Chemistry Revision

Atoms

All chemical elements are made up of atoms

Every atom is made up of smaller particles;
neutrons and protons in the atoms nucleus
which is surrounded by electrons
Atoms become ions when they gain/lose an
electron
The atomic number is the number of protons
in the nucleus ( which is the same as the
number of electrons)
The mass number is the protons + neutrons
in the nucleus, the mass of an electron is so
small it is considered to be negligible

Atom Mass
A r is the relative atomic mass
M r is the relative molecular mass,
For example- HO has a relative
molecular mass of 18 [(2x1) + 16)
For ionic compounds the term
relative formula mass is used as
there is no separate molecules

Isotopes
Isotopes are different forms of the
same element
If an isotope has more neutrons than
protons, it can sometimes be unstable
and is likely to decay

Alkali Metals

Group 1 in the periodic table

More reactive as you go down the group
Low densities
Ionic compounds +1 charge
Alkaline solution
Soft shiny metals
React with the oxygen in the air and become
tarnished so they are stored in oil
React vigorously with water, they fizz and produce
hydrogen gas
Identifying Alkali Metals- identified using the
flame test
Lithium burns with a red colour

Halogens
Group 7 in the periodic table
More reactive as you go up the group
Reacts with alkali metals
Halogens react with iron- iron wool bursts into
flames when it reacts with fluorine gas
Halogen displacement reactions mean the more
reactive halogen displaces the less reactive
halogen
Identifying Halides- identified using the
precipitation test using silver nitrate
Chlorine- white/silver
Bromine- Pale yellow/cream

Metal Physical Properties

The following properties applies to copper
High electrical conductivity
High thermal conductivity
High melting point and boiling point
Ductile
Corrosion resistant
Antibacterial
Malleable (can be hammered/squashed into
different shapes)
Easy to alloy

Metallic Structure

positive

The structure
can easily pass
the vibration of
hot particles
along and the
free electrons
move faster
which is why
metals are
such good
conductors

Ionic Compound- Physical

Properties
The following properties applies to Sodium Chloride
High melting point- because they have strong
attractive forces ( lot of energy to separate)
Solid sodium chloride does not conduct electricity
because the lattice holds to sodium and chloride ions
in fixed positions ( Not free to move)
but it can conduct electricity does if dissolved in water
as the lattice breaks down so the ions move freely
Brittle- if a stress is applied will make the layers move
Soluble in water

Ionic Structure

The sodium lost an electron and

the chlorine gained an electron

Simple Covalent Molecule- Physical

properties

Low melting point( strong

bonds but weak attractive
forces)
Liquid at room temperature
Poor conductor of electricity
Water soluble

Simple Covalent
Structure
A covalent
bond
happens
when
electrons are
shared

Giant Covalent
Substance

Diamond
Transparent + crystalline (used for jewellery)
Extremely hard ( lot of energy needed to
break down lattice)
Electrical insulator
High melting point
Graphite
Grey/black shiny solid
Very soft- used in pencils
Conducts electricity( along the layer as
electrons are free to move but does not
conduct across the layers)
High melting point
Slippery( hexagonal layers slide across each
other
Both different forms of carbon

Structure of diamond
and graphite
Diamond
graphit
e

Made up of layers
Arranged in hexagonal
rings
Each carbon atom is
connected to 3 other
atoms
Bonds between layers are

Carbon atoms each

connected to 4 other atoms
3-d Lattice based on a
tetrahedral unit cell

Carbon Nanotubes
One of the stiffest and strongest fibres known
High electrical conductivity
Formed when graphite layers are rolled up
into tubes
Covalently bonded hexagonal carbon sheets
make it very strong
Proposed uses for electrical connections in
smaller circuits
Used in bike components, boat hulls and
bonding of things like wind-turbines
Could be used for cancer treatment

Smart Materials

Smart materials are materials that change when there is a change

in their surroundings

Thermochromic
Pigments
Special paints which
change colour when there
is a change in
temperature
Most are base on liquid
crystal technology
Used in mugs to see hot
temperatures
Also used in T-shirts

Photochromic Pigments
Contain organic molecules
which will change colour when
exposed to light, especially
ultraviolet light
Used in T-shirts and glasses

Smart Materials
Shape-memory
polymers

Shape-memory
alloys

Plastics that regain

their shape when
heated
Somewhere between
thermoplastics and
thermosets
Used for sealing
around window
frames
Could be used for car
bodies (fix the dent)
or stitches which will

Metal alloys that

regain their shape
when heated
Used
for spectacle
Hydrogels
frames,
surgical
Polymers
that absorb
plates
and
wiresand
or expel
water
swell or shrink the size
it swells/shrinks to
depends on changes in
PH or temperature
Used in artificial
muscles

Rates of reaction
We can measure the rate of reaction
by :
-Capturing & measuring the volume of
gas produced by a reaction
- Measuring the change in mass
- Measuring the amount of light
passing through a reaction that is
producing a precipitate

Chemical Reactions
Chemical reactions occur when molecules/atoms/ions
collide but it only happens there is enough energy for
the bonds to break and be reformed.
Successful collisions per second = collision
frequency
Factors that affect the rate of reaction
1. Temperature
2. Surface Area
3. Concentration
4. Use of a catalyst

Catalysts

Used in the production

of bulk materials eg.
Sulphuric acid and
food processing

These are
substances that
increase the
rate of reaction
but remain
chemically
unchanged
It reduces the
amount of
energy needed
which will
increase the

Percentage Composition of
Compounds

Example
Calculate the % of copper in copper sulphate,
CuSO4 Relative atomic masses: Cu = 64, S = 32
and O = 16
relative formula mass = 64 + 32 + 4x16 = 160
only one copper atom of relative atomic mass 64
% Cu = 64 x 100 / 160 = 40% copper by mass in
the compound

Masses of reactants and

products
The total mass of the reactants equals the
total mass of the products

The Yield of a Chemical

reaction

Yield= What was

X 100 %
obtained
What
wasyou would expect to reduce
Example: Mass of carbon
monoxide
1000g of iron oxide
expected
FeO + 3CO
2Fe + 3CO
FeO

1
3

CO

Mass(g)

1000

? = 525

Mr

160

40

Mass/Mr

6.25

18.75 (3x6.25)

Combustion of methane

The breaking of the bong is

endothermic (gives out heat
The formation of the bond is
exothermic (takes in heat)

Oil
Crude oil is a
mixture of
hydrocarbons
Fractional
distillation is how
you separate
different fractions
of oil
The larger the
molecule the
higher the boiling

Alkanes and Alkenes

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons
which means they only contain single
bonds
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
they have a double bond
Alkenes can be produced from alkanes
by cracking ( heating the alkane with a
catalyst)

Polymers
Examples: polythene , polypropene
Monomers (ie ethene) are used to form
polymers
Ethene can become polyethene by
heating it under pressure

Thermosets and
thermoplastics
Thermosets are plastics that are resistant to
heat. Used for kettles, saucepan handles etc.
Have strong cross linkages which hold the
structure together and make them resistant
to heat make them resistant to heat
Thermoplastics are plastics that soften when
heated. Used for packaging, containers. Made
up of polymer chains not linked together so
they can slide over each other

Water Treatment
When the water is in
the reservoir, the
large particles will
sink to the bottom
(sedimentation), the
smaller particles will
be filtered.
The water is
chlorinated to kill the
bacteria to make it
safe to drink. Fluoride
is also added
It is then stored until
it is needed

Desalination

Definition: The removal of salt from sea water

so it can be used for drinking
This is usually done by reverse osmosis which
goes through a membrane that lets water
molecules through but not salt
Problems
- Lots of energy required
- Produces a lot more greenhouse gases
- Expensive
- Very salty water is left when fresh water is
used
- Poor countries that have droughts cannot
afford this

Extracting water
If something is dissolved in
water, you can extract it by
evaporating & condensing
To separate a liquid from
water you need to use
distillation. Different liquids
have different boiling
points . If you heat an
ethanol and water mixture,
the boiling point of ethanol
is 78C so by heating the
mixture at this
temperature the ethanol
will evaporate and when
the ethanol vapour reaches

Chromatography
Paper Chromatography- a drop of
mixture is placed on the
Chromatography paper and placed in a
solvent used to dissolve pigment. The
solvent soaks into the paper and moves
upwards. The more soluble will travel
with the solvent and move further up the
The fR value is used to measure this
paper.

(distance substance travelled/ distance

solvent
travelled)
Gas Chromatographycan be used to detect

pollutants in water or air and it is also used to test for

banned substances in sports players. The mixture
must be in the form of a gas (vaporised or naturally
occurring.) The gas passes through a column and
different substances are absorbed into an inert solid

Hard water
Hard water contains dissolved calcium and magnesium ions.
Can be temporary or permanent
Temporary hard water contains magnesium/calcium
hydrogen carbonates . When heated the hardness is
removed but it forms calcium carbonate (scale) which clogs
up pipes.
Permanent hard water contains chlorides/sulphates of
Disadvantages
of hard
calcium and magnesium which does not
soften when heated
water
Advantages of hard water
-Difficult to form lather
-Some people prefer the taste
-Calcium is good for teeth and bones with soap
-Helps reduce heart illness
-Scum forms with soap
- Scale forms, clogs
- Some brewers use hard water in beer

pipes and kettles

How to soften hard water

1. Boiling- easy and cheap but doesnt work
for permanent hardness
2. Adding Sodium Chloride- prevents
calcium and magnesium ions bonding
with washing detergent. Cheap, removes
permanent hardness but deposits are still
formed
3. Ion exchange column- Column filled with
resin which has sodium ions. The
calcium/magnesium ions are swapped for
the sodium ions and come out of the tube
with the water where as the calcium ions