Earthquakes

Earth Systems 3209

(Chapter 16 In Textbook)

What Is An Earthquake?

An earthquake is the vibration of Earth

produced by the rapid release of energy.
The energy released radiates out in all
directions from its source (i.e. focus).
The energy is in the form of seismic waves.

What Causes Earthquakes?

Movement of magma - (magma
chambers) beneath Earths crust.
2) Faulting - rocks break under pressure
and stress.
1)

3)

Elastic rebound rocks release from being

stressed.

Elastic Rebound
Rocks on both sides of an existing fault are
deformed by tectonic forces.
Rocks bend and store elastic energy.
It does not bend beyond its potential
elasticity.
The rocks rebound to their unstressed state
releasing energy (earthquake) as it occurs.

The land is rebounding from a deformed state

Offset produced by the 1906 San

Francisco Earthquake

Figure 11.4

Earthquake terms
Focus: The point
within (or down inside)
Earth where energy is
released.
Epicenter: The point
directly above the
focus on Earths
surface

Earthquake Focus
and Epicenter

Figure 11.2

Earthquake terms
Aftershocks: Extra adjustments of the rock
that follow a major earthquake often generate
smaller earthquakes.
Foreshocks: Smaller earthquakes, often
precede a major earthquake.

Global Distribution of Earthquakes

Remember The Hugo Benioff Zone?

Earthquake Depths
Earthquakes originate at depths ranging
from 5 to nearly 700 kilometers.
Shallow-focus Earthquakes (surface to 70
kilometers)
Intermediate-focus Earthquakes (between
70 and 300 kilometers)
Deep-focus Earthquakes (over 300
kilometers)

Earthquakes and Plate

Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries Shallow Earthquakes at ridges.

DUE TO NORMAL FAULTING AND MOVING
MOLTEN.
Transform Boundaries Shallow Earthquakes along
transform faults.
DUE TO ELASTIC REBOUND.
Convergent Boundaries Shallow, Intermediate, and
Deep Earthquakes at trenches and therefore,
subduction zones.
DUE TO MOVING MOLTEN AS WELL AS REVERSE

13

Studying Earthquakes

Seismology: The study of earthquake waves.

Seismologist: The scientists who studies

seismology.

Seismographs: are instruments that record

seismic waves. Seismographs can be vertical
and horizontal.

Seismograms: are paper printouts that are

created by seismographs.

A seismogram (printout). Note the arrivals of pwaves, s-waves, and surface waves.

A Vertical Ground Motion Seismograph

Figure 11.8

Where
seismogram
is created!

Types of Seismic Waves

1)

Primary Waves (P-waves)

Fastest moving waves. First waves to arrive at
seismic stations.

Types of Seismic Waves

2) Secondary Waves (S-waves)
Second fastest waves. Second to arrive at
seismic stations.

Types of Seismic Waves

3) Surface Waves (L-waves)
Slowest moving waves. Last to arrive at seismic
stations. Travel along Earths surface.

Most destructive waves since people and property exist on

Earths surface.

Seismic Waves (Summary):

Surface Waves (L-waves)
Complex motion (i.e. shearing).
Causes the greatest destruction.
Exhibits the greatest amplitude and slowest velocity.

Body Waves - Travel through Earths interior.

Two types:

1)Primary (P-waves)
Push-pull (compress and expand) motion.
Travels through solids, liquids, and gases.

2) Secondary (S-waves)
Shake motion at right angles to their direction of travel (i.e.
shearing).
Travels only through solids.
**This is how we know
that the outer core is a
liquid!

Side Note
- No S-waves travel through the outer core
- Because S-waves only pass through solids,
we know he outer core must be liquid

Measuring the Size of

Earthquakes

Terms:
Intensity A measure of the degree of
shaking at a given locale based on the amount
of damage perceived.
Magnitude the amount of energy released at
the source of the earthquake (i.e. the focus).

Measuring the Size of

Earthquakes

Two Scales:

Numbers

Richter Scale
- Introduced by Charles Richter in 1935.
Magnitude (Energy) Scale:
Based on the amplitude of the largest
seismic wave recorded.
Scale increases in amplitude by a factor of
10 for every increment of one.
E.g. Difference between Earthquake A (5.0) and
Earthquake B (6.0) is 10 times the amplitude.
E.g. Difference between Earthquake A (5.0) and
Earthquake C (7.0) is 100 times the amplitude.

Richter Scale
Scale increases in magnitude (or energy
released) by a factor of about 30 for every
increment of one.
E.g. Difference between Earthquake X (4.0)
and Earthquake P (5.0) is 30 times the
energy released.
E.g. Difference between Earthquake X (4.0)
and Earthquake Y (6.0) is 900 times the
energy released.

Locating the Source of

Earthquakes

How to locate the epicenter of an earthquake!

Three station recordings are needed to locate
an epicenter.
Each station determines the time interval
between the arrival of the first P-wave and the
first S-wave at their location.
A travel-time graph is used and the time
interval is used to determine each stations
distance to the epicenter.

How is an Earthquakes Epicenter Located?

Seismic Wave Behavior:

P-waves arrive first, then S-waves, then Lwaves.
Average speeds for all three is known.
After an earthquake, the difference in arrival
times can be used to calculate the distance
from the seismograph station to the
epicenter. (Travel-time graph).

How is an Earthquakes Epicenter Located?

Travel-time Graph
The graph shows the
travel times for P- and
S-waves.
The farther away a
seismograph station is
from the focus of an
earthquake, the greater
the interval will be
between the arrivals of
the P- and S- waves.

How is an Earthquakes Epicenter Located?

Why are three station needed?
Three seismograph
stations are needed to
locate the epicenter of an
earthquake.
A circle, where the radius
equals the distance to the
epicenter from the station,
is drawn. Direction is
unknown!
The intersection of the
three circles locates the
epicenter. Go directly
below the epicenter and
you will find the focus.

Do Core Laboratory 5!

Damage Caused by the 1964 Anchorage, Alaska Earthquake

Figure 11.17

Damage caused by liquefaction in the Marina District of San

Francisco from the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake.

Earthquake Destruction
Tsunamis, or seismic sea waves.
Landslides and ground subsidence.
Fire.

Can Earthquakes be
Predicted?
Short-range Predictions:
Currently, no reliable method exists for making
short-range predictions of earthquakes.
Long-range Predictions/Forecasts:
Gives the probability of a certain magnitude
earthquake occurring on a time scale of 30 to
100 years (or more).
Most occur at plate boundaries and
hotspots! The exception would be places
where faulting occurs!

Practice questions
1. How much greater amplitude is an earthquake of magnitude 8.6 on
the Richter scale compared to an earthquake of magnitude 5.6?
(A) 3
(B) 90
(C) 1000
(D) 27 000
2. Which is the origin of rock displacement during an earthquake?
(A) elastic rebound
(B) epicenter
(C) focus
(D) shadow zone

Practice questions
1. How much greater amplitude is an earthquake of magnitude 8.6 on
the Richter scale compared to an earthquake of magnitude 5.6?
(A) 3
(B) 90
(C) 1000
(D) 27 000
2. Which is the origin of rock displacement during an earthquake?
(A) elastic rebound
(B) epicenter
(C) focus
(D) shadow zone