Pratyaksha Sinha

004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should

make seawater purification a viable
source of fresh water for Qatar

Chemistry Extended Essay

Word Count: 3865 words
Abstract Word Count: 254 words
Research Question: How effective is flocculation of metal ions using the coagulant aluminium
sulphate (Al2(SO4)3.16H2O) for the treatment of seawater?

International School of London, Qatar

Candidate Number: 004881-0036
Candidate Name: Pratyaksha Sinha

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Abstract
I am exploring treatment of seawater by coagulation, using the question: How efficient
is flocculation of ions using the coagulant aluminium sulphate (Al2(SO4)3.16H2O) for the
treatment of seawater? To carry out this investigation, I compared the efficiency, in terms of
the comparative result of the highest percent yield, using aluminium sulphate as a coagulant for
three different types of water and then evaluated its practicality as a coagulant for large-scale
water treatment.
A coagulant was dissolved in the water to neutralize the ions carried by the colloidal
particles suspended in the water and precipitate them. But for effective coagulation, there
were many variables to keep in mind such as concentration of coagulant and the type of
coagulant. To determine these controls, a preliminary experiment was conducted where the
trial and error method was used to determine the masses of coagulant and coagulant aid that
were to be used. It was found that 7.930 102 Al2(SO4)3.16H2O was the only
concentration of the coagulant which coagulated the floc.
The main experiment compared the mass of salt in a solution and the mass of salt
coagulated by aluminium sulphate. The result for the NaCl solution was used as the reference
point as the solution was made purely of salt and no organic substances. Three types of water
were coagulated: grey water, seawater and NaCl solution. The percent yield for all the three
were 76.1%0.10%, 90.3%0.08% and 95.5%0.10% respectively. Hence this result concluded
that aluminium sulphate is an effective coagulant for the flocculation process in the treatment
of seawater.
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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Contents
Section

Title

Page

Abstract

Introduction

Background Information

2.1

Colloidal Chemistry

2.2

Coagulation

2.3

Aluminium Sulphate

Investigation

11

3.1

Aim

11

3.2

Hypothesis

11

3.3

Coagulation Process

11

3.4

Method

12

Data Analysis

15

4.1

Experiment 1

15

4.2

Experiment 2

16

Conclusion & Evaluation

18

Discussion

20

Bibliography

24

Appendix A Jar Test

25

Appendix B Raw Data & Calculations

26

Appendix C Apparatus & Chemicals List

30

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Research Question
How effective is flocculation of metal ions using the coagulant aluminium sulphate
(Al2(SO4)3.16H2O) for the treatment of seawater?

1. Introduction
Dr. Adel Sharif of the Qatar Environment and Energy Research Institute mentioned in his
speech at Qatar Foundation Annual Research Forum that overconsumption of water remains a
key problem for the country as it develops. One of his visions is to use seawater and reuse
water as a source of domestic supply in an economic and ecological way. But for both of these
ideas, an efficient method to harvest these waters needs to be found.
Whilst researching into this topic, I found that an important process in water treatment
is flocculation which makes use of coagulating chemicals to extract unnecessary metal ions and
other microbes from water. A common coagulant used for this process is potassium aluminium
sulphate for the minor flocculation of water which is later sent for further treatment. A cheaper
coagulant which could work in the same way is hydrated aluminium sulphate. On further
research, I defined a clear question: Can aluminium sulphate efficiently coagulate colloids
present in seawater? For this investigation, I decided to equate efficiency to percent yield. In
literature, I could not find reference to the actual efficiency of aluminium sulphate in any type
of water, so I decided to conduct an experiment comparing the efficiency of the coagulant in
different types of water; grey water, standard saline solution and seawater.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

My investigation is specifically focused on the quantity of colloids coagulated from the

different sources of water. Grey water was obtained from the household draining system,
which contains high concentrations of organic materials from the waste filtered from everyday
uses. This should result in lower masses of salt measured than in seawater and sodium chloride
solution as coagulants do not coagulate all organic materials. The seawater was collected from
Al Wakra beach. As for the sodium chloride solution, the yield of the coagulation of this water
should be the highest as the solution itself is only distilled water and a weighed mass of salt.
Prior to the experiment, the mass of the various compounds used as the coagulant and
coagulant aid, a compound which increases the rate of coagulation, had to be quantified. Due
to the paucity of data available, I conducted an experiment to determine the approximate
concentration of aqueous aluminium sulphate required to flocculate ions from water. For this, I
used a constant concentration of NaCl solution (0.8557M NaCl, which is 5.000 in
100ml of water) and varied the strength of aqueous Al2(SO4)3. Ca(OH)2, which was used as procoagulant and its quantity required to aid the coagulation process the best was determined in
another experiment but it is not presented in the body of this research. These experiments
were conducted to determine the conditions under which the coagulation would work at its
peak efficiency. As this was the most important aspect, a larger number of trials were
conducted to provide a more accurate result. Although these were not relevant to my original
research focus, they helped me understand more about the hydrated aluminium sulphate as a
coagulant and the process of coagulation and flocculation.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

2. Background Information
2.1 Colloidal Chemistry
Colloidal chemistry is closely associated with various parts of water purification as the
processes of coagulation, flocculation and filtration involve colloidal phenomena. Colloids,
which are non-crystalline substances consisting of molecules of one substance dispersed
through a second substance, carry positive or negative charge. These charges are important as
they are present in all liquid mediums.
Frictional electrification potentially explains the dispersal of colloidal particles in a
medium as friction between each them result in charge. The dissociation of surface molecules is
another cause that leads to electric charge on colloidal particles, for example:

Figure 1: Dissociation of surface molecules (Oakley, H.B.)

In this example, the cation (Na+) passes in the solvent while the anion (C15H31 COO-) has a
tendency to form negative charges aggregated by itself due to weak attractive forces present in
the long hydrocarbon chains.
Another explanation is the presence of acidic or alkaline groups in the solution. As an
example, protein molecules give rise to either positive or negative charges depending on the
pH, the H+ concentration, of the medium.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Figure 2: Proteins create negative or positive charges (Oakley, H.B.)

They form a positively charged particle in low pH mediums and a negatively charged
particle in high pH mediums as illustrated above.
When more than one ions are present in a medium, the selective accumulation of ions
common to the colloidal particles takes place, resulting in the formation of positively charged or
negatively charged particles. This is called creation of charges due to the selective adsorption
of molecules.

Figure 3: Positively charged silver chloride (Oakley, H.B.)

This plays an important role during the flocculation as this phenomena aids complete
flocculation of the ions. As the experiment will test three different types of water, it is

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

important to keep in mind the type and number of these colloidal ions will be different for
every trial.
2.2 Coagulation
Sols, which are fluid suspensions of colloidal solids in a liquid, are stable after
precipitation due to the presence of electric charges on the particles. Due to electric repulsion,
the particles do not come close to one another and hence do not aggregate. The removal of
charge or attraction due to another charge by any means will lead to the aggregation of
particles and hence cause immediate precipitation. This process of precipitation is known as
coagulation or flocculation. Chemical precipitation is considered to be one of the most effective
methods of removing colloids due to the coagulating effect of the precipitate formed as shown
above. (Stein, Milton F.)
Coagulation, as a phenomenon, can be cause by different methods. A simple and basic
method is heating or cooling which can be seen when the albumin in a boiled egg gets
coagulated. In other cases, as different colloids have opposing charges, when these are mixed,
they neutralise themselves and this results in the precipitation of both the sols simultaneously.
When large quantities of electrolytes are added to the solution, the electrolyte
oppositely charged to the ions in the water neutralize each other due to which they aggregate
and coagulated. This process will be used in the following investigation.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

2.3 Aluminum Sulphate

Aluminium sulphate (as
anhydrous dialuminium;trisulphate
Al2(SO4)3) is a clear salt.
Hexadecahydrated aluminium
sulphate, which is a while crystalline
salt, is used in the experiment. Among
its uses, its most common use is for
wastewater treatment and seawater
treatment as both absorbents and
Figure 4: 16-Hydrated Aluminium Sulphate

adsorbents.

(Pubchem)
Aluminium sulphate reacts with the hydroxide and carbonates of the alkali and alkaline
earth metals according to the already well-known equations (Stein, Milton F):
2 (4 )3 () + 3()2 () 2 ()6 () + 34 ()
2 (4 )3 () + 32 3 () + 22 () 2 ()2 (3 )2 () + 32 4 () + 2 3 ()
2 (4 )3 () + 3()3 () + 2 3 () + 22 ()
2 ()2 (3 )2 () + 34 () + 42 3 ()
These reactions are relevant in this investigation as the salts mentioned above are
commonly present in the different kinds of water and the first equation refers to the coagulant
and coagulant aid used in the experiment.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

When aluminium sulphate is added to solutions of sodium carbonate, hydroxide,

calcium hydroxide or calcium bicarbonate of equivalent strength in distilled water, the reaction
is very slow. As mentioned by Milton F Stein in his notes on colloidal chemistry, With a
temperature of 20C, and with 10 grains per gallon of aluminium sulphate, coagulation
becomes visible in one hour, and the reaction completes itself in two hours. (Stein, Milton F.)
But the coagulation process is more efficient in terms of the end yield in turbid water; this is
why during coagulation for this experiment, the turbidity of the water has been increased as
much as possible by using a magnetic stirrer.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

3. Investigation
3.1 Aim
Referring to the research question, the main focus of this essay is to calculate the
efficiency of the compound aluminium sulphate as a coagulant in three different types of water
(grey water, seawater and a prepared 0.8557 ) and evaluate its potential as
a seawater treatment coagulant.
3.2 Hypothesis
The investigation looks at coagulation in three different types of water: grey water,
seawater and NaCl solution. Based on pilot testing, the highest yield would be of the NaCl
solution, the second for the seawater and the lowest wastewater. This is due to limited or
abundant presence of salt in the water for the given coagulant dose.
3.3 Coagulation Process
Ideally, the coagulation process is done using the jar test method as to be able to keep
in control all the necessary variables. The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir
the contents of six 1 liter containers. Different settings can be set for each of the paddles using
the rpm gauge at the top-center of the device. Through this, comparisons can be made over the
range of the six containers. (Christophersen, Dave)
During coagulation-flocculation, there are many variables which have to be taken into
account such as the type of coagulant use which varies in yield based on molecular structure,
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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

coagulant dose, the pH of the water, the type of additional chemical dosages apart from the
primary coagulant, the sequence of chemical addition, the intensity and duration of mixing
during the process, the type of rapid mix and stirring device and the floc retention time.
If all the variables are carefully controlled, a simple experiment in stoichiometry and
calculating the limiting reagent should provide a reliable model to investigate the efficiency of
aluminium sulphate as a viable coagulant.
3.4 Method
The aim of the first experiment was to find the exact mass of aluminium sulphate required,
under the conditions of the working space, to coagulate the salt from solutions. The controlled
variables were the concentration of the NaCl solution, the volume of main medium, and the
concentration of Ca(OH)2, the coagulant aid. The pressure, temperature, and pH were not
controlled but the latter two were recorded.
To make the NaCl solution, I added 5.000g of NaCl salt to 100ml of unionised water which
made 0.8557M liquid NaCl.
1
5.000 (
) = 0.08857
58.43
(

0.08857
1000

)
= 0.8557
= 0.8557
100
1

To make the Ca(OH)2 solution: Add 0.200g of Ca(OH)2 salt to 10ml of unionised water which
made a 2.699 102 ()2 . To make the hydrated Al2(SO4)3 solutions: Add a
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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

range of 0.500g, 1.000g, 1.500g, 2.000g of Al2(SO4)3 162 salt to a 20ml solution which
creates the range of 3.966 102 2 (4 )3 162 , 7.930 102 2 (4 )3
162 , 11.89 102 2 (4)3 162 23.79 102 2 (4 )3
162 solutions respectively.
To carry out the coagulation, fill a beaker with 100ml of the 0.8557 NaCL solution to be
the primary medium and place the beaker on a magnetic stirrer stand. Measure the pH of the
solution using a pH paper. Add 10ml of the 2.699 102 ()2 solution to the same
beaker. Place the magnetic stirrer in the solution and mix at 50% of its capacity for a minute.
Measure the pH again. Then add a 100ml of 3.966 102 of Al2(SO4)3 solution to the primary
medium. Cover this beaker and switch on the magnetic stirrer to 100% of its capacity for 30
minutes. After this rapid mix stage, let the solution rest for 60 minutes. Remove the magnetic
stirrer from the solution. Check the pH of this solution using pH paper. Repeat the procedure 8
times for the same concentration. Repeat the steps by changing the concentration of the
Al2(SO4)3 162 solution to 7.930 102 , 11.89 102 23.79 102 .
The mass of the floc was quantified by measuring the weight of the filter paper before and
after the floc was placed on it. Only after making sure that the filter papers has dried and only
contains the floc on it, measure the weight of the floc+fliter paper. Assure that the filtered
water does not show any signs of floc floating in the cylinder, then measure the volume of
distilled water.
Mass of floc = (Mass of floc + filter paper) Mass of filter paper

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

The pH of the distilled water was also measured for further analysis.
The same procedure of the above stated experiment was used for the main experiment
in which the independent variable was the three different types of water. Repeat the procedure
8 times for the same concentration.
For coagulation of wastewater and sea water, there was an adjustment in the first step; the
wastewater was filtered to remove physical impurities. For reference purposes, 100ml of
wastewater was previous heated (with five trials) and 4.620g(0.001g) of salt was extracted.
This experiment has been conducted assuming that the salt is evenly spread in the water.
100ml of seawater was previous heated (with five trials) and 5.139g(0.001g) of salt was
extracted. This experiment has been conducted assuming that the salt is evenly spread in the
water.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

4. Data Analysis
4. 1: Experiment 1 : Obtaining the mass of (Al2SO4)3 to be used
Table 1: Obtaining the mass of (Al2SO4)3 to be used
Trial Set

Weight of
Al2(SO4)3.16
H2O (g)
0.001g

Weight of
NaCl (g)
0.001g

Weight of
Ca(OH)2 (g)
0.001g

Resultant
floc

Weight
of floc +
filter
paper (g)
0.001g

Weight
of filter
paper (g)
0.001g

0.510

6.053

0.212

No floc

1.080

5.084

0.213

1.524

5.082

0.211

2.064

5.114

0.210

Floc
5.766
0.369
formed
Floc was feathery in nature and
dissolved when attempts were
made to measure it
Some of the floc passed through
the filter paper and tinted filtered
water white and yellow (for the
trials with resultant the yellow
tint)

Analysis and Result

The relevance of this experiment is to identify the right concentration of aluminium
sulphate required for the coagulation of 100ml water. As shown in the table, trial 2 was
successful as floc, which could be measured, was formed. The rest of the trials were
unsuccessful and hence have minimal relevance to the rest of the investigation.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

4.2: Experiment 2: Checking the efficiency of (Al2SO4)3 as a coagulant

Weight of salt (g)

Graph 1: Mass of Coagulated Salt

5.4
5.2
5
4.8
4.6
4.4
4.2
4
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Expected Average (g)

Actual Average (g)

Grey Water

Seawater

NaCl
solution

Expected Average (g)

4.62

5.139

5.08

Actual Average (g)

3.517

4.639

4.851

Different types of water

Table 2: Average percent yield of the three types of water

Trials
No
Weight of floc
Original weight
weight of
of salt (g)
Al2(SO4)3.16H2O
0.001g
added (g) 0.003g
Grey Water
Average 3.517
Expected
average:
4.620g(0.001g)
Seawater
Average 4.639
Expected
average:
5.139g(0.001g)
NaCl
Average 4.851
5.080
Solution
Table A.4: Comparison of averages of mass of salt

Difference in
weight of the
salt (g)
0.004g
0.961

Per cent yield

(%)

0.770

90.3%

0.227

95.5%

79.1%

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

As summarised in the graph and table above, the experiment showed different degrees of
success in the different types of water. For grey water, the yield was the lowest, being
76.1%0.10% and the highest being for the NaCl solution being 95.5%0.10%. The seawater
had a 90.3%0.08% yield, which is a fairly significant result, considering the variable nature of
the experiment, as discussed below. The NaCl solution will be used as a standard as the solution
was made of only salt without any possible interference from organic matter.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

5. Evaluation
The results of the experiment support my hypothesis that the coagulant Al2(SO4)3
162 would be most effective on the NaCl solution, less so on the seawater and least on the
grey water. The error in all the measurements were 0.08% and 0.10% in the processed data.
The pH paper used to determine the acidity or alkalinity of the solution had a large error of
1pH which could have been decreased by the titration of the solution. As the main aim of this
experiment was to compare the percent yield, the following errors did not affect my conclusion
as the three types of water were all subjected to the same conditions. If a more accurate result
were to be needed, the jar test method outlined in the appendix could be undertaken.
The methodology of the experiment itself resulted in multiple inaccuracies and errors.
For one, it was difficult to determine exactly when the flocculation was complete. There was no
predetermined end point so it was assumed that it should be complete over a time period of 60
minutes (Stein, Milton F). Another experiment could be conducted to find the exact length of
time the solutions would take to wholly coagulate.
Another major drawback of the experiment was the nature of the experiment itself.
There were various variables to take into account as mentioned under section 3.3. Not all of
these factors could be measured due to the limitations posed by available apparatus. Whether
different concentrations of calcium hydroxide would have been more effective or better
coagulant aids could have been used was not evaluated in this methodology but should be
considered for further evaluation. Similarly, although prior testing was conducted to find the

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

most efficient mass of all the chemicals required, only certain values were tested. It is possible
that there is another value, which could result in higher yield and accuracy.
A variable which I attempted to take into consideration was the pH of the solution. Both
the coagulant aid and the coagulant have alkaline and acidic effects on the solution
respectively. Although it is known that aluminium sulphate works best under alkaline conditions
(Stein, Milton F), the exact pH of the solution could not be controlled. However, it has been
reported in the Appendix to be used as justification of the data.
As the stirrer was not an ideal rapid mixer but a magnetic stirrer, the turbidity of the
entire solution could have been affected and so would have the effectiveness of the
coagulation. The apparatus for stirring and rapid mixing does not provide us a quantitative
value to designate to the speed of mixing, so the rate used by the magnetic stirrer could have
varied. As mentioned in section 3.3, the ideal set up would have been the jar test method but,
due to lack of the apparatus, it was not used.
One problem with the wastewater was the water source. The grey water used in
the experiment was obtained from different local households. The wastewater did not
coagulate as efficiently as the other two solutions; this could have been due to influence of the
organic compounds in the water. As the specific compounds were not identified, the exact
influence cannot be determined. Also, as the average quantity of salts present in the water was
found to be slightly lower than the quantity tested for optimum coagulant, the dose may have
been higher or lower than the optimum dose required for the specific type and volume of
water.
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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

6. Discussion
The aim of the experiment was to determine the efficiency of aluminium sulphate as a
coagulant for three different types of water. A potential practical application of the results
could be the coagulation of sols present in seawater, rendering it suitable for domestic use.
According to the results of the experiment, aluminium sulphate was successful in coagulating
the metal ions, such as chloride, sodium, magnesium, strontium, silicate, iodide and others,
which are commonly present in the seawater (W. Johnson, Martin). This is an effect method of
coagulation as it was not only the ions that were successfully flocculated, but also microbes and
other small particles (LeChevallier, Mark W.) However, due to the increasing rate of pollution of
seawater it is difficult to determine all of its specific components.
Whilst testing the efficiency of aluminium sulphate as a coagulant in wastewater, the
results were not as successful. They demonstrated an average percent yield of only
76.1%0.10% as opposed to the 90.3%0.08% yield of coagulation of seawater and
95.5%0.10% yield of the NaCl solution. This implies that it is possible for the coagulation to be
less effective in certain types of water with different constituents. The different components of
seawater can vary with the origin of the water and therefore depending on this process without
previous testing would be unwise. But for the seawater present in Qatar this result is suitable as
the abundant seawater can be practically used as a public water source.
Another major factor that affects yield of coagulation is the pH of the water. Different
coagulants work better in different levels of pH. The optimum pH of the final distilled solution
required is 7 as it should be pure water. As aluminium sulphate works better in alkaline
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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

solutions, a coagulant aid was added to increase the pH and add more ions to aid the
flocculation. Taking into consideration the fact that the original pH of the water varies as well,
for different pHs, different masses of coagulant aids and other pH adjusting substances would
be needed. This would be a difficult task to carry out frequently on a large scale such as for
public water supply. Attempts to average out the pH could prove to be slightly useful.
The steady but very gradual decrease in pH of the worlds oceans due to the increase of
dissolved carbonate ions would affect this calculation. This could also be a positive effect, as
some of the pH levels would not need a coagulant aid as the pH of the water itself would be the
optimum pH level for the coagulant.
A drawback of coagulation of seawater is the colour of the water. Seawater usually has a
clear yellow or brownish tint, which cannot be removed by passing it through filter paper. The
colour of the water is enhanced in turbid state, which is predominantly seen during the later
stages of the rapid mixing process. Water generally acquires colour through contact with
decaying vegetation in swamps, as a result of underwater life. When aluminium sulphate is
added to these, a coloured precipitate is formed but, depending on the cause of the colour,
there is a possibility that aluminium sulphate may not be as efficient. Although coloured water
would be a disadvantage, if the cause of the colour is an alkaline agent, coagulant aid would not
be needed. This again depends on the possibility of being able to measure the quantities of
these constituents in the water. Also, as this precipitation of ions is only one of the methods
involved in the long process of water treatment which includes reverse osmosis, this weakness
can be easily overcome.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

One of the most important factors to consider is the cost. The cost of the whole process
is extremely relevant as the public need to be able to afford the water supply. As outlined in
The Manufacture Of Sulphate Of Alumina At The Colombus Water Softening And Purification
Works by Charles P. Hoover, in the manufacturing of aluminium sulphate, the important
features are bauxite and sulphuric acid; including the costs of setting up the plant, an overall
estimate would be $10,493.50. This is for the production of 1000 tonnes of 17% alum solution.
According to him, a minimum of $12,000 original investment and a minimum annual
expenditure of $6,000 would be needed. For a higher concentration and for further
development, more costs would be incurred.
Although the majority of the costs are spent in one-time investments in the plant, more
costs would be incurred for repair and maintenance of the plant, along with the high costs of
constantly obtaining the bauxite and sulphuric acid, which are the reagents which make
aluminium sulphate. These costs only include the manufacture of alum but further expense
would be required for building and usage of the actual water treatment plant. However, this
method can be very useful for the public, as a large supply of drinkable water can be easily
delivered to them with just these costs.
Another aspect to keep in mind is that although the majority of the salt coagulated, in
most of the trials some ions remained suspended in the water. This could raise ethical issues
concerning the health of the people who consume this water, considering the possibility that
ingesting these ions could affect their heath.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

If this idea were to be implemented on a larger scale, more research should be

conducted. Further exploration should include; testing for other coagulants which could be
more effective for the coagulation of seawater; testing of other coagulant aids and its different
concentrations which could result in a higher percent yield for seawater; and perhaps testing
whether there is a different concentration of aluminium sulphate which was not tested in this
experiment and could be more suited for the coagulation. The two major variables which were
hard to control and manipulate were the pH and the colour of the solutions. It is possible that a
different level of pH would create a better environment for the coagulation. Dilution of the
water for a lower colour could be effective but this could also increase the costs due to greater
use of coagulant aids and coagulants for the larger quantity of water. If all the variables are
carefully controlled, a simple experiment in stoichiometry and calculating the limiting reagent
should provide a reliable model to investigate the efficiency of aluminium sulphate as a viable
coagulant for the large scale.
In conclusion, the process of coagulation of seawater can be a useful method for
tapping the large seawater resource as public use for the residents of Qatar. The method itself
can be improved and, with further exploration, it can be developed into a working model.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Bibliography
1. Hoover, Charles P. "THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHATE OF ALUMINA AT THE COLUMBUS WATER
SOFTENING AND PURIFICATION WORKS [with DISCUSSION]." Journal (American Water Works
Association) 2.4 (1915): 693-702. JSTOR. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.

2. Johnson, Martin W., and Fleming H. Richard. "Biological Chemistry and Physics of Sea Water."
Nature 123.3106 (1929): 709-10. Web. 20 Jan. 2016.

3. Lechevallier, Mark W. "Water Treatment and Pathogen Control: Process Efficiency in Achieving
Safe Drinking-water." Water Intelligence Online Wio 12 (2013): n. pag. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.

4. Mohlman, F. W. "COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS RELATION TO TANK TREATMENT OF SEWAGE."

Journal (American Water Works Association) 9.2 (1922): 311-18. JSTOR. Web. 16 Dec. 2015.

5. National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Database;

CID=23065692, https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/23065692 (accessed Jan.
20, 2016).
6. Oakley, H. B. "The Origin of the Charge on Colloidal Particles." The Origin of the Charge on
Colloidal Particles (1925): 902-16. - The Journal of Physical Chemistry (ACS Publications). Web. 20
Jan. 2016. <http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/j150265a005>.

7. Pirnie, Malcolm. "APPLICATION OF COLLOID CHEMISTRY TO STUDY OF FILTER EFFLUENTS."

Journal (American Water Works Association) 9.2 (1922): 247-73. JSTOR. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.

8. Stein, Milton F. "SOME NOTES ON COLLOIDAL CHEMISTRY AND WATER PURIFICATION." Journal
(American Water Works Association) 8.6 (1921): 571-82. JSTOR. Web. 18 Dec. 2015.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Appendix A: Jar Test

Jar Test
Ideal aluminum sulphate coagulation follows the following basic steps:1
1. Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used
as a control while the other containers can be adjusted depending on the variable
constant.
Different variables could be the pH of the jars, variations in coagulant doses,
variations in coagulant aid doses, etc.
2. Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute.
The rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
3. Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then
measure the final turbidity in each container.
4. Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes.
This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions
which lead to larger floc.

Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary (2007): n. pag. The National Environmental Services Centre. Web.

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Appendix B: Raw Data

Experiment 1 : Obtaining the correct mass of (Al2SO4)3 to be used

Trial
s

No. of Weight of
Repeat Al2(SO4)3.16
s
H2O (g)
0.001g

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average
2
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Average
3
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24

0.515
0.521
0.504
0.512
0.508
0.509
0.511
0.502
0.510
1.027
1.121
1.111
1.038
1.056
1.076
1.114
1.098
1.080
1.531
1.510
1.493
1.523
1.564
1.521
1.503
1.548

Weight
of NaCl
(g)
0.001g

Weight of
Ca(OH)2
(g)
0.001g

Resultant
floc

5.017
5.081
5.048
5.089
5.011
5.029
5.143
5.007
6.053
5.160
4.989
5.107
5.003
5.090
5.011
5.102
5.211
5.084
5.110
5.013
5.065
5.041
5.094
5.090
5.147
5.093

0.210
0.221
0.207
0.218
0.202
0.212
0.215
0.209
0.212
0.200
0.211
0.218
0.221
0.206
0.219
0.220
0.211
0.213
0.210
0.200
0.219
0.205
0.214
0.219
0.213
0.204

No floc2

Weight
of floc
+ filter
paper
(g)
0.001g

Weight
of filter
paper
(g)
0.001g

Floc
formed

5.733
0.373
5.621
0.339
5.898
0.367
5.601
0.366
5.884
0.382
5.911
0.374
5.798
0.381
5.689
0.369
5.766
0.369
Feathery floc- unable to
measure accurately as a
minimal mass of it dissolved
in the water while filtering

Floc did not form even after longer detention time periods (2 hours)

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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Average
4
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

1.524
2.137
2.007
1.999
2.101
2.118
2.046
2.099

5.082
5.156
5.076
5.084
5.163
5.123
5.010
5.114

0.211
0.217
0.210
0.199
0.203
0.221
0.215
0.203

Flaky floc
with
yellow tint
Flaky floc

Some of the floc

passed through
the filter paper
and tinted
filtered water
white and yellow
Flaky floc (for the three
trials with
with
yellow tint resultant the
Flaky floc yellow tint)

32
2.003
5.187
0.214
Average
2.064
5.114
0.210
Table 4.1: Quantitative data and qualitative data of the first experiment
Experiment 2: Checking the efficiency of (Al2SO4)3 as a coagulant

Trials

No
.

Weight of
Weight Weight
Al2(SO4)3.16H2O of
of
NaCl
Ca(OH)2
(g) 0.001g
salt (g) (g)

0.001g
0.001g

Weight
of Filter
Paper
(g)
0.001g

Weight
of
floc+filter
paper
(g)
0.001g

1*
(grey
water)

1
2
3
4
5

1.072
1.102
1.221
1.033
1.098
1.105
1.034
1.003
1.165
1.210
1.087
1.099
1.156
1.128
1.054

0.367
0.366
0.382
0.364
0.379
0.371
0.370
0.380
0.369
0.373
0.339
0.366
0.375
0.368
0.389

5.098
4.989
4.880
5.176
4.878
5.004
5.889
6.270
5.699
6.424
5.745
5.785
5.384
6.598
6.198

Average
2
(seawater
)

Average
3
(NaCl
Solution)

1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3

N/A

N/A
N/A

N/A
5.093
5.143
4.997

0.203
0.212
0.211
0.206
0.200
0.212
0.202
0.203
0.205
0.210
0.213
0.214
0.207
0.209
0.201

Total
mass
of
distilled
water
(ml)
1ml
125
119
129
123
126
124
115
112
112
115
114
114
113
112
115
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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

4
5

1.128
5.160
0.211
0.378
1.007
5.009
0.213
0.367
Average
1.095
5.080
0.208
0.375
Table A.1: Quantitative data from the second experiment
Trials

First pH
pH Before
(ph)
(ph)
1pH
1pH
1*
1
6
7
(grey water)
2
6
8
3
7
8
4
5
8
5
6
8
2
1
7
8
(seawater)
2
8
8
3
8
9
4
7
9
5
7
8
3
1
6
8
(NaCl
2
7
9
Solution)
3
7
8
4
7
9
5
7
9
Table A.2: Measured pH of the solutions

Trials

1*
(grey
water)

No.

pH
During(ph)
1pH
7
7
7
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7

5.989
6.437
5.661

114
112
113

pH After
(ph) 1pH
6
7
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
7
8
7
7
8

of Weight
of Weight
of Weight of flocNo Weight
floc+
filter Filter Paper floc
(g) weight
of
Al2(SO4)3.16H2O
paper (g) (g) 0.001g 0.002g
added
(g)
0.001g
0.003g
1
5.098
0.367
4.731
3.659
2
4.989
0.366
4.623
3.521
3
4.880
0.382
4.498
3.227
4
5.176
0.364
4.812
3.779
5
4.878
0.379
4.499
3.401
1
5.889
0.370
5.519
4.485
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Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

(seawater)

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

2
6.270
0.380
3
6.199
0.369
4
6.424
0.373
5
5.745
0.339
3
1
6.384
0.375
(NaCl
2
6.598
0.368
Solution)
3
6.198
0.389
4
5.989
0.378
5
6.437
0.367
Table A.3: Weight of floc and possible salts

5.890
5.830
6.051
5.406
6.009
6.230
5.809
5.611
6.070

No Weight of floc Original weight

weight of
of salt (g)
Al2(SO4)3.16H2O 0.001g
added (g)
0.003g
1*
1
3.659
Expected
(grey
average:
2
3.521
water)
4.620g(0.001g)
3
3.227
4
3.779
5
3.401
Average
3.517
2
1
4.485
Expected
(seawater) 2
average:
4.887
5.139g(0.001g)
3
4.665
4
4.841
5
4.319
Average
4.639
3
1
4.853
5.093
(NaCl
2
5.102
5.143
Solution)
3
4.755
4.997
4
4.483
5.160
5
5.063
5.009
Average
4.851
5.080
Table A.4: Comparison of mass of salt
Trials

4.887
4.665
4.841
4.319
4.853
5.102
4.755
4.483
5.063

Difference
in weight of
the salt (g)
0.004g

Per cent
yield (%)

0.961
1.099
1.393
0.841
1.219
1.103
0.654
0.252
0.474
0.298
0.820
0.770
0.240
0.041
0.242
0.667
-0.054
0.227

79.2%
76.21%
69.84%
81.8%
73.61%
76.12%
87.2%
95.1%
90.8%
94.2%
84.0%
90.27%
95.3%
99.2%
95.2%
86.9%
101%
95.49%

Page | 29

Pratyaksha Sinha
004881-0036

Aluminium sulphate coagulation should make seawater

purification a viable source of fresh water for Qatar

Appendix C: Apparatus and Chemicals List

Chemicals
1.
2.
3.
4.

Al2(SO4)3 162
Ca(OH)2
NaCl
Distilled water

Apparatus
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

1 heating/magnetic stand
1 magnetic stirrer
3 1000cm3 0.01cm3 beaker
4 100cm3 0.01cm3 beaker
2 50cm3 0.02cm3 measuring cylinder
4 100cm3 0.1cm3 measuring cylinder
3 250cm3 0.01cm3 beakers
1 scale
1 spatula
Johnsons litmus paper
Filter paper
12. 1 thermometer

Page | 30