intelligence in education (Schil- ling, 1996), child rearing (Gottman & DeClaie, 1997; Shapiro, 1997), the workplace (Cooper & Sawal, 1997; Goleman, 1998; Ryback, 1998; Simmons & Simmons, 1997; Weisinger, 1998), and personal growth (Epstein, 1998; Salerno, 1996; Segal 1997; Steiner & Perry, 1997). Very litde of this explosion of available resources on ‘emotional intelligence represented empirically oriented scholarship, In the past § years, there also has been great interest in the development of measures to a5- sess the competencies involved in emotional in- telligence. Not surprisingly, a plethora of sup- posed emotional intelligence scales and batteries cof varying. psychometric properties appeared CHAPTER 12, THE POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 161 (eg, Bar-On, 1997; Cooper & Sawat, 1996; Schutte et al,, 1998). In realty, these instru ments tapped self-reported personality con- structs, and they were disappointing in terms of their discriminant and construct validities (Da- vies, Stankov, & Roberts, 1998). As an alter- native, we have been arguing for the value of conceptualizing emotional intelligence as 2 set of abilities that should be measured as such (Mayer, Selovey & Caruso, 2000e, 20008). We ‘will describe this approach to measurement later in the chapter. Current Model of Emotional Intl What follows is brief summary of our ability theory of emotional intelligence, displayed in ‘Table 12.1; more deuailed presentations can be found elsewhere (e., Mayer, Caruso, & Se- lovey, 1999; Mayer & Salovey, 1997; Salovey, Bedel, Derweiler, 8 Mayer, 2000; Salovey & Mayet, 1990). Although there is sometimes em- pirical uty in considering emotional intel gence as a unitary construct, most of our work suggests that it can be divided into four branches. The frst of these branches, ervotional perception and expression, involves recognizing and inpurting verbal and nonverbal information from the emotion system. The second branch, emotional facilitation of thought (sometimes referred to as using emotional intelligence), re- fers to using emotions as part of cognitive pro- cesses such as creativity and problem solving ‘The third branch, emotional understanding, in- volves cognitive processing of emotion, that is, insight and knowledge brought to bear upon one's feelings or the feelings of others. Our fourth branch, emotional management, con- cerns the regulation of emotions in oneself and in other people. ‘The first branch of emotional intelligence be- gins with the capacity to perceive and to ex- press feelings. Emotional intelligence is impos- sible without the competencies involved in this branch (see also Saarni, 1990, 1999). If each time unpleasant feelings emerged, people tumed their atentions away, they would learn very lite about feelings. Emotional perception involves registering, attending to, and decipher- ing emotional messages as they are expressed in facial expressions, voice tone, or cultural art- facts. A person who ses the fleeting expression of fear inthe face of another understands much more about that person's emotions and thoughts than someone who misses such signal ‘The second branch of emotional intelligence concerns emotional facilitation of cognitive a tivities. Emotions are complex organizations of the various psychological subsystems—physio- logical, experiential, cognitive, and_motiva- tional. Emotions enter the cognitive system both as cognized feelings, as is the ease when someone thinks, “Iam a lite sad now,” and as alered cognitions, as when a sad person thinks, “1 am no good.” ‘The emotional facilitation of thought focuses on how emotion affecs the cognitive system and, as such, can be harnessed for more effective problem solving, reasoning, decision making, and crestive endeavors. Of course, cognition can be disrupted by emotions, such as anxiety and fear, but emotions also can prioritize the cognitive system to attend to what fs important (Easterbrook, 1959; Mandler, 1975; Simon, 1982), and even to focus on what it does best in a given mood (eg. Palfai & Salovey, 1993; Schwarz, 1990). Emotions also change cognitions, making them positive when a person is happy and neg- ative when a person is sad (Forgas, 1995; Mayer, Gaschke, Braverman, & Evans, 1992; Salovey & Birnbaum, 1989; Singer & Salovey, 1988). These changes force the cognitive system to view things from diferent perspectives, for example, alternating between skeptical and ac- cepting. The advantage of such alterations 0 thought is fairly apparent. When one's point of view shifts berween skeptical and accepting, the individual can appreciate multiple vantage points and, as a consequence, think about @ problem more deeply and creatively (eg. “Mayer, 1986; Mayer & Hanson, 1995). tis just such an effec that may lead people with mood swings toward greater creativity (Goodwin & Jamison, 1990; see Simonton, this volume) ‘The third branch involves understanding ‘emotion. Emotions form a rich and complexly interrelated symbol set. The most fundamental competency at this level concerns the ability 10 Iabel emotions with words and to recognize the relationships among exemplars of the affective lexicon. The emotionally intelligent individual is able to recognize that the terms used to de- scribe emotions are arranged into families and that groups of emotion terms form fuzzy sets (Ortony, Clore, & Collins, 1988). Perhaps more important, the relations among these terms are deduced—that annoyance and irtaton car lead to rage ifthe provocative stimulus is not elim- PART Ill, EMOTION-FOCUSED APPROACHES ‘Table 12.1 The Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence feer Mayer & Salovey, 1997) Emotional Perception and Expression ‘Ability to identify emotion in one's physical and peychologial sates [Alality to identify emotion in other people ‘Ability to expres emotions accurately and to express needs related to them [Ability to discriminate Between accrate/honest and inaccurate/dshonest feelings Emotional Facilitation of Thought (Using Emotional Intelligence) [Ability to reditec and prioritize thinking on the basis of associated feelings [Ability to generate emotions to faitate judgment and memory ‘Ability to exptalize on mood changes to appreaate mulple points of view ‘Ability tose emotional rates to facitate problem solving and cesivity Emotional Understanding Abilry to understand relationships among various emotions [Ability to pererive the euses and consequences of emotions ‘Ability to understand complex felngs, emotional blends, and contradictory ‘Ability to understand transitions among emotions ‘Emotional Management Ability tobe open to feelings, both plemsant and unpleasant “Ablity t© monitor and reflect on emotions ‘Ability to engage, prolong, or detach from an emotional state ‘Ablity to manage emodons in oneself “Ability to manage emotions in others inated, or that envy often is experienced in con- texts that also evoke jealousy (Salovey & Rodin, 11986, 1983). The person who is able to under- stand emotions—their meanings, how they blend together, how they progress over time— is truly blessed with the capacity to understand ‘important aspects of human nature and inter- personal relationships, Partly as a consequence of various populari- zations, and partly as a consequence of societal pressures to regulate emotions, many people primarily identify emotional intelligence with its fourth branch, emotional management (Gometimes referred to as emotional regulation), ‘They hope emotional intelligence will be a way of getting rid of troublesome emotions or emo- tional leakages into human relations and rather, to control emotions. Although this is one pos sible outcome of the fourth branch, optimal lev- els of emotional regulation may be moderate ‘ones; attempts to. minimize or eliminate ‘emotion completely may stifle emotional intel- ligence. Similarly, the regulation of emotion in other people is less likely to involve the sup- pressing of others’ emotions but rather the har- nessing of them, as when a persuasive speaker is said to “move” his or her audience. Individuals use a broad range of techniques to regulate their moods. Thayer, Newman, and McClain (1994) believe that physical exercise is the single most effective strategy for changing a bad mood, among those under one's own con- trol. Other commonly reported mood regulation strategies indude listening to music, socal in- teraction, and cognitive self-management (¢g. giving oneself a “pep talk”). Pleasant distrac- ‘hon (errands, hobbies, fun activities, shopping, reading, and writing) also are effective. Less ef- fective (and, at times, counterproductive) str ‘egies include passive mood management (©. television viewing, caffeine food, and sleep), di- rect tension reduction (eg, drugs, alcohol, and sex), spending time alone, and avoiding the per- son or thing that caused a bad mood. In general the most succeseful regulation methods involve ‘expenditure of energy; active mood manage- ment techniques that combine relaxation, stress management, cognitive effort, and exercise may be the most effective strategies for changing bad moods (reviewed by Thayer et al, 1994). Cen- CHAPTER 12, THE POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 163 tral to emotional self-regulation is the ability to reflect upon and manage one’s emotions; emo- tional disclosure provides one means of doing s0. Pennebaker (1989, 1993, 1997) has studied the effects of disclosure extensively and finds that the act of disclosing emotional experiences in writing improves individuals’ subsequent physical and mental health (see Niederhotfer & Pennebaker, this volume) Measuring Emotional Intelligence We believe thatthe most valid approach for as- sessing emotional intelligence i the use oftsk- based, ability measures. Although self-report inventories assessing various aspects of emo- sional intelligence have proliferated in recent years (eg. Bagby, Parker, & Taylor, 1993, 1998b; Bat-On, 1997; Catanzaro & Mearns, 1990; EQ Japan, 1998; Giuliano & Swinkels, 1992; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palla, 1995; Schutte et al, 1998; Swinkels be Giuliano, 1995; Wang, Tete, Fisher, Griebler, ‘& Martinez, 1987), these constructs are dificult to distinguish from already measured aspects of personality (Davies et al, 1998); moreover whether emotional competency self-bel scores actualy correlate systematically with those competencies per se has yet to be deter- smined (Mayer et al, 1999). We ask the reader to imagine whether he or she would be con- vinced of the analytic intelligence of another person based on the respondent's answer to duestion such as ‘Do you think you're smart?” We are not, and therefore since the beginning of our work on emotional intelligence, we have suggested that tasks that tap into the various competencies that underlie emotional intlli- _gence are likly to have more validity than slf- report measures (eg. Mayer etal, 199) ‘Taskcbased measures of emotional abilities developed on the basis of other theoretical frameworks may be useful in the assessment of ‘emotional intelligence. For example, inthe Lev- cls of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS), re- spondents are asked to describe their feelings about various stimuli and then these protocols are coded according to differentations in the feeling language used (Lane, Quinlan, Schwartz, Walker, & Zeitlin, 1990). Another possibility is Averill and Nunley's (1992: see also Averill, 199) tes of emotional creativity, in which par~ ticipants are asked to write about situations in which they experience three diferent emotions simultaneously. Various measures of nonverbal femetional sending and receiving ability also have been explored over the years (¢g., Buck 1976, Freedman, Prince, Riggio, & DiMatteo, 11980; Rosenthal, Hall, DiMatteo, Rogers, & Ar- cher, 1979) “The first comprehensive, cheory-basedbat- tery for assessing emotional intelligence as a set of abilities was the Multifactor Emotional In~ telligence Scale (MEIS), which can be adminis tered through interaction with a computer pro- sgram or via penil and paper (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1998, 1999). The MEIS comprises 12 ability messures that are divided into four branches, reflecting the model of emotional in telligence presented earlier: (a) perceiving and expressing emotions (b) using emotions to fa- calae thought and other cognitive activities: (€) ‘understanding emotion; and (d) managing emo- tion in self and others (Mayer & Selovey, 1997). Branch I tasks measure emotional perception in Faces, Music, Designs, and Stories. Branch 2 measures Synesthesia Judgments (eg, "How hot is anger?") and Feeling Biases (translating felt emotions into judgments about people) Branch 3's four tasks examine the understand- ing of emotion. Sample questions include “Op- timism most closely combines which wo emo- tions?” A participant should choose “pleasure land anticipation” over less specific alternatives such as “pleasure and joy.” Branch 4's two tests measure Emotion Management in the Self and in Others. These tasks ask perigpants to read scenarios and then rate four reactions to them according to how effective they are as emotion ‘management strategies focused on the self or on other. ‘An ise that comes up in task-hased tests of emotional intelligence concerns what consti tutes the correct answer. We have experimented with thre differen criteria for determining the “correct” answer to questions such asi ing the emotions in facial expressions or making suggestions about the most adaptive way t0 handle emotions in difficult situations. The frst inwolves target criteria. Here we would ask the person whose facil expression is depicted on ‘our test item what he or she was feeling. To the ‘extent that the respondents answer matches the targels, the answer would be scored as correct. ‘A second approach isto use expert criteria. In this strategy. experts on emotion such as psy- chotherapists oF emotion researchers would read test items and provide answers, To the ex- tent thatthe respondent's answers match the 164 PART II], EMOTION-FOCUSED APPROACHES. experts, they would be scored as correct. Fi- nally, the consensus criteria involve norming the test on a large, heterogeneous sample. The test-taker now receives credit for endorsing an- swers that match those of the larger group. ‘One might chink that a consensus ora target criteria would not be an appropriate approach to scoring tasks measuring emotional competence. After all, aren't most people misguided about their true feelings? We were able to look at how the target, expert, and consensus criteria are in- terrelated across some of the MEIS ability tasks. ‘The correlations were actually rather high; half ‘were above r = 52 (Mayer etal, 1999). In gen- ceral, the consensus approach correlated more highly with the target criteria than did the ‘expert criteria, At the moment, we are recom- mending a consensus-based approach to scoring, the MEIS for several reasons. Targets some- times minimize their own negative feelings when asked to report on them (Mayer & Geher, 1996), but large normative samples, when re sponses are pooled, tend ro be reliable judges (Legree, 1995) Investigations using the MEIS are in rather preliminary stages, but there are a few findings to report (Mayer et al, 1999). In general, we found support forthe theoretical model of emo- tional intelligence described earlier (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). In a sample of 503 adults, MEIS tasks were generally positively intercorrelated with one another, but not highly eo (most were in the r = 20 to .50 range) As well, the test's factorial structure recommended two equally vi- able factorial models: (a) a three- to four-factor solution that separated out factors of emotional perception, understanding, management, and, at times, using emotions to facilitate cognitive ac- tivities; or (b) a hierarchical structure that first describes a general factor, g.. The internal con- sistency of the MEIS is reasonably high: Using consensus scoring, most of the 12 subscales had Cronbach alphas in the 70 to 94 range, though the Branch 3 tasks, which are the shortest sub- scales, tended to have lower internal consistency [although two of these tasks had alphas of 78 and 94, respectively; two others were 49 and 51). In an independent investigation, the Cron- bach alpha reported for the MEIS as a whole ‘was 90 (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000), ‘The MEIS as 2 whole correlates positively with verbal intelligence (but only in the r = 35 ‘0-45 range), self-reported empathy, and paren- tal warmth and negatively with socal anxiety and depression (Mayer et al, 1999). The MEIS isnot correlated with nonverbal measures of in- telligence such as the Raven Progressive Matri- ‘es (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000). Finally, and consistent with the idea that emotional in- telligence is a set of abilities that are developed through learning and experience, scores on the ‘MEIS improve with age (Mayer et al, 1999}. ‘A refined and better normed successor to the EIS, called the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso Emotional Intelligence Scales (MSCEIT), pres- ently is being prepared for distribution (Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, in preparation). We rec- ‘ommend this set of tasks for assessing emo- tional intelligence as an ability. Structured such like the MEIS, the MSCEIT also is based fon the four-branch model of emotional intll- gence, but it allows for the assessment of emo- sional intelligence in less time than the MEIS, Poorly worded items have been eliminated, and extensive normative data will be available. Current Research Findings ‘We have just started to publish research using abilty-based measures of emotional intelli: ‘gence, like the MEIS and the MSCEIT (see Sa- Tovey, Woolery, & Mayer, 2001, for a sum- mary). However, there are some findings to report that are promising with respect to the prediction of important behavioral outcomes. ‘We note that many of the findings described hhere are as of yet unpublished and unreviewed by other scientists, to they should be viewed as suggestive. Mayer and his colleagues have been devel- ‘oping measures of individuals’ life epace—a de- scription of a person's environment in terms of discrete, externally verifiable responses (©, How many pairs of shoes do you own? How ‘many times have you attended the theater this year? see Mayer, Carlsmith, & Chabot, 1998), In these studies, higher scores on the MEIS are associated with lower self-reported, life-space ‘measures of engagement in violent and antiso- cial behavior among college students; the cor- relations between the MEIS and these measures were in the r= 40 range. Other investigators also have reported that greater emotional intel- ligence is associated with lower levels of anti- social behavior. For example, Rubin (1999) found substantial negative correlations between 1 version of the MEIS developed for adolescents (the AMEIS) and peer ratings of their aggres: siveness; prosocial behaviors rated by these CHAPTER 12. THE POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 165 schoolchildren’s teachers were positively asso- dated with emotional intelligence (\{s = 37 to 49) Research focused on adolescents’ substance use has been conducted by Trinidad and John- son (in press). They collected data from 205 cul turally diverse seventh- and eighth-grade sta- dents using five subtests from the AMEIS. ‘Those scoring high on overall emotional intel- ligence were significantly less likely to have fever tried smoking @ cigarette or to have smoked recently. They were also less likely to report having had an alcoholic beverage in the past week. Emotional intelligence was positively ‘correlated with endorsing the idea that doing well in school is important. Emotional intelligence, as assessed with the (EIS, also appears tobe important in workplace situations. In an intriguing study conducted ‘with 164 employees of an insurance company assigned to 26 customer claim teams, Rice (1999) administered a shortened version of the MEIS, then asked a department manager to rate the effecveness of these teams and their lead cers, The MEIS scores were highly correlated with the manager's ratings of the team leaders! effectiveness (7 = 51). The average MEIS scores of each of the teams—the team emotional in- telligence—also was related to the manager's ratings of the team performance in customer service (r= 46). However, emotional inteli- gence was negatively associated with the team’s speed in handling customer complaints (r = 40). It appears that emotional intelligence may help team leaders and their teams to be better at satisfying customers but not necessar- ily to increase the efficiency with which they perform these behaviors. Perhaps dealing with ‘customers’ feelings in an adaptive way takes Interventions to improve Enotional Itelligonce Despite the paucity of predictive validity daca ‘on emotional intelligence, interventions are be~ ing developed aimed at raising emotional intel- ligence in a variety of contexts. Interventions in Education With the availability of materials suggesting hhow teachers can cultivate emotional intelli- gence in schoolchildren, there has been an in- creasing interest in the lst decade in developing ‘school-based programs focused on these abilities (Mayer & Cobb, 2000; Salovey & Siuyrer, 1997). For example, in a guidebook for devel- ‘oping emotional intelligence curricula for ele- ‘mentary school students, Schilling (1996) rec- ‘ommend: unite on self-awareness, managing feelings, decision making, maneging stress, per- tonal responsibility, self-concept, empathy, communication, group dynamics, and conflict resolution. As should be obvious, the emotional ‘intelligence rubrics being applied quite broadly to the development of a range of social emotional skill, As a result, many of the school-based interventions designed to promote ‘emotional intelligence are better dassified under the more general label Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) programs (Cohen, 19994; Elias eval, 1997). ‘There are over 300 currculum-based pro- grams in the United States purporting to teach Socal and Emotional Learning (Cohen, 19996) ‘These range from programs based on very spe- cific socal problem-solving skills taining (¢. Elias & Tobias, 1996), to more general conflict resolution strategies (eg, Lantieri & Patti, 1996), 10 very. broad programs organized around themes like “character development” (Lickona, 1991). One of the oldest SEL pro- sgrams that has a heavy dose of emotional in- telligence development within itis the Socal Development Curriculum in the New Haven, Connecticut, public schools (Shriver, Schwab Stone, & DeFaleo, 1999; Weissberg, Shriver Bose, & DeFaleo, 1997). The New Haven Social Development Program is a kindergarten through grade 12 curriculum that integrates the development of social and emotional skills in the context of various prevention programs (eg, AIDS prevention, drug. use prevention, teen. pregnancy prevention; see also Durlak, 1995). The curriculum provides 25 vo 50 hours of highly structured classroom instruction at ‘ach grade level. Included in the early years of this curriculum are units on self-monitoring, feelings awareness, perspective taking, (empa- thy), understanding nonverbal communication, anger management, and many other topic, some of which are loosely consistent with our model of emotional intelligence. Although this program has not been evaluated in a random- ized, controlled trial, « substan ministered every 2 years to New children has revealed positive trends since implementation of the program. For example, 166 PART III, EMOTION-FOCUSED APPROACHES one change has been reduced schoo! violence and feelings of hopelessness (Shriver eal, 1999) ‘Another well-known emotional intelligence curniculum is called Self Science, which was de- veloped and field rested at the Nueva Schoo! in Hillsborough, California, in the Grst through cighth grades (Stone-McCown, Jensen, Freed- rman, & Rideout, 1998), This program begins with three assumptions: There is no thinking without feeling and no feeling without think- ing: the more conscious one is of what one is caperiencing, the more learning is possible; and self-knowledge is integral to learning. The Self Science curriculum isa flexible one, although it is organized around 54 lessons grouped into 10 goals. For example, Goal 3, called “Becoming ‘More Aware of Multiple Feelings” includes les- sons such as Naming Feelings, What Are Feel- ings? Reading Body Language, Emotional Sym- bolism, Evoking Emotions, Acting on Emotions, Sources of Feelings, and Responsibility fr Feel ings. This approach direcly focuses on emo- tions in about half ofthe lessons. The goals of the Self Science curriculum indude talking shout feelings and needs; listening, sharing, and comforting others; learning to grow from con- flict and adversity; prioritizing and setting goals; including others; making conscious decisions; and giving time and resources to the larger community (Stone-McCown eta, 1998). Finally, many emotional intelligence inter- ventions for schoolchildren take place within other more specific prevention programs. A good example is the Resolving Conflict Crea- tively Program (RCCP) that began in the New York City public schools (Lantieni & Patti 1996}, The program goals include increasing awareness of the different choices available 10 children for dealing with conflicts developing skills for making. these choices; encouraging children’s respect for their own cultural back ‘ground and the backgrounds of others; teaching children how to identify and stand agpinstprej- udice, and increasing children’s awareness of their role in creating «more peaceful word, ‘These goals are addressed in a 25-hour teacher's training program and in a program emphasizing peer mediation for children in grades 4 10 6, A follow-up program, Peace in the Family, trains parents in conllct resolution strategies. RCCP training programs emphasize identifying one’s own feelings in conflict situations and taking the perspective of and empathizing with others’ feelings. In an evaluation that included 5,000 children participating in the RCCP program in New York City, hostile attributions and teacher-reported agaressive behavior dropped as 4 function of the number of conflict resolution lessons the children had received, and academic achievement was highest among those children ‘who received the most lessons (Aber, Brown, & Henrich, 1999; Aber, Jones, Brown, Chaudry, & ‘Samples, 1998) ‘Although increasing numbers of Social and Emotional Learning programs are being eval ated formally (eg, Elias, Gere, Schuyler, Branden-Muller, & Sayette, 1991; Greenberg Kushe, Cook, & Quamma, 1995), many still hhave not been subjected to empirical scrutiny. There is virtually no reported research on Whether these programs are effective by en- hancing the kinds of skills delineated in our model of emotional intelligence. Interventions in the Workplace Possible interventions to increase emotional teligence also can be found in the workplace (eg. Caruso, Mayer, & Salovey, in press; Cher- nis & Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 1998), These workplace programs, however, are at « much earlier stage of development than those de- signed for the dlassroom. Furthermore, many of these workplace “emotional intelligence” pro- grams are really old and familar training Sessions on human relations, achievement mo- tivation, stress management and conflict reso- lution. One promising approach to workplace emo: tional intelligence is the Weatherhead MBA Program at Case Western Reserve Univesity, ‘where taining in soil and emotional compe- tency i incorporated int the curicum for f= ture busines leaders Boyatis, Cowen, te Kolb, 1995). although this program ie not focused explicitly on emotions per se, these MBA sta- denes receive experiences designed to promote initiative, fexblity, achievement drive, empa- thy, self-confidence, persuaiveness, network- ing self-control, and group management. Comn- ‘munication and emotion-rlated skills also are increasingly being incorporated into physician training (Kramer, Ber, te Moores, 1969) Perhaps the workplace program that most ex- plicidy addresses itself ro emotional intelligence isthe Emotional Competency Training Program at American Express Financial Advisors, The goal ofthe program i to asset managers in be- coming “emotional coaches” for their employ- CHAPTER 12. THE POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 167 es, The training focuses onthe role of emotion in the workplace and gaining an awareness of how one's own emotional reacions and the ‘emotions of others affect management practices ‘Although systematic evaluation ofthis program has yet to be published, a higher business growth rate (money under management) has been found for the financial advisers whose managers had taken the traning program a compared with those who had not (reported in Chriss, 1999) Directions for Future Research Despite the rapid growth of interest in emo- tonal intelligence, the measurement of emo- ‘ional intelligence using abilty-based indices stil in an early stage. Recently, as i inevital for a new concept, emotional intelligence has ceived some criticism. In particular, using an ar- ray of available and, for the most part, poorly validated instruments as the basis for analysis, the construct validity of emotional intelligence has been questioned (Davies etal, 1998). Ir sim- ply is premature to draw any such conclusions ‘until investigators in our laboratory and other laboratories have completed and validated the appropriate ability-bazed measures of emotional ntlligence. The area of emotional intelligence is in need of energetic investigators interested in helping to refine the ability-based assessment of emo- tional intelligence and, subsequently, studying the predictive validity of emotional intelligence (over and above other constructs) in accounting for important outcomes in school, workplace, family, and socal relationships. Given the pres- ent status of instrument development and val- ‘dation, we would encourage investigators to fo- cus their energies on the refinement of ability measures of emotional intelligence. Although we have been pleased with the MEIS and are confident that its successor, the MSCEIT, will bbe the measurement instrument of choice for assessing emotional intelligence as an ability, research needs to be conducted to measure emo- tional intelligence with even greater precision and with more easily administered and briefer tests. Further work also will be needed before we can confidently claim that one method of scoring—expert, target, of consensus—is clearly more valid than the others. And it will bbe necessary to investigate whether tests of emotional intelligence are culture-bound. The fact is, we are in the early phase of research on ‘emotional intelligence, in terms of both mes- suring it as an ability and showing that such measures predict significant outcomes. ‘After reining the measurement of emotional inelligence, we are hoping that many investi- gators will join us in exploring what this con- struct predicts, both as an overall ably and in terms of an individua’s profile of strengths and weaknesses. The domains in which emotional intelligence may play an important part are lim ited only by the imagination of the investigators studying these abilities, and we are hoping to sce an explosion of research in the near farure establishing when emotional intelligence is im- portant—perhaps more so than conventional in- telligence—and, of course, when itis not. Finally, and reflecting the theme of this vol- ume, positive psychology, ertention will need to be focused on how emotional intelligence can bbe developed through the life span. 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