Crustal Deformation

Earth Systems 3209

Crustal Deformation pg. 415

Refers to all changes in the original form and/or size
of a rock body.
May also produce changes in the location and
orientation of rocks.
Most deformation occurs along tectonic plate
boundaries.
Sedimentary rock types deform more easily because
they are softer

Force pg. 415

What tends to put stationary objects in motion or
change the motion of moving bodies.

Stress
Term used by structural geologists to describe
force.
Is the amount of force applied over a given area.
Is a measure of how concentrated force is.
May be applied uniformly in all directions
(uniform stress) or non-uniform (differential
stress)
Is the action that strains rocks

Types of Stress
a.

Compressional
- is differential stress that shortens and thickens
a body of rock by folding, flowing and faulting
- associated with convergent plate collisions

b. Tensional Stress
- is differential stress that tends to lengthen or
pull apart a rock unit
- Associated with divergent plate boundaries
where plates are rifted apart.
- Causes displacement of rocks along faults

c. Shear force
- Is differential stress that causes two adjacent
rock units to slide past each other
- Occurs along weaknesses such as bedding
planes, foliation and fault lines
- Produces large scale offsets along transform
plate boundaries

Types of Deformation
a. Elastic Deformation
- where rocks return nearly its original size
and shape when the stress is removed.
- Occurs if stress is applied gradually over
long periods of time

Elastic Deformation

b. Brittle Deformation
- applies to a rock body where the elastic
limit (strength) is surpassed and fractures
- Occurs on the surface where there is no
pressure from above and is rapid
- Changes in rock are permanent

Brittle Deformation

c. Ductile Deformation
- elastic limit of rock is surpassed causing the
rock body to flow .
- Changes occur in size and shape without
fracturing
- Changes in rock are permanent and occur
slowly over time

Ductile Deformation

So What causes the different

types of deformation?

Factors That Affect Deformation

1. Temperature
- if temperatures are low then rock behaves like
a brittle solid and fractures
- as temperature increases rock becomes more
elastic or ductile

2. Confining Pressure
- is low at the surface and produces brittle
deformation
- Increases with depth and causes ductile
deformation

3. Rock Type
- sedimentary rocks are more ductile because
because of weakness along bedding planes and in
the cementation of sediments
- Metamorphic rocks are more ductile due to
weakness along lines of foliation
- Rock salt, gypsum and shale are weak/ductile
- Limestone, schist and marble intermediate

Contd

Igneous plutonic rocks have strong chemical

bonding in their crystal structure and will exhibit
brittle fracture.

4. Time
Small stresses applied to rock over long periods
of geological time may cause rocks to become
elastic or ductile
Rapid application of force causes brittle
deformation (faulting)

Measurements of Strike and Dip pg. 419

1. Strike (trend)
- is the compass direction of the line produced
by the inclined rock layer/fault with a
horizontal Plane
- is a compass bearing

2. Dip (inclination)
Is the angle of inclination to the surface of a
rock/fault measured from a horizontal plane
Includes the angle of inclination and a
direction
Is always at a 90 angle from the strike.

Types of Faults pg. 426

1. Dip-Slip Faults
a. Normal
b. Reverse
c. Thrust

2. Strike-Slip Faults
a. Left lateral
b. Right lateral

3. Transform Faults

Fault pg. 426

Is a break in a rock mass along which movement
has occurred.
Sudden movements along faults are the cause of
most earthquakes

Parts of a Fault

1. Dip-Slip Faults pg. 427

Movement is parallel to
the dip (inclination) of the
fault surface
Movement is vertical

a. Normal Fault pg. 428-429

Hanging wall moves
down relative to footwall
Caused by tension
Range from 1.0 m to
several km to form fault
block mountains
Common along divergent
plate boundaries

b. Reverse Faulting pg. 428

Hanging wall moves up
relative to the footwall
Dip > 45
Caused by compression
Common in convergent
plate boundaries and
subduction zones

c. Thrust Fault
Is a reverse fault that dips < 45
Hanging wall moves up and over footwall
Hanging wall can move from mm to
hundreds of km
Common in convergent plate boundaries
where extreme compression exists: Alps,
Himilayas, Appalachians, Andes, Rockies

Dover Fault NL

Horst and Graben

Horst and Graben

Horst is an up thrust fault block or a footwall
surrounded by two hanging walls
Graben is a down dropped fault block
surrounded by two foot walls
Occur together along divergent plate boundaries
and produce rift valleys and fault block
mountain ranges.

2. Strike-Slip Faults pg. 430

Blocks of rock move horizontal and parallel to
the fault surface
Are long and large
Caused by a shear force
Associated with transform plate boundaries
Movement ranges from meters to hundreds of km

a. Left lateral
Rock is displaced to the
left as you face the fault
line

b. Right lateral
Rock is displaced to the
right as you face the fault
line
Ex. San Andreas

3. Transform Faults
Are very long strike-slip faults that displace
mid oceanic ridges
Mark the edge of a plate boundary where
two plates slide past each other without
creating or destroying crust.
Connect divergent boundaries to convergent
boundaries ex. San Andreas fault

Folding
Is the bending of rock layers
Caused by slow continual compressional
forces at depth which results in ductile
deformation
Common in sedimentary and volcanic rocks
Can be symmetrical, asymmetrical or
overturned

Types of Folds
1. Anticline
- upfolding or arching of rock layers
- Looks like an A
2. Syncline
- downfolds or troughs