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Synopsis
William Shakespeare was baptized on April 26, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon,
England. From roughly 1594 onward he was an important member of the
Lord Chamberlains Men company of theatrical players. Written records give
little indication of the way in which Shakespeares professional life molded
his artistry. All that can be deduced is that over the course of 20 years,
Shakespeare wrote plays that capture the complete range of human emotion
and conflict.
Mysterious Origins
Known throughout the world, the works of William Shakespeare have been
performed in countless hamlets, villages, cities and metropolises for more
than 400 years. And yet, the personal history of William Shakespeare is
somewhat a mystery. There are two primary sources that provide historians
with a basic outline of his life. One source is his workthe plays, poems and
sonnetsand the other is official documentation such as church and court
records. However, these only provide brief sketches of specific events in his
life and provide little on the person who experienced those events.
Early Life
Though no birth records exist, church records indicate that a William
Shakespeare was baptized at Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon on
April 26, 1564. From this, it is believed he was born on or near April 23, 1564,
and this is the date scholars acknowledge as William Shakespeare's birthday.
Located 103 miles west of London, during Shakespeare's time Stratfordupon-Avon was a market town bisected with a country road and the River
Avon. William was the third child of John Shakespeare, a leather merchant,
and Mary Arden, a local landed heiress. William had two older sisters, Joan
and Judith, and three younger brothers, Gilbert, Richard and Edmund. Before
William's birth, his father became a successful merchant and held official
positions as alderman and bailiff, an office resembling a mayor. However,
records indicate John's fortunes declined sometime in the late 1570s.
Scant records exist of William's childhood, and virtually none regarding his
education. Scholars have surmised that he most likely attended the King's
New School, in Stratford, which taught reading, writing and the classics.
Being a public official's child, William would have undoubtedly qualified for
free tuition. But this uncertainty regarding his education has led some to
raise questions about the authorship of his work and even about whether or
not William Shakespeare ever existed.
Married Life
William Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway on November 28, 1582, in
Worcester, in Canterbury Province. Hathaway was from Shottery, a small
village a mile west of Stratford. William was 18 and Anne was 26, and, as it
turns out, pregnant. Their first child, a daughter they named Susanna, was
born on May 26, 1583. Two years later, on February 2, 1585, twins Hamnet
and Judith were born. Hamnet later died of unknown causes at age 11.
After the birth of the twins, there are seven years of William Shakespeare's
life where no records exist. Scholars call this period the "lost years," and
there is wide speculation on what he was doing during this period. One
theory is that he might have gone into hiding for poaching game from the
local landlord, Sir Thomas Lucy. Another possibility is that he might have
been working as an assistant schoolmaster in Lancashire. It is generally
believed he arrived in London in the mid- to late 1580s and may have found
work as a horse attendant at some of London's finer theaters, a scenario
updated centuries later by the countless aspiring actors and playwrights in
Hollywood and Broadway.
Theatrical Beginnings
By 1592, there is evidence William Shakespeare earned a living as an actor
and a playwright in London and possibly had several plays produced. The
September 20, 1592 edition of the Stationers' Register (a guild publication)
includes an article by London playwright Robert Greene that takes a few jabs
at William Shakespeare: "...There is an upstart Crow, beautified with our
feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he
is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an
absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a
country," Greene wrote of Shakespeare.
Scholars differ on the interpretation of this criticism, but most agree that it
was Greene's way of saying Shakespeare was reaching above his rank, trying
to match better known and educated playwrights like Christopher Marlowe,
Thomas Nashe or Greene himself.
By the early 1590s, documents show William Shakespeare was a managing
partner in the Lord Chamberlain's Men, an acting company in London. After
the crowning of King James I, in 1603, the company changed its name to the
King's Men. From all accounts, the King's Men company was very popular,
and records show that Shakespeare had works published and sold as popular
literature. The theater culture in 16th century England was not highly
admired by people of high rank. However, many of the nobility were good
patrons of the performing arts and friends of the actors. Early in his career,
Shakespeare was able to attract the attention of Henry Wriothesley, the Earl
of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his first- and second-published
poems: "Venus and Adonis" (1593) and "The Rape of Lucrece" (1594).
Establishing Himself
By 1597, 15 of the 37 plays written by William Shakespeare were published.
Civil records show that at this time he purchased the second largest house in
Stratford, called New House, for his family. It was a four-day ride by horse
from Stratford to London, so it is believed that Shakespeare spent most of his
time in the city writing and acting and came home once a year during the
40-day Lenten period, when the theaters were closed.
By 1599, William Shakespeare and his business partners built their own
theater on the south bank of the Thames River, which they called the Globe.
In 1605, Shakespeare purchased leases of real estate near Stratford for 440
pounds, which doubled in value and earned him 60 pounds a year. This made
him an entrepreneur as well as an artist, and scholars believe these
investments gave him the time to write his plays uninterrupted.
Writing Style
William Shakespeare's early plays were written in the conventional style of
the day, with elaborate metaphors and rhetorical phrases that didn't always
align naturally with the story's plot or characters. However, Shakespeare was
very innovative, adapting the traditional style to his own purposes and
creating a freer flow of words. With only small degrees of variation,
Shakespeare primarily used a metrical pattern consisting of lines of
unrhymed iambic pentameter, or blank verse, to compose his plays. At the
same time, there are passages in all the plays that deviate from this and use
forms of poetry or simple prose.
Death
Tradition has it that William Shakespeare died on his birthday, April 23, 1616,
though many scholars believe this is a myth. Church records show he was
interred at Trinity Church on April 25, 1616.
In his will, he left the bulk of his possessions to his eldest daughter, Susanna.
Though entitled to a third of his estate, little seems to have gone to his wife,
Anne, whom he bequeathed his "second-best bed." This has drawn
speculation that she had fallen out of favor, or that the couple was not close.
However, there is very little evidence the two had a difficult marriage. Other
scholars note that the term "second-best bed" often refers to the bed
belonging to the household's master and mistresthe marital bedand the
"first-best bed" was reserved for guests.
Shakespeare's works. Over the centuries, several groups have emerged that
question the authorship of Shakespeare's plays.
The most serious and intense skepticism began in the 19th century when
adoration for Shakespeare was at its highest. The detractors believed that
the only hard evidence surrounding William Shakespeare from Stratfordupon-Avon described a man from modest beginnings who married young and
became successful in real estate. Members of the Shakespeare Oxford
Society (founded in 1957) put forth arguments that English aristocrat Edward
de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford, was the true author of the poems and plays
of "William Shakespeare." The Oxfordians cite de Vere's extensive knowledge
of aristocratic society, his education, and the structural similarities between
his poetry and that found in the works attributed to Shakespeare. They
contend that William Shakespeare had neither the education nor the literary
training to write such eloquent prose and create such rich characters.
However, the vast majority of Shakespearean scholars contend that William
Shakespeare wrote all his own plays. They point out that other playwrights of
the time also had sketchy histories and came from modest backgrounds.
They contend that Stratford's New Grammar School curriculum of Latin and
the classics could have provided a good foundation for literary writers.
Supporters of Shakespeare's authorship argue that the lack of evidence
about Shakespeare's life doesn't mean his life didn't exist. They point to
evidence that displays his name on the title pages of published poems and
plays. Examples exist of authors and critics of the time acknowledging
William Shakespeare as author of plays such as The Two Gentlemen of
Verona, The Comedy of Errors and King John. Royal records from 1601 show
that William Shakespeare was recognized as a member of the King's Men
theater company (formerly known as the Chamberlain's Men) and a Groom of
the Chamber by the court of King James I, where the company performed
seven of Shakespeare's plays. There is also strong circumstantial evidence of
personal relationships by contemporaries who interacted with Shakespeare
as an actor and a playwright.
What seems to be true is that William Shakespeare was a respected man of
the dramatic arts who wrote plays and acted in some in the late 16th and
early 17th centuries. But his reputation as a dramatic genius wasn't
recognized until the 19th century. Beginning with the Romantic period of the
early 1800s and continuing through the Victorian period, acclaim and
reverence for William Shakespeare and his work reached its height. In the
20th century, new movements in scholarship and performance have
rediscovered and adopted his works.
Today, his plays are highly popular and constantly studied and reinterpreted
in performances with diverse cultural and political contexts. The genius of
Shakespeare's characters and plots are that they present real human beings
in a wide range of emotions and conflicts that transcend their origins in
Elizabethan England.
Videos
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Information
English
The First Folio is the first collected edition of William Shakespeare's plays,
collated and published in 1623, seven years after his death. Folio editions
were large and expensive books that were seen as prestige items.
The first record of Shakespeare's career as an actor and playwright in London
is dated 1592, by which time he was reasonably well established. It is
believed his London career began sometime between 1585 and 1592.
He wrote around 37 plays, 36 of which are contained in the First Folio. Most
of these plays were performed in the Globe, an open-air playhouse in London
built on the south bank of the Thames in 1599. As none of Shakespeare's
original manuscripts survive (except, possibly, Sir Thomas More, which
Shakespeare is believed to have revised a part of) we only know his work
from printed editions.
Of the 36 plays in the First Folio, 17 were printed in Shakespeare's lifetime in
various good and bad quarto editions, one was printed after his death and 18
had not yet been printed at all. It is this fact that makes the First Folio so
important; without it, 18 of Shakespeares plays, including Twelfth Night,
Measure for Measure, Macbeth, Julius Caesar and The Tempest, might never
have survived.
The text was collated by two of Shakespeare's fellow actors and friends, John
Heminge and Henry Condell, who edited it and supervised the printing. They
divided the plays into comedies, tragedies and histories, an editorial decision
that has come to shape our idea of the Shakespearean canon.
In order to produce as authoritative a text as possible, Heminge and Condell
compiled it from the good quartos and from manuscripts (now lost) such as
prompt books, authorial fair copy, and foul papers (working drafts). The First
Folio offered a corrective to what are now called bad quartos spurious and
corrupt pirate editions, likely based on memorial reconstruction.
The portrait of Shakespeare on the title page was engraved by Martin
Droeshout and is one of only two portraits with any claim to authenticity. As
Droeshout would have only been 15 when Shakespeare died it is unlikely that
they actually met. Instead his picture was probably drawn from the memory
of others, or from an earlier portrait. The writer Ben Jonson's admiring
introduction to the First Folio, seen in the title page image, declared in verse
that the engraver had achieved a good likeness.
This particular copy of the First Folio is part of the British Librarys Grenville
collection and is one of the most widely seen First Folios in the world. It is
estimated around 750 First Folios were printed, of which 233 are currently
known to survive worldwide. The British Library owns five.
Full title:
Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, & Tragedies
Published:
1623, London
Format:
Creator:
William Shakespeare
Held by:
British Library
Usage terms:
Public Domain
Shelfmark:
C.39.k.15.
Shakespeare www.bl.uk/shakespeare
Highlights www.bl.uk/highlights
Explore further
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Shakespeare's life
Article by:
Andrew Dickson
Theme:
Context
From Stratford to London (and back again), from upstart crow to 'wonder of
our stage', Andrew Dickson recounts some of the details of William
Shakespeares life.
Printing landmarks
Article by:
Did you know the Diamond Sutra, the world's earliest dated printed book, is
in the British Library? Discover this and other landmarks of printing in the
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The one great rival was Spain, with which England clashed both in Europe
and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of
15851604. An attempt by Philip II of Spain to invade England with the
Spanish Armada in 1588 was famously defeated, but the tide of war turned
against England with an unsuccessful expedition to Portugal and the Azores,
the Drake-Norris Expedition of 1589. Thereafter, Spain provided some
support for Irish Catholics in a debilitating rebellion against English rule, and
Spanish naval and land forces inflicted a series of reversals against English
offensives. This drained both the English Exchequer and economy that had
been so carefully restored under Elizabeth's prudent guidance. English
commercial and territorial expansion would be limited until the signing of the
Treaty of London the year following Elizabeth's death.
England during this period had a centralised, well-organised, and effective
government, largely a result of the reforms of Henry VII and Henry VIII, as
well as Elizabeth's harsh punishments for any dissenters. Economically, the
country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade,
persistent theft of Spanish treasure, and the African slave trade.
Government
Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense
during the period, but it avoided major defeats and built up a powerful navy.
On balance, it can be said that Elizabeth provided the country with a long
period of general if not total peace and generally increasing prosperity due in
large part to stealing from Spanish treasure ships, raiding settlements with
low defenses, and selling African slaves. Having inherited a virtually bankrupt
state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility.
Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and ten years later
the Crown enjoyed a surplus of 300,000. Economically, Sir Thomas
Gresham's founding of the Royal Exchange (1565), the first stock exchange
in England and one of the earliest in Europe, proved to be a development of
the first importance, for the economic development of England and soon for
the world as a whole. With taxes lower than other European countries of the
period, the economy expanded; though the wealth was distributed with wild
unevenness, there was clearly more wealth to go around at the end of
Elizabeth's reign than at the beginning. This general peace and prosperity
allowed the attractive developments that "Golden Age" advocates have
stressed.
the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament. It was discovered
in time with eight conspirators executed, including Guy Fawkes, who became
the iconic evil traitor in English lore.
The Spanish Armada fighting the English navy at the Battle of Gravelines in
1588.
While Henry VIII had launched the Royal Navy, Edward and Mary had ignored
it and it was little more than a system of coastal defense. Elizabeth made
naval strength a high priority. She risked war with Spain by supporting the
"Sea Dogs", such as John Hawkins and Francis Drake, who preyed on the
Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World. The
Navy yards were leaders in technical innovation, and the captains devised
new tactics. Parker (1996) argues that the full-rigged ship was one of the
greatest technological advances of the century and permanently
transformed naval warfare. In 1573 English shipwrights introduced designs,
first demonstrated in the "Dreadnaught", that allowed the ships to sail faster
and maneuver better and permitted heavier guns. Whereas before warships
had tried to grapple with each other so that soldiers could board the enemy
ship, now they stood off and fired broadsides that would sink the enemy
vessel. When Spain finally decided to invade and conquer England it was a
fiasco. Superior English ships and seamanship foiled the invasion and led to
the destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588, marking the high point of
Elizabeth's reign. Technically, the Armada failed because Spain's overcomplex strategy required coordination between the invasion fleet and the
Spanish army on shore. Also, the poor design of the Spanish cannons meant
they were much slower in reloading in a close-range battle. Spain and France
still had stronger fleets, but England was catching up.
Parker has speculated on the dire consequences if the Spanish had landed
their invasion army in 1588. He argues that the Spanish army was larger,
more experienced, better-equipped, more confident, and had better
financing. The English defenses, on the other hand, were thin and outdated;
England had too few soldiers and they were at best only partially trained.
Spain had chosen England's weakest link and probably could have captured
London in a week. Parker adds that a Catholic uprising in the north and in
Ireland could have brought total defeat.
Distinctions
England in this era had some positive aspects that set it apart from
contemporaneous continental European societies. Torture was rare, since the
English legal system reserved torture only for capital crimes like treason
though forms of corporal punishment, some of them extreme, were
practised. The persecution of witches began in 1563, and hundreds were
executed, although there was nothing like the frenzy on the Continent Mary
had tried her hand at an aggressive anti-Protestant Inquisition and was hated
for it; it was not to be repeated.
Religion
Elizabeth managed to moderate and quell the intense religious passions of
the time. This was in significant contrast to previous and succeeding eras of
marked religious violence.
Elizabeth said "I have no desire to make windows into mens' souls". Her
desire to moderate the religious persecutions of previous Tudor reigns the
persecution of Catholics under Edward VI, and of Protestants under Mary I
appears to have had a moderating effect on English society. Elizabeth
reinstated the Protestant bible and English Mass, yet for a number of years
refrained from persecuting Catholics.
In 1570, Pope Pius V declared Elizabeth a heretic who was not the legitimate
Queen and her subjects no longer owed her obedience. The pope sent Jesuits
and seminarians to secretly evangelize and support Catholics. After several
plots to overthrow her, Catholic clergy were mostly considered to be traitors,
and were pursued aggressively in England. Often priests were tortured or
executed after capture unless they cooperated with the English authorities.
People who publicly supported Catholicism were excluded from the
professions; sometimes fined or imprisoned.
Education
Education would begin at home, where children were taught the basic
etiquette of proper manners and respecting others. It was necessary for boys
to attend grammar school, but girls were rarely allowed in any place of
education other than petty schools, and then only with a restricted
curriculum. Petty schools were for all children aged from 5 to 7 years of age.
Only the most wealthy people allowed their daughters to be taught, and only
at home. During this time, endowed schooling became available. This meant
that even boys of very poor families were able to attend school if they were
not needed to work at home, but only in a few localities were funds available
to provide support as well as the necessary education scholarship. Boys from
families of nobility would often be taught at home by a private tutor.
Gender
The Procession Picture, c. 1600, showing Elizabeth I borne along by her
courtiers.
While the Tudor era presents an abundance of material on the women of the
nobilityespecially royal wives and queenshistorians have recovered scant
documentation about the average lives of women. There has, however, been
extensive statistical analysis of demographic and population data which
includes women, especially in their childbearing roles.
The role of women in society was, for the historical era, relatively
unconstrained; Spanish and Italian visitors to England commented regularly,
and sometimes caustically, on the freedom that women enjoyed in England,
in contrast to their home cultures. England had more well-educated upper
class women than was common anywhere in Europe.
The Queen's marital status was a major political and diplomatic topic. It also
entered into the popular culture. Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult
of virginity. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin or a
goddess or both, not as a normal woman. Elizabeth made a virtue of her
virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for
me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned
such a time, lived and died a virgin". Public tributes to the Virgin by 1578
acted as a coded assertion of opposition to the queen's marriage
negotiations with the Duc d'Alenon.
In contrast to her father's emphasis on masculinity and physical prowess,
Elizabeth emphasized the maternalism theme, saying often that she was
married to her kingdom and subjects. She explained "I keep the good will of
all my husbands my good people for if they did not rest assured of
some special love towards them, they would not readily yield me such good
obedience," and promised in 1563 they would never have a more natural
mother than she. Coch (1996) argues that her figurative motherhood played
a central role in her complex self-representation, shaping and legitimating
the personal rule of a divinely appointed female prince.
Marriage
Over ninety percent of English women (and adults, in general) entered
marriage at the end of the 1500s and beginning of the 1600s, at an average
age of about 2526 years for the bride and 2728 years for the groom.
Among the nobility and gentry, the average was around 19-21 for brides and
24-26 for grooms. Many city and townswomen married for the first time in
their thirties and forties and it was not unusual for orphaned young women
to delay marriage until the late twenties or early thirties to help support their
younger siblings, and roughly a fourth of all English brides were pregnant at
their weddings.
Food
England's food supply was plentiful throughout most of the reign; there were
no famines. Bad harvests caused distress, but they were usually localized.
The most widespread came in 155557 and 159698. In the towns the price
of staples was fixed by law; in hard times the size of the loaf of bread sold by
the baker was smaller.
The poor consumed a diet largely of bread, cheese, milk, and beer, with
small portions of meat, fish and vegetables, and occasionally some fruit.
Potatoes were just arriving at the end of the period, and became increasingly
important. The typical poor farmer sold his best products on the market,
keeping the cheap food for the family. Stale bread could be used to make
bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and
sauces. At a somewhat higher social level families ate an enormous variety
of meats, especially beef, mutton, veal, lamb, and pork, as well as chickens,
and ducks. The holiday goose was a special treat. Many rural folk and some
townspeople tended a small garden which produced vegetables such as
asparagus, cucumbers, spinach, lettuce, beans, cabbage, carrots, leeks, and
peas, as well as medicinal and flavoring herbs. Some grew their own
apricots, grapes, berries, apples, pears, plums, currants, and cherries.
Families without a garden could trade with their neighbors to obtain
vegetables and fruits at low cost.
England was exposed to new foods (such as the potato imported from South
America), and developed new tastes during the era. The more prosperous
enjoyed a wide variety of food and drink, including exotic new drinks such as
tea, coffee, and chocolate. French and Italian chefs appeared in the country
houses and palaces bringing new standards of food preparation and taste.
For example, the English developed a taste for acidic foodssuch as oranges
for the upper classand started to use vinegar heavily. The gentry paid
increasing attention to their gardens, with new fruits, vegetables and herbs;
pasta, pastries, and dried mustard balls first appeared on the table. The
apricot was a special treat at fancy banquets. Roast beef remained a staple
for those who could afford it. The rest ate a great deal of bread and fish.
Every class had a taste for beer and rum.
At the rich end of the scale the manor houses and palaces were awash with
large, elaborately prepared meals, usually for many people and often
accompanied by entertainment. The upper classes often celebrated religious
festivals, weddings, alliances and the whims of the king or queen. Feasts
were commonly used to commemorate the "procession" of the crowned
heads of state in the summer months, when the king or queen would travel
through a circuit of other nobles' lands both to avoid the plague season of
London, and alleviate the royal coffers, often drained through the winter to
provide for the needs of the royal family and court. This would include a few
days or even a week of feasting in each noble's home, who depending on his
or her production and display of fashion, generosity and entertainment, could
have his way made in court and elevate his or her status for months or even
years.
Special courses after a feast or dinner which often involved a special room or
outdoor gazebo (sometimes known as a folly) with a central table set with
High culture
Theatre
Music
Main article: Music in the Elizabethan era
Travelling musicians were in great demand at Court, in churches, at country
houses, and at local festivals. Important composers included William Byrd
(15431623), John Dowland (15631626) Thomas Campion (15671620), and
Robert Johnson (c. 1583c. 1634). The composers were commissioned by
church and Court, and deployed two main styles, madrigal and ayre. The
popular culture showed a strong interest in folk songs and ballads (folk songs
that tell a story). It became the fashion in the late 19th century to collect and
sing the old songs.
Fine arts
Popular culture
Sports and entertainment
Main article: Elizabethan leisure
There were many different types of Elizabethan sports and entertainment:
Fairs
The Annual Summer Fair and other seasonal fairs such as May Day were
often bawdy affairs.
Plays
Started as plays enacted in town squares followed by the actors using
the courtyards of taverns or inns (referred to as Inn-yards) followed by
the first theatres (great open air amphitheatres and then the
introduction of indoor theatres called Playhouses.)
Miracle Plays
Re-enactments of stories from the Bible. These are derived from the
ancient Briton custom of Mystery Plays, in which stories and fables were
enacted to teach lessons or educate about life in general. Miracle plays
included stories from all ecclesiastic literature, from the Bible to the
everyday psaltery or prayerbook. They influenced Shakespeare.
Festivals
were popular seasonal entertainments
Jousts / Tournaments
The first Monday after Twelfth Night of January (any time between 7
January and 14 January) was Plough Monday. It celebrated
returning to work after the Christmas celebrations and the New
Year.
1 May: May Day, celebrated as the first day of summer. This was
one of the few Celtic festivals with no connection to Christianity
and patterned on Beltane. It featured crowning a May Queen, a
Green Man and dancing around a maypole.
References
Notes
1. John Guy (1988) Tudor England, Oxford University Press, p. 32 ISBN
0192852132
44. Carole Levin and Patricia Ann Sullivan (1995) Political rhetoric,
power, and Renaissance women, State Univ of New York p. 90 ISBN
0791425452
45. Christine Coch (1996). "'Mother of my Contreye': Elizabeth I and
Tudor construction of Motherhood". English Literary Renaissance
26 (3): 42360. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6757.1996.tb01506.x.
46. David Cressy. Birth, Marriage, and Death : Ritual, Religion, and
the Life-Cycle in Tudor and Stuart England. Oxford University Press,
May 29, 1997. Pg 285
47. De Moor, Tine and Jan Luiten van Zanden. 2009. Girl power: the
European marriage pattern and labour markets in the North Sea
region in the late medieval and early modern period. Wiley Online
Library. Pg. 17
48. Young, Bruce W. 2008. Family Life in the Age of Shakespeare.
Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p 41
49. Coontz, Stephanie. 2005. Marriage, a History: From Obedience to
Intimacy, or How Love Conquered Marriage. New York, New York:
Viking Press, Penguin Group Inc.
50.
51.
Cressy. 1997. Pg 74
52. John Guy (1988) Tudor England, Oxford University Press, pp. 30
31 ISBN 0192852132
53. R. H. Britnell (1996). "Price-setting in English borough markets,
13491500". Canadian Journal of History 31 (1): 115. ISSN 00084107.
54. Emmison, F. G. (1976) Elizabethan Life: Home, Work and Land,
Essex Record Office, v. 3, pp. 2931 ISBN 090036047X
55. Jeffrey L. Singman (1995) Daily Life in Elizabethan England,
Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 13336 ISBN 031329335X
56. Joan Thirsk (2006) Food in Early Modern England: Phases, Fads,
Fashions 15001760, Continuum, ISBN 0826442331
57. M. C. Bradbrook (1979) The Living Monument: Shakespeare and
the Theatre of his Time, Cambridge University Press ISBN
0521295300
58. Comegys Boyd (1973) Elizabethan music and musical criticism,
Greenwood Press ISBN 0837168058
59. Helen Child Sargent and George Lyman Kittredge, eds. (1904)
English and Scottish popular ballads: edited from the collection of
Francis James Child
60. Ellis Waterhouse (1978) Painting in Britain: 15301790, 4th ed.,
New York, Viking Penguin, pp. 3439 ISBN 0300058322.
61. Theresa Coletti (2007). "The Chester Cycle in Sixteenth-Century
Religious Culture". Journal of Medieval & Early Modern Studies 37
(3): 531547. doi:10.1215/10829636-2007-012.
62. Franois Laroque (1993) Shakespeare's festive world:
Elizabethan seasonal entertainment and the professional stage,
Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521457866
63. Richard Barber and Juliet Barker (1998) Tournaments: Jousts,
Chivalry and Pageants in the Middle Ages, Boydell Press, ISBN
0851157815
64. Daines Barrington (1787). Archaeologia, or, Miscellaneous tracts
relating to antiquity 8. London: Society of Antiquaries of London. p.
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Bibliography
Hartley, Dorothy, and Elliot Margaret M. Life and Work of the People
of England. A pictorial record from contemporary sources. The
Sixteenth Century. (1926).
Hutton, Ronald:The Rise and Fall of Merry England: The Ritual Year,
14001700, 2001. ISBN 0-19-285447-X
Morrill, John, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of Tudor and Stuart
Britain (2001), survey essays by leading scholars; heavily
illustrated
Strong, Roy: The Cult of Elizabeth, The Harvill Press, 1999. ISBN 07126-6493-9
en.wikipedia.org
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SONNET XII
When I do count the clock that tells the time,
And see the brave day sunk in hideous night;
When I behold the violet past prime,
And sable curls all silver'd o'er with white;
When lofty trees I see barren of leaves 5
Which erst from heat did canopy the herd,
And summer's green all girded up in sheaves
Borne on the bier with white and bristly beard,
Then of thy beauty do I question make,
That thou among the wastes of time must go, 10
Since sweets and beauties do themselves forsake
And die as fast as they see others grow;
And nothing 'gainst Time's scythe can make defence
Save breed, to brave him when he takes thee hence. 14
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http://www.pearltrees.com/italianteacher/william-shakespearefavourite/id13419998
A presentation online about the
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http://www.symbaloo.com/mix/3710-William-Shakespeare
Special events about William
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Watch the special event by the British Council in 2016
SHAKESPEARE LIVES
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rPuM9eAKo1I
Shakespeare