CHAPTER 3 Empires, States and the New World (1500-1775)

In this period many of the ways in which the world was organized began to
change.
3 processes:
1) Most parts of the world became in contact in ways never happened
before
2) Continued growth and vitality of empires throughout Eurasia (XVI century
most common political form).
With their ups and downs they were the most successful form in the
period from 1500 to 1775.
3) Growth of a system of sovereign states in EU that couldnt compete with
the larger empires because their rulers were so poor that they constantly
had to seek loans to maintain their militaries BUT this system will be the
winner the XVII century with the most powerful UK and FR and late XVIII
UK would emerge on top of EU states and by XIX century balance of
power in UKs favor.
Eurasia presented at the time 5 empires that expanded dramatically after 1500:
- Russia: from principality of Moscow in 1300 (little) next 150 years of
expansion, but in mid 1500s especially thanks to Ivan the Terrible the empire
goes from the Urals mountains, to the Caspian Sea and north to the Barents
Sea. 1600 Romanov dynasty, further north to Siberia, Baltic nations and
Poland (Crimean War against Japan).
- China: worlds longest tradition of empire with its periods of disintegration
and conquest (ex. Mongol invasion in mid-1200, but 1368 ruled by Chinese
Ming dynasty (remember prince of Yan and 50 years of voyages by Treasure
fleet and Admiral Zheng He) and from mid-1600 by Quing dynasty that set
out on a series of military campaigns defeating several non-Chinese peoples
ex. the Tibetans, the Mongols, etc
1770s the size of Chinese empire has doubled and also indirect influence
over neighboring areas such as Korea, Vietnam, Japan that considered to be
tributary to China for taxes and trade opportunities.
So during the 1700s power seems well established but corruption at high
levels is spreading and population growth coupled with economic difficulties
fueled rebellions at the end of the century.
Russia and China are the two expanding the most from 1500 to 1800.
- Former first Great Islamic empire": after mid-1200 it began to collapse
because of central political control break up. Some areas broke free as the
Emirate of Cordoba in the Iberian peninsula, still remaining Muslim areas. In
1258 Mongol forces captured and destroyed Baghdad severely disrupting the
established Islamic world.
Out of this disarray, three ne Islamic empires arose:
a) Ottoman empire: first to arise, in late-1200s from Turkish nomads led
by Osman Bey began consolidating their power on the Anatolian
peninsula and then in 1300s through an impressive military (new
technology gunpowder and Janissaries, slave-based army) they
conquered much of the Balkans, Greece, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine,
from Egypt to Algeria and also Constantinople in 1453.

They were the ones that blocked European access to the eastern
Mediterranean and the trade circuits to China and Indian Ocean,
forcing Europeans to search for alternative routes.
b) Safavids empire: early-1500s established their rule over Persia, they
were Turkish too.
c) Mughal empire: 1200s this other group of Turkish Muslims conquered
most of India.
Only after 1707 because of internal fights among Indian princes that
provoked political fragmentation, EU countries could begin to establish
their power.
First: they all had Turkish ruling dynasties.
Second: all embraced one branch or another of Islam (Ottomans were
Sunni believers, Safavids Shiite, Mughals more tolerant of the various
branches of Islam and also of Hinduism.
Third: these Islamic empires had similar political and economic structures.
Dynasties with son ascending to the throne after the fathers death in a similar
way to the Chinese system; they ruled their territory through a bureaucracy of
official posted all over the realm and responsible with the emperor; they all
rested on productive agricultural economies and rulers could tax the peasants
and landowners.
Meanwhile in the Americas there were empires too, demonstrating again that
they were efficient method of ruling:
- Aztecs: called also Mexica because they established as last comers in the
Valley of Mexico that was the worst land. Before them in Mexico we could
find the Olmecs, then Mayas in Yucatan peninsula, then the Toltecs (by
1100s) and around 1350 migrating from the North the Aztecs.
They created Tenochtitln and having to defend themselves, they became
excellent warriors and mercenaries for others because by 1400 there were a
lot of city-states battling one with another. Aztecs, through an alliance,
became powerful enough to take the power under Moctezuma I (mid-1400)
and they reached the peak of their power in early 1500s (conquistadores
arrivals). They ruled through terror, not through bureaucracy or assimilation.
They built a large empire with weak foundations.
- Incas: settled in the highlands of Peru around lake Titicaca in the mid-1200,
they launched military campaigns in the 1400s that created a huge empire.
Incas incorporated the conquered peoples into their culture and directly
governed them through professional administrators.
They paved mountain roads in order to improve connections in a such
difficult territory.
The empire was wealthy, but new Incas rulers had to respect the tradition
that impose to conquer new lands, this became difficult when all available
lands were already Incas and Amazon forest was a defeat. So succession
crisis began in 1525.
How did the Spanish empire arise?
1519 Hernan Cortes arrives in Mexico some peoples against the Aztecs help
him Moctezuma II dont understand Cortez conquers Tenochtilan also
because Spanish had advantage of new war technologies as gunpowder, horses,
cannons, wheels, etc And in 1520 the smallpox virus that provoked the Great
Dying that killed almost all and spread to Peru, killing almost all the Incas so
facilitating even more the conquest by Pizarro in 1531.

The Great Dying almost wiped out Native American populations and different
epidemics spanned the New World from 1518 to 1600 causing the depopulation
of the Americas and provoking the labor supply problem for the cultivation of
plantations established by the Europeans and work in mines to extract silver
African slaves brought to America.
Silver is a major discovery in Americas. Spanish wanted gold, they took
silver (mines in Potosi from 1545) to enter the Asian trade BUT from the
New World it arrives in Sevilla (Charles V and Philip II debts with IT and UK
financiers and Dutch arms merchant for wars) but spent and goes to
foreign merchants that finance trade missions to China and Indian Ocean.
Spanish empire collapse: only attempt almost reached to establish again EU
empire in 1500s.
Charles V inherited the Spanish crown and claims to Hasburg lands (Austria, the
Netherlands, Sicily and Sardinia) as well as New Spain (Mexico) and New Castile
(Peru) wealth from New World attempt to empire EU France and
Protestants in the Netherlands oppose (with English helping them) wars btw
France and Spain and Dutch War of Independence Spain weakened
(bankruptcy several times) + 1588 UK fleet defeats Invincibile Armada + Thirty
Years war defeat in 1648 and in the New World too end of Spanish dream of
empire competitive system of sovereign nation-states would take place and
Spain not one of the most powerful.
Chinas demand for silver: Spanish not direct access to China until 1571 Manila
(Philippines) colony already seen voyage of silver from the New World to
Indian Ocean and China China needs silver as basis for its currency and to
facilitate economic growth (consider that silver was expensive in China and
cheap in Americas) silver considered the energy that fueled China engine and
made the world go around.
Consider China in 1500s is a power, in the period 1500-1800 trade remains
Asian and 2/3 of the population produce 80% of everything Chinese
manufactured goods (Indian as well) were so much better and cheaper than
EUs ones that arrived also to the New World instead of improving production
UK producers asked for protection and 1707 obtained embargo of importation of
Indian cotton textiles and 1717 France too.
New World economy: 1500-1600 established plantation system (sugar in 1500,
tobacco in 1600 and cotton in 1700). Portoguese had experience and placed
this system in Brazil so they had essential role in this introduction because they
were already exploiting slave-labor on the coast of Africa they conquered in
their voyage to the Cape of Good Hope at first Portuguese and Dutch slave
traders, then mostly English (remember 2 triangles).
Question: slavery and plantation economy benefited EU to compete more
effectively in Asia?????
Plantation system provokes massive ecological changes ex. Caribbean Islands
(Barbados, Jamaica UK, Martinique FR) ruined fertility of the soil.
European State System: warfare to make EU nation-states to arise until mid1700s fight VS Spain not to allow Spanish empire and to support Protestants VS
Catholic Church (Inquisition) from 1648 Peace of Westphalia (end 30 years
war) mostly btw UK and FR culminating in Seven Years War (end in 1763)
victory UK.
Relevant things:

Wars involved virtually all EU states

Wars led to consolidation into fewer political units and to a particular kind
of organization sovereign nation-state
Wars pushed internal evolution of nation-states process of state
building
Think about sources of revenues: 1) taxation BUT usually need to accept
some form of representative assembly for the ruler to consult before
imposing new taxes and bureaucracy to assess and collect from the
population 2) loans from bankers BUT late-1600s innovation in UK: longterm loans secured by the Bank of England with its permanent and
subscribed capital (1694 Bank of England) attracts even more
deposits.
New ideas for legitimacy to rule over a population: from legitimacy for divine
rights of kings to Catholic monarchs expelling and prosecuting (ex. France
Huguenots) Protestants, Jews and Muslims (Inquisition period) to late-1600s
and 1700s new ideas of Enlightment and democratic rights VS absolutism
(French Revolution 1789)
1700s: new kind of government in UK after Glorious Revolution
Protestants on throne in 1689 and monarch consulting a parliament
winning solution UK government prepared to subordinate all foreign
policy to economic ends war for commercial purposes Mercantilist
ideas.
Mercantilism: FR building a strong state too minister of finance J.B. Colbert
late 1600s implemented economic policies that came to be known as
mercantilism.
Retain precious metals reserves to be used to pay for wars that were very
expensive required economic policies to prevent flowing out for import
of foreign goods imposition of duties on all imported goods (see 1707
and 1717 on Indian textiles) mercantilism promoted self-sufficiency
so foundations for industrialization BUT not the object.
Which are the powers?
Dutchs peak of fortune 1600s 1700s only UK and FR to compete
many wars and even established principle of balance of power after War
of Spanish Succession in 1713 Treaty of Utrecht) BUT Seven Years War
(1763 end) that exploded in American colonies but fought everywhere
(America, Canada, Africa, India, Europe) UK wins FR lost colonial
claims in India and Canada UK most powerful in EU but still not VS
China until fully in Industrial Revolution.