TECHNIQUES of the CONTEMPORARY COMPOSER DAVID COPE2 B. CONTENTS Introduction xt BASICS 1 Approaches to Composition 1 Skills and Tools 4 The Profession 7 Rudiments of Orchestration and Form 8 ‘THE TONAL LEGACY 2 Basic Key Concepts. 12 Chromaticism 15 Expansions and Planing 17 Polytonality 19 NEW ROLES OF MELODY 26 Seales 26 Motives 28 Basic Melodic Concepts 29 Extended Melodic Lines 32 Accompaniments 34 HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT, AND HIERARCHY 38 ‘The Overtone Series 38 Texture 39 Consonance and Dissonance 39 Interval Strengths 40 Roots 41 Progression Strengths and Chromaticism 42. INTERVAL EXPLORATION 46 Basic Concepts. 46 Fifth and Fourth Chords Second and Seventh Chords. 50 Interval Combinations 5518, 19. 20. CONTENTS MEDIA FORMS: 206 Multimedia 206 Mixed Media 209 Intermedia 212 Vireual Reality 214 MINIMALISM 216 Silence as Minimalism 216 Concept Music 217 Brevity Works 218) Continuivies 218 Phase and Pattern Music 219 EXPERIMENTAL MUSIC 222 Situation and Circumstance Music 222 Soundscapes 223, Biomusic 224 Antimusic 22 DECATEGORIZATION 230 Fclecticism 231 Quotation 22 Sectionalization 233 Overlays 234 Integration 236 Bibliography 239 Indes 247 INTRODUCTION If there is one characteristic ofthe arts that remains constant, itis change. Although, ‘Western Classical music, co the inexperienced listener, may seem predictable and reli- ably consistent, i is not. Over the course of centuries, harmonic vocabularies that ‘originated in medieval organum with open parallel fourths and fifths have proceeded through triads and seventh and ninth chords to the dissonant, clusterlike chords of the twentieth century. Melodic vocabularies have likewise developed from stepwise 4istonic chants through triadic leaping to extreme chromaticism and pointlism Rhythm, timbre, and texture have followed similar paths from simple to complex, though less quickly. “Those who refuse to accept change, or who canonize common-practice music of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries to the detriment of contemporary music, Jack the vision necessary to understand the inevitable nature of change. Though ‘many a masterpiece was produced during Western music's tonal centuries, biliance ‘of craft and musicianship are evident in thousands of works written before and afer those years. “Techniques ofthe Contemporary Composer covers many of the changes that have taken place recently and even suggests afew that may yet occur. Central to the book are three basic concepts 1, There is no right way to compose music, no righ style, only different ones. Each individual must decide on his or her own mode of expression. 2. There is no progress in art. While it may at frst seem plausible that, for ‘example, a late Romantic symphony is superior to a simple tenth-century 3, careful consideration may prove the contrary. A comparison of ogress in the arts to, for instance, progress inthe sciences is inappropriate. 3. However musi is defined (and it macters little in the final analysis), i pos sesses elements that make craftand consistency fundamental to its quality. ‘Techniques of the Contemporary Composer is designed to cover the techniques, esources, and technologies of composition of the twentieth and early ewenty-ftst ‘centuries while placing an emphasis on the music of more recent years. Most music ‘omposition books deal almost exclusively with traditional techniques, inclusive of Principal music of the early to middle ewentieth century. Those that do include ontraditional techniques usually cover only 2 few contemporary idioms. The pre book, however, includes as many areas of contemporary composition as possiblesii INTRODUCTION in an inclusive single volume and in as objective a manner as posible. Ie assumes that knowledge ofas many procedures as posible produces cue freedom of expression. By studying and carefully evaluating the ideas presented here, readers may lead them- selves to developing their own individual syle. Techniques of the Contemporary Composer encompasses twenty-one chapters, or8a- nized to coincide roughly with two semesters or three academic quarters of composi tion, with time left fr review. This can be expanded to a two~ oF three-year format, with one chapeer assigned every two or three weeks instead of one per week. The book also provides both teacher and student with examples, bibliographic references (keyed by parenthetical pointets in the text), and composing suggestions. The bibliography includes a beef list of relevant books and scores for further study and analysis, ‘The beginning chapters provide a transition from common-practice study and gently bridge the gap from learned bias to the exploration of new ideas. The order of the chapters themselves is logical but does not always reflect historical chronology Nor does the chapter order reflect any particular progression toward better, more complex, or more definivive techniques. While subsequent chapters do build to some extent on the techniques of previous chapters, this organication should not ead to assumptions that later chapters have more substantial worth. If any progression ‘occurs here, it one from tradition towad innovation, with the last chapter sum. ring up ts predecessors. Chapters ae aso grouped around sinilar ideas. Chapters 6 and 7, for example, have much in common. Chapters 11 and 12 have likewise sim lar subject matter, as do chapters 15, 16, 17, and 18. Each chapter presents only an ineroduction wo its subject sad should no be considered exhaustive The musical examples are primarily my own and were composed not a represen- tations of my personal style but as demonstrations of the points under discussion, ‘As a composition teacher using this book asa classroom tex, [ require all compos- ing assignments to be performed, atleast inthe classroom. This requirement extends 28 well co most of che examples in each chapter as well as to many of the works listed inthe bibliography: Many ofthe book's examples also exist in standard MIDI file for ‘mat and are available an downloadable from my Internet site: hep/ars.ues.ed faculeylcoperhome. Students are encouraged to work on larger projects that may ot ‘may not interact with the classroom assignments chus obtaining practical and usable techaiques, resources, and technologies from a variety of new styles in adltion c completing large works more demanding in form and content. 1 wish to thank my wifey Mary Jane, and the many students I have had over my thiry years of teaching music composition. In many says, these individuals have taught me as much as I them. Certainly, che order of chapters and the manner of pre sentation are due as much to their suggestions, direct and inditect, over the years as to my own ideas. I hope that some of these exchanges of influence have proved 38 tusefl co chem in their endeavors as composers zad educators as they have to me: | also wish to thank Jil Lectka for her insights, advice, and help and David Roen for copying most ofthe musical examples. Somerset Maugham once noted that there are three rules for writing @ novel, but tunforcunately, no one knows what they are. While this may be te for writing music —_ INTRODUCTION xiii ‘as well, itis important to point out that potential novelists and composers alike have fgecess to a great many resources that ean enable them to discover those rules for themselves. The present book isnot, therefore, about rules, but about resources. Ie is ‘with these concepts in mind that I hope to aid readers in discovering the techniques ‘of the contemporary composer. David CopeCHAPTER | BASICS THIS CHAPTER IDENTIFIES a few good composition habits lists ideas for preparing scores, and presents suggestions for developing performance and publi ‘cation opportunities. I also covers the basic rudiments of orchestration and musical form. While such practical matters are often neglected in books on music composi- ton, they represent important strategies for enduring as a composer and not just dab- ng in the craft (Rochberg 1984). to Composition I overviews are stressed throughout much of this book. Such usually consist of visual graphics, narratives, or outlines from which tech- and materials can be derived (Stravinsky 1947). Overviews help composers the problems often encountered in compositions rhat are nor prestmucrured: a of fdeas from various composing sessions spaced over days, weeks, and even Overviews, while malleable co the very last note of a resulting composition, frameworks for composing more consistent music in larger forms Figure 11 shows a series of overviews of a work for chamber orchestra titled om. Figure I.la demonstrates how the work might appear on a three-by-five- index cand. The horizontal lines here describe texture and dynamics and, along th the vertical and angled bars, define the three main sections of the form. Figure b presents a more detailed version of the work with a few rhythmic ideas sketched appropriate locations. This overview also shows more details about the types of ls in each section. Figure I.Ic gives more definition to the main ideas, with ‘ome of the more important musical ideas written out in traditional notation, ‘overviews on the wall above the primary composing workplace can help __t® Femind composers oftheir current context in a work. 7 Beginning a composition from an overview can be as effective as beginning a com- Petition from a melody, motive, or harmonic structure. Sketching a work (even in hic terms) in its complete form before @ note of chord has been written, expand- ‘ ourward through latger and larger sketches, often helps composers visualize hear works in larger forms. Some composers actualy begin with the double bar © end before composing their compositions (Stravinsky 1947). "This helps them e Intultion suggests—thus more naturally—and not just where the music's ‘currently happens to stop.= 28 |INC Sa ae FiGURE Ll. Three overviews of a wotk for chamber orchestra Using a temporary title often helps when creating overviews. Composers often neglect the significance of a title to an audience and to themselves. Indeed, Hector Berlie’s Symphonie fantastique would sound very differently were the title changed 0 Symphony No. 1. It is difficult even to speak about a work, much less conceptualize it, without its having a tte ‘Sketching provides composers wich a way co hone their skills and develop r=W materials for new works. Example 1.1 shows a series of sketches by Beethoven for his String Quartet in A Minor Op. 132. Nore how important new elements surface in each skerch as well as how apparently unsuccessful ideas disappear. Beethoven revised so heavily that often his initial ideas are unrecognizable in his final drats (although that is nor the case here). Revising materials ean be as important a part of the craft of musical composition as inspiration and should be regularly exercised. ‘One should avoid including new ideas just because these ideas seem good. Often such ideas can be completely foreign to a work and disrupt its continuity. Keeping sketchbook can be useful for such inspirations. Sketching new ideas, concepts, of CHAPTER — one Asics > ee BXOME LI. A series of setches by Beethoven for his Sting Quartet in A Minor Op. 132. reo ina separate pad an ‘iat low cbb,, Be pean “hee saving them for later works, especially when inspiration ideas from interrupting otherwise consistent music. = reautesthat a composer be ava ofall of works music com- rather than just the music visible on the current page. Using just one of staff paper helps ensure that finding important events previous to oF follow. {Current point of composition will be relatively easy. Likewise, using numbered rather chan bound manuscript allows composers to see a whole work just4 CHAPTER ONE as with overviews. All to often, using bound and double-sided music paper conflces with a composer's need to compare relationships between temporally distant but fr. mally similar materials ‘Compositions thar thoroughly explore afew ideas succeed more often than those that expound many different ideas but develop them less. While there are no hard and fast rules concerning the core number of materials a work can convineingly sus tain, one good way to restrict the number involves developing a single idea excl sively until che music absolutely requires new material. Treating the new material in like manner, while juguling repetitions and further variations of the initial ideas, helps to ensure that works are integeated and developmental as well as expository Mose successful composers work daly (Dorian 1947), Just as performers need to practice theit art and craft, so must composers. This practice may take the form of composing a work in progress, sketching, reworking @ passage, or even study another work for its solutions to certain problems. The hours of the day or nigh: spent composing will vary, depending on the composer. Many find a set hour or time period most effective, while others choose diferent times. The planned-ahead time for composing can prove disastrous, though this again varies from composer to com: poser. In general, an established workplace provides most composers with the secu- rity of knowing the location of each tool and avoids the complications of day-to-day unpredictability Pencils have two ends, and composers should “write softy and carry a big eraser.” Erasing music can be a creative act, and many composers of successful music have admitted ending a day of composing with fewer measures than when they began. ‘Composers often time in-progress compositions over and over again with a metronome (Stevens 1964). This process can suggest changes that may constitute the difference between mediocrity and success. Moreover, such timings can contribute 0 really hearing works rather than just imagining to hear them. Unfortunately, com posers often produce augenmusik—works that look good on the page but are not con vincing in performance. Evaluating music in terms of real versus perceived time is extremely important. Composers hearing a passage for the fiftieth time rarely retain the perspective of an audience hearing it for the first or second time. Composers often get so involved in the extraordinarily personal act of creation that they lose objectiv- ity, Understanding this problem can help composers step away from overworked pas sages fora time. Overfamiliarity may otherwise prompt one co discard good musi when a careful and objective reexamination might prove its worth Skills and Tools, ‘The ability to read and notate music quickly and correctly is an extremely importan® skill chat composers must acquire (Read 1969). Example 1.2 shows a musical example with a numberof notational mistakes. These mistakes contradice many basic principles For example, stem direction is determined by a note’s proximity to the staf’s centeF line: notes above have downward stems, noces below upward stems. "Uplers” (triplets quintuplets etc.) should have the same rhythmic value as the normal duration that the CS 1.2. Music notation example with numerous mistakes replaces (c.g,, measure 3 here should be quarter notes). Noteheads of chords seconds must be placed on the correct sides of the stem. Chords and rests be properly aligned vertically. The designations for octave dsplacements—Sva (tava), \Sma (quindicesina), and so on—should never be used in clefs where clef can place the music on or near the staff (e4, bass ele should graduate to fore using oxava notation). Principles such as these, as well as those regarding Rent usc of sharp and ats, multiple vies on single sa, proper beaming ‘meter in use, and soon, are extremely important for composers intent the ent ofmustal composition. ‘rogram offer composers opportunities to enter theit music via ASCIT rAampler keyboards, hear their music via MIDI (Musical Instrument6 CHAPTER ON - Digital Interface, see chap. 16) output, and print their music and parts with nea engraved quality: Figure 1.2 shows a typical MIDI setup, from input on a computer to output via speakers or printer. The sampler, inthis particular configuration, plays hack the music entered in the notation sequencer at the computer. The printer shown here outputs the score and parts in standard music notation The availability of computer programs should not, however, dissuade composers, from learning the art and craft of standatd music notation. Not only does such knowledge make composing possible when the computer is not available, it als ‘makes composers better editors of their music—something all composers must be at ‘one time or another. Choosing the appropriate computer software depends on a number of factors (Yavelow 1992). Fitting a program to your computer means not only making sure that the computer type and program match correctly, but that the amount of RAM, hard disk space, MIDI compatibility, printer type, and so on, all correlate properly. Iris also important to choose a computer notation program that prints parts, pro- duces collected bars of rest, and offers some control over paging and so on. While ‘computor OO TEBM synhestzersampior ampiinor {o_o} FIGURE 1.2. One eypical MIDI setup for composing asics 3s that allow for user control of such details often pose steep learn- oer allow composers to produce scores with the least number of they alo curves, se ual problems during rehearsals and performance. The Profession es (including those sel-produced using computer progeams) have sig- Ragnave larger works a all, but rather distribute composer-created copies. Composers Spo fonger have the luxury of scribbling their music and waiting for caligaphers to sevopyor engrave the results. Such methods are far too costly. “Getting your music published requires patience. Ten publishers can see a work and reject it, and the eleventh accept it with glowing compliments. Send publishers cas- sette tapes or recordings along with copies of scores. Many music publishers cannot ead music or hear it in their heads and generally refuse works by unknown or ‘unproved composers. Serious music rately requires unpublished copyright and, when published, is usu ally copyrighted by the publisher. Composers or publishers, however, may copyright works Complete information abt copyright is available from the US. Copyright Offic, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Copyrighting costs money and requires ‘copies of the work to be deposited at the Library of Congress. International copyright Isbest left ro publishers, since its vagaries and complexities escape all bu the legally Knowledgeable and experienced. Note that plagiarists rarely steal entire works; they Just steal many of their general ideas, which fall only vaguely under copyright pro- tection. Such thefts are therefore dificule to litigate. (Commissions can be important even if they involve only a promised performance. ‘Commissions enable composers to compose within constrains as well as work with, Performers, from whom a great deal can be leaened. Composers car also learn from, the inspiration and friction such proximity creates. Conductor-compesers, for examn- Ble, can develop a real understanding about orchestration, literature, and composi- tion technique by performing their own music and new works by other composes. sions should be handled with great care, however, as misunderstandings and ‘esthetic differences can cause more trouble than the commission is worth. Morks that take advantage of the abilities of uniquely skilled performers entail Getain risks. If such an individual performs a great deal, your work may gain wide ‘SPosure, bur ifthe performer has few opportunities, your work may have limited ce potential. On the other hand, one should avoid simplifying works just ‘Bebra peormancs Indeed, unaliattechnigues canbe acquit by create Performers. Much can also be leamed by attempting to perform special techniques Yourselé Tos nab composers t0 confront the dificulties directly and ascertain if can learn such techniques easily rants and prizes are important for winners but unimportant for loses. [losing 4s palatable, then enter them and forget chem. Winning awards and grants8 CHAPTER ONE except a posible loss of sel-esteem. Salle Recordings are, for the unknown of young composer, mainly a matter of accep ‘il tance bya ecording company and subsidization forthe recording itself Most record- all {ng companies use grants to fund recording projects or expect the composer or pet- former to pay the costs directly Composers should send tapes to various companies wwithout being discouraged by rejections. Once a work is accepted, funding ean often be acquired from grants. Commissions can help as well, for many performers and groups will commission a work, lke it, and record it, removing the burden of fund- ing from the compose. ‘Composers should also review the various performance rights organizations, such as the American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Music, Incorporated (BMI). Such organizations play an extremely impor- tant role in most profesional composers lives by collecting and distributing royalties earned from performances as wel as keeping members aware ofthe various perfor- mmances of their works (Cope 1993). 4 ii eu sol ce beings, Lain val nd teas il | 3 j Rudiments of Orchestration and Form Listening to all types of music represents one of the most important ways to learn about orchestration and form. Not only does such listening help to educate in ways rno book can, but it also broadens the musical perspective of composers so that they are less apt subconsciously to plagiarize the etyles, ideas, or contexts of other cam posers’ music, Such plagiarism can be almost unavoidable when young composers know but a few pieces of music. $ “atin ge Listening with scores informs composers in ways no other study can. It improves score and sight reading skills, as well as illustrating how individual instruments sound in various registers and how various ensembles of instruments sound together. Example 1.3 lists many standard instruments in typical orchestral order with their usual clefs and transpositions (Adler 1982; Kennan and Grantham 1983). In gener al, scores of lesser numbers of these instruments follow this same basic order. Hence, any collection of woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings (from high instruments 10 low instruments) should appear, top to bottom, in this configuration Listening to music with scores also can help composers hear and better under stand musical form and structure. Table 1.1 (p. 10) lists a number of standard classi cal music forms, which have many variations and subclassifications (Berry 1986) 2: horn (op PB trumpet (op Mp Peer cp beeps pF che PFO (es tale ther an“ ale ton ine hae tan eh trainj nt nsone rcs ok odanel Stephene ‘ap nfs kn in a rkneno BV4 ee OF). ‘eles elo tno writen p Pa) tarsta apni — econ torn ohne “Trngponton itn): Bb asi map 156 ‘Although numetous other forms are just as viable as these, composers can do worse than begin with simple, ried-and-true forms and then slowly develop their own vari- > ations and innov: “Table L.1 also shows the difference between forms that are homophonic (har- ; ip ronal ted) and those that are contrapuntal presesing wo of mre melodic 4 ifus ideas simultaneously). Contrapuntal forms typically require sty beyond standard i hhatmonic theory. As such, while beginning composes should be aware oftheir baste i dlfinivions, contrapuntal forms should initially rake a back seat tothe simpler single Exwirit 13. Standard ranges and order of orchestral instruments with their typical cles ‘and multimovernent homophonic forms. 4nd wanspostonsi. 10 CHAPTER ONE ! BASICS u ‘Multimovement forms ‘Composing music in various extant and older styles (e.g, a Classical-period sonata Naw Constaverion ——nstaunentamiow Nowes ae Moca o 2 Romi rr nis er Chopin) canbe vr steal ee eat [act SE for only does such imitation better acquaint composers with the emulated style, i also hones many skills composers need to develop (Stravins [erator secre opera [exehivocalins | no setvcostumes is bonee mr osersnsed 10 develop Stavisky 1947) [ean ‘raves cravocalins wsualy sacred Composing Suggestions | mass | eatboie mass choirkoloists sacred * Create a graphic overview ofa single movernent for available instruments. a ar dares fam | oxchonpaddence Compote short work tase on the esis, making sure to dian a tiaireneea [ee never te momar thei quality, I a eee er ‘+ Sketch music for at least ten minutes a day for one week. Vary your loca- 0 FSF } orchestra/solod tion and the availability of tools, such as computer, manuscript paper, pen- diverimento | fee Sal orchetca «ils, piano, and so on. Take note of the locations, times, and situations that —, fe as produce the most successful results. quarter Guin. 8) | ASHE Stings or winds ~ * Clee eles en musi, Sort them into vais groups tha tend | a : aoa 10 work especially well together. Create an overview of a work from one of | se se ett “icin the groups and evaluate whar links these ideas together, | ve — et + Find ac least ewenty mistakes in Example 1.2 and group ther according to | “ ; ‘general notation principles, Write outa correct sew version of this example. themefvariations | as name implies | any + Compose a short work in a style with which you ate familia. Ask an asso- Ciate to cecique your new work objectively from the vantage points of style | Single-movement forms and musical effectiveness | Nowe Covstmvenon _Instmunavranion _ Nores ovate Tene dev [cose for opaalevs_] tone poem fceievelopment | orchestr 2p song frm AB (aay {ng or Ind move. | | Spon form ABA any song or Sed move i sonata allegro | ABle/AB any Ist move | ABAXA...BA | any 4th move. L explepisodes/sttetto | keyboard ‘contrapuntal imitati voices/keyboard | contrapuntal fice Keyboand free keyboard 7 devclopmemal | any [ABA eyboaed elude a Teyboard TaBLe LL. A simple chare of standard classical musi lors.CHAPTER 2 THE TONAL LEGACY THE COMMON-PRACTICE period of music history (roughly 1600 to 1900) produced an enormously rich and complex musical language. Its basic force— tonality-—still pervades much of today's popular and commercial music. This chap- ter attempts to capsulize some ofthe important theory ofthe common-practice peri- cod and to provide a transition tothe techniques of the contemporary composer Basic Key Concepts While a full delineation of tonal vocabulary and techniques could take hundreds of pages, three basic concepts lead to their better understanding: 1. Key defines the vocabulary of tonality’s pitch material (Aldwell and Schach- ter 1978). Melodies, reduced to source material, can be expressed as scales of ordered intervals. Example 2.1 shows a musical passage and the scale that ‘can be projected from its pitches. Tonality defines these pitches a diatonic ‘andl those foreign to the scale as chromatic. 2. Consonance (relaxation) and dissonance (tension) permeate tonal relation- ships (Schoenberg 1969). The lower pitches ofthe overtone seies (a nat Ural acoustic phenomenon discussed in more detail in chapter 4) provide a rationale for vertical consonance. This infinite series (its fist eight pitches are shown in Ex. 2.2) gives prominence in its lower, more audible, spectrum to three primary intervals: octaves, fifths, and thirds. These create triads— three-note chords builtin thirds. Pitches outside of chords built in thicds and their inversions are called nonharmonic and typically resolve to chord members. 3. Hierarchical relationships pervade most tonal music (Berry 1976; Schenker 1933). Two primary scale degrees or chords provide folcrum and weight. “The tonic scale degree or chord is the home base of a key. It acts as a cen tet around which the other notes revolve. The dominant scale degree oF chord acts asa satellite 10 the tonic. It requires resolution to the tonic note for chord for completeness. Example 23 shows the primary chords of tonic fd dominant, with examples of second, les significant chords Example 24 shows a fragment of a work with the three tonal principles at work key, consonance, and hierarchy. The interplay of these and other, less important tonal principles have provided a common language for composers and listeners fot hundreds of years. TONAL LEGACY 21, The opening of W. A. Mozar’s Piano Sonata, K. 279, movement 1, and the ofits scale. E12, The overtone series through eight partials and a member triad. voo# www ow SECONDARY 23, The primary tonic and dominant chords, with other, secondary chords Fame came ao shows another important characteris of common- voice leading, Tonal part-writing rules, based on a paradigm of four: Slade the aveidance of (0) pl ihe ad octaves between any — ea iden fifths and octaves beeen the outer vies. Pitches ive chords (common tones) generally remain in the ice Dosis At eascevo vier should move in cntary oe common motion between chords. Spacing should be kept to 4 maximum of a sixth ‘adjacent upper voices, whereas the bass may move freely. Part writing also (D doubling the root if possible, except in diminished chords, where dou- ‘third is preferable; (2) doubling one ofthe primary notes of the key (tonic, ‘or dominant) ifnot the root; and (3) doubling the fifth of the chord if Appropriate solution presents itself. Nonharmonic tones (passing tones, fones, suspensions, appoggiaturas, etc.) each have patticular contextual functions also. follow various progression protocols in4 CHAPTER TWO Classical musi, some of which are shown in table 2.1. Some of these protocols rep- resent classical traditions, and some indicate a particular composers style ‘Example 2.4, an excerpt for voices, demonstrates the kind of smooth motion just scribed. Instrumental music, however, does not requie chese same constrains, At the same time, tonal voice leading usually forms the backbone of instrumental faccompaniments, hidden though it may be, Example 2.5 shows an instrumental ‘xcerp with the backdrop of voce leading presented to show the prevalent motion. Nate that the basic concepts expressed here represent generalizations rather than hard and fast rules. Ic would be dificult, for example, to find a Bach chorale—often ned as modes for such behavior—that adheres exactly to each of the rules expressed inthis chapter (Bach 1941). The exceptions often prove the rule, howeves, and more often than not, good musical reasons, rather than negligence, explain the deviations Peer ee Exaupie 24. ‘The beginning of}-S. Bach, choral, "An Wasserflassen Babylon,” showing the three tonal principles at work. Allegro Sfp — = emus? Voce kadng nan eacere fam WA. Most, Pao Sana in CM 545, ExaMne 25 = THE TONAL LEGACY 15 Cuon Fouowen sy 1 any a a) ‘a aw V wi ¥ ai ai) vie ay ‘Tawue 2.1. Tonal harmonic progression protocols in classical musk ‘Chromaticism ‘Chromaticism in diatonic music usually takes one of three forms: 1. Tonal music often modulates, or changes key, sinee the use of single key den becomes monotonous. Modulation usualy kes place witha chord Eure 3.11. ensemble ‘A melody consisting of notes passed between various instuments in the Accompaniments Even when melodic lines do not follow traditional tonal or functional vocabulaies. ‘oF processes, they can stil imply certain harmonic notes, chords, progressions, and types of accompaniments (Dallin 1974). While a complete exploration of the vaiout possthlres of sch implied harmonies falls heyond the scape ofthis book, careful ‘observing how composers play with a listener's expectations of implied harmony can be very useful. Ar its simplest, @ melody can imply harmonies by outlining (Pe giating) harmonie funetions and accenting the notes of various chon. In is more ‘complex forms, a melody can suggest the amount of chromaticism, types of chords and even the voice leading of the implied accompaniment. Harmonie or contrapuntal accompaniment, whether it fllows or contadies & relody's implied harmonies, should be added to melodic lines carefull. Thoush strong melodic lines ean carry weak or contrary harmonies, even thebestof melodies can be weakened by a poor accompaniment. Contemporary harmonic progressions can add further momentum to melodic lines of any length. Decractions usualy oot when the harmonic vocabulary or progression becomes more inceresting than th aelodic line. At the same time, harmonic progressions should not be dll and hls ‘only serving melodie dteetion. Indeed, harmonies not only can contribuce but even take center stage at imes—especially at cadences and points of arival— PA vide the basic thrust of musical direction. Harmonic eadences usually occur a8 20 ofa strong progression leading (at leas ultimately) to resolution or a suggestion OF olution, Thus staggered melodie and harmonic eadences tend to weaken eash oft Nevertheless, such staggering can be useful ro composers who wish ro ove monic and melodic phrasings for purposes of hiding internal cadences (asin Ex: 3° Example 3.12 shows tw brief melodies with accompaniments. In both ins the harmony provides a compatible, supportive accompaniment ro the m4 direction, point of arrival, cadence, and balance. In the fist example the 5s OF MELODY 38 _ Two melodies with accompanying harmony: ive from the melods, while in the second example the harmony dou: the melodic notes. these excerpts is right or wrong; they simply exemplify two of the pproaches:()) that melodies should necessarily contradict harmonic or textures, ot (2) that melodies should somehow derive from ateendant Point of fact, harmony and melody will interact regardless of attempts interactions. Moreover, cunterpoint—evident to some extent in even ‘usie—can help to bridge melodic gaps created by long held 13 shows a melodic line with an accompaniment that complements its Point of arrival, cadence, and balance, yet achieves a definitive char- gum. ln fact, this accompaniment breathes new Ife into the melodic fepetitions, demonstrating the effects that supportive accompani- and articulation, to significant attributes of muse, also play imporcanc (Composition of melodies. Yet defining their specific roles in the creation lines is dificult. Both of these parameters rely almost entirely on ‘with a complementary harmonic accompaniment.36 CHAPTER THnge oF MELODY 37 melody in Example 3.15 and compose a short piece of similar iano, accompanying the melody with any appropriate style of for counterpoint: their context for definition. Each can contribute to or contradict the evolug melodic lines as powerfully as can harmony, counterpoint, or silence. Rests can also contribute to the potency of melodic direction and heighten the importance of points of arrival or cadences. Example 3.14 shows 180 uses of ete the context ofa single phrase. The first rest occurs just before the point of arval ang ‘effectively sets it apart from the remainder of the phrase. The power of silence at rng point in a phrase can enhance even weak points of arrival, The second zest appean, jst before the cadential nore. This use of silence announces the finality of the lg rote end emphasizes its agogic importance, Study and practice in the composition of melodic lines with or without accompae nnying harmonic or contrapuntal textures is crucial to the craft of music compostion, No book, no source of materials can possibly replace such study and practice or pros vide a fraction ofits importance to musical invention. Penetrating analysis of melod- ‘cline, especially early in the composition process, indicates when and why cobesion coxcurs oF fails to occur Certainly any melodic line can be convincing in the proper context. Nonetheless, understanding how to achieve a desired resule provides a pow «erful compositional tool for knowing how and why melodie lines work convincingly. im of {for analysis and imitation. two melodies in Example 3.4 forthe versions of the motive used. third, contasting melody from vatiations of the same motive. 2x2 tu ite P one tf * b — ge =e oy in. mp EXAMPLe 3.14, Tho uses of rests in a single phrase Composing Suggestions + Compose ten melodic lines for available instruments, each of which exem ale plifies one or more of the techniques presented in this chapter. At teach line for flow, point of arrival, cadence, direction, and balance. of che + Compose a long melodic line (forty t0 sixty measures), marking all of he ‘cadences and points of arsval as outlined inthis chaper (cfes back 02 B® 519). The melody should be as lyrical as possible. Be sure to include dyna ies and articulation, “+ Sketch a motive. Derive a diatonic melodic line of over thirty bars #f Tergth fom it Avoid conspicuous se of the motive. Analyze pots arrival and cadences.“COUNTERPOINT AND HEIRARCHY 39 CHAPTER 4 HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT, AND HIERARCHY WHILE HARMONY CAN evolve intuitively, most composers benefit from struck pitch (B in che clef) activates ovexones of held, but not struck, understanding at least a few of its basic principles. Evaluating interval stengths snd roots, for example, provides a useful base from which to create consistent harmonies and logical templates for harmonic progression. The Overtone Series integral aspect of harmony. When texture imitates the overtone intervals at the bottom and smaller intervals at the top, sonorous formations result. When texture follows an inverted form of the clustered low sonorities, with widely spaced upper notes almost from harmonic implications—the chords sound entirely differ- notes, aside from octave transposition, may be the same. spacing obviously promotes clarity, the latter spacing may be situations. Chapter 9 returns to the subject of texture; for now, Point out that the almost limitless varieties and subeletes between Play critical roles in the development of chords and harmonic ‘A number of acoustical properties of sound help to define harmonic function. The ‘overtone series, for example, possesses relationships that can provide abasic logic and terminology for analysis (Hindemith 1937). With the exception of electronically pro duced sine waves, most sounds that have a recognizable pitch (unlike, s3, # soa drum rol) have overtones that display, more or less, the relationships shown Example 4.1. This series thus has a certain familiarity. Though the overtones them selves sound so sofly as to be heard only subliminally, they contribute (along withthe envelope —see chapter 16) tothe timbral characteristics ofthe fundamental ‘Asa demonstration ofthe existence of overtones, silently hold dovin furor five low keys on the piano keyboard without depressing the damper (right) pedal. Lou ste ‘and quickly elease a note within the overtone series of atleast one of the ey notes (this involves calculating the series ofeach bass note sing Ex. 4.1 950621 JTRS ch thar conanes to und ule fom symp ans of the ‘and Dissonance sponding overtone of one ot more of the depressed Keys (see Example 4.2), Not fand dissonance (tension between notes or within chords) are subject to che strings ofthe tuck pitch, once the key release are topped bya fle me faterpretations. Subjectivity and context prevent forming perfect def. “The overtone series can serve as a model for several aspects of harmon ro be A tereth cho br eon eas hae en meet de ceussed further in this chapter: texture, consonance and dissonance, In BE vi cs cram car have many dierne meaning strengths, ros, and progression strengts. For each of these, the overtone Bn cette ne Ex 43) the abs does not establish what i right and wrong, but rather offers suggestions that Bresette diwonance an be ual posers can choose wo use selectively or ignore. Consequently, the information a lowest partials ofthe overtone series, the so-called open or pe- sidered below constitutes a st not of rules but rather of eore concept, (0 ¢, the consonant perfect fifth represents the backbone of triadic by composers to help make compositions more convincing note ofthe perfect fourth Is its ront (as explained laser ina CHAPTER FOUR Exaurte 49. Roots (black notcheads) of various chords informs most listeners that this chord has the finality of a stable tonic chord. ‘Analyzing this chord from the perspective of interval roots supports this case. Here, the lowest note of the fifth identifies the bass note as root; hence the chord finalizes tronic cadence. In short, root/interval analysis often agrees with aural identification, ‘more readily than traditional analysis. Tm genera, this root/interval approach can be applied more rigorously actoss dif ferent types of music than can methods devoted ro particular types of music, Note that in chords that contain more than one of the same strongest interval, the lowest of these intervals produces the root Progression Strengths and Chromaticism Progression strengths can be defined as a combination of interval strengths—in terms of both vertical (within the chord) and horizontal (from chord to chord) rela- tionships—and dissonance. Using the labels D (dissonant), N (neutral), and C (eon: sonant), any progression can be analyzed no matter what its content or complesity ‘Composers can also create new progressions from these concepts Example 4.10 shows a consonant chord with « weak root (ie., not in the bass) moving gradually coward a dissonant chord with a strong root (ie. in the bass). The movement {fom root to root progresses from weak intervals to strong intervals. Example 4.11 displays a consistent environment of harsh dissonant chords compris ing widening intervals and weakening root strength as well as increasing horizontal root strengths, Example 4.12 includes a variety of textures as well as contrasting ec c NON Exanpte 4.10. Directional progression. ExaMPts 4.11. Distonane progression of growing strength, STP eh ExaMPte 4.12. Progression of increased variety and contrast HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT AND HEIRARCHY B ‘chord tensions. Note here that root movement and interval strengths are often over shadowed by sudden increases in the number of dissonant intervals. ‘The use of root position chords contributes significantly to progression strength, although their continuous use can become monotonous. A variety of root place ‘ments is important. Example 4.13 present» two chord progressions based on the pro- gression strengths outlined earlier. Nore how varying the placement of the root adds another element of interest and direction. See XAMOLE 4.13. Directed and nondirected (diverse) progressions ‘Chromaticism adds variety to otherwise completely diatonic progressions (Persichetti 4961). Beyond the traditional leading-tone connotations of secondary dominant, diminished sevenths, and so on, chromaticism provides variations as well as further direction and motion. The diatonic chorale in Example 4.14a displays a directionless, nearly random selection of dissonances, root strengths, and progression. The same gen eral material appeass in Example 4.14b, but here the slow addition of ehromaticism cre- ates variety, direction, and motion that the first chorale does not possess. Like dissonance, chromaticism works in a variety of ways. In a diatonic context, chromatic notes increase tension and direction, as in Example 4.14b. When the con- text is highly chromatic, however, tension and direction must be achieved by other means, such as ordered dissonance or progression strength. Example 4.15 demon- strates how knowing and using the techniques of subtracting and adding tension can produce effective results. Use of both approaches must be clearly controllable and ‘convincing. Btees Sates pt b, Exwris4.14._ Diatonic chon tacking direction (a; chorale using chroma direction, and motion (b). * Snschronascea vanes44 CHAPTER FOUR EXAMPte 4.15. Chromatic passage becoming less and ess so. “The overtone series can also be useful even when applied melodically and con trapuntally, 25 shown in Example 4.16. Note the slowly evolving chromaticism that the series provides here. This should not suggese that some natural rule exists regard ing che use ofthe overtone series. Sul, recognition of natural aural phenomena, even in the abstract, can be a valuable tool for composers whether they wish co apply it avoid it, or usefully employ the myriad number of possibilities that lie between these ‘As mentioned in chapter I, the overview, the structural form of musical ideas is what makes the craft of compositional specifics significant. Beginning a composition from an overview can often be as effective as beginning it ftom a melody, motive, or harmonic structure. Overviews can help composers work where intuition suggests (thus more naturally) and not ust where the music currently happens to stop on the page. Example 4.17 shows a simple overview using some of the ideas presented in this chapter, EXaMrtz 4.16, Meloy based on the overtone series (a); (wo-voice counterpoint based on. the overtone scres () HARMONY, COUNTERPOINT AND HEIRARCHY 48 Hb c N NS c = Beaure.17. Ove oa work nes ofhamony and progression, Composing Suggestions + Compose a slow, sustained passage for piano in which dissonance, root strength, harmonic progression, and chromaticism move independently, finally coinciding in a strong consonant and diatonic ending. * Slowly introduce chromaticism to a diatonic melodic line while strength- ening the melodic intervals as much as possible. At the highest level of chromaticism, slowly reverse the procedure until the line retums full cycle. ‘+ Compose a passage for three available single-line instruments in which dis- sonance, root strengths, and chromaticism consistently vary. Apply a con- tinuously strengthening progression of intervals between roots Analyze Example 4.18 for roots, dissonance, chromaticism, progression strength, and texture, then compose as completely different an example as possible yet with the same characteristics as analyzed. ba: — Exo 4.18. Passage for anahing root strength, disonance,chromaticism, progression ‘Strength, and texture. * " ° pee * Compose 2 short three-voice work for three available instruments that move oly rom the lowes nee ofthe verte seve toa the tairch overtone, Use song rots and progressions a the oust that po: sesively weaken asthe work continue, .CHAPTER 5 INTERVAL EXPLORATION THE EXPLORATION OF INTERVALS other than thieds for harmonic source material can provide many useful opportunities for composers ro develop skills with nontraditional vocabularies (Cowell 1930; Dallin 1974; Diemer 1974; Zwilich 1989). The principles presented in chapters 3 and 4 can assist in the analysis and use of such nontriadie sonorities. Basic Concepts Music based on intervals other than thirds need not avoid tertian harmonies (chords constructed in thirds) but can rather extend triadic conventions of harmony and relody. Before discussing individual interval possiblities, however, a number of pre- liminary concepts should be examined. Most successful works do not consist completely of a single iterval. Even the least complicated triadic chorale contains mos, if not all, simple intervals (ic. those within the octave). When the intervals in the chorale shown in Example 5.1 are condensed within the octave, most types of simple intervals appear, even though the chorale is based on thirds. This should be kept in muind, since a great many first compositions based on intervals other than the third often avoid sufficient interval variety. Core intervals should predominate but not overbalance other interval, Interval exploration may occur vertically or horizontally or both. Vertical concepts, include stacking, or the placing of like intervals one upon the other: octave dis- placement; and inversion, as in triadic harmony. This latter concept is most impor. tant as it not only provides an alternative to root position but also creates varied intervals. Example 5.2 shows a stacked chord of fourths and the resulting inversions, The root position chord contains sevenths, tenths, and thrteenths as wel as fourths With the frst inversion alone, however, the simple intervals ofthe sixth, fifth, fourth, third, and second occur, in addition to the fourths and sevenths already present in the otiginal chord, Thus, with just one inversion, at Jeast one representative of each, interval ype (major, minos or perfect) appears Any farmonic vocabulary, once established, can achieve the same sense of nor- rmality that we attribute to teiadic harmony (Hindemith 1939). In effect, the new environment becomes sable, and notes external ro the environment, whether con sonant or disonnt, become unstable of nonbarmonic. Example 5.3 shows how an INTERVAL EXPLORATION 47 EXAMPLE 5.1. Simple fourpiec chorale to show interval isebution, be o BXAMPLe 5.2. Stacked fourth chords and inversion ponies. Seconds chords with seventh chord as nonharmonic xtreme instance ofthis principle can invert traditional concepts of harmonicity. The Ahsonance of chords aed on seconds bectmes amor in sch the manera hor (hid measure, third beat sounds nonkarmoni romaticism may be achieved by planing, or it can develop from many of the alere-chord concepts of wadtional harmony (se chapter 2), Example 5 shows three applications of traditional chromatic concepts co nontertian harmonies. Example 5.4a includes a secondary dominant and its resolution in quartal (fourth: ‘ased) harmony. Example 5.4b, a progression of chords based on seconds, motulates fom C to Bh by way of a traditional pivot chord. (Modulation ean also occur from Renter psf anetbeas long as not only the keys bt alo the interval env ents ate fully established.) Example 5.4c shows a quartal Neapolitan chord an One one elution, nn fe OWS atl Neapolitan chord and Example 5.5 shows three ways of deriving chromaticism from @ combination of ‘various processes in the context af noncriadic harmony. The alteration in measures 442 fram major seconds to minor seconds and back again provides the fist source Op titcm, The second measure explores planing (parle moton i all ok hird measure contains chromaticism derived from the contrapuntal lean Ing ofthe mele lines e use of intervals other than the thied in melodic lines is so commonplace that only a few suggestions need tobe given here. ist avoid crerconsenon neal ‘exploration of a single interval usually leads only 10 boredom, Second, leaps in nom tertian melodies, a in thets triadic counterparts, often outline background harmonies8 CHAPTER FIVE ¥ INTERVAL EXPLORATION 49 ee pies parse aS Exams 54. Chromatics applied to nontetian harmonies with qraitional approsches: {2) secondary dominant; (b) modulation; (c) Neapolitan sixth, dase f EXAMPLE 5.5. Chromatiism in nontetian harmony and rely on opposite: direction seconds for contrast and consequent. The quartal leaps in Example 5.6 hint atthe harmonic vocabulary without dissolving the line into con- tinually successive fourths. ‘Because titds and sixths form the primary intervals of already well-explored rert- ian harmonies, the ensuing discussion focuses on chords based on fifths, fourths, sec- ‘onds, and sevenths. Dee ee eS mp EXawfLe 56, Melodic leaps in a predominately quatal harmonic context Fifth and Fourth Chords Composing with perfect fifths both vertically and horizontally (called quintal har- mony) can prove tobe a great deal more difficult rhan may intially appeat. Example 5.7 shows a fve-nore chord consisting of four perfec its. Again, with the creation ofeach interval beyond the initial fifth, new intervals occur The outer notes in the bass staff, for instance, form a ninth, which transposes by octave to a second. The next note up forms a thirteenth with the bass—a sixth when transposed within the cctave—while the top note forms a seventeenth (a third when transposed) with the bass, The root is the lower note ofthe lowest fifth. Example 5.8 shows the inversions ‘of this chord and the resultant interval ramifications. EXAMILE 5.7. Five-note quintal chor. FEXAWLE 5.8, The inversions of five-note quital chord Dissonances in quintal harmony do not typically resolve traditionally, since the overall structure then reverts toward triad, as inthe first measure of Example 5.9. In the second measure, the first chord moves to another quintal chord. Even though this second chord can be construed as an inversion of a quintal chord buile on Fits root is C—the lowest note of the lowest fifth. Example 5.10 presents a complete phrase with fifths as the basic uni of structure. Note the use of inversions for chromaticism and variety. The lyrical melody outlines leaps of fifths bur otherwise maintains stability, with poinc of arrival, and so on, based ‘on the examples of chapter 3. Exact: 59, “Tio moons of a lth chor: () ax esluion in terian barmomy, and () as Ath chord inervl exploration ‘er Beau: 5.10. Complete phrase with fie atthe basic unico structure50 CHAPTER FIVE ‘Works using fourths (called quartal harmony) follow much the same principles as works composed in fifths. Because fourths tradivionally seek resolution to thirds, pas- sages in quartal harmony, such asthe contrapuntal phrase in Example 5.11, typical- Iy use significant numbers of fourths to establish the interval asthe compositional norm and deter the expectation of triadic resolution. ‘The augmented fourth (diminished filth), since it divides the octave equally, can- not be stacked to create diferent interval. It ean, however, exist separately, not asa result of stacking: The chord in measure 1 of Example 5.12 consists of two aug- ‘mented fourths. The subsequent excerpt is quite complex, asthe interval itself cre- aes chromaticism, weak root structure, and lack of significant harmonic direction. ase = ¥ rf eww 5.11, Short contaputal phe bl und he ital of uth => Dw o a Exawrue 5.12. Augmented fourth chord and shore excerpt using interval exploration of augmented fourths. Second and Seventh Chords sing seconds and sevenths as basic harmonic intervals (called secundal harmony) floes such the same procen a thee of furan ths excep thar the former are harsher in disonance. Because seconds and seventis also tend to resolve to tert ian harmonies (Persichetti 1961), compositions using these intervals often employ signiicane numbers of unresolved seconds and sevenths before admitting other {nonharmonie) intervals. Example 5.13 shows @ chord builtin seconds and one in sevenths, the resultant inversions, and a shest excerpt using both simultaneously. Stacked seconds create dense confguracions of sound called clusters. Such groups ‘of seconds ae istnet from compilations of other intervals in cha they create knots of sound with ar few as two intervals, Successive addition of seconds establishes ', INTERVAL EXPLORATION SI EXAMPLE 5.13. Chords in seconds and seventh blocks of sound that act and react in very diflerene ways from the chords discussed to this point fives 1921). Such clusters form a unique vertical structure in that many ‘of the inner pitches cease to be individually important. The larger the cluster, the less Jimportance each internal noce has. In Example 5.14 the clusters encompass more than an octave. The notation ofa large natural and sharp sign signifies the presence of both natural and shatp versions of the notes shown (Cowell 1930). In the first case, this creates a completely chromatic elus- fer inclusive of all notes from D to E (for more on this notation see chapter 13). Two other versions of this cluster appear to its right. One note (different in each case) has ‘been removed from each chord to help make the point that pitch individuality ceases to bbe important with large cluster chords. Though there is a slight difference aurally, i is ‘not a significant one. Its even dificult to locate the missing notes visually. 2S Exaurt 5.14. ‘Three chromatic clusters 90 of whi hhave missing notes A few exceptions to these points should be considered. First, the outer notes are by far the most important, and in most cases, deletion of these notes can easily be derected (Cowell 1912). Oucer notes should therefore be carefully composed. Second, the introduction of a chromatic note to a diatonic cluster can be conspicu ‘ous. Third, timbre plays an important role. Though clusters are often scored for Piano or other instrument capable of counterpoint, they can also be produced by ‘combinations of instruments of contrasting timbres. When this occurs, a subtracted ote may become quite noticeable, depending on the sharpness and clarity of the timbre of the missing note. Finally, in clusters wich missing notes, some pitches may Contribute to harmonic significance, and displacement or suberaction may alter the texture and pitch vocabulary Progression analysis of clusters ean prove dificult. Obviously, the roots of each chord in Example 5.14 can be found according to the principles presented in chap. ter 4. The relevance and strength of these roots is less clea, however. In mast cases the lowest note is the root and contributes to or detracts from the resultant pro- sression of roots.52 CHAPTER FIVE sive left Example 5.15 shows one possible application of clusters: thick, percuss forearm ape on dhelawer potion of the piano keyboard These short clusters, while rot harmonizing the violin line per se, provide contrast and highlight the melody’s lyricism. The brevity of each cluster and the lack of significant movement from one cluster to another does not support hearing a root progression in the usual sense—if an audible root progression occurs at all. While clusters often need temporal separa tion before a progression can be perceived, the staccato articulation punctuates rather than emphasizes the roots cf each cluster. The notation (see chapter 13) indi- cates only the outer notes, with the inner notes outlined by the vertical lines. The Ks smatic cluster, in this case large natural and sharp signs again indicate a complete chror white and black keys on the keyboard, The notational stortand is quickly under- stood and, even in sight-reading, makes performance relatively easy. Example 5.16 shows another use of clusters. In this example the keyboard palm clusters are softly scattered and sustained (with the damper pedal down) so that each EXAMPLE 5.15, Application of cluster chor. FXAMILE5.16, Another notation and we of cluster chords i INTERVAL EXPLORATION 53 contributes to a larger cluster. The short bursts add continuity to a violin line simi- lar to that of example 5.15, The clusters here, though not producing a strong root progression or contributing toward a point of arrival except in rhythmic stretto, per- vvade the music with a consistent harmonic language. This example shows another notation for clusters (see chapter 13) In Example 5.17 the clusters have been written out to specify their precise note content. Many of the intermal notes regain some of their importance and indepen- dence owing to the missing notes. Moreover, many ofthe clusters consist of several subelusters. These subelusters then contrast the harmonics in the violin, seting the rood for the entire passage. This approach to clusters creates audible roots and forms a recognizable progression. Clusters separated by vertical distance (polyelusters) can be extremely effective and usefl for composition (Bart6k 1934; Becker 1930). When such clusters are sim- Alar in content (e.g, keyboard white-key palm clusters), they can resemble more tra- ditional harmonies. When the clusters are diferent (e.g, one cluster consisting of major seconds and the other of minor seconds), they can form contrapuntal lines. ‘Spacing thus becomes an important consideration in cluster formation, Example 5.18 shows a type of cluster similar to that shown in Example 5.17 yer displaced over a wide range of (in this case) two keyboards. Some of the subclusters here are secundal, but the overall structure resembles the overtone series, with ower notes spread apart and top notes closely spaced, The térm cluster here is loose- Jy applied, as the chord has important internal notes and a predominant and ana- Iyzable root. At the same time, all welve notes are present, with many occurring more than once, If these notes were octave-reduced to emphasize the overall twelve-note panchromatic sound, the change would be noticeable (Kagel 1959). This example would be even more potent in terms of individual note importance if performed by a string orchestra instead of two pianos. Since the decay of piano notes is relatively fast the differences quickly disappear. Sustaining string instru- ‘ments, however, could bring out inner lines and hence expose the altered or miss {ing notes (Mahler 1910; Pendetecki 1960). Performance on sustaining instruments of distinctly differing timbres would further enhance note importance (Ponderecki 1965; Ricager 1949). LL Vion ery i= Isp Base 5.17. Pino Fe [Notated clusters where missing notes become important.sa CHAPTER FIVE Plano - ExaMeLE 5.18, Clusters with overtone influence. ‘The first cluster in Example 5.19, a white-key piano cluster, is quite consonant in comparison with the second, a chromatic cluster. The third cluster consists exclu- sively of major seconds (whole-tone scale) and, like the second cluster, consists ‘entirely of one type of interval. This third cluster also resembles the first cluster, how: ‘ever in that i is quite consonant, although the prevalence of augmented fourths and Tack of a strong root make progsessions of such clusters directionless and without ‘marked definition. ea ExAMPLE 5.19. Diatoni, chromatic, and whole-tone clusters ‘Clusters can be extremely useful for a variety of effects in works where clusters do not predominate (Copland 1930; Rudhyar 1929; Ruggles 1932). Points of arrival, for ‘example, can be effectively enhanced with cluster accompaniments (Xenakis 1956) Example 5.20 presupposes that the clarinet has performed with a nonclustered piano texture as accompaniment for some time prior to the excerp illustrated. The brief hiatus in the piano adds drama to the following outburst of thunderous double fore arm clusters. ‘Cluster ostinati can also be effective even without the use of melody: ‘The impor- tance of accents and thythms in Example 5.21 make pitch a passive contributor. Even in nonostinato passages, clusters can be effective rhythm and accents main tain the musical direction. This example need not continue in ike manne® Example 5.22 presents intervalic overviews of two possible movements. The first “showsa slow accumulation of vertical intervals until a cluster (point of arrival) occurs, INTERVAL EXPLORATION 55 Exanree 5.21 Banner 521, Pecunive chistes with accents and mete as predominating compostonal f - wr of : Xavi 5.22. Tao movement overviews showing two diferent clucer ses, This accumulation leads toa slow retrograde that returns t the opening, produc an arhlie form. The second overview presents a movement in which clusters plot nly a small pat adding drama and serving more percussiely than harmonically ‘As has been seen, cluster chords ean serve many purposes and can be analyzed in ‘numerous ways. Many of the individual notes lose importance, however, and can ‘often be overlooked by the ea or even of content bythe ren omited by performers with no significant loss Interval Combinations Composers may also employ more eh more than one interval as the basis fr explora Tecan harm after al requires lth aswel ats Since malile eecine one-interval chords produce many other interval, iis natural to conser this os starting point for employing two-inerval vocabularies .56 CHAPTER FIVE INTERVAL EXPLORATION 57 Interval exploration can also combine with other compositional techniques. * Compose an extended work for a solo instrument explot Example 5.23 shows an exceept with the seventh (and octave displacements) as the ffs but avoning constant leaps, Achieve chronatcten by gle ae basis forts melodic and harmonic elements, This example utilizes highly chromat- tional altered chords and modulations. Analyze the results in tere of ic pitch vocabulary and pointillism (discussed in chapter 6). Note the added consis- chapter 4 techniques. tency that the predominance of sevenths offers the otherwise disconnected line * Create a new scale (ee chapter 3). With this scale as 2 Applications of interval exploration to other techniques can provide a further source passage eran talabe instrament and pana Uae wma ofa ee eo nvcuuine ate harmonic and melodic interval structures, mee Polytonality offers another interesting palette for interval exploration, For + Compose a work for four oF mo mpose a work fr four oF more available instruments (not piano) that instance, the contrast between tonal centers can be stengthened by emphasizing if- begins with a nonclustered texture and slow 2 predomi ferent intervals in each centet tantly cater environment. ns And HOM modules to 8 predomi * Accompany the melodic ie in Example 5.25 with clusters twice. The first time yf contrast the line and ge i mow ina time, try to blend with the line. * we indvaliy The second va sieges Vain i dw aD - ‘cate S a —s— a pp me aT Exquris 525. Passage for citer accompaniment Exawrte 5.23, An excerpt with the interval of the seventh as harmonic and melodic bass, Composing Suggestions a ‘+ Compose a work for piano that uses a five-note texture of quartal chords and & inversions. Develop chromatic variation through a single traditional modu- 3 lation to a key removed by ewo sharps or flats or more from the original. k + Ina brief piece for an available instrument and piano, explore seconds i (qajor and minor) and subsequent octave displacements (ninths, ete). Ectablish the secundal harmony strongly enough so that # minor triad, which should appear in the composition, becomes obviously nonharmonic. + Analyze Example 5.24 for both the interval explored and harmonic- ‘melodic strengths. Compose a short piece attempting to achieve the same strengths but using a different interval as source materialCHAPTER 6 SERIALISM SERIALISM IS THE SYSTEMATIC formalization of one or more musical parameters during composition (Boretz and Cone 1972; Morgan 1992; Salzman 1983; Simms 1986; Stuckenschmide 1969). Most seralsm involves pitch, and most pitch serialsm, in tura, employs twelve-tne techniques: the use of all rwelve equal- tempered tones equally, without preference for any particular pitch or pitches. Such equality suggests thae pitches not repeat unt most, if not all, of the other eleven pitches have sounded. Initially, ie would seem that this pantonal (inclusive ofall tonal centers, with each pitch as its own center), of atonal (exclusive of any tonal centers), process must be carefully maintained throughout a given composition for it to have any consistency, Such constant chromaticism, however, produces musi as diection- less as constant diatonicism. Therefore, repeated notes and pattems can occur as Jong as the general ewelve-tone exposition continues to unfold fairy predictably Twelve-tone procedures often provide comporers with a fairly unrestricted chro- matic consistency that then allows for explorations into other areas such as timbre, rhythm, melodic development, and so on (Berg 1921, 1935; Schoenberg 1928). The use of ewelve-tone procedures typically avoids traditional hatraonies. Regardless of the strictness implied by the proces othe nuances of personal style, twelve-tone pro- cedures remain important conceptually for all composers to grasp and an extremely useful technique even for those who do not apply it expliccy in thei works. Though note counting, as will be seen, can assume an overwhelming role in learning serial technique, ies not the central feature ofthe sytem. As with all other procedures, seralism simply represents a resource to which musical intuition and inspiration should be applied. While serilism offers a highly structured approach to organizing the raw materials of musi, it no more guarantees a composition’ success than does any other technique or proces. The Row “The first step in creating twelve-tone music involves establishing a twelve-tone row (Smith Brindle 1966; Spinner 1960). Building a good row is essential because the syle and musicality of the resuleanc work rests in large part on the row’s logic, inner con- sistency, and inventiveness. Example 6.1's row avoids tonality with nearly every pitch choice. Note here the lack of strong intervals—fifths, fourths, and even thirds— between notes or between sets of three or even four notes of the row in some cases 59 EXAMPLE 6.1. An atonal (pantonal) rom In contrast, Example 6.2's row, while it maintains a consistent chromatic vocebu. Tay, also contains triadic outlines, implied harmony and progressions, and s0 on, which suggest tonality In general, thirds, sixths, fourths, and fifths tend to support, tonal implications in rows, while seconds and sevenths tend to weaken tonality. The tritone, even with an intervening note, has unpredictable consequences: in atonal rows, an augmented fourth may strongly hint at a tonal dominant seventh chord Perle 1977). On the other hand, in the tiadie row of Example 6.2, the augmented fourth may be the most atonal aspect (C major triad to the F-sharp major triad: notes 7-9 tonotes 10-12). Between these wo extremes isa nearly limitless number of rows with varying degrees of builtin conal suggestions. EXAMILE6.2. A triadic and nearly tonal cow. Aside from its tonal aspects, Example 6.2 exemplifies a procedure of rwelve-tone ‘music involving subsets. Each of the row’s four three-note groups (teichords) forms ‘triad. Foreknowledge that the row willbe used vertically as well as horizontally fanticipates the use of triadic combinations for harmony. Rows may also be con- structed around hexachords (six note groupings), tetrachords (four-note groupings), and unbalanced collections (two and ten, for example). Example 6.3 shows two types of row divisions and extrapolats the relationships between each of the subsets ‘The fascination with creating rows containing subset relations can become obses- sive, but it can also create significant and useful compesitional ramifications (Babbiet, 1961b; Tiemblay 1974). Such rows can form melodically balanced lines that include Sequences, inversions, and so on, as well as help to establish a consistent harmonic language. i EXAMPLE 63. Rows with hexachord and tetrachord groupings.60 CHAPTER SIX The original version of the row, designated herein as P for prime, may be trans posed eleven times, with the number 0 used to denote the original pitch level and the numbers I-11 to denote the transpositions. Other variants include inversion (I), retrograde (R), and inversion retrograde (IR). A matrix isa visual tool that makes such variations readily accessible. Figure 6.1 shows a matrix derived from the row in Example 6-4 The original row appears across the top of the matrix. The inversion of the row reads down the left-hand side of the matrix. This inversion should be a mirror, chat 4s, each incerval of the original inverts exactly—a major third up in the original ‘equals a major thied down inthe inversion, and so on. With a correctly created inver- sion, the left-hand column down will contain all twelve pitches. To check this, begin ‘with the note C and find all chromatic notes up to and including B. The matrix is completed by filling in successive horizontal rows, keeping the interval between the current row and the row immediately above constant. Another method inwolves cre- ating transposed versions one-half step up from previously completed versions in their proper rows. When finished, a matrix contains all four versions of the row beginning on all twelve available notes (forey-cight in all). The original and all of ts transpositions I +r 4 Be fe febfonjo [e |r [ala [abla | IR Fioune 6.1. Marrx displaying all foems of row in Example 64 Exams 6.4 form of row in Figure 6.1 % SERIALISM 61 appear from left ro right. The inversion and its transpositions read from top to bot tom. The retrograde and its transpositions occur from right co let, and che inverted retrograde and its transpositions appear from bottom to top. The numbers outside the matrix here indicate the level of transposition, ‘Although completing an entire matrix may initially scem time consuming, the matrix aids significantly inthe analysis and composition of ewelve-tone music. Its use avoids the otherwise necessary figuring and refiguring ofthe various forms and trans- positions. Once a row is composed and checked for possible erors (e.. the presence of les than twelve tones, or unwanted intervals), and its matrix is completed and likewise checked, then the pitch materials are ready for composition, Category Analysis and Composition Compositions in which only one version of the row occurs at time belong toa group known as category I. Both the harmonic and melodie materials of a category I work are generated from a row before another version of that row begins. Example 65 shows a row and a short excerpt with attendant note numbers. Here the first, fourth, and ninth notes of the row are used melodically while the remainder create hat- ‘monies. This changes 2s the excerpt continues. Even though this excerpe uses only the untransposed prime form of the row, the results ate significancly varied. In a longer composition, transposition adds variety and sequence, and inversion, though often not immediately recognizable, provides other variations. Retrogrades are more difficult co recognize unless obvious care has Been taken with subset organization. Inversion retogrades, though they provide the Jeast recognized form of the row, have further potential as variation. Recognition hhere means not so much note counting or even identifying the row form (BI, R, IR) as merely acknowledging a consistent sonic vocabulary Category 2 compostcions employ more than one version of the row simultaneously ‘Schoenberg 1911; Webern 1929, 1934), Care must be taken when using this method, as the potential for accidental octaves, open fifths, of triads in an otherwise dissonant ‘environment can be quite high, Such inconsistencies can be controlled with care,62 CHAPTER SIX however. Indeed, to some composers, category 2 composition offers the strictest ‘opportunity for creative work, resembling somewhat the fugal practices of the eigh- teenth century. Obviously, the more simultaneous versions ofthe row used, the more ‘pportunities for inconsistent harmonic and melodic language. Example 6.6 shows first a row, then an ill-considered application of three versions of that row simultane- ously, resulting ina haphazard and undirected harmonic progression. Example 6.7, on the other hand, uses the same row and versions of this row, but compositional care and the use of rhythmic variation avoids the accidents of the pre- ceding example, with results that are obviously much more consistent and musical It-can be argued, of cours, that any music requires such care. The point here, how- ever, is that categories I and 2 pose different challenges in the use of twelve-tone procedures. Tk should be evident that any work using twelve-tone processes will be as musical as the composer who creates it. In no way should the use of this technique serve as ‘crutch. Both category 1 and category 2 present special problems and solutions. Category 1 seems initially easiest, but rarely allows subsets to be melodically recog- niable, since melodic notes often must be picked nonconsecutively from the row: Category 2 almost defeats the intent of twelve-tone processes in that it forces many rotes to repeat before the other eleven have sounded and allows harmonies not found in the row itself to occur (unexpected triads with @ nontriadic row, for exam. — te te = ee Exar 67. Controlled excerpe using the row fom Example 66, SERIALISM 63 ple). Yet category 2 offers significant varity if handled with cate. It also provides ‘opporcunities to practice the craft of composing within a strict contrapuntal form Example 6.8 shows both categories in separate excerpts, with each demonstrating ‘musicality and, especially, the vertical and horizontal use of the various row subsets. ‘The two excerpts difr in sound and inthe exposition of the row itself Counting ro members can produce useful analytical results. Note, for instance, how some notes fn Example 6.8 count for more than one row version and how the lower tw lines 103s occasionally. “The varieties of row manipulation are as numerous as the works using them (Perle 1962). Note and chord repetitions, by creating out-of-order rows, can lead to many new techniques. In Example 6.96, the D pedal in he left hand occurs ng before its place in the ow. Also, the last note ofthe row in the melody becomes the first note ‘of the next version—a common technique—and the harmonic material from the ‘orignal statement of the tow repeats with the second version, All this amounts to a very free use of twelve-tone procedures, bending the rules whenever it suits the com posers needs, Lost notes, o skeletonized rows, especially when occurring after many literal repetitions, can produce successful results. Adding notes for musical reasons ean also work effectively. Although these experiments, singly or in combination, can lead to confused procedures at times, they can help generate new ideas when row use ‘atherwise becomes monotonous. “The use of subsets offers further potential for more control of row variants (Webern 1936). Example 6.10 shows a hexachordal row in which the second hexa- Exawrie 68, Categories 1 and 2 in excerpts froma given towoF CHAPTER SIX Exavelt 69. Row and excerpt using previews and repetitions — ——— SSS TExAMPLE 6.10, Hexachord and wichord row with inversion (mirtor) subse. chord has the same intervals asthe fist, withthe pitches transposed up a triton. This type of hexachordal organization offers the possibility of overlapping rows in sroups of six so that the last sx notes of one version of the row become the first six notes of another version. Moreover, the second and fourth trichords act as inversions of the first and third trichords respectively. This ype of imitation can lead to cate gory I and category 2 combinations wich interchanging subsets (subset four with sub- set two; subser three with subset one), and overlapping as many notes as desired Sach combinations can produce, in effect, rows of more than twelve notes Hexachordal relationships can be easily formed by using the trtone asa template. Ifall the notes of the first hexachord remain inclusively within the interval of a tri tone, any version (inversion, retrograde, inversion retrograde, or transposition) of the prime can be created in the second hexachord. Obviously, this isnot the only way co create logical subsets, as many nontitonal hexachordal relationships can be formed. It is, however, a good starting point. Rows with extraordinary interval consistency offer composers significant opportu nities for exploring the potential of note relationships. Be sure, however, to avoid let- ting the note machinations dominate musical direction and motion. A preoccupa- tion with note counting should not eclipse true musical intuition and inspiration Combinatoriality Rows with strong subset interrelations typically suggest other opportunities for twelve-tone composers (Griffiths 1978; Kostka 1990; Rahn 1980). Often such rows, when broadcast through 2 matrix, produce out-of-order equivalent pitch sets. That is, the notes ofa subset of one version ofthe row may appear elsewhere in the matrix 1 SERCALISM 65 but nor in the same note order (Babbitr 1947). Example 6.11 and Figute 6.2 show just such a row. The notes ofthe second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (°) appear in a new order in the first hexachord of a transposed inversion retrograde GR), which is also the second hexachord of a transposed inversion of the row (P) ‘Combining mutually exclusive hexachords creates new but related rows, shown here below the matrix. The first row shown (hexachord 1 of P° with hexachord £ of IR’) maintains the minor second interval between hexachordal subsets, while the second row (hexachord 1 of P* with hexachond 2 of F) introduces a tritone between sub- sets—inherited from che interval between the last notes ofthe two hexachords of the ‘original row, Moreover, both this and the previous row’s new hexachords are retto- spades of one another. Because the fist hexachord of the transposed inversion retrograde (IR’) has the same notes as the second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (P2), the second — SS Se EXawfle 6.11. Row with combinatorial potential ©) AC BbBDbD EbGhEFG Ab b) AC BLB DED AS GFEGH Eb Flours 6. Matrix for row in Example 6.11,oF CHAPTER SIX ’ SERIALISM 65 fur nor in the same note order (Babbitt 1947). Example 6.11 and Figute 6.2 show jutt such a row, The notes ofthe second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (P*) appear in a new order in the first hexachord of a transposed invetsion retrograde AR}, which is aso the second hexachord of a transposed inversion of the row (?) Combining mucualy exclusive hexachords creates new but related rows, shown here below the matrix. The first row shown (hexachord 1 of P' with hexachord 1 of IR’) rmaincains the minor second interval between hexachordal subsets, while che second ow (hexachord | of P? with hexachord 2 of [') introduces a tritone between sub- ‘¢28—inherted from the incerval erwven the last notes ofthe to hexachords ofthe ‘original row. Moreover, both this and the previous row's new hexachords are retto- grades of one another. Because the first hexachord of the transposed inversion retrograde (IR°) has the same notes as the second hexachord of the nontransposed prime (P), the second . el EXAMPLE 6.10. Hexachord and trichord row with inversion (misror) subsets Burts 6.11, Row with combinatorial poten rd has the Is asthe Bist, with the pitch al i chord has the same intervals asthe frst, with the pitches transposed up a triton. This type of hexachordal organization offers the possibility of overlapping rows in i <—* groups of six so that che last sic notes of one version of the row become the ist six « [fe Table [obo Jeb le [ob lo |r [ae notes of another version. Moreover, the second and fourth trichords acta faversions » {ofa [ableb|e lc [obleble lo |r of the frst and chird tichords respectively. This cype of imitation can lead to cate- »[ailete fesfe [orl Tetlr lore Io gory I and category 2 combinations with interchanging subsets (subset four wich sub- set twoy subset three with subset one), and overlapping as many notes as desired Such combinations can produce, in effect, rows of more than twelve notes. ; Hexachordal relationships can be easily formed by using che titone as a template. Ifall the notes of the first hexachord remain inclusively within the interval of a ti- tone, any version (inversion, retrograde, inversion retrograde, or transposition) of the prime can be created in the second hexachord. Obviously, this is nor the only way to create logical subsets, as many nontritonal hexachordal relationships can be formed. It is, however, a good starting point. Rows with extraordinary interval consistency offer composers significant opportu nities for exploring the potential of note relationships, Be sure, however, to avoid let- ting the note machinations dominate musical direction and motion. A preoccupa- i tion with note counting should not eclipse true musical intuition and inspiration. w[eToofabla fe (c fobjo le |r feb job F[ab[oolc [a fable lc lo Jeb able ehloble |r [6 [abla [eb |e jobs fo cfebfobfo [er |oblc | job lapis Combinatoriality ©) AC BbB DbDEbGEFG Ab Rows with strong subset interrelations typically sugest other opportunities for twelve-tone composers (Guts 1978; Koka 1990; Rahn 1980). Often such rows, b AChba pho abceeche Js, the notes of subset of one version of the row may appear elsewhere i che matrix Matix foe row in Example 6.11 when broadcast through a matrix, produce out-of-order equivalent pitch sets. That Jhen broadcast throwig P - i os66 CHAPTER SIX hexachord of this same inversion retrograde has the seme notes as the first hexa- chord of P° in a different order. Similarly, in the matrix in Figure 6.2, IR", has the same notes as Pin the same order Combinatorial rows may also be constructed of tettachords and trichords in addi- tion to hexachords, Further, unbalanced bur contiguous groups of notes can form yet different rows. For example, the second throu seventh noes of the P version have equivalent pitches tothe second itexachord of P”, Such manipulations, while they may seem highly intellectualized, nonetheless form recognizable variants ofthe orginal and thus make musical sense in the same way that using traditional melodic motives does. Combinatorial versions of rows can be used, for example, as material for contrast- ing sections of music, thereby providing truccural variations. Combinatorial versions can also offer potentials for modulations and other quasi-tonal procedures. Example 6.12 shows a passage from a larger work that begins with category 1 composition, based on the original version of the row presented in Figure 6.2. In measure 2, the row source changes to the combinatorial version presented in Figure 6.2a, also using category . The new row contrasts with the original version yet does not deviate from the original’s basic hexachordal note content EXAMILE 6.12. Modulation using one of the new combinatorial rows Composing using combinatorial possiblities can become excessive. For example, all-combinatorial rows exist in which every hexachord, retrachord, and trichord in @ ‘matrix can be exchanged with at least one other version (sce Fig. 6.2). Such mathe- matical exercises should not overbalance musical considerations, however. Aside from a row’sinhe guarantee the ereation of a convincing composition, snt musical properties, combinatorial possibilities in no way further Nonpitch Serialism For centuries composers have used organizational principles for musical elements other than pitch: ehythmic motives, isorhythm, terraced dynamics, and other such devices. Serialism often goes one step further by not only combining some of these concepts but also in bringing them to a high level of consistency: Such seriaism usu- ses the formalization of pitch and at least one other musical parameter. In general, serial composers use a multitude of methods and systems, many of which allow for intuitive as well as intellectual control (Babbite 1947). Thus music can be labeled serial with as few as one or two formalized parameters (Boules 1954). What ally encos ‘becomes significant here is not the number of organized elements per se but the fact that pitch is no longer singled out. The twelve durations in Example 6.13 are grouped in theee-note units, or tri chords. The first duration, a dotted quartes is complemented by an eighth and a quarter, creating a 3:1:2 ratio. The next three durations keep the same proportions, now in diminution (the durations are halved). This durational hexachord establish- ¢s the basic structure for the second hexachord, which uses repetition and augmen. tation (doubled durations) instead of diminution, Prime tdbldb asd idtil d EXAMrLe 6.13. A duration ow. Example 6.14 shows frst the retrograde, then the inversion and the inversion ret rograde of this duration row: The inversion here results from exchanging trichords 1 and 2 and trichords 3 and 4 in the original. The retrograde and the inversion retto- agrade are then simple retrogrades of che original and the inversion respectively ibd dadenton grrsdiils Ld) sold Lid dl ded Exwurie 6.14. Retrograde, inversion, and inverted retrograde versions of duration rom ‘Example 6.15 demonstrates ehythm and pitch organization, using this durational tow with the pitch row in Example 6.11. The two rows, which complement each ‘ther by moving at the same pace, can also be layered with each beginning and end- {ng in different locations. Many compositions employ composite forms of comple- ‘menting and layering to provide a sense of unity and variety. ee Be rer ee fe ee eee he Braurie 6.15. Pitch and duration tows used simultaneously,68 CHAPTER SIX Duration rows ofzen employ metric changes for rhythmic varity: Rests of equal uration may also substitute for notes. Augmentation and diminution can apply © entire duration rows. Example 6.16 shows a ciplet version of the original row: “Though these transfigured rows often involve some baisplitting, they present recog nizable hythmie variations. JN] su Dynamic rows can be created in muich the same manner as duration rows. Figure 6.3a shows ewelve dynamics rangi from php co ff. The mezzo versions of pp, pbb. fh and fff are new dynamics created to extend the total available to ewelve, The row in Figure 6.3 arranges these dynamics into richords, each of which contains similar dynamics to avoid abrupt changes except between the subsets, and follows a simple sofi-torloud-to-soft arch form. ee eee pepe mene att oS ST wiih mee me FicURE 6.3. Set of welve dynamics and a dynamic row Each trichord of this row contains the most extreme loud or sot first, the least extreme second, and the middle of the thre last. For example, ppp represents the soft~ tat ofthe fst grouring pp the least soft of the chree, and mppp the middle of the group. Figure 6.4 shows the inversion, retrograde, and inversion retrograde ofthis ow: Bp mp mer TS Ff oh moe oP BP a a owns 64, Reopened ven eo of dank 0 'As with che preceding duration row, the inversion results from interchanging the firctand third tichords with the second and fourth richosds respectively. While pitch and duration rows logically correlate note by note, dynamics rarely lo. The actual change from dynamic to dynamic may occur over measures, phrases, or often complete tovements (see Ex. 6.18 forthe use of dynamics in this mannes). When dynamic rows faccur note by note the effect is poineilistic (ee definition later inthis chapter) SERIALISM 6 Figure 6.5 presents an articulation row. Though a row of twelve articulations can easily be created, only six have been chosen here to underscore that twelve isnot a divine number. Again, interchanging the two trichords produces the inversion, as shown in Figure 6.6. Reversing both the original and the inversion creates the retro- grade and inversion retrograde versions respectively. ">- AtA FicuRe65. Articulation row: RA+A-—>.- TAsA. > mR-~>-A A FrcURE 6.6. Retrograde, inversion and inversion retrograde versions of articulation row Example 6.17 illustrates pitch, shythm, dynamics, and articulation serialism. Note that the dynamic row has barely begun by the end of this example. The articulation row begins with the IR form, unlike che prime forms used for pitches, durations, and dynamics, Note also the repetition of articulations. ‘Tempo and form rarely change measure by measure. Thus, the temposform row shown in Figure 6.7 provides the structure for an entire movement. Here, the six parts resemble the articulation row of Figure 6.5, with short being equal to fascand Jong being equal to slow. While forms other than the original can exist, rhey have ‘meaning only in multimovement works, Exar 617. Pitch, duration, dynamic, and articulation rows used simultancously.0 CHAPTER SIX Jaa» FIOURE 6.7, Tempo/form row Example 6.18 presents a very short work using the various parameters so far men- tioned, along with the beginning of an analysis. The pitch, rhythm, dynamics, artic- ulation, tempo, and form rows remain intact throughout, with variation techniques shared between them. The material here has been condensed into a very few mea- sures, which obviously distorts the idea somewhat. In actual practice, the potential is far greater than shown, The dynamic row occurs twice (original and inversion) and the temporform row only once (less the final tempo). A definite correlation between, various rows is established by beginning the rows together and maintaining as much ‘of a one-to-one relationship between versions as possible. Figure 6.8 shows two of che many ways in which timbre can be serialized. The first row defines instrument entrances. The second, more flexible, cow indicates timbral qualities separate from instruments. Rows of registers (usually by octave, but not necessarily so), ‘mode in electronic music, or indeed any other controllable parameter of sound can be serialized as well. Note as well that the inversion, retrograde, and inversion retrograde are not the only possible ways of warying rows in musi, and that augmentation, diminution, skeletonizing, and other such devices can also be used effectively ‘Many composers feel chat serial organization, especially che serialization of sever- al musical elements, is a poor substitute for intuition. As with the serial use of pitch, however, the organization of these materials can provide composers with a vast resource of integrated raw materials. Such materials may then be used as musical intuition dictates (Boulez 1948, 1953). Otherwise, such compositional processes can ‘exhaust listeners or bury chem in theory divorced from musicality. Process is not an cond in itself but rather a means to an end. SERIALISM n Pointillism Poincilism in music consists of notes separated by octave displacements, rests, con- ‘rasting articulations and dynamics, or any combination ofthese. Pointillism isa nat- tural extension of melodic techniques caried to theit extreme. Flow is weakened by drastic leaps and spaces; direction is splintered by lack of recognizable pitch motion; _ and points of arrival ae often difficult to find owing to the multitude of high notes and leaps. Cadence, supported by agogic accents, and balance are the aspects of sclody least affected by pointillicm. Example 6.19 shows a melodic fine and four pointillistic versions. The fist version, Jncorporating octave displacement, weakens interval strength and disrupts flow, The two subsequent versions, which use rests and articulations, each without octave dis- placement, do not produce such drastic variations as the fist, nor do they interrupt “the flow and dicection ofthe melodic line as severely. The final version combines rest, “octave displacement, articulation, and dynamic contrast. Although none ofthe first three versions differs significantly from the original, the fourth version contrasts strik- ly with all three and marks a conceptual difference in the study of melodic lin. The individual elements of pointllism are not new to music. Throughout history “composers have used octave displacements, rests, and articulation contrasts within melodic lines. In pointllism, however, the combination of these represents an ‘extreme that rarely occuts in common-practice music. Poinillism refocuses the ear “toward the individual nore and away from the connectivity of long lyric lines 6.20 contrasts two lines, one lyrical, the other pointillistic. Both approach- €3 serve individual purposes. Some may consider the fist example the only crue ExaMPiE 6.18. Short serial work, ‘Trombone Violin. Flute Harp——_Batoon Bright Dull atk lerdag Somber Marsh FIGURE 6.8. “Two types of timbre rows. (rue 6.19. A melodic line and four poinkillistic versions.2 CHAPTER SIX gt sa Exaurte 6.20 Contrasting lytic and pointilistic melodic kins. melodic line present. The second melody, however, is dramatic, intense, and imme- diate, with each note a unique and functioning contributor to the whole. ‘Combining pointilism with twelve-tone procedures seems natural not only because of their historical proximity but also because of the cohesion serial chro- rmaticism adds to the spatial, temporal, aticulative, and dynamic extremes of pointl- lism, Moreover, pointillism enhances twelve-tone music's focus on the integrity of individual notes. On the other hand, pointilism, when applied to diatonic and oth cenwise traditionally lyric lines, can seem forced. Indeed, the elements that contribute fo successfully to lyre lines more often than not can be seriously weakened by even cone pointilistic addition. "Even though leaps occur from the outst ofthe twelve-tone pointilistic exceep in Example 6.21, they continue to expand and provide direction toward the paunt of arrival. Likewise, a slight increase in note duration toward the end of the example strengthens the cadence and adds direction to the melodic line. The excerpt in Example 6.22 shows how, with some extremes of octave displacement, composers can. create two-part counterpoint in a single line (a sort of hocket technique), with the higher and lower notes forming separate melodic groups. The dotted lines show direc tion and the asterisks delineate the points of arrival for each line. These last two examples point out how certain pointilstc lines do nce function well with harmonic ee SO OD apy EXAMPLE 621. Twelve-tone poinlistic excerpt SERIALISM ; B textures, Ensuring that such lines employ timbres different from their harmonic ‘accompaniments can help remedy this problem, as shown in Example 6.23. Harmony may be as pointilistic as the melodic line it accompanies, as shown in Example 6.24. Textural variety, a8 it appears here, can add yet another wwist to the resultant composition’s vertical and horizontal shape. Category 2 welve-tone processes complement this type of variety, as shown in Example 6.25. The simulta neous use of more than one row typically increases the rate of exposure of al welve ‘notes, which may otherwie require many measutes. Example 6.25 shows just such ‘category 2 harmonic language, which often may seem out of place in lesser extremes 2S £ titres “37 ms tak - Ext 623, Timbre providing poise separa den YAM AZZ ‘Two-part counserpoint in a single line. Exams 6.25. Pointillism in a cross section of harmonic vocabulary.14 CHAPTER SIX Klangfarbenmelodie Klangfarbermeloie (literally “sound color melody”) extends pointilsm by providing a different timbre for each note, thus further enhancing the unique qualities of the individual pitches. Example 6.26, for violin, horn (in C), and flute, explores this tim- bral dimension of pointilism. EXAMPLE 6.26. Klangjrbermelodi. Exereme pointilism and Klangfarbermelodic, however, can lead to constant varieny which can become less and less interesting and dramatic. The potential of ereating ‘extended works using a constant tenure of pointllism and Klangfarbenmelodi is therefore limited (Webern 1929). Traditiorally, these techniques characterize shore pieces, precise in form and clarity, or longer works usualy consisting of a number of short movements contrasted by tempo or overall dyzamics. Example 6.27 shows the ‘opening measures of three contrasting movements of a work using Klangfarbenmeladie techniques. Klangfarbenmelodie can also be used successfully within a variety of other textures, particularly for contrast. The brief passage for violin in Example 6.28 begins lyrical ly, then modulates to # short burst of pointillism before returning ¢o its former tex Beawrte6.27. Opening of three Klanglarbermeladc movements and some possible contrast, SERIALISM 8 BXAMPLE 6.27. (continued) dee Sa Baaveie 6.28. Klangjarbenmelodie modulating fom a lic line for violin ture, This example shows how pointillistic techniques can provide variety without becoming the norm for an entire work Klangfarbenmelodie, however, can make climaxes into anticlimaxes, direction only diversion, and balance almost impossible except within very large forms. It is there- fore wise to be aware of the extremes of each parameter and save these so that Klangfarbenmelodie becomes an effective tool for truly musical composition and not Merely an obvious device. Composing Suggestions + Create on atonal row and its matrix and compose a shore category | piece for piano. Cllece melodic notes that avoid strong consonant harms + Compose a work for solo instrument strictly adhering to an atonal row, using only the original with no transpositions. Make the piece as interest- ing 8 possible, using poinillsm, rhythmic variations, and s0 on. + Compose a tradic row and its matrix and use as much ofits tonal charac- ter as possible in a short excerpt for any instrument and piano. Use only category I seriallsmPe 6 CHAPTER SIX + Construct a row in which the second hexachord isthe inversion ofthe first hhexachord. Seek out any combinatorial possibilities. Compose a short work for piano using one version of each form of the row except inversion. Begi. the piecein category 1 but modulate to category 2, using if possible, a com- binatorial version of the row: + Compose a shert work for an available single-line instrument in which a Iyric and relatively diatonic line slowly modulates through octave displace- mens, dynamic contrast, and so on, to a more chromatic Klangfarben- melodie style + Compose the first three measures of each of five movements for three available insturments using Klangfarbenmelodie. Make each movement ‘contrast with the others. Use a single category 1 row. + Analyze Example 6.29 for the row present. Construct a matrix for the row ‘onder that suits this passage best and then continue the example in like style for enough measures that it fels complete. + Analyze Example 6.30 for as many areas of serialization as possible. ‘Complete the excerpt continuing the various rows appropriately. SSS Ext 6.29. Passage for ewelve-tone analysis, eS 2 By = 3 i == pp "PPP ExaweLe 630. Phrase for serial analysis. CHAPTER 7 PITCH-CLASS SETS MANY COMPOSERS HAVE employed pitch-class sets as a compositional urce (Babbitt, 1947, 1961; Morris 1987; Straus 1990). A pitch cassis the group fof any pitch and all ofits octave transpositions, such as all Cs. Since the equal- tempered chromatic scale has twelve different pitches, there are only twelve pitch es, Pitch-class sets are groupings of pitch classes placed in ascending ordet ic Pitch-Class Sets The most commonly used 208 unique piteh-elass sets appear in Table 7.1 (Forte 1973). The names derive from the number of pitches in the set, a dash, and the num- in the series. The Z included in some set names will be discussed later in this chapter. The parentheses attached to some set names refer to inversion equivalence (Le, they invert to themselves atthe interval shown). The umbers in the set that follow equate to 0 = C, 1 = Ds, 2 = D, and so on, in ascending numerical order with {intervals reduced within the octave (known as pitch-class equivalency). As will be segn, wo pitch-clas sets are equivalent if they reduce to the same prime form. ‘Table 7.1, the chart of basic pitch-class sets, can be useful in a number of ways First, as will be described shortly, sets have many levels of reduction, and the chart “indicates whether a group has been fully educed. Second, the table offers composers ‘and analysts a reference for comparing sets with similar but not identical elements “and sets with different numbers of elements, some of which are identical. This can be useful when, as will be seen shorty, sets approximate rather than equate to one another. Moreover, the chart offers an opportunity for generating new versions for ‘se in composition. Analyzing Sets ‘Set analyis requires grouping pitches together based on logical and consistent crite- Fa (Forte 1955; Lester 1989). In some music chis grouping falls naturally and even ‘conveniently within certain boundaries (Crumb 1969; Webern 1929). The chords in Example 7.1 are delineated so that groups tend to separate themselves. For instance, the firs dhree groups of four notes, the group of thirty-second notes, the ighth-note triplets, and the last chord all seem to be logical groupings. The coun-78 CHAPTER SEVEN PITCH-CLASS SeTs 2° ‘NaMe, PC Vector | vi S10) Oy 210000 | 5-4 o1236 S22tlt oz O2ast 333231 | 76 O1dsaTe 533442 32 O13 inno | $5 s2ti2 622 ond 33232 | 7.7 123678 332353 33. ote 0110 | 5-6 322i 67302) 01367 324222 | 78 O2IAS68 — A822 34 ous route | 5-7 31082 ois 013458 32380 | 79 GL23468 453932 35 O16 sooo | 5.8(12) 2201 615 012858 525421) T40 445332 3612) O24 o20100 | 5.9 Br 626 014568 322631 | 71 448i 32 025 O11010 | 5.10 n3tt S211 oaars = sus | 722 On 3479 448342 38 2 oroior | 5.22 2220 | 6.18 o1s78 sae | 73 124568 443532 392) 02,7 10020 | 5.212012) nai 62193478 Saat | 7g OL235.28 443352 3.1012) 036 oox001 | 5.13 2st 6204) 014589 303630 | 715 On24678 2448 Bal 037 conto | 5.14 21131 611 023468 = 242 | 116 O23569 435432 sana) 048 00300 | 515412) 220222 622 OL2AGS HATE 72172469 44541 58 diag GIO) 023568 — BRD | 7218 —OUDISRD 434442 4102) 023 321000 | 5.21702) 212320 6224 Beat | 79 0236.29 434343 42 ozs zt100 | 5.218 naa 625 azal | 7-20 $3452 43 O34 212100 | 5.19 n2122 16226112) aaa | 721 24641 44 oes aio | 5:20 m3 627 nso | 722 24542 45 0126 DOLL | 5-21 202420 6228(12) nen | 723 358851 4602) 0.127 rioort | 52202) 01478 202321, 6229(12) aogas2 | 7-24 353442 47112) 1.45 201210 | 5-23 02357 132130 | 6-30(12) 224223 | 7.25 345342 4802) 0156, 201d | 524 Bua 631 DMI | 7.26 344532 4916) 0167 2o0022 | 5.25 123121 ‘|63202) 143250 | 7.27 B65 410012) 0.235 in2010 | 5:26 12311 633 023579 uasat | 7-28 3H3 4 O13 wanii0 ) 5.27 122330 634 013529 aaa | 729 a 124629 344352 412 0236 nino | $28 in2i2 63502) 0.246.810 060603 | 7-30 343542 +3 O36 iol) 3.29 122031 6236 0.2347 spa221 | 731 336333 ans 0237 uno | 5.30 121321 6271) 012348 sp2321 | 732 5335042 4215. 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The 208 baie ptch-clas sts (oninwed) Tame 7.1 (eontued)80 CHAPTER SEVEN “TaBie 7.1. (continued) Nave PC Vectors | Nave___PC ‘Vector 8B 01234679 556453 O13 46790 448 Blt 01,245,679 555562 01235679 555553, 8215 01234689 555553, 86 O123:5.289 554563 | 9-1 012345628 876663 87 1345689 546652 | 9-2 12345629 777663 818 546553 | 93 0412345689 767763 819 545752 | 94 012345,789 166773 8.20 545662 | 9.5 01,234.67.89 766674 B21 4468 | 96 O12345,68,10 686763 822 4o5se2 | 9-7 012345,7810 677673 83 O235,7810 465472 | 9-8 0123467810 676764 824 OI2E56810 464783 | 9.9 0,1,235,67.810 676683 825, 464644 | 9-10 0,1,2.3467910 668664 8.26 45662 | 9-11 01.235,6,9,10 667773 827 456553. | 912 OULD, 5.68910 666963 terpoint in Example 7.1.b suggests that, at the least, groups could be formed follow- ing the melodic lines rather than the resultant harmonies. Example 7.1c presents a ‘mote complex situation where a variety of groupings could produce successful analy- ses. Whatever the process, however, grouping should follow a consistent and mean: ingful—audible—logic. Example 7.2 demonstrates the similarities between apparently dissimilar sets. The musical examples appear differene but sound somewhat similar. As will be shown, they reduce to the same set. Exaui 7.1. Three examples of grouping. PITCH-CLASS SETS 81 Analyzing a piteh-class set involves removing all redundant notes in found | groups and treating the results as pitch classes (ue, disregarding resister). These "sets should then be converted to numbers with C equal to 0, Dhto 1, and soon, and "placed in ascending numerical order. Thus, in terms of the grouping shown in Example 7.2, the notes FE, Fa, A becomes the set (3,5,6,9] (F = 5, Fh = 6, A 9, and B = 3 in ascending order). Sets should then be transposed 50 they begin with ©. Hence the [3,5,6,9] set transposes to [0,2,3,6] by suberacting the frst number from eaca number ofthe set in turn. Looking back at Table 7.1 we see that this set Tegisters as 4-12. Applying the same basic processes to the second chord in Example 72 produces the following: F = 5, D = 2, Ab= 8, E = 4, of 2.4.5.8] in ascending ‘order. This set also reduces to [0,2,36] (4-12) when the first number is subtracted from the rest so the set begins with 0. ‘Nor all sets register so easly. Many reduced pitch-class sets requite further analy- sis to reach theie prime form. Prime forms ensure that the set occurs in its smallest configurstion of pitch clases (east distance between elements ofthe set). Reducing some groups to their prime forms requires rotation of the set by successively trans ferring the leftmost number to the right and adding 12. Example 7.3 shows a group of notes that does not, when translated into a pitch, class set, appear in Table 7.1. If we follow the process of removing redundancies from the selected group of notes (B, Cf, Gi, BS), converting these to numbers 111,1,8,10}, placing the set in ascending order (1,8,10,11, and suberacting the first ‘number from each number of the set so it begins with 0, we arrive ata set (0,7.9,10], that does not appear in Table 7-1. To find the prime form, it will be necessary to Exaueus 7.2. ‘Two uses of the same ptch-class set82 CHAPTER SEVEN Exaartt 73. A group thac doesnot easly reduce toa form found in Table 7 rove the lefimost entry to the far right and add 12. This produces the following sets: (7.9 10,12]; [9,10,12,19}: and (10,12,19,21}. Note how each rotation (similar to inverting chords) transposes the number that is being moved to the far right by ‘an octave. Prime forms of a set have the least distance between the outer members ‘ofa st, of in the case of sets that have two or more equal distances, the set with the leat distance between the first and second members, or the first through third members, and so on. The original and rotated sets of the set of Example 7.3 pro- ‘duce: [0,7,9,10] = 10; (7,9,10,12} = 5; [9,10,12,19} = 10; and {10,12,19,21] = 11. ‘The smallest inclusive set’(5), when reduced so that it begins with 0, becomes (0,2.3,5), or set 4-10, “Most prime forms of piteh-class sets can be found either by using thie simple form cor by using rotations. Some sets resist even these thorough processes, however. Such sets require further conversion. Deriving a group of pitch classes by subtracting each clement from 12 creates more versions. To demonstrate tis process requites a new sroup of notes (shown in Ex. 7.4) and analysis according to the aforementioned processes. Here the notes, without redundancies, are F, C, A, Bh, E Converting these notes to numbers [6,0,9,3,5] and placing the set in ascending order (without the need for subtraction, since the set already contains a 0) produces (0,3,5,6,9), a set that does not appear in Table 7.1. Permutating the leftmost aumbers to the right, adding 12, and evaluating the diferences becween the outer numbers results in 10.35.69] = 9 (3,569,12] = 9% 15,69,12,15] = 10; [69121517] = 15 19,12,15,17,18] = 9. Although three of these forms have the same difference between their outer elements, 9, the second set (3,5,6,9,12] is the best form, since the difference between its first two elements is smallest (2 instead of 3). Beginning this set on O produces {0,2,3,6,9], another set that does not appear in Table 71 Reducing this set ro one that appears on the list requires the previously mentioned subtraction of the set from 12. Hence [0,2,3,6,9] becomes [12,10.9.6,3}, of eo EXAMPLE 7.4. Music for farther set analysis. PITCH-CLASS SETS 33 1B,69,10,12] when placed in ascending order, and {0,3,6,7,9] when begun on 0. This set cannot be found in Table 7.1 either. Ths set can be treated as if ic were a newly found set, however, and rotated. Thus (0.3,6.7.9] = 9% (3,6,7.9,12) = 9% (6.7.9,12,15] = 9; {7,9,12,15,18] = 11s and (9,12,15,18,19] = 10 form the various permutations. The third ofthe three equal versions (9), or 6,7,9,12,15} becomes the new best form by vicue of having least distance between the fist two members ofthe set (I). This set then becomes (0,1,3,6,9] when beginning on O and can be found as set number 5-31 in the list in Table 7.1 “These machinations can seem quite complex fo the non-mathematically inclined. Fortunately, most sets do not require all of these steps. Infact, a great numberof sts, particularly sets with four to six members, can be found in the chart after simple reduction to ascending ordet. One simple shortcut to this process involves creating a clocklke circle with the numbers 0 (instead of 12) through 11 with 3, 6, and 9 at their respective quarter-citcle positions. Placing Xs at the appropriate pitch-class ‘numbers and calculating the shortest distance between outer members of the set pro- duces a prime form when the results ae reduced to base zero. Many computer pro- sgrams also exist that void the need for any computations or set reduction. Composing with Pitch-Class Sets A pitch-class set may have an almost unlimited number of different pitch genera- tons, For example, set 4-18 (0,1, 4, 7) can be represented as C-C1-E-G, C-D-F-Gh, D-DI-FF-A, and soon in any octave and with any doubling, Yet as numerous and dif- ferent as such generations ar, they still have their basic pitch-class set in common and hence sound similar and analyze the same. Example 7.5 demonstrates the use of a single pitch class set, (0,1,3,5.6 8,10], or set 735, to generate music. Note chat the generated set variances are grouped distinctly and clearly. Again, grouping can be ‘moré ambiguous than this. Some of these machinations ean thus be lost tothe ear. In Example 7.6 three sets are used in a simple palindrome. Here the first and last groups were generated from the same set (6-229), as were the second and fifth groups 46-34). The third and fourth groups stand at the center (6-225). In this case, the sets are grouped harmonically so thatthe retrograde can be heard even though the actu al pitch content of the groups generated from the same sets differs.84 CHAPTER SEVEN ExAMLE 746. A simple palindrome use of three sets Vectors and Z-Complements Extensions of set theory include vectors and 2-complements (Forte 1973). Vectors are represented by the sixdigit ist chat follow each set in Table 7.1. A veetor presents a count of each interval present in the set. The frst column represents minor sec- ‘onds (interval of 1}, the second column major seconds (interval of 2), the thicd cof- ‘umn minor thirds (interval of 3), and so.on, out to the augmented fourth (interval ‘of 6); the icervals beyond the tritone are simple inversions of these six (7 = 5; 8 = 459 = 3; 10 = 2; 11 = 1). Example 7.7 shows a chord whose vector equals 111111; that i, it contains one of each of che above-named intervals, In most cases diferent sets have different vectors. In some cases, however, differ. ‘ent sets have the same vector. Because of this special relationship, these chords are said to have a “Z” (ao special meaning) relationship. Table 7.1 presents a number of such cases, In all instances, i is possible to correlate one Z-named set with its com plement somewhere else in the lis. ‘Some sees invere to themselves at particular intervals. Such sets are represented by a parenthetical number following a set name such as 3-1(12}. Example 7.8 shows how a set inverts to itself. Here, when the mistor (filled-in notes) of the first chord is reduced, t becomes the same set 4-23(12) ‘With the concepts of set reduction, Z-complements, and inversion, contemporary composers can use sets in much the same way that Classical composers used motives or particular harmonies (Webern 1936). Example 7.9 explores two Z-complimentary sets. The first measure is 4-215, a set whose vector (11171) equals that of the s6<> cond measure's set 4-229} EXAMPLE 7.7. A chord for vector analysis SSS Exaweue 78. A se thar inverts to ies PITCH-CLASS SETS 85 BUMMET.9, Use of complimentary ses Jnvariance and Other Variations “To this poine we have compared pitch-class sets that reduce to equivalent ses oF on- ‘equivalent sets that have the same vectors rea be ust as useful, however, fo exam ine sers shar ace similar but not equivalent (Forte 1973; Raln 1980). One ofthe ways 10 do this involves comparing subsets. This can be accomplished on a number oflev- + els. Fist, ewo sets can have a number of common pitch clases or invariant classes. For example, the sets [4,5,9,10] and [3,48,9]—the first two chords in Example 7.10a— have two invariant pitch classes, the subset [4,9], which is here used as a transition ‘between the second and third chords (as a sextuplet). Second, sets may have common pitch classes when reduced to prime forms, Table 7.1 shows many such possibilities For example, 5-31 and 5-32 have four common elements (one different element) and, as shown in Example 7.106, can be used developmentally Using similar sets with different numbers of elements can also produce interesting results. In Example 7.11 the second set, 4-16 {0,1,5.7l shares four members with the fire set, 5-14 [0,1,25,7]. Obviously, however, the fewer number of elements two or ‘more sets have in eommon, the less the sets resemble one another and the more of ‘a reach such comparisons become. l4sa101 0489) 491 45910) » ExaVPLE 7.10. An invariant subser (a) and he we of sets with common pitch classes (b)-86 CHAPTER SEVEN EXAMPLE 711. Composition using sets with diferent numbers of elements. Vectors can also be compared for similarity to produce sets of closely related inter val content. For example, the vectors 223111 and 222121 Fave four interval counts in common. One pitch has moved, causing the third and fifth categories to change ‘one degree in opposite directions. Example 7.12 demonstrares how two chords with these exact vectors can be used in succession to enhance their similarities and, pos- sibly take advantage of their differences. ‘Another way of comparing pitch class sets (and consequently using related sets compositionally) involves using non-reondered sets. This can be particularly useful when analyzing or composing melody or counterpoint. Example 7.13a shows two sets that are equivalent to {2,3,5,6], of [0,1,3,4] = 4-3, although the melodic order of the notes differs. This rather trivial passage is followed in Examsle 7.13b by a more sub- tle one in which the two non-reordered sets of [3,5,6,2] and [11,10,8,7] reduce to 4- 3 but appear in different transpositions. The difference in order, however—[2,3,5.6] EXAMMLE 7.12. Using set with similar but nor equivalene vector. a, Ds Je: As Exaumie 7.13, Differing melodic order in equivalent sets (a); variations in nonreordered sot (). PITCH-CLASS sETs 87 being intervalcally equivalent to {7,8,10,I1]—produces @ compelling variation Another way of looking at these sets involves transposing them ¢o their non- reordered equivalents, (3,5.6.2] and [6,5,3,2] (the second group transposed down a perfect fourth). This shows how the reversed middle members of the frst set have shifted tothe lef. Furthermore, all sets have complementary versions constructed of all the pitch classes not present in the original. Thus, the pitch-elass set of [0,1,5,6] (set 4-8) has the complementary pitch classes of 2, 3, 4, 7,8, 9 10, 11 (or set (0,1,2,5,6,7.8.9] ‘when beginning with 0) reduced as the complementary set of 8-8. When a set occurs as a subset of another set or its complement, it is said to be in Kcrelation to that set. For example, set 3-1 [0,1,2] occurs as a subset of 8-8 and is in K-relation to set 8-8 leven if set 8-8 does not occur in the composition under analysis. Sets that are sub- sets of another set and its complement are said to be in Kh-relation to that set. For ‘example, set 3-3 [0,14] is subset of set 4-18 [0,1,4,7] and its complement (set [2.35,68,910,11] or [0,1,3,4.67,8,9], which becomes [0,1,2,3,5,6,8.9] when ic is reduced), 8-18. Compositions in which al subsets and supersets ate in K- or Kh-elation to one ‘another are called Nexus sets. Using equivalent and nonequivalent but related prime forms of pitch class sets along with invariant forms, variations in vectors, and non-reordered sets, can con tribute to similar-sounding and related groups of pitch classes (Forte 1973; Lewin 1987). Using such complex but often audible groups compositionally can produce music imbued with a deep level of organization and logic. Combined with ineuitive fand musical goals, pitch-class set composition and analysis can provide a valuable resource for composers and listeners alike. Reliance on pitch-clas sets as a tool for composition and analysis of contemporary _Mausic is not without its critics. Many theorists argue that these relationships, for the ‘most part, are unheard and hence useless. As a resource for composers, however, such ‘tticisms are beside the point, Pitch-class sets serve as a useful resource, as valid as fany other compositional too. Composing Suggestions * Compose a short work for piano that uses only one tetrachordal set. ‘Attempt to cteate variants ofthe set that sound as diverse as possible. * Create a formal structure for @ short work by listing only the set numbers » to be used. Formally arrange the sets so they create various patterns. ‘Compose a work for at least three instruments using this ser structure * Analyze Example 7.14 in at east two different ways using Table 7.1 and the processes described in this chapter Complete four more bats of the excerpe nas consistent and musical a manner 28 posible,Homie ‘cote AE == a ae CHAPTER SEVEN === Seopa SMP =P —— pe gto P af Exaufe 7.14. Music forsee analysis. vat Pick any tetrachord from the tetrachordal sts in Table 7.1. Create at least thirty diferent pitch realizations of this set and attempt to hear similarities ‘berween them. Compose a work by interlocking various Z-compliment pitch class sets, Groups should appear simultaneously in counterpoint. Compare your aural recognition ofthese sets with those of a set-created composition with more clearly articulated (one ata time) sets. ‘Analyze Example 7.15 by grouping in various ways. Choose the grouping that seems most logical based on the variations described in the chapter ges 7 ” e beg te % ee * ExamrLe 7.15. Music for sec grouping and comparison. CHAPTER 8 RHYTHM AND METER STANDARD RHYTHMS AND meters, the kind used routinely by com- posers and performers, offer significant potential for variation and development (Carter 1955; Messiaen 1950). Logical altematives also exist (Ligeti 1962; Penderecki 1960), many of which offer some composers greater scope to express theit personal styles. Restrictions posed by common-practice notation have, some feel, artificially excluded many musical ideas. Bar Lines and Pulsation Discussing rhythm and meter inevitably eads to the division that distinguishes them: the bar line. For centuries music survived without bar lines. With the increase in the size of ensembles, the complexity of rhythmic ideas. and the emphasis on strong beatweak beat forms suchas music for dance, the har line became a necessity. Example 8.1 shows a short excerpt for piano without bar lines. Note the difficulty of retaining rhythmic order during performance, even with one performer. Amplify this “to the sie of a large orchestra, and the need for some organizing factor becomes apparent. Organizing music into measure-szed units, however, creates beat patterns and ‘metrical pulses (weak beats and strong beats, depending on placement in the meter) These pulses constrain many contemporary composers who, as a resul, tur to new possibilities. Example 8.2, the same passage as shown in Example 8.1 with the addi- tion of bar lines, is much easier to read but also suggests strong downbeats and a sense of accented syncopation not present in Example 8.1 These two examples have very different appearances, though both have exactly the same notes. Both have good and bad attributes. Music need not necessarily be restricted t0 measures or rely on beats. Such reliance can rob composers of the Potentials of rhythmic exploration and freedom.90 CHAPTER EIGHT Exar 8.1. Excerpt for piano without bar lines. ExauLe 8.2. The previous example, norated with bar lines. Freeing Metric Constraints “Meter changes and composite meters are two of the most obvious methods of avoiding the regularity imposed by meter (BartSk 1934). Example 8.3 demonstrates both tech- niques. Note that the tendency to emphasize downbeats, as well as strong inner beats, thas not changed. Metric monotony, however, has been atleast temporarily relieved. Tsorhyehms help to lessen the effect of bar lines and weaken their constraints on rhythm while continuing to maintain ensemble precision (Messiaen 1949). Example 84 shows an example of isorhythm. The first melodic line presents a long rhythmic idea thar overlaps bar lines. In contrast; the second melodic line follows, even acces tuates, the metric heats and implied accents. ling td pp She SS a ww Exar: 8.3. Meter changes and composite meters. RHYTHM AND METER a BXanoLe 84. Isorhythm used to lessen metric constraints Cross-thythms (polyrhythms) can also relieve the effects of internally implied accents, Example 8.5 shows three cross-rhythms. The bottom line of Example 8.52 actually sounds in ¥ meter, creating a cross-rhythm against the upper line’ § The metric accents are either lessened or contrasted, depending on the surrounding style and context, Example 8.56 maintains three simultaneous meters, with the eighth- note beat remaining equal for all three, requiring a displacement of bar lines due to the different meters. While such polythythms (polymetets) expand rhythmic vocab- tlares, they also multiply the complexity of the music for performers. The two ideas in Example 8.5c achieve independence by the use of accents placed in different loca- tions in the 4 meter. The performers of such music can often be so intent on achiev ‘ng correct accents that the meter tends to lose centrality and its implied internal accents. Consequently, the various ideas freely follow their own design rather than adhering to the possibly artificial boundaries of metric accents Hemiola—in general, the concept of three against two—can help alleviate the metic accents implied by bar lines while allowing bar lines to maintain ensemble ‘der, Example 8.6a shows hemiola in its more cypical, traditional sense. In Example 8.6b, chords tie across beats and bar lines, ereating hemiola in a slighty less tradi- tonal guise. Note how the bar line aids in performance and yet does nor disturb the shythmic freedom of the music. o due Exawmie 85. Three ypes of eross-ahythms. continued)% CHAPTER EIGHT EXAMPLE B.S. (continued) adm - foe Seas Sf yg —__|.b F » suf 5 EXAufLe 86. Two per of hemiols ‘Actual avoidance of on-beat notes works as effectively as do ties. In Example 8.7 the use of ies and rests prevents metric interference, as does the use of irregular beat subdivisions. In similar fashion, the music in Example 8.8 retains beat and meter, but the irregular thirty-second-noce sulstivisions combined with intervening rests free it from metric regularity. RHYTHM AND METER 93 Exaurie 88 Inner-beat complexity and rests used for maintaining meter without metic accents. Metric Modulation _ Metric modulation can also free melodic lines from the restraints of steady beats (Carter 1955). Example 8.9 shows five measures in which the tempo and the meter ‘modulate so that the flow of music avoids regular and predictable bar lines. At the ‘same time, the bar lines continue to help performers and conductor stay together, Ld ad La, Bxawris 89. Metric modulation,92 CHAPTER EIGHT RHYTHM AND METER 93 Exam 8.5. (continued) » Daw om. f pie Bans 8.8. Metric Modulation Metric modulation can also free melodic lines from the restraints of steady beats "(Carter 1955). Example 8.9 shows five measures in which the tempo and the meter ‘modulate so that the flow of music avoids regular and predictable bar lines. At the same time, the bar fines continue to help performers and conductor stay together. id dd J = — EXAMPLE 86. Two pes of hemioa, Actual avoidance of on-beat notes works as effectively as do ties. In Example 8.7 the use of tes and rests prevents metric inteeference, as does the use of irregular beat subdivisions. In similar fashion, the music in Example 8.8 retains beat and meter, but the ireularthity-second note suivisions combined wish intervening rests fre i from metric regula. sevens Bywweis 89. Metc modulation94, CHAPTER EIGHT Metric modulation can also have the reverse effect. Performers may actually accent downbeats more harshly in order to establish each new tempo variations. ‘Combining some of the previous techniques to avoid metric accent with metric mod- Uulation can help to avoid these accents. Example 8.10 shows two agogtcally created cadences, In Example 8.10a the com- poser has opted for an easy on-beat solution, Example 8.10b presents an alternative that stretches metric notation. Composers should dictate to notation, not vice versa. All of these methods, and many more, have been used by composers to maintain bar lines without restraining ehythmic freedom. Exaurut 8.10. Strong downbeat cadence (a); midmeasure offbeat cadence with metric modulation () Proportional Notation In proportional notation, time equals horizontal space, with notes placed approxi- mately in relation to the given time frame (Penderecki 1960). Example 8.11 shows a passage for piano in proportional notation. Here the notes sound 2s long asthe lines following them, with duration proportional to the shown tim lines. Although intri- cate rhythms are hard to indicate precisely, proportional notation does provides flex- ibility, and metric beat, implied accents, and so on, have vanished. While performers might force such accents and beat constraints on the music owing to thete strong met- rical backgrounds, the notation itself does not suggest such interpretation. Since non EXAMPLE BIL. Passage for piano in proportional notation. RHYTHM AND METER 95 traditional chythms such as those in Example 8.7 seldom receive perfect performances anyway, some composers feel that little precision is lst with proportional notation. In lange ensembles, however, proportional notation significantly increases risks of performance variability, Often in these circumstances, important melodic lines are identified by marks above or below the music, which are connected by vertical dot- ted lines to maintain entrance and exit accuracy: If these markings are improperly construed as beats, however, beat implications (accents, ec.) may occur In extreme Iy lange time frames, proportional notation leads to rhythmic indeterminacy, a sub- ject returned to in chapter 14. Variations and Overviews Occasionally some parts of a composition will ned to be metrical, while others, even thoce that occur simultaneousl, need tobe rhythmically fie (Ligeti 1962). Example 8.12 shows two approaches to this seeming contradiction. In each, the upper line receives a strong metric pulse that helps to articulate its various patterns. Inthe frst ‘excerpt, however, the accompaniment achieves metric independence by use of tes, avoidance of beats, and irregular subdivisions ofthe beat. The second excerpt shows fa goup of notes within boxes that indicate free chythmic improvisation—a type of proportionality within meter that again introduces an element of indeterminacy.96 CHAPTER EIGHT Both proportional and metrical notation can be used whenever the need arises (Crumb 1970). Composers may achieve almost any effect desired, from the strictest ‘beat-dominated idea to the freest-lowing rhythmic lines. Example 8.13 makes use of both systems of notation for their respective benefits. The notation senza tempo indi- cates proportional sections. This "metriportional” approach does not rule out any possible rhythm or rhythmic grouping a composer might wish eo use. EXAMPLE 8.13. Combination of metic an proportional notations. “Many methods of avoiding bar lines simply create new rhythmic problems. With metriportional” techniques the composer can explote rhythmic possibilities wich treat freedom without forgoing clarity of notation, Many of the concepts in this chapter can be very difficult to implement effective ly. Increased freedom does not necessarily imply increased quality, and the relaxing of metric controls may at first yield havoc. New and unorganized rhythms can be as confusing as new and unorganized timbres and pitch relationships. Scructured and nonstructured rhythms must be bound together to create musical ends and noc thythmic chaos Figure 8.1 shows @ compositional overview of a work ftom a metrical point of view. Note the unison metrical beginning, the slow transition to nonmeter in the midse tion of the work, and the return to meter as the archlike form concludes. Example 8.14, in contrast, begins with a dense counterpoint of off-beat and tied rhythms, then modulates toa more metrical, almost stati, point of arrival, before returning to the freer thythmic texture of the beginning. Yet another approach is taken in Example 8.15, where the abrupt chords in the upper register interrupt a contrasting impro- vised section in the lower register. Rhythmic densities can also form thick textures, much like swarming orchestral clusters (Ligeti 1965). These densities can be useful for ereating points of arrival with smaller numbers of instruments. The initial pitch cluster in Example 8.16 is followed by an intense, bechive-like rhythmic cluster that dramatically increases the music's RHYTHM AND METER 97 Exar 8.14 Rhiyehmie modulation in metered music re a oe gs OP TEXWMrLe 6.15. Improvisation with sudden interruptions for string quarter. density withour increasing the number of instr fs described at length in chapter 9.) ‘Though any possible combination of free and metrically strict chythm can be potentially right in a given context, the careful combination ofthese ideas with pitch, dynamics, articulation, and timbre form a work's direction, organization, and drama. ments, (This micropolyphonic texture98. CHAPTER EIGHT In general, rhythm can be metric or proportional, can modulate from one to the ‘other, or can be contrasted or combined. Each of these approaches has a place in music, but only in balance with other aspects of composition, Composing Suggestions + Create a work for piano in a moderate tempo meter in which rhythmic ficedom is achieved by never stiking a note on the beat and by using ties and on-beat rests, Transcribe the work into proportional notation. + Compose a brief work for soloist and piano in which the two follow con- tuasting meters with juxtaposed bar lines. Rewrite the work using single bar lines and attempt to achieve the same results. Choose the most per- formable version. + Compose a work for all available instruments using proportional notation with large time frames. Make the score serve as part forall performers. Do not use a time track or any other means for guaranteeing more exact ‘entrances. + Compose a shore work for small ensemble of available instruments using “mettiportional” notation, + Analyze Example 8.17 for its use of rhythm and then compose a contrast- ing phrase of equal length that uses the same techniques but different notes and ideas Exqurie 8.17. Passage for analysis + Ina shore piece for two pianos, explore different meters and tempos in each part, using recognizable styles (eg, waltz, march). Modulate between the two pianos slowly during the course of the piece so that each work ends with the other's beginning idea, meter, and tempo. *+ Create a composite-thythm overview of a composition of shore duration, Compose a work for two available instruments and piano following this ‘overview as closely as possible. CHAPTER 9 TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS UNDERSTANDING THE ROLES that texture and modulations play in ‘composition helps composers control and vary their musical raw marerials. Sculpting and molding textures, for example, allows composers to create direction in their ‘music. Modulating parameters other than pitch increases the resources for com- posers f0 create transitions on many hierarchical levels. Texture Teature results from a combination of pitch, timbre, and duration and is generally measured in terms of density. Texture can be as thin as one pitch or as thick asa large ageregate of pitches. Previous to the twentieth century, textures Were Conceived in terms of from one to eight (rarely more) simultaneous different pitches moving in a faisly regular metric patcern with generally static timbres. Contemporary composers hhave expanded these concepts to include a larger vocabulary of textures, from single ‘Hotes to thick densities of sound (Goldstein 1974; Chavez 1948). Before focusing on the later (for reasons that the former has already been discassed), it is important to develop some strategy for analysis. |. Because density is the basic measure of texture, it makes sense to conclude that the greatest number of notes with different timbres occurring a fast as possible rep- Fesents the thickest cexture, With this asthe extreme and a single note as its opp0- site, concepts of texture progression emerge. Just as composing works for only major ‘iads or only quarter notes makes little sense, it seems likewise nonsensical 0 com- ose works for only one texture. Figure 9.1 shows a short work in graph form. Texture 5s measured in terms of the number of horizontal lines (melodies) and the length and Separation of vertical lines (chords). This graph demonstrates a straightforward directional approach, beginning with a very thin texture and developing into thick and expansive textures. The texture returns to its origins, though not necessarily © the opening note, timbre, or duration Figure 9.2 shows an opposite approach to textural form. Large blocks of sound are dramatically juxtaposed against one another with no overlap, silence being the inter vening texture. In such large conglomerates of thick densiies, piteh and rhythm can102 CHAPTER NINE ExAMPLe 9.3. Micropolyphony achieved by rhythmic means. TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS 103 {s constructed from overlapping, dronelike ostinati that interlock polyrhythmically. Although the number of voices remains constant and the melodic pattems do not change, the texture gradually thins as the cross-thythms slowly merge. Before progressing to other methods for creating dense textures, we need to devel- ‘op ocher techniques for composing and analyzing micropolyphony. Such techniques can be especially important because root movement with micropolyphony can be 50 {quick and relatively inaualible, and melodic direction can be lost amid the multitude of lines. As with clusters, che outer lines of micropolyphony are, more often than not, the ‘most important lines present. Inner notes simply contribute to the micropolyphon. ‘The rhythms of micropolyphony should be as fast and diverse as possible to avoid accidental harmonic inconsistencies. The sudden unintentional appearance of a major triad, for example, out ofa texture of otherwise consistent panchromatic dssonances, ‘could prove quite surprising and draw attention away from the directed motion of the ‘icropolyphony. Similar motives used in all the instruments, with rhythmic variations, ‘can aso add consistency to micropolyphony, especially when the motives are relative- ly small. Each of these techniques presupposes the desire for consistency in microp- lyphony. Inconsistent textures can be created by reversing one, some, or all of the ides presented here. Improvisation can also achieve variably dense textures. Example 9.4 shows point of arrival fr six instruments in which probability would suggest avery thick texture. Doing “everything you can do with the loudest, fastest, and most aggressive tech- niques possible” will ypically produce an easily performed, even predictable, com- plexity that otherwise, especially if it were written out traditionally, might be almost unplayable. Do everything you fan do with the Toudes, fastest, and most aggressive techniques possible BXantis 9.4. Simple score achteving a thick and diverse density.106 CHAPTER NINE Example 9.7 shows the reverse possibility of Figure 9.4 as the layering gives way to ‘ostinati—complex polyrhythms producing ever-changing composite rhythms. This process forms distinctly new rhythms and creates micropolyphony. In both Figure 9.4 and Example 9.7 the texture remains thick throughout, with only the techniques dif- fering, With the addition of orchestration nuances and modulations, the number of possible varieties of thick densities increases significantly. ae OP p F p EqvPte 9.7. "Thick density moving fom lyering to polthytims Effects can also contribute to texture, Example 9.8 shows how micropolyphony ‘can modulate smoothly into improvisations using glissando. The change in glissando direction increases in tempo as the quartet approaches the improvisational section, ‘Such modulation can aurally contradict what appears as contrast visually ‘A moving center of pitch can also create direction ia such thick-textured pas- sages. By clustering fast-moving notes (in the first case) or by sustaining pitches (in the second case) around a central moving area, the ear can be directed toward or away from points of arrival. Example 9.9 shows a small excerpt containing improvi- sation boxes. The mean pitch of each line moves upward—that is, the pitch areas of the boxes slowly move upward—until full point of arrival occurs, Dynamics con- tribute to the sense of direction. deme Si EXAMPLE 9.8, Texture in micropolyphony modulating fom gisandk to improvisation, TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS 107 JF tis ExAMPLED.9. Ditectional texture created wsing improvisation. Example 9.10 shows three samples of music from Figure 9.1 in more detail. These fragments modulate one to another. Such modulation can become as viable a com- positional process as, for instance, melody and harmony. Note that the first sample presents a slow melodic solo in which the nuance of every note contributes to the work's sense of forward momentum. As che density inereases in the next two sam- “ples, however, the individual notes become less and less important until, atthe point of arival in the third sample, they lose most of their significance. dew Bxaurie 9.10. Parts of Figure 9.1 in more detail (beginning, cransition, and point of aetval108 CHAPTER NINE TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS 109 Beaune 9.10. (conned) ‘occupation with acoustics, evolved into a definitive parameter of composition (Brant 1967, 1969, 1976; Leimer 1978). Contemporary composers may choose to specify the arrangement of performers in order to control the dizection of sound emanation and propagation. Techniques to accomplish tis include directing performers to be situated in balconies, scattered throughout the audience, or surrounding the audience. sr Figure 9.5 shows three setups: type A, a somewhat standard stage arrangement; type B, in which the performers are scattered throughout the hall; and type C, in sow Which the performers surround the audience. Each of these setups produces a par- ticular effect depending on the instruments used and whether the performers are soon stationary or ambulatory. A. B. c. singe <2 °Pe sue se Audience tiene? © atinee © ° ° > L 2 S| oo Fount 9.5. Three hall setups for potential spatial modulation, Figure 9.6 and Example 9.11 demonstrate spatial medulation in a type A situation {involving six violins. Violin 1 and violin 6, at opposite ends of the stage, have the same pitch staggered and overlapped so that while one ends with diminuendo, the other begins softly and crescendos. The sound will hus tend to move slowly from one side of the stage to the other and, depending on the coexisting material, spatial mod: ‘lation will occur, More observable modulation takes place in the type B arrange- 2 2 3 4 5 6 900000 | Spatial Modulation ‘Modulation can be defined as a smooth transition from one state to another. In tonal languages, modulation refers to the movement from one key center to another, usual- ly by the use of chord common to both keys. In the twentieth century modulation has been expanded to include a new vocabulary of possible uses. ‘While works exploiting the spatial relationship between performers and audience ot among multiple groups of performers have appeared throughout mach of music histo ‘yy only in the twentieth century has spatial modulation, one aspect of a modern pre. audience Fours 96. Sage seu fr Example 9.11no CHAPTER NINE ExAMPLe 9.1, Sparta modulation in a type A setup ment shown in Figure 9.7 and Example 9.12, scored for six trumpets. A pitch (D) originates from the stage and slowly modulates throughout the hall, each performer ‘exiting softly as another begins. This idea concludes with che same erumpet with, which it began, thus coming full circle. ° 5 1 ° stage 3 ° sdlonce FiouRE 9.7. Stage setup for Example 9.12 TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS deve we ow yur 9.12. Spatial modulation in a ype B sewp. Figure 9.8 and Example 9.13 illustrate a type C arrangement, in which sound ‘modulates from singer to singer in counterclockwise motion around an audience. A panning effect could be achieved by accelerating and rtarding the motion. Figure 9.9 and Example 9.14 demonstrate a type B spatial setup that employs Auick glssandi. Some of these glssandi connect and continue, while others overlap, resting a variety of modulations, echoes, and interplay. These ideas, placed in con ° } 29 a § Oz 00) iP? since °c O« 80 oO «6 O ° FIGURE 98, Stage setup for Example 9.152 CHAPTER NINE TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS 3 O —sutience icone 99. Serup for Example 9.14. xan 9.13. Spatial modulation ina type C sevup, junction withthe others, demonstrate that spatial mosulation can be a particularly effective technique for composers interested in using the entire sonic environment cof a performance space. Other possibilities include actually moving instrumentalists oF singers during per formance. This provides another extra sense of motion, especially when the moving performer plays simultaneously. As wel, ifthe ensemble consists of ifferent types of instruments, the elect can be dislocating for the auilience in that the constantly shifting direcion of timbres distorts expectations, Performance instructions request ing that ensembles locate themselves in various parts of the hall can also work effec tively, although, because every hall i different, exact control is impossible. Spatial imavntarinn in a darkened hall ¢an also produce dramatic and musical results. re Exawrie 9.14. A varity of spatial modulations. ‘Timbre Modulation Timbre modulation involves slowly changing the color ofa sound, usually by over- lapping instruments of similar timbres (Debussy 1894; Ligeti 1962, 1967; Slawson 1985). Example 9.15 shows a set of three different timbre modulations. Inthe fist, a flute and violin exchange pitches very slowly (in actual practice even matching vibratos), with one diminishing as the other increases in loudness. At the pivot point, where the timbres are dynamically balanced, a new instrumental sound may cur: nota violin and not a flute, but a “lutin’ or “violute.” Other combinations, such as “ober (trumpet and oboe), "viorn” (viola and horn), “basset” (bassoon and trumpet), can prove effective when using the right resister and dynamics Marching timbres i important; chus combinations such as “flubas" (lute and cuba) seem unlikely “The second excerpt in Example 9.15 is quite different. The modulation here resules from ring-of In an exaraple of masking, the muted crash cymbals completely14 CHAPTER NINE Exaapie9.15, ‘Thyee types of timbre modulation. overshadow the simultaneously struck piano chord. Once the cymbals have been dampened, however, the piano rings through, creating a unique combined sound, ‘The third cype of timbre modulation in Example 9.15 shows a trumpet with “Harmon mute beginning with the plunger in and performer's hand held over the bell. ‘As the trumpeter’s hand pulls away, the timbre modulates toa brighter sound. With the embouchure change ereated by the vocal addition, a chird timbre slowly emerges, demonstrating timbre modulation using only one instrument. Example 9.16 begins with a quartet of voices using vowel sounds to modulate out ‘of a bass drum stroke. All three of the previously mentioned timbre modulations appear in this example, primarily by vowel exchange (measures 2-4) and bass drum mashing (at the outset) sine, Sa EXAMPLE .16. ‘Three types of timbre modulation in a continuous excerpt. TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS 115 Rhythmic and Other Modulations Rhythmic modulation is the smooth change from one rhythmic idea to another (Carr.> 1948, 1955). For the sake of larity both ofthe ensuing examples use ostnati, though this need not be the case. However, other types of rhythmic modulations generally require an extended period of time to establish rhythms in order to create a recog nicable modulation. This requires many measures of music and hence a good deal of space not available in a book of this size. Example 9.17, for piano, shows one rhythmic idea repeated several times. By the fifth tepetition, the right-hand rhythm has become slightly displaced, and in subse- ‘quent repetitions it becomes increasingly so. As the rhythm modulates, variation upon variation, related but quite diferent rhythms occur. In Example 9.18 an ensemble of three instruments repeats chythmic motives. One ‘of the melodic lines, however, changes slightly and generates a similar movement inthe ‘others. By the end of the excerp, the composite rhythm has new breath and direction Articulation modulation occurs when articulations slowly change from one type t0 another over a period of time. Articulation modulation can occur in one instrument and can be effective if it occurs subtly. Example 9.19 shows a fairly long flute melody that begins with harsh tongued notes and ends ina lyric style remote from its origins. ‘This articulation modulation avoids obviousness by establishing both types of artic- lations and by avoiding sudden changes. Moreover, the modulation is not as straightforward as an obvious step-by-step exaggeration might make it, but rather hidden by constant backstepping. BxaMLe 9.18. Rhythmic modulation using movie ideas116 CHAPTER NINE ExaMPLESI9, Anticulation modulation, Dynamic modulation (aside from the obvious crescendo and dimminuendo of tradi- tional music) usually occurs in combination with spatial ortimbral modulations (von Bekesy 1970). Dynamic modulations—staggering and overlaying of crescendos with diminuendos—can add drive to many of the preceding examples of this chapter. These five modulation types (spatial, timbral, rhythmic, articulative, and dynamic) merely hint at the possibilities, as any parameter can be so modulate. Just these five, however, ean form a framework for the concept of combinative modulation. Figure 9.10 shows a concert hall with instruments located nontradi tionally. The short musical excerpt in Example 9.20 employs spatial modulation, timbre modulation, and articulation modulation in combination. The music begins at the rear of the hall with the legato tones ofa straight-muted trumpet. The last note of the solo modulates both spatially (tthe center ofthe hall) and in terms of timbre (to the oboe). This “obet” moves spatially to an “oboon,” then to a "bas sorn,” with subtle subtraction from the duration of each sound until the penult: ae mo 6 oe wom voto ° on owen sp Fane 910 Sex Example 920 TEXTURE AND MODULATIONS 7 Buawris 920. Spatial, timbre, and articulation modulation. mate trombone note. A hand-muted bass drum with celeste ring-off (masking) “concludes the excerpt Combinative modulations ereate texture modulation—many instruments adding to ‘anal subtracting from the unfolding modulations. Figure 9.11 and Example 9.21 illus- trate a texture modulation for five voices that surround the audience. The texture slowly modulates from a single voice at the center of the stage to an entire ensem- bl, forming a thick density of dhythmic and spatial modulations. Figure 9.12 and Example 9.22 demonstrate additive and subtractive textures, with very short staccato notes scattered among the instruments surrounding and above the audience, Note the placement of each instrument on the chart and how the points of sound collect in certain parts of the hall and chen suddenly explode in defined directions, only to return to group in diferent locations. As the sounds burst ‘out of particular locations, they become mote legato, as if slowing down and weary- ing, returning to staccato when grouped. Moreover, the bursts often travel upward into the balcony, crsserossing the audience in a thtee-

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