A spectrum of two concepts.

A disagreement about a range of

issues.

The different positions lead to different

approaches.

Holism
Emphasis on the
whole person.

Gestalt Psychology.
Interactionist
Approach.

Reductionism
Breaking down
complex issues
into simpler parts

Biological
Reductionism.

Hierarchy of
sciences.

Human behaviour
is complex.

It should be looked
at as a whole
rather than in
parts.

1915-1945.
Gestalt German, meaning whole
configuration.
The whole of behaviour and
experience is more than the sum of its
parts.
Kohler (1925) demonstrated insight
learning in chimpanzees.

Explains human
behaviour in terms of
links or interactions
between different
levels of
explanations.
Takes biological,
psychological, social,
etc factors into
account to build a
better understanding.

Provides a complete picture.

Does not ignore the complexity of
behaviour.
The person is seen as an entity to be
considered in its own right.
Seeks to integrate different
components in order to understand the
person as a whole.

Does not lend itself to scientific inquiry

and empirical testing.
Tends to neglect the importance of
biological explanations specifically the
role of genes.
More hypothetical than lower-level
reductionist explanations and theories
lack the predictive power of a scientific
explanation.

Complex
phenomena can be
explained by
breaking them
down into separate
simpler
components.

Attempts to
explain all
behaviour in terms
of biology.
Assumes continuity
of behaviour
between animals
and humans.

Less precise, more

general sciences at
the top.
More narrowly
focused and
precise sciences at
the bottom.
Watson: There is
only one science,
Physics: the rest is
just social work.

Has brought with it both analytic and

scientific ways of attempting to
understand and explain behaviour.
Scientific investigation allows for
empirical investigation.
Demonstrates how biology is for
understanding and explaining
behaviour.

May lead to an over simplistic view of

behaviour the complexity is missed.
Many theories have been developed
but no attempt has been made to
combine the theories.
Some physicists argue it suffers from
an infinite regress parts can be
reduced endlessly.

Schizophrenia in terms of
neurotransmitters and genes
(Reductionist) in terms of sociocultural explanations (higher level;
more holistic).
Humanistic a person can only be
understood as a whole (Holistic).

Idiographic
Focus on the
individual and
recognition of
uniqueness.
Private, subjective
and conscious
experiences.
Qualitative methods
of investigation.

Nomothetic
Attempts to establish
laws and
generalisations about
people.
Three kinds of laws.
Objective knowledge
through scientific
methods.
Quantitative methods
of investigation.

Suggests everyone
is unique and
therefore every one
should be studied in
an individual way.
No general laws are
possible because of
chance, free will
and the uniqueness
of individuals.

Tends to include quantitative data,

investigating individuals in a personal
and detailed way.
Methods of research include: case
study, unstructured interviews, selfreports, autobiographies and personal
documents.

Provides a more complete or global

understanding of the individual.
Satisfies key aim of science
description and understanding of
behaviour.
Findings can serve as a source of ideas
or hypotheses for later study.
The focuses mean the individual feels
valued and unique.

Difficult to generalise from detailed

subjective knowledge about one
person.
Often regarded as non-scientific as
subjective experience cannot be
empirically tested.
Largely neglects biological, especially
genetic, influences.

Focuses on similarities between

people.
Attempts to establish laws and
generalisations about people.
Laws can be categorised into three
kinds: classifying people into groups;
establishing principles and establishing
dimensions.

Classifying people into groups:

Such as the DSMIV for classifying people

with mood disorders.

Establishing principles:
Such as the behaviourist laws of learning.

Establishing dimensions:
Such as Eysencks personality inventory

which allows for comparisons between

people.

Uses scientific and quantitative data.

Usually uses experiments and
observations.
Group averages are statistically
analysed to create predictions about
people in general.

Regarded as scientific as it is: precise

measurement; prediction and control of
behaviour; investigations of large
groups; objective and controlled
methods allowing replication and
generalisation.
Has helped psychology as a whole
become scientific by developing laws
and theories which can be empirically
tested.
Combines biological and social aspects.

Predictions can be made about groups

but these may not apply to individuals.
Approach has been accused of losing
sight of the whole person.
Gives a superficial understanding
people may act the same but for
different reasons.
Extensive use of controlled laboratory
experiments creates a lack of
generalisation to everyday life.

Both have a role but relative value of

each depends on the purpose of the
research.
Two approaches can be complementary
idiographic can further develop a
nomothetic law.
Both can contribute to scientific
approach idiographic suited to
description; nomothetic to predictions.

Child development Bowlbys maternal

deprivation theory (Nomothetic).
Memory case studies on how memory
is affected by brain damage
(Idiographic complemented
nomothetic, furthering general laws).
Humanistic emphasises individual
(Idiographic)
Psychodynamic use of case studies
(Idiographic).

Free Will
The ability to make
decisions and
choose behaviours
freely.
How is it tested?

Determinism
All behaviour is
caused by prior
events.
Internal and
external.
Hard and soft
determinism.
Biological, psychic
and environmental
determinism.

Dictionary A
hypothetical and
often reified internal
agency that
functions
independently of
externally imposed
forces.

Cannot meet the rigours of scientific

testing due to the lack of an
operational definition.
Abstract and hypothetical concepts
have to be turned into measureable
and observable operations.

Allows individual differences and the

uniqueness of a person.
Observable that some people choose
to act in a way different to others.

Difficult to measure/prove.
Difficult to accept an explanation of
behaviour if we follow free will.
Not scientific.
Nearly always there are some sort of
forces in making a decision.

All behaviour is
caused by
underlying factors.

Internal Determinism
Internal causes of
behaviour are seen
as causes of
behaviour.
Such as biological
factors and mental
processes.

External Determinism
Behaviour occurs
because there is a
cause in the
environment.

Hard Determinism
Behaviour is caused
by events outside
ones personal
control.
Sees free will as an
illusion as
behaviour is always
predictable and
therefore
determined.

Soft Determinism
Behaviour is
determined or
caused by a
persons own
character, wishes or
conscious desires.
A compromise free
will plays a part but
there are always
other forces.

Includes the controlling role of different

parts of the brain, hormonal system
and genetics on behaviour.
Some studies have indicated a genetic
predisposition towards some
behaviours.

Represented by Freuds psychodynamic

theory.
Human behaviour, thoughts and
feelings are caused by the life and
death instincts and by repressed
conflicts, wishes and memories in the
unconscious mind.
Because it is unconscious people
believe they are free.

Behaviour is caused by factors within

the external environment.
The power of the situation (as
demonstrated by Asch and Milgram)
and how social factors can have a
strong effect on behaviour.
Free will is seen as an illusion.

More scientific as it can be measured.

Has a compromise for free will and
explains why it seems as if it is free will
when in reality it is not.
Can be applied to many areas of
psychology.
Helps Psychology be seen as a science
as it means all behaviour is predictable
and can be controled.

Some behaviour is unpredictable and

does not follow the
conventions/predictions.
Takes away individuals choices and
uniqueness.

Obedience Milgrims participants felt

that had to obey him (Deterministic).
Offending behaviour most theories
include some elements of determinism.
Humanistic people direct their own
lives and goals (Free will).
Cognitive people select what they
want (Soft determinism).

Nature
The effect of genes.
Methods of
investigating effect
of Nature.

Nurture
The effect of the
environment.
Types of
environmental
influence.
Levels of
environment.
Methods of
investigating effect
of Nurture.

Nature - Introduction
Concerned with how
genes influence
behaviour.
Genes are passed to
offspring from the
parents.
Genotype.

Nature Methods of
Investigating

Twin Studies Using MZ twins; if they

have a high concordance nature must
play a part.
Adoption studies If the offspring act
the same as their biological parents
rather than adoptive parents nature
must play a part.
Largely scientific.

Nature Strengths

Can be seen in many studies that

Nature has a large part.
Experiments have influenced useful
applications for treatments.
Scientifically tested.

Nature - Limitations

Neglects the role of the environment.

Often hard to find twins or adoption
studies to relate to the topic of interest.

Nurture - Introduction
Concerned with the
role of the
environment.
The environment
shapes all of a
persons personality
and behaviours.
Phenotype.

Nurture Types of
Environmental Influence

External and individual.

Post-natal.
Acting on a passive individual.

Nurture Levels of
Environment
Sociocultural-historical level

Lerner (1986).
The influence of the
environment can be
narrow, such as prenatal, or more
general, such as
sociocultural
environment.

Physical Environmental Level

Individual Psychological Level

Inner Biological Level

Mothers Psychological state During Pregnancy

Mothers Psychological State

Postbirth Experiences

Where and when born

Nurture Methods of
Investigation

Twin studies Using MZ twins reared

apart; if there is low concordance
nurture may play a large part.
Adoption studies If there is a high
concordance between adoptive parents
and low concordance between
biological parents nurture may play a
large part.

Nurture Strengths

Takes the environment into

consideration.
Has created useful treatments such as
behaviour therapy.

Nurture - Limitations

Neglects the biological impact on

behaviour.
Often hard to find twins or adoption
studies that satisfy the needs of a
relevant topic of interest.

Nature/Nurture Relating to
Topics

Biological all behaviour is due to innate

forces (Nature).
Behaviourist all behaviour is due to
environmental forces (Nurture).
Gender Batista Boys; hormones overtook
upbringing (Nature).
Schizophrenia Family and twin studies show
high concordance rates (Nature).
Child Development Harlows Monkeys; they
attached because of external forces (Nurture).