Russian For The Scientist and Math

Russian
for the Scientist and

Mathematician
Clive A. Croxton
Russian for the

Scientist and
Mathematician
CLIVE A. CROXTON
Department o f Mathematics,
University o f Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
A W iley-Interscience Publication
JOHN WILEY & SONS LIMITED

Chichester New York Brisbane Toronto Singapore
Copyright 1985 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

All rights reserved
Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

Croxton, Clive A. (Clive Anthony)
Russian for the scientist and m athematician.
A W iley-Interscience publication.'
Includes index.
1. Russian languageTechnical Russian. 2. Russian languageText-books for foreign
speakers English. I. Title.
PG 2120.S3C74 1984
491.782421 '0245
83-10209
ISBN 0 471 90260 8
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data:

Croxton, Clive A.
Russian for the scientist and mathematician.
1. Russian language
I. Title
491.784)0245
PG2112
ISBN 0 471 90260 8
Printed in Great Britain by J. W. Arrowsmith Ltd., Bristol
To
Neil Hall
Contents
................................................................................................
xi
Glossary of Grammatical T e r m s ............................................................
xiii
Chapter 1 The Russian Alphabet and Pronunciation........................
Preface
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................

The Russian a l p h a b e t..........................................................
S t r e s s .....................................................................................
Pronunciation e x e r c is e s ......................................................
Cognates
.............................................................................
The chemical elements
......................................................
Chapter 2
1
1
3
3
6
8
The Noun ...........................................................................

The English noun: in fle c tio n ..............................................
The Russian noun: in flectio n ..............................................
Gender of the Russian n o u n ..............................................
Case and grammatical fu n c tio n ..........................................
The in fle c tio n s .....................................................................
Vowel mutation
.................................................................
Some important irregularities
..........................................
The partitive genitive ..........................................................
10
12
12
14
15
16
18
21
The Preposition .................................................................

3.1 In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................
3.2 Cases adopted by the prepositions
...................................
22
22
22
The Adjective
.................................................................
In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................
The attributive use of the adjective: adjectival inflection .
The predicative use of the adjective: short forms . . . .
The comparative and superlative degrees
.......................
26
26
26
28
30
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
Chapter 5
The P r o n o u n .......................
5.1 In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................
5.2 The personal pronouns ......................................................
5.3 The possessive pronouns
..................................................
vii
10
33
33
34
34
viii
Chapter 6 The Verb

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
.................................................................................
I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................................
The verb to be
................................................................
Aspect of the Russian verb
...................................................
The indicative mood
................................................................
Perfectivization of the verb
...................................................
The verbs of motion
................................................................
The conditional-subjunctive mood
........................................
Verbs ending in -: the r e f l e x i v e ..........................................
Principal verb forms
................................................................
Cases adopted by particular verbs
........................................
Passages for translation ...........................................................
38
38
39
41
43
46
52
53
54
54
58
61
( astrophysics)
Vocabulary, commentary, translation
( biology)
Chapter 7 The Adverb
.....................................................................
7.1 In tro d u c tio n .................................................
7.2 The principal adverbial forms ..........................................
7.3 Passages for translation ......................................................
(physics)
( molecular biology)
72
72
72
73
Chapter 8 The P a r tic ip le s .................................................................
85
85
85
88
89
8.1 In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................

8.2 The verbal adjective
.........................................................
8.3 The verbal adverb
.............................................................
8.4 Passages for translation ......................................................
( astrophysics)

( atmospheric physics)
.................................................................
In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................
The cardinal numerals
......................................................
Collective n u m e ra ls .............................................................
The ordinal n u m e r a ls .........................................................
The fractions
.....................................................................
Expressions of t i m e .............................................................
Chapter 9 The Numerals
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
101
101
101
105
106
107
107
IX
9.7 Passages for tr a n s la tio n .......................................................

(genetics)
... ? (astronomy)
Vocabulary, translation
Chapter 10 Word Formation and Technical Nomenclature
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
. . . .
In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................
Noun-forming suffixes
......................................................
Productive roots .................................................................
Passages for tr a n s la tio n ......................................................
- ( astrophysics)
Translation
( astrophysics)
Translation
( biology)
Translation
Answers to the Exercises
........................................................................
Russian-English Vocabulary
Index
................................................................
108
119
119
119
120
123
137
149
207
Preface
The objectives of a scientific grammar such as this differ so widely from those
of a standard Russian language grammar that the temptation to lapse into the
linguistically exhaustive approach of the conventional grammar has to be
consciously resisted throughout. It has to be firmly borne in mind that the
readers primary concern is the technical content of the Russian text, not the
language itself, and that translation from Russian into English is the objective,
and not vice versa.
Bearing these requirements in mind, a science Russian grammar has to be
pitched so as not to be dauntingly exhaustive in its approach, yet adequate
for its purpose: the problem reduces essentially to one of what to omit, what
to include and what to presume. Of course, the precise selection will never
satisfy the linguistic cognoscenti, but then this book has been written for the
scientist, not the linguist. There are in existence a number of science Russian
grammars which presume on the part of the reader an unrealistically high
level of linguistic commitment and enthusiasm for the language per se, which
I believe largely misconstrues the original purpose of the text. A science
grammar which aims to anticipate every linguistic difficulty, irregularity, idio
matic expression and turn of phrase, apart from making oppressively heavy
going of the language, greatly underestimates the intelligence and ability of
the reader, armed with a basic grasp of the language, to sort out local difficulties
for himself.
The material in this book is based on a course of approximately 25 lectures
given to undergraduates, postgraduates and research workers across the whole
range of scientific and mathematical disciplines. The exercises and texts for
translation form an integral part of the course, serving not only to illustrate
grammatical points made in the text, but also to introduce additional secondary
features of the language. These, in conjunction with the translations and
commentaries help consolidate the readers feel for the language. It was felt
that the provision of annotated translations was particularly important, pro
vided that they were used sensibly, particularly for the purposes of selfinstruction, yet rarely if ever do these seem to appear in other scientific Russian
grammars.
Acquisition of vocabulary by means of gradual accumulation is encouraged
here; high frequency words are introduced early and repetitively; however,
the reader will require access to a good scientific dictionary. Most of the words
required for the texts and translations in this book are included in a fairly
xi
xii
substantial vocabulary at the back of the book, and the reader is encouraged
from the outset to familiarize himself with the use of dictionary and vocabulary
lists. Fortunately for the scientist, many Russian technical terms are transliter
ated virtually unmodified. These and other cognates and the recognition of
productive stems and roots enable the scientist to extract the technical content
fairly readily, even on the basis of a relatively restricted non-technical
vocabulary. One final point concerning the development of vocabulary is the
emphasis on pronunciation, particularly in the early stages of the book, as an
aid in the memorization and indeed recognition of words and cognates. It
would be unwise to proceed before a reasonable ability to pronounce the
words has been achieved, although for present purposes the correct rendition
of stress is of secondary importance.
Of course, nothing less than a complete grammar can hope to anticipate the
many irregularities, idiomatic expressions and other peculiarities which charac
terize any language. However, the reader should be able to recognize these as
and when they occur, and in conjunction with a good dictionary and the tables
in this book, overcome any local difficulties in an otherwise relatively smooth
grammatical sea.
The production of this book has depended upon the support and encourage
ment of a number of friends, colleagues and institutions. I am particularly
indebted to the Royal Society, London, for financial support during the
preparation of the manuscript whilst on sabbatical leave at the Department
of Crystallography, Birkbeck College, University of London. It is a pleasure
once again to thank my friend and colleague Dr Paul Barnes and his wife for
their generous hospitality during my stay here. I should particularly like to
thank Noel Thomsen for countless discussions and appraisals based on his
experience of language teaching, and to express my appreciation of the
enthusiasm with which the staff and students at the University of Newcastle,
New South Wales, Australia, have responded to this Russian course.
Inevitably one benefits from preceding texts in the field, and two technical
grammars Russian for the Mathematician by S. H. Gould (Springer-Verlag)
and Scientific Russian by George E. Condoyannis (John Wiley) warrant
particular mention. I am indebted to both these books for their assistance in
the initial planning of the present text and subsequently as useful sources of
reference.
Finally, I wish to express my deep personal gratitude to Neil Hall, whose
constant support and encouragement over recent difficult months has ensured
this books appearance. His contribution between the lines has been such
that to dedicate this book to him is an inadequate, but nevertheless deeply
felt appreciation of my indebtedness to him.
London, July 1982
Clive A. Croxton
Glossary o f Grammatical Terms

accusative
active
adjective
adverb
aspect
attributive
cardinal
case
collective
comparative
conditional
conjunction
dative
direct object
feminine
a specific example of case; generally represents the

direct object of the verb (Chapter 2)
the general form of the verb in which the action is
performed by the subject (Chapter 6)
word used to express the quality or limit of a noun;
Adjectives may be used either attributively, e.g. an
easy problem, a slow train, or predicatively, e.g.
this problem is easy\ that train was slow\ the
weather has become unbearable (Chapter 4)
word used to modify or extend the sense of a verb,
adjective, or another adverb: He spoke quickly
(Chapter 7)
generally indicates the state of completion, determin
ism or specificity of the verb (Section 6.3)
see under adjective
applied to numerals: one, two, three, etc. (Chapter 9)
grammatical function of a noun and/or adjective in
the sentence, generally characterized by a specific
modification (inflection) of its ending (Chapter 2)
of numerals, expressing groupings of objects or
persons: a pair, a quartet (Section 9.3)
the first degree of comparison of an adjective, e.g.
faster, better, or in compound form more + adj. (see
also superlative) (Section 4.4)
mood of verb expressing a condition: I would if ...
(Section 6.7)
word used to join clauses: and, but, so, etc.
a specific example of case; generally represents the
indirect object of the verb (Chapter 2)
the principal object of the verb: He read the book;
generally rendered by the accusative case
see under gender
xiii
XIV
gender
the classification of nouns and adjectives according

to pattern of inflection with grammatical function;
association with sex may be actual, but is mainly
attributed (Section 2.3)
genitive
a specific example of case; generally indicates a

possessive quality of the noun (Chapter 2)
imperative
mood of the verb which orders or commands
imperfective
the aspect of the verb expressing indefinite,

continuous, non-specific activity (cf. perfective)
(Chapter 6)
indicative
the direct mood of the verb
indirect object
the secondary object of the verb, generally rendered

by the dative case: He presented his paper to the
audience
infinitive
mood of the verb which expresses its action without

limitation of persons or numbers
inflection
the pattern of modification of a noun, adjective or

verb with grammatical function, gender, number,
tense, etc. (Chapters 2, 4, 5, 6)
instrumental
a specific example of case; generally indicates the

noun by means of which the action is accomplished
(Chapter 2)
those verbs which take no object: he swam, they
talked
see under gender
the inflection of a verb expressing its function such
as indicative, imperative, conditional, subjunctive,
infinitive, etc.
of vowels, the systematic substitution of the regular
vowel by another (Section 2.6)
see under gender
specific example of case; generally represents the
dictionary form of the noun or adjective, and is associ
ated with the subject of the verb: The book was
published last year (Chapter 2)
word used as the name of a person, quality or thing
(see also pronoun) (Chapter 2)
applied to numerals: first, second, third, etc. (Chapter
9)
intransitive
masculine
mood
mutation
neuter
nominative
noun
ordinal
xv
participle
general name for either a verbal adjective, e.g. Those

people standing by the door, or a verbal adverb, e.g.
Standing by the door, they were ready to go; par
ticiples retain many of the verbal features such as
tense, aspect, etc. (Chapter 8)
passive
the form of the verb which expresses the subject as

being acted upon: He was beaten (see also reflexive)
the aspect of the verb expressing definite, specific
activity, completed or to be completed (Section 6.3
et seq.)
denotes the pronouns I (first person singular), you
(second person singular), he, she, it (third person
singular), we (first person plural), you (second person
plural), they (third person plural) (Chapter 5)
see under adjective
a word used before a noun or pronoun to show its
relation to another word in the sentence: with, by,
from, to, etc. (Chapter 3)
a specific example of case; used in conjunction with
certain prepositions, primarily those indicating loca
tion (Chapter 2)
word used instead of a noun, such as it, they, those,
which (Chapter 5)
those transitive verbs whose direct object is the sub
ject: He washed himself (see also passive); also
certain pronouns (Sections 5.2, 6.8)
see conditional
the second degree of comparison of an adjective, e.g.
fastest, best, and the compound form most -I- adj. (see
also comparative) (Section 4.4)
the arrangement of words and sentence construction
the form of the verb which indicates the time of the
action, such as present, past or future tense
those verbs taking an object: He read a book
part of speech expressing action, or state of being
(see also transitive, intransitive) (Chapter 6)
perfective
person
predicative
preposition
prepositional
pronoun
reflexive
subjunctive
superlative
syntax
tense
transitive
verb
Chapter 1
The Russian alphabet and pronunciation
1.1
INTRODUCTION
The initial difficulty, the Russian alphabet, may be fairly readily resolved into
less daunting subgroups of vowels and consonants, into those representing
specifically Cyrillic elements, those familiar to scientists from the Greek
alphabet, those identical to our own alphabet, and those which appear familiar
but which represent quite distinct sounds and therefore require particular care.
We should, perhaps, emphasize the importance of pronunciation throughout
this course. Apart from the fact that vocabulary and grammar are distinctly
easier to assimilate if pronounced, we shall see that scientific Russian is
characterized by a large number of cognates: words etymologically derived
from familiar Greek or European stems which, unless pronounced, otherwise
appear quite unfamiliar transcripted into Russian. We therefore emphasize
that the Russian should be read aloud, and accordingly give approximate
pronunciations in the following section. It is not appropriate in this book to
attempt to account for the subtle variations of pronunciation which accompany
shifts of stress or associations of certain vowels and consonants. For this we
refer the reader to one of the many standard grammars of the language.
1.2 THE RUSSIAN ALPHABET
The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. We list these in Table

1.2.1, showing their italic or cursive forms, together with their approximate
pronunciations.
It should prove of some assistance if the following categories of letter are
identified:
(i) Those letters similar to the English
a, e, , , ,
(ii) Those letters similar to the Greek
, , n, p, , X
(iii) Those letters which are specifically Cyrillic
, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
1
2
Table 1.2.1
Normal form
*A, a
, 6
,
,
,
*,
*
,
3,
*,
,
,
,
,
,
*0,
,
.
,
,
*,
,
X,
,
,
,
,
tb
*
tb
*,
*,
*,
Cursive form
,
,
,
,

,
,
3,
,
,

,
,
0,0
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
The Russian alphabet

Approximate pronunciation
a as in father
b as in hook
v as in uase
g as in good
d as in d ad
ye as in yet
yo as in yonder
zh as in pleasure
z as in zebra
as in peep
i as in /nk
k as in /cing
1as in look
m as in mouse
n as in not
as in hot
p as in pit
r as in rot
s as in sing
t as in fake
oo as in look
f as in fly
ch as in Scottish loch
ts as in hits
ch as in cheese
sh as in fresh
shch as in fresh cheese
[hard mark]
i as in bill
[soft mark]
e as in egg
u as in unite
ya as in yard
* Denotes vowel.
t Hard and soft signs (see below).
(iv) Those letters requiring special attention

, , , , , , ,
This final group of letters should be carefully distinguished from those
English letters of similar form, but of quite different pronunciation. The letters
and require special comment. Being unpronounced themselves, they serve
to modify the sound of the adjacent letters. Thus, has the effect of softening
a preceding consonant, as in journey, to eat, whilst before a vowel
introduces an sound which combines with the vowel, e.g. in the
family.
3
, also unpronounced, only appears between a consonant and a vowel, and
has the effect of modifying the pronunciation of the vowel into a combination
of and the corresponding vowel sound. Incidentally, note that is technically
designated as a consonant.
Finally, the letters and should be carefully distinguished.
Use of vocabulary lists and dictionaries requires a working familiarity with
the sequence of the letters in the alphabet, and this should be considered one
of the initial objectives in the learning of the Russian alphabet. Some broad
similarities and significant differences between the Russian and English sequen
ces may be fairly readily identified. The letters ,. . . , y, for example, follow
the same order as their English counterparts, as do a, 6 and , e. Quite
anomalous, however, at least with respect to the English sequence, are the
letters (which should be carefully distinguished from 6) and r, both of which
appear near the beginning of the Russian alphabet, closely followed by the
specifically Cyrillic elements , , the remainder of which (,. . . , ) bring up
the rear of the English sequence.
1.3 STRESS
Stress within a word is indicated by an accent over the single stressed vowel,
and should be taken into account in pronunciation. If the word has only one
vowel, the stress mark is generally omitted. Particular attention should be paid
to the shift of stress in the course of inflection of nouns, verbs, etc. However,
we are primarily concerned with the printed language which almost without
exception will not bear stress marks.
It should be noted that the letter is invariably stressed and so does not
carry the stress mark; indeed the diaeresis " itself is often omitted in printed
matter.
1.4
PRONUNCIATION EXERCISES
Russian is essentially phonetic in its pronunciation. Every letter (except and

) is pronounced, despite the frequent association of seemingly unpronouncable clusters of consonants, and but for the effect of stress, each letter has a
unique value. The groups , appear regularly throughout the language,
and provide an exception to the pronunciation rules in that they are pronounced
, respectively. Thus today is pronounced as if it were spelt
, and o f this is pronounced .
Generally the pronunciation of a preposition is run into or assimilated into
the noun: in the course o f is pronounced as if it were one word
. Occasionally minor concessions are made to aid pronunciation,
often in the form of an inserted (e.g. during); but not always (e.g.
in view of).
Whilst we are not primarily concerned with the detailed features of pronunci
ation, we point out that unstressed vowels tend to become modified in speech.
4
This, in fact, occurs quite naturally, only the stressed vowel retaining its full
phonetic value.
The following lists represent some of the Russian words most likely to be
encountered in the course of translation. A basic core of Russian vocabulary
is, of course, essential for efficient translation if constant recourse to the
dictionary is to be avoided. These words should be read aloud as a pronunci
ation exercise, and some attempt should be made to memorize them, although
they will occur with sufficient regularity as to provide constant review.
a
and, but
without
more
to be
in, into
suddenly
view, form
war
question
here (is)
time
each, any
where
eye
year
head
voice
city, town
yes
even
two
matter, business
for
up to
must, obliged
house
friend
other
if
yet, still
however
for, behind
earth, ground
and, also
to go
out of
or
toward
as, how
what (kind of)
when
room
who
summer, year
whether
face
better
people
between
place
minute
much, many
young
on
above
necessary
nation
not
no, is not
neither, no
foot
, , about, of
general
one
he, it
oho it
she, it
they
form
along, according
under
to go
after
last, latest
then
why
almost
right
in the case of, with
worker
time, once
hand, arm
Russian
c with
self, the very
light
own
self
right now
heart
force, strength
word
case, instance
Soviet
altogether
hundred
table
side
so
such, this
there
, , ; that; those
then
precisely
three
trouble
here
at, to
already
street
well
although
hour, (one) oclock
man
through, across
what, that
, , this
these
Pronounce the following:

white
greater, more
great, large
would
to give
nine
to make, do
day
ten
to think
to take
, , , all
view
to see
eight
to go out
high
his
if
to be, is, are
to ride
to look
to speak, say
here
to know
to give
to have
to live
each, every
to seem, appear
which, who
little, small
to be able
we
new
again
to remain
to answer
very
first
to write
to understand
five
to work
rouble
to make, do
today
seven
1.5
to sit
to say, tell
to dare
to ask, request
old
to become
to stand
now
only
thousand
to see
to recognize
to go
to want
part
four
to read
in order to
six
to appear
COGNATES
The scientist is particularly fortunate in that much of the technical vocabulary

is little more than a transliteration of its English, or in some cases its French
or German, counterpart. Consequently, the translator need not extend his core
vocabulary to include these words, although the following standardized corres
pondences between the Russian and English endings should be noted:
-3
-
-"!
- /
-
-
= -sis
= -tion
= -sion
= -gion
= -ty
- = -ivity
- = -ity, -ness
-
= -y
-
= -ium
-
= -ics
These, and other correspondences, will be considered in more detail in Chapter

10. Particular attention should be paid to the regular transliterations which
arise in the rendering of non-Russian words. Examples of the more frequently
encountered transliterations are as follows:
th^c{) or :
h ^ r or x:
ch-*x:
methane, arithmetic
horizon, henna
chlorine, chemistry
-> or :
x -> or :
qu, au, eu -* , ,
->:
process, complex
bauxite, examination
quartz, automatics,
Europe
cylinder
Exercise 1.5.1
Pronounce and translate the following:
Exercise 1.5.2
Pronounce and translate the following:
1.6 THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
Pronounce and identify the following, paying particular attention to the trans
literations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Li
Be
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
F
Ne
9
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
Na
Mg
A1
Si
P
S
Cl
A
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
I
Xe
Cs
Ba
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
La
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Hf
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Em
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
E
Fm
Mv
No
Chapter 2
The noun
2.1
THE ENGLISH NOUN: INFLECTION
In all languages the noun is required to perform an enormous variety of

grammatical functions. For example, in the following sentences the noun book
performs four distinct grammatical functions:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
The
The
The
The
book was borrowed from the library.

student returned the book to the library.
book's cover was damaged.
student did the damage to the book.
In (i) book is the subject of the verb, whilst in (ii) it is the direct object of the
verb. In the third sentence we have the possessive form of the noun, whilst in
the final example book is the indirect object of the verb-the direct object in
this case being the damage.
Clearly, the grammatical function of the noun is quite different in each
sentence, yet in English, unlike Russian and many other modern and classical
languages, the noun shows no explicit variation of form with changing gram
matical function. This we may summarize as follows:
Sentence
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Grammatical function
of noun
Subject
Direct object
Possessive
Indirect object
Form of noun
book
book
book's
book
The only remaining vestige of inflection, as this variation in form of the noun
with grammatical function is called, appears in the possessive case (sentence
(iii)) when book -> book's. This observation generally applies to all regular
English nouns - there are some exceptions however. Again, the plural form of
the English noun is characterized by a particularly simple and grammatically
non-specific inflection: an 5 is added to the singular form. Thus,
10

Singular
Plural
book
books
book's
books'
Subject
Direct object >
Indirect object J
Possessive
This lack of inflection, whilst making for simplicity, does introduce a degree
of ambiguity. Consider the following group of grammatically indistinguishable
words:
dog, man, the, the, bit.
These words may be assembled into two distinct meaningful sentences:

The dog bit the man.
The man bit the dog.
Formally, both sentences make sense, the second admittedly somewhat bizarre!
If, however, we associate a specific grammatical function with the nouns, as
follows.
dog (subject), man (direct object), the, the (definite article)
bit (verb),
then the additional grammatical constraint restricts the assembly of the words
into a unique sequence with no structural ambiguity whatsoever. Clearly, the
association of grammatical function by means of inflection of the noun provides
a very important linguistic aid in the process of translation. Indeed, the well
known ambiguity of modern Chinese may be largely attributed to the complete
absence of inflection. Indeed, ambiguity in modern English is largely avoided
not by noun inflection, but rather by the extensive use of prepositions, as we
shall see.
Finally we should mention that the English pronouns show a rather more
highly developed degree of inflection than the nouns, and, morever, show a
variation with gender as well as grammatical function, an important feature
of the Russian language which will occupy us throughout the present chapter.
Gender of pronoun
Subject
Direct object
Possessive
Indirect object
Masculine
Feminine
Neuter
he
him
his
him
she
her
hers
her
it
it
its
it
12
For the purposes of the present discussion we shall restrict ourselves to regular
nouns- nouns which obey the rules of inflection outlined above. There are,
however, nouns which deviate from this pattern, but which nevertheless follow
other patterns of inflection, e.g. child (sing.), children (plur.); knife (sing.),
knives (plur.).
2.2
THE RUSSIAN NOUN: INFLECTION
In Russian the grammatical function of the noun is expressed explicitly, without

the ambiguity of English, through its inflection which, whilst appearing to
represent a substantial linguistic complication, should nevertheless be regarded
as an important analytical aid in the process of translation from Russian into
English. Quite simply, inflection of the noun should be taken as an explicit
specification of its grammatical function within the sentence, although it should
be said that there are occasions when inflection is governed by other factors
than grammatical function; we shall consider these aspects of inflection in
Chapter 3.
Whilst the range of inflections of the Russian noun is considerable, their
forms may be substantially rationalized by identifying three distinct classifica
tions of noun, generally designated masculine, feminine and neuter. Each has
its own pattern of inflections which expresses the grammatical function of the
noun in the sentence. The nomenclature masc.,fem., neut. is simply a convenient
threefold designation which imputes no particular sexual connotation; the
designation could equally well have been categories /, II and /77; indeed, in
some respects this might have been a better choice.
Russian is particularly simple in that identification of the gender of the
noun, and hence the particular pattern of inflections through which it may
pass, is straightforward. Unlike many other modern languages, the gender or
classification of inflection pattern of the noun is readily determined by the
ending of its dictionary or vocabulary form. A knowledge of the gender of the
noun is essential since certain of the inflections, whilst apparently identical,
are nevertheless gender dependent, and impute different grammatical
functions.
2.3
GENDER OF THE RUSSIAN NOUN
As we outlined above, the gender of the Russian noun is readily identified by

its singular ending, prior to inflection - its so-called dictionary or nominative
form. We now consider the characteristics of the three gender classifications.
Neuter nouns are identified in the nominative or dictionary form by their
ending in the vowels o, e or . Thus,
window
field
knowledge
pen
oho
it
morning
are all neuter nouns.
13
Notice that there is no article, definite or indefinite, associated with the
Russian noun: may mean a window, the window, or simply window.
Which particular article is adopted in the course of translation is largely
determined by context, and presents little practical difficulty.
Feminine nouns are identified in their nominative form by ending in the
vowels a or . Examples of feminine nouns are
book
opera
cat
vodka
chemistry
army
Masculine nouns account for the remainder, with the exceptions given below.
In fact, masculine nouns may be identified by their consonant ending. In this
regard it should be remembered that is technically designated a consonant
(see Chapter 1). Accordingly there is a small group of masculine nouns ending
in - or -.
house
corner
brother
hero
man
university
tractor
There are a couple of important exceptions to the above rules as follows:

-
Nouns ending in the soft sign are either masculine or feminine: their
gender is invariably identified in dictionaries, vocabulary lists, etc.:
(fern.) night, (masc.) rain. It turns out that scientific nouns
ending in - tend to be predominantly feminine in gender.
- Nouns ending in are invariably neuter, and should be carefully
distinguished from feminine nouns ending in : (neut.) name,
(neut.) flame , (neut.) time.
Exercise 2.3.1
Identify the gender of the following nominative singular nouns and determine
their meanings from the vocabulary lists, using your knowledge of cognates
where possible.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
14
There are a number of anomalous masculine nouns: uncle,
youth , man, judge are some of the more frequent. These inflect
as if they were regular feminine nouns.
2.4
CASE AND GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION
Whilst the English noun shows little or no variation with grammatical function,
we have seen that they may nevertheless be resolved into a variety of categories
or cases, depending amongst other things upon their relationship to the verb.
In Section 2.1 we identified four such cases of the English noun: subject, direct
object, the possessive and indirect object. Russian resolves these, together with
two further cases, each with its own characteristic inflection which provides
an almost unambiguous identification of its grammatical function within the
sentence. We say almost unambiguous because there is some degeneracy
amongst the inflections, but in practice there is generally little difficulty in
making a correct identification of grammatical function. English avoids these
two additional cases by the use of prepositions, as we shall see. From now on
we shall adopt the formal nomenclature of the various cases as shown in
Table 2.4.1.
Table 2.4.1
Formal nomenclature of the cases
Case
Nominative
Accusative
Genitive
Dative
Instrumental
Prepositional
Subject
Direct object
Possessive; negative indirect object
Indirect object
Means of accomplishment
Used with most prepositions
The use of the genitive in place of the accusative to form the direct object
after a negative verb requires further comment. In the sentences
We have no idea of the underlying cause.
This isnt the correct approach.
the direct object of the negative verb is given in italics, and would be rendered
in Russian by the genitive case. This use of the genitive imputes no sense of
possession under these circumstances, it is simply the accusative form of the
noun after a negative verb.
The two additional Russian cases, instrumental and prepositional, are largely
self-explanatory. However, a few examples should help clarify their use:
He flew to Moscow by plane.
He travelled with a friend.
The scientists resolved the problem using nuclear technology.
With perseverance, Russian can eventually be mastered.
15
In each of these sentences, the sequence in italics would be rendered in Russian
by use of the instrumental form of the noun, the noun representing the means
or instrument by which the action is affected. (There are, in addition, certain
verbs such as to be, to become, to remain which in Russian adopt a direct
object in the instrumental case; see Section 6.10.) Similarly, in the following
sentences,
The cat sat on the mat.
The word is in the dictionary.
In Moscow the temperature frequently falls below zero.
In general, Russian is easier than Chinese.
the nouns in italics would, with the appropriate preposition, be expressed in
the prepositional case. Generally the prepositional form arises in situations
implying location of the noun, and is often referred to as the locative case.
Exercise 2.4.1
In the sentences below, identify the case and grammatical function of the
nouns and pronouns in italics.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2.5
So far this year the weather has been extremely cold.

What is yours is also mine.
He gave the dog a bone.
Thanks to Government policy I now pay even more tax.
The title of a book often misleads a prospective reader.
Whose is this ? 11 give it to the organizer.
In India, fields are very often ploughed by bullocks.
With luck I should be in London by the end of the week.
The package of books finally arrived by train.
I travelled with a friend , on foot.
THE INFLECTIONS
We have now reached the stage where the case or grammatical function may
be directly associated with the inflection or ending of the noun. For practical
purposes we may state that inflections are added to or modify the ending of
the nominative singular or dictionary form of the noun. Of course, there are
many important exceptions, but we shall deal with these specifically later.
The inflections of the Russian noun may be tabulated as shown in Table
2.5.1. Examples of the principal forms of inflection are given in Table 2.5.2.
Repeated use of Tables 2.5.1 and 2.5.2 throughout the rest of this book
should ensure their final commitment to memory. Nevertheless, some attempt
should be made from the outset to develop a working familiarity with these
inflections. Accordingly we give extensive exercises below based on the identifi
cation of case and hence grammatical function. It will quickly become apparent
Table 2.5.1
The inflections of the Russian noun

Plural
Singul a r
m
, cons..
, cons.,t
f*
b
b
e ll
()
eli
()
Case
.
.
gen.
dat.
instr.
prep.
bit
OB,
truncated
-v------
bl
ax
Vowel m utations may modify these endings (see Section 2.6).

* Feminine nouns ending - take these endings.
t M asculine anim ate nouns (e.g. , man) adopt the genitive form in the accusative case
( = ./gen. sing.).
t Ending adopted by nouns ending in and e, also masculine nouns after , , , .
The neuter and feminine genitive plural is formed by dropping the final or a, respectively,
the noun term inating at the stem consonant.
|| Feminine nouns ending - take -.
*1 Masculine nouns ending -, feminine nouns ending - and neuter nouns ending - take
- in the prepositional.
that the basic stem of the word has to be recognized first of all: without this
identification of the gender, further progress may be difficult. To begin with,
however, we give the uninflected or dictionary form and then, using the tables,
in conjunction with the examples in Table 2.5.2, the reader should be able to
identify the inflected form.
Exercise 2.5.1
Determine the case, and hence grammatical function, of the following nouns.
(The uninflected or dictionary form is given in brackets.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
9.
10.
.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
2.6 VOWEL MUTATION
There are in Russian numerous nouns wherein mutated versions of the regular
inflections listed in Table 2.5.1 occur. For present purposes it need not concern
us as to when and why they arise, but it is extremely important to become
thoroughly familiar with the following equivalences or vowel mutations which
17
Table 2.5.2
Examples of the principal forms of inflection

Plural
Singular
m
glass
business
country
hero
field
Examples showing vowel mutation

army
!
!
||
case
meeting
Nouns ending in
rain
night
*
*
*
*
*
*
Note that masculine nouns ending in are simply vowel-mutated, except in the genitive plural.
The footnote indicators *, t, t, , ||, refer to Table 2.5.1.
appear just as frequently as the regular inflections listed above. In fact the
following four mutations are widespread throughout the entire language and
will recur constantly. The mutations are, quite simply:
<->
o^e
<-*
<->
Thus the prepositional plural ending -ax will for some nouns appear as -;
the masculine dative singular -y may appear as -, and so on. It is very much
in the interest of the reader to become fully acquainted with these vowel
mutations since they substantially reduce the number of inflections which
otherwise have to be recognized. These mutations should be carefully identified
within the preceding tables (Tables 2.5.1 and 2.5.2). The following exercise
provides some practice in the recognition of mutated inflections. (The uninflec
ted nominative singular or dictionary form is given in brackets.)
18
Exercise 2.6.1
Determine the case and hence grammatical function of the following nouns,
some of which exhibit mutated inflections.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
9.
10.
.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
()
Exercise 2.6.2
Finally we give an exercise which provides practice in the identification of

grammatical function for nouns exhibiting both mutated and non-mutated
inflections. In these examples the dictionary form of the word is not given.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2.7
.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
SOME IMPORTANT IRREGULARITIES
All neuter nouns ending - follow the pattern of , name :

name
Singular
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Plural
However, a number of these neuter - nouns are never used in the plural.
19
The masculine noun way, journey also inflects irregularly:
way, journey
Singular
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Plural
tSee Table 2.5.1.

as do the feminine nouns mother and daughter, both of which show
the same pattern of inflections:
mother
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Singular
Plural
See Table 2.5.1.
Indeed, nouns representing animate beings inflect particularly irregularly, both

in English and in Russian. Consider person which, generally speaking,
is only used to form singular inflections. people is taken as the plural form.
person, man
Singular
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Plural
Only the genitive plural of is ever used, and then exclusively in

association with numerals; it is, in fact, identical in form to the nominative
singular: , five people. (For use of the genitive after numerals see
Table 9.2.3.)
There are a number of masculine nouns ending - in the nominative
singular (e.g. , citizen). These take all the regular inflections except
nominative plural (-: ) and genitive plural (-: ). Again,
masculine nouns ending -, - (, child) take all the regular
20
endings except nominative plural (-, -: ) and genitive plural

(). As is usual for masculine animate nouns, the accusative adopts the
genitive form.
citizen
Plural
Singular
Plural
Singular
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
* See baby, child, below.
It is appropriate to mention here the neuter noun baby, child which,

other than in literary contexts, is only used in the nominative and accusative
singular. is used in all other singular cases. In the plural both are
used, although is considered more colloquial. Note the irregular plural
form of :
child
Plural
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
A number of mainly monosyllabic masculine nouns form their prepositional

with or instead of e after in and on, and should not be confused with
the dative. Some of the more frequently occurring examples are given below:
captivity

shore

floor
side

family
century
/

row
eye

garden
year

snow
circle
/
/
formation
forehead

/
rear

forest

corner
/
ice
/
motion
bridge

hour
promontory

After other prepositions these nouns take their usual endings: , about
the family . The forms listed above should also be distinguished from the
accusative used in conjunction with into and onto.
21
One particularly important example of the ending in the prepositional

case is regularly encountered in expressions of time:
? When ?
? When ?
1982 . In 1982.
. After twelve.
Finally, there are some nouns, mainly those imported from foreign languages,
which are indeclinable and do not change with number. Of these, jury ,
kangaroo, cinema, metro, underground, overcoat,
highway, taxi and menu are neuter. coffee is masculine.
Exercise 2.7.1
Translate the following expressions, using the vocabulary lists where necessary.
Pay careful attention to the identification of case.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
2.8 THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE
When an unspecified number or quantity of a divisible item is designated, the

genitive form is used:
* , , , .
Give (some) beer, vodka, bread, sugar and milk
Some masculine nouns ending in a consonant or adopt the endings or
when used in the partitive sense. Thus

cup o f tea ()
to buy tea
Exercise 2.8.1
In the following sentences account for the case and grammatical function
of the Russian words:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Dont give
lives
lives
didnt tell
She is the best student
6. Give to read.
7. You
lit. to me dat.
8. This invention has no
9. This does not correspond
10. Phosphorus burns with a

white
11. I have no
12.
Chapter 3
The preposition
3.1
INTRODUCTION
We have already seen how certain prepositions take the instrumental and
prepositional cases, but, as we have suggested, these cases by no means account
for all the prepositions.
The preposition, as its name suggests, generally precedes a noun or pronoun,
and shows the relation to some other word in the sentence. Examples of
prepositions include words such as by, from, with, on, etc., and in Russian each
preposition takes a noun in a specific case which, it is important to realize, is
unrelated to its grammatical function in the sentence. Thus, around takes
a noun in the genitive case, but without any connotation of possession or
negation of the verb which is generally attributed to the genitive case.
In practice there is little difficulty in recognizing the prepositions; however,
some familiarity with their adopted cases should prevent mistaken identifica
tion of the noun inflection with grammatical function. We draw the readers
attention to the fact that certain prepositions adopt more than one case, and
these are identified in Table 3.2.1 on pages 24-25.
3.2
CASES ADOPTED BY THE PREPOSITIONS
The cases adopted by prepositions are listed in Table 3.2.1. There are also a
number of standard expressions involving certain prepositions:

during
in the course of
in the course of >
owing to
in view of
because of
despite
22
these expressions all take

the genitive case
takes the accusative case
23
Exercise 3.2.1
Translate the following expressions, carefully noting the association of preposi

tion and case:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.

-

-

Table 3.2.1
Preposition
Instr.
Prep.
thanks to
towards, into*
along
instead of
outside
inside
by
around
in, at
contrary to
for
till
()
-
Dat.
without
nearby
Gen.
Cases adopted by prepositions
for, behind*
behind
from, out of*

from behind*,
because
from under*
besides
()
among
past, by
towards, by*
among
, ai,
(, )
()
about, against
()
over, above
notwithstanding
about, concerning
by, near
away from
in front, before
according to, by
under*
like
after, on
under
under, for
after
in the middle of
at the time of, near
about, concerning
against, opposite
()
on, ai
to meet
for the sake of

the size of
through
from off*
with
according to
among
by, near
across, through
These prepositions have a definite sense of movement (into, on to, etc.) rather than fixed location.
Chapter 4
The adjective
4.1
INTRODUCTION
The Russian adjective acts to qualify a noun and may be used either attributively
or predicatively, as in English. Indeed, their use is very similar in both languages,
although under certain circumstances the Russian adjective may be used to
represent a noun. Examples of the attributive use of the adjective are as follows:
The dark, wooded hills of China brood over Hong Kong.
An enthusiastic crowd welcomed the President.
The thin, spring sunlight warmed the white bark of the birches.
A general characteristic of the attributive use of the adjective is that it precedes
the noun it qualifies, both in English and in Russian, although it can sometimes
follow:
Winter, long, dark and cruel as it was, finally ended.
This usage is somewhat literary, however.
The predicative form, however, invariably follows the noun, from which it
is separated by a verb, explicit or implicit.
That paper was controversial
The road to Mandalay is long.
The study of Chinese is difficult.
How was dinner? (It was) Excellent!
The predicative use of the adjective is sometimes said to be equational in that
the sentence is of the general form noun adjective. It follows that the noun,
being the subject of the sentence, is in the nominative case.
We shall consider the two uses of the adjective separately.
4.2 THE ATTRIBUTIVE USE OF THE ADJECTIVE:
ADJECTIVAL INFLECTION
As we have already observed, the adjective acts to qualify a noun, and in

English shows no inflection with the grammatical function of the noun it
modifies. However, in Russian the sentences
26
27
The new book was borrowed from the library.
The student returned the new book to the library.
The new book's cover was damaged.
The student did the damage to the new book.
He eventually arrived with the new book.
He had written his name on the new book.
require both the adjective and noun to show inflection as their grammatical
function passes through the nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, instru
mental and prepositional cases, respectively. In general, the Russian adjective
must agree in gender, case and number (that is, singular or plural) with the
noun it qualifies, and to this extent helps to confirm the grammatical identity
of its associated noun. English, on the other hand, shows no variation what
soever.
In order to agree in number, gender and case with the noun, it follows that
the adjective must show inflections analogous to those of the noun shown in
Tables 2.5.1 and 2.5.2. Fortunately, the range of adjectival endings is somewhat
simpler than the nouns, being virtually identical for all three genders in the
plural.
It is the nominative singular, or dictionary form of the adjective which is
generally quoted in vocabulary lists: the masculine, feminine and neuter
nominative singular forms are given, together with the nominative plural, in
most dictionaries. Thus, dictionary entries might read:
, -, -, -; adj., good
, -, -, -; adj., new
, -, -, -; adj., large
masc., fem., neut., pi.
The adjective must, as we have mentioned, agree with the noun in gender,
number and grammatical function. For the nominative case then, the adjective
Table 4.2.1
The adjectival inflections
Singular
m.
n.
-, -
-, -*
-oe
-oe
-oro
-
-
-
Plural
f.
-
-
-
-
- (-)
-
Case
Norn.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
m.
n.
f.
-
-*
-
-
-
-
* Adjectives used attributively with masculine anim ate nouns adopt the genitive
form in the accusative case, e.g. = ace.I gen. sing.
28
associates with the noun as follows:
(m.)
(/)
(n.)
(m. pi)
new house ]
new book > nominative singular
new windowj
new journals
nominative plural
The full range of adjectival inflections may be tabulated as shown in Table

4.2.1. This tabulation of the adjectival inflections is directly analogous to those
of the noun (cf. Table 2.5.1).
Once again, vowel mutations frequently occur within these inflections, just
as for the noun endings. Whilst it is inappropriate here to provide a detailed
account of the rules governing vowel mutation, it is nevertheless worthwhile
once again emphasizing the pattern of mutation:
<>
o<-*e
<>
The same scheme applies throughout the language and provides a welcome
reduction in the range of inflected forms which have to be committed to
memory.
Exercise 4.2.1
Translate the following attributively qualified nouns, clearly identifying case

and grammatical function. In some cases vowel mutation may occur.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
4.3 THE PREDICATIVE USE OF THE ADJECTIVE:

SHORT FORMS
In sentences of the form

The sky was bright and clear.
29
where the adjective is used predicatively, agreement with the noun is in gender
and number only (since in this equational format the noun is invariably in the
nominative case). The predicative form of the adjective differs from the attribu
tive in that it is shortened. Whilst there are a number of irregularities, the short
or predicative form of the adjective is generally very closely related to the
stem of the attributive adjective, and in practice is readily identified as such.
Thus, the attributive old has as its short form . Agreement with
gender and number is achieved by adding -a, -o and - for feminine,'-neuter
and plural, respectively. A few comparative examples will make its use clear:
Attributive
Predicative
The reader should be alerted to the fact that an unstable e or o may appear
in the short form:
Attributive
Predicative
interesting
ill
short
equal
As in the case of attributive adjectives, vowel mutations may occur in the

gender inflections of the short term. In the following examples the plurals
show the vowel mutation ^ :
, , ,
, , ,
bad
good
Exercise 4.3.1
Translate the following expressions involving short form adjectives.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. ,
7.
30
4.4
THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREES
The comparative and superlative degrees of the adjective are generally, but
by no means always, rendered in English by means of the suffixes -er, -est,
respectively. Thus we have big, bigger, biggest; strong, stronger, strongest;
heavy, heavier, heaviest, and so on. But, it should be remembered that irregular
comparative and superlative forms regularly arise - good, better, best. And in
some cases the comparative and superlative degrees can only be expressed in
compound form: correct, more correct, most correct. Similarly, the Russian
adjective in its comparative and superlative degrees appears in a variety of
regular and irregular forms. The superlative form inflects in precisely the same
way as an attributive adjective, whilst the comparative form does not inflect
at all.
The comparative degree is generally characterized by the ending -
(occasionally -e), roughly corresponding to the English -er, added to the
adjectival stem. The comparative form, as we have said, is fixed: it shows no
agreement with gender, number or case. Thus
, -, -oe, -/
, -, -oe, -/
old I older
new/newer
Occasionally the internal consonants modify slightly as well, although the

characteristic ending persists:
, -, -oe, -/
dear/dearer
Russian also forms compound comparatives corresponding to the English

more + adjective. Thus, () , more (less) bitter.
In English the comparison is generally made in terms of the conjunction

than: London is bigger than Moscow. In Russian, however, the comparison
is effected either in terms of + nominative, or by use of the genitive:
(.)

/
\
(gen.)
In practice neither form is likely to present too much difficulty in translation.

The Russian superlative degree, corresponding to the English -est, or most +
adjective, behaves as an attributive adjective, and exhibits the full range of
inflections shown in Table 4.2.1. The superlative is usually of the compound
adjectival form + adjective, where both components inflect with case,
number and gender, shown in Table 4.4.1 for the masculine singular.
Finally, it should be mentioned that whilst any superlative can appear in
the form H-adj., a few adjectives may also form their superlatives by
means of the suffixes -- and --. Thus, is effectively
identical to , both of course agreeing in case, gender and
number with its noun.
31
Table 4.4.1
Adjective
old
high
dear
The adjectival degrees

Comparative
Superlative
older
higher
dearer

oldest

highest

dearest
Short form
An equivalent expression of the superlative may be formed using the adverb

(most) and its counterpart (least). Being adverbs they show
no inflection (see Chapter 7):

1
> the highest temperature
J
Exercise 4.4.1
Translate the following expressions involving comparative and superlative

degrees of the adjective.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
There are a number of irregular forms whose degree, comparative or superla

tive, are indistinguishable, and must be determined by context. Examples
include higher/highest, '!' bigger/ biggest, better /best,
lower/ lowest, smaller/smallest or less/least,
worse/ worst.
In some cases the prefix - may be added to the above adjectives forming
an unambiguous superlative:

the best book
* See footnote p. 32.

t This should be carefully distinguished from , -, -oe, - big.
32
Exercise 4.4.2
Translate the following phrases, accounting carefully for the uses of the various
cases.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
* .
.
.

.
.
.

.
.
.
, , .
The idiom atic expressions + comparative and mean as much as possible.
Chapter 5
The pronoun
5.1
INTRODUCTION
As its name suggests, the pronoun stands in for a noun previously introduced,
and both English and Russian have a range of pronouns which may be classified
as personal (I, you, me, she, etc.), possessive (my, our, his, etc.), interrogative
(who, what, which, etc.) and demonstrative (this, that, etc.). In addition, Russian
has a reflexive pronoun ( oneself).
Certain of these pronouns do not vary with gender - I, , you,
they, self who and what, and compound forms of the latter such
as - somebody, - something. This is not to say, however,
that the pronoun cannot have an implicit gender. Compare, for example, the
masculine and feminine forms I(m ) was reading and 1(f)
was reading (but note, however, the absence of gender explicit or implicit in
, , ). Other pronouns, , , , for example, do reveal
their gender explicitly.
The masculine gender is always assumed in the use of the pronoun
who: ? who spoke?, whilst the neuter is assumed for what:
? what is that? Again, these features hold for compound forms such as
- whoever, and - whatever.
5.2
THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS
These follow a somewhat irregular pattern of inflection, although the accusative

and genitive pronouns are identical for all persons in the same way as for
animate masculine nouns (see Tables 5.2.1(a) and 5.2.1(b)). It is particularly
important to note that personal pronouns beginning with a vowel adopt an
when preceded by a preposition: , . However, when , and
are used as possessive pronouns they do not adopt the h. (Tables 5.2.1a, b.)
The reflexive pronoun always refers to the agent of the clause in which
the word stands. inflects in the same way as , except of course that it
has no nominative form. We shall see in Chapter 6 (Section 6.8) how this
pronoun goes to form the reflexive verbs and the passive mood.
We now consider the interrogative pronouns who and what (Table
5.2.2). The negative pronouns nobody and nothing inflect as
33
34
Table 5.2.1(a)
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Singular personal pronouns
First
person
Second
person
you
Table 5.2.1(b)
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Third
person
he
it she
,
*
Plural personal pronouns
First
person
Second
person
Third
person
we
you
they
* Note vowel prefix in conjunction with preposition.

Table 5.2.2 The interrogative pronouns
who and what
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
and . It should be noted, however, that the use of a preposition with the
negative pronoun splits the compound:
not to anybody, to no-one

not with anyone, with no-one
The pronouns what and which follow the same behaviour in
the presence of a negative particle and preposition (see Section 5.3).
5.3
THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Below we tabulate the possessive pronoun inflections for my and

our (Tables 5.3.1(a) and 5.3.1(b)): pronouns with a similar pattern of inflections
are also indicated.
35
Table 5.3.1(a) ( your and one's own inflect similarly)
Singular
n.
m.
Norn.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
f.
as nom. or gen.
Plural
as nom. or gen.
Table 5.3.1(b) our ( your inflects similarly)

Singular
m.
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
as nom. or gen.
n.
f.
Plural
as nom. or gen.
The possessive pronouns of the third person , and do not vary with
case or number, and should be carefully distinguished from the personal
pronouns , and which adopt hafter a preposition (see Section 5.2).
Thus we have
(
<
1

her brother
I know < his brother
I their brother
I live at his brothers place
I was at his place
Exercise 5.3.1
Translate the following:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
?

?
, ...
36
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

* .
, ...
?
,
...
The demonstrative pronouns , , , this, these; , , ,

that, those and , , , + myself, him/herself ourselves, yourselves,
themselves follow essentially the same pattern of adjectival inflection, as shown
in Table 5.3.2.
Table 5.3.2 The demonstrative pronouns: this ( that and
oneself follow the same inflections)
Singular
m.
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
n.
as nom. or gen.
f.
Plural
as nom. or gen.
The pronouns , , , all follow a similar pattern (see Table 5.3.3).

Table 5.3.3 all
Singular
m.
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
as nom. or gen.
n.
f.
()
Plural
as nom. or gen.
Finally, the pronouns , , , whose and , , ,

nobody's are given in Table 5.3.4.
* React.
t These pronouns should be carefully distinguished from , -, -oe, - most (see Section
4.4).
37
Table 5.3.4 whose ( nobody's is similarly inflected)
Singular
m.
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
as nom. or gen.
n.
f.
()
Plural
as nom. or gen.
The pronouns what and which follow the same standard

adjectival patterns of inflection (Table 4.2.1), as do their compounds, e.g.
- some, none.
Exercise 5.3.2
Translate the following

1.
2.
3.
4.
- .
- .
- ?
- .
( = see)
( = chats)
( = asked)
( = to read;
= gave)
5. - . ( = plays)
Chapter 6
The verb
6.1
INTRODUCTION
The Russian verb system is primarily distinguished from those of other

languages by its unique characteristic of aspect. In most other respects the
verb system finds its counterpart in other modern languages and, accordingly,
this chapter will place particular emphasis upon the identification and
appropriate rendering of the aspect in English, often involving as it does quite
subtle shades of meaning usually expressed in English by means of verbal
compounds.
Both English and Russian have transitive and intransitive verbs. The former
take a direct object in the accusative case, whilst the latter cannot. Examples
of the use of transitive verbs are

I am reading an extremely interesting book of my friends
[acc.]
whilst the intransitive verb takes no direct object:

.
She waited for a long time.
. +
son ran home quickly.
Both verb systems exhibit a variety of functions, or more precisely, moods,
including the infinitive, the indicative, the imperative and the conditionalsubjunctive. Of primary importance here is the indicative mood of the verb,
having three tenses in the imperfect aspect (present, past and future con
tinuous), and two in the perfective aspect (completed past and future to be
completed).
Generally the inflection or conjugation of the Russian verb follows one of
a small number of patterns, the conjugation depending upon person, gender
and number. English verbs are more remarkable for their irregularity than for
their degree of inflection. Consider the verb to sing:
I sing
we sing
you* sing
you sing
he, she, it sings
they sing
t See Table 7.2.1.
38
39
The only sign of inflection occurs for the third person singular sing-* sings;
the conjugation is otherwise featureless and, moreover, shows little variation
with tense: I, you, he, etc., sang, I, you, he, etc., will sing, and so on. However,
Russian and English abound in irregularities both in tense (go, gone, went),
and in conjugation, for example the verb to be
I am
you* are
he, she, it is
we are
you are
they are
which appears to bear little relationship to its infinitive.

Fortunately, however, for the purposes of translation from Russian into
English it is somewhat easier to recognize the Russian verb in its aspect and
tense as it stands, despite any irregularity, than the converse which, happily,
does not concern us here-the projection of English into the appropriate
Russian aspect.
6.2 THE VERB to be
Perhaps the simplest, most important and least representative of the Russian
verbs is to be, which has no present indicative tense (Section 6.1) as such;
indeed, the verb is generally omitted altogether:
.
I am a student of the university.
.
She is my sister.
.
This is my house.
Sometimes, however, the omitted verb is replaced with a dash:
- .
My father is a physicist.
There are, however, two forms, rarely used outside the scientific context in
modern Russian, (is) and (are) for the third person singular and
plural, respectively. These forms generally arise in statements of existence or
equivalence.
.
A straight line is the shortest distance between two points.
could have been omitted, but its presence serves to emphasize the existence
or equivalence.
Despite the absence of the present indicative, conjugation of the verb
to be provides a useful model for the introduction of the range of inflections
* English, unlike many other languages, makes no distinction between the singular and plural
form of you. The Russian singular form corresponds roughly to the French tu.
40
encountered in the conjugation of Russian verbs. The entire verb is tabulated

in Table 6.2.1. Most of the principal features concerning the conjugation of
Russian verbs in general are contained within this table. We draw the readers
attention to the following points in particular:
(i) The past tense. The inflections vary according to a simple pattern with
person, gender and number. Specifically, the past tense of Russian verbs
show the characteristic endings -, -, - for singular masculine,
feminine and neuter nouns and pronouns, and - for plural nouns
regardless of gender. Note, however , etc., for implicit female
pronouns:
.
The cat was on the table.
f .
My friends were at home.
Table 6.2.1
Present tense
to be
Past tense
, ,
, ,

>
)
Conditional-subjunctive
, -, -, -
Imperative
Future tense

, ,

* See note above.
(ii) The conditional subjunctive is simply formed from the past tense by the
addition of :
, .
She would be, but he doesnt want to.
(iii) The future tense. These inflections form the general basis for the conju
gation of Russian verbs in their present and future indicative moods,
and should be learned. It should be said that the inflections do show
vowel mutation (*->, etc.), but to a somewhat lesser extent than for
the nouns and adjectives. Since each person has a characteristic inflec
tion, the personal pronoun (, , etc.) is sometimes omitted without
ambiguity, particularly in the imperative mood.
(iv) The imperative or command form of the verb (Sit!, Get out!) is unlikely
to arise in the course of technical translation. However, the two impera
tive forms (see Table 6.2.1) correspond to the tu and vous situations in
t Note irregular plural of friend.
41
French; the latter will be recognized simply as the second plural form
with omitted as understood.
Whilst the verb to be is not generally used in the present tense, the
past and future tenses are of the utmost importance as auxiliary verbs used
in conjunction with an infinitive in the formation of the past and future
continuous compound tenses, as we shall see in the following section.
6.3
ASPECT OF THE RUSSIAN VERB
As we observed briefly in Section 6.1, aspect is the principal characteristic of

the Russian verb which distinguishes it from English in particular and other
languages in general. We shall pay particular attention to the resolution of the
two verbal aspects as either imperfective or perfective, as the case may be,
and emphasize the care necessary in translation of the verb whose aspect may
embody quite subtle shades of meaning.
Basically, the imperfective aspect of the verb conveys a sense of continuous,
on-going or uncompleted action, whether in the past, present or future, whilst
the perfective aspect conveys a sense of completion. Clearly, the perfective
aspect can have no present tense and can only relate to actions that have been
completed, or will be completed. A few comparative examples will serve to
illustrate the distinction in sense between the two aspects, and these are given
in Table 6.3.1.
The reader should acquire a feel for the distinction between the definite,
specific completed action of the perfective, and the indefinite, open-ended,
on-going activity implied by the imperfective.
Table 6.3.1
Comparison of verbal aspects
Imperfective aspect
Perfective aspect
I wrote to the person
concerned.
We went to the gym
last week.
Past tense
Present tense
Were going to the gym today.
Future tense
Ill write to the person

concerned.
Well go to the gym
next Thursday.
The Russian verb is generally learned as a pair of infinitives representing

the imperfective and perfective aspects. Often these imperfective/perfective
pairs are quite similar, differing only by a vowel or suffix, and considerable
42
care must be exercised in the course of translation for, as we shall see, both
sense and tense depend essentially upon a correct identification of verbal
aspect. A few examples of imperfective/perfective verbal pairs are listed in
Table 6.3.2.
Table 6.3.2
Imperfective aspect
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
Examples of imperfective/perfective verbal pairs

Perfective aspect
2
,
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
to speak
to give
to do
to divide
to study
to finish
to begin
to copy
to write
to receive
to work
to build
to read
1 First conjugation.
2 Second conjugation.
irr Irregular.
In many cases the perfective differs from the imperfective by the addition
of a prefix (e.g. (/rap.)/ (perf.), to read) which may or may
not also change the lexical meaning of the verb. We shall return to this point
in some detail below. Other perfectives are formed by the addition of a syllable
( (imp.)/ (perf.), to copy), or subtraction of a syllable
( (imp.)/ (perf), to begin), whilst others differ only by a vowel
change ( (/rap.)/ (perf), to study), or even simply a change of
stress ( (imp.)/ (perf), to cut). This distinction could not, of
course, be resolved in unstressed printed text, and would only be apparent
from the context. Clearly, there is plenty of scope for confusion; the only
sound approach is to become familiar with the imperfective/perfective pairs
as they arise, and to learn them as such. There is no doubt, however, that with
practice one gradually learns to distinguish aspect without too much difficulty,
although if there is any ambiguity, as in the case of those of the /
variety, it is wise to proceed with caution, preferably in the company of a
good dictionary.
We are now in a position to conjugate the Russian verb fully in all its aspects
and tenses. We remind the reader of Table 6.3.1, showing the interrelation
between aspect and tense. To recap very briefly, the imperfective aspect of the
verb may be used to form the past, present and future tenses with a sense of
continuous, uncompleted action, whilst the perfective aspect is used to form
the past and future tenses with a sense of completed action.
43
6.4 THE INDICATIVE MOOD
It is usual to resolve the patterns of inflection of the Russian verb into two
groups: verbs of the first and verbs of the second conjugation. Although the
differences are slight and of little practical importance from our point of view,
it is nevertheless convenient to preserve the distinction.
As an example of a fully inflected verb of the first conjugation we shall
consider (imp.)/ (perf ), to work. First, however, we give
an aspect/tense table, analogous to that of Table 6.3.1, for the first person
singular (see Table 6.4.1).
Table 6.4.1(a) to work

Imperfective
Past tense
I was working
<j
[I used to work
Present tense
fl work
<
tl am working
Future tense
(T shall be working
\
U shall work (indefinitely)
Perfective
I worked
I shall work (to completion)
Table 6.4.1(b) /, to work

Imperfective
Perfective
, , OH
, ,
OHO
)
\
L J
Present tense
1, ,
1
Future tense
< , ,
>
Past tense
44
Table 6.4.1(b) exhibits a number of important and characteristic features of

verb conjugation:
(i) Past tense Both the imperfective and perfective aspects show the
characteristic -, -, - (sing.), - (plur.) inflections formed with the
imperfective and perfective stems respectively, and follows to be
(Table 6.2.1).
(ii) Present tense The present tense is formed from the imperfective infini
tive only, its inflections -, -, -, -, -, - are identical with
those of the future tense of to be (Table 6.2.1), in this case with
vowel mutation (<>).
(iii) Future tense The compound imperfective future is formed with the
future tense of (Table 6.2.1) with the imperfective infinitive of
. The personal endings of the simple perfective future are
identical with those of the present tense of imperfective verbs.
It is important to realize from the outset that the present tense has a stem
of its own which is not formed regularly from the stem of the infinitive.
Therefore, in addition to knowing the imperfective/perfective pair, it is also
necessary to know both the stem of the infinitive and the present imperfective
and future perfective tenses if verbs are to be recognized correctly. In fact, as
we shall see later, the participles, for which Russian appears to have a special
predilection, are based on the stem of the present tense and makes familiarity
with the two principal stems mandatory. A representative sample of some of
the principal verbal stems is tabulated in Section 6.9.
Exercise 6.4.1
Translate the following sentences, carefully distinguishing between the imper

fective and perfective aspects. All verbs are of the first conjugation.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. 8 .
10. 9 .
Verbs of the second conjugation follow a very similar pattern to those of
the first, the principal distinction being a vowel change in some of the personal
endings. As an example of a second conjugation verb we take /, to speak. The inflections, shown in Table 6.4.2, should be carefully
compared with those of the first conjugation verb / (Table
6.4.1(b)).
45
We make the following observations:
(i) Past tense Both aspects show the characteristic inflections -, -, -
(sing.), - (plur.) which are identical to those verbs of the first conju
gation.
(ii) Present tense A comparison of first and second conjugation inflections
show them to be quite similar:
Table 6.4.2 /, to speak
Imperfective
Perfective
, , OH
, ,
OHO
'J
>
J
Present tense
, ,
Future tense
, ,
>
>
Past tense
First
conjugation
Second
conjugation
- (-)
-
-
-
-
- (-)
- (-)
-
-
-
- (-)
The main differences between the two conjugations arises in the replace
ment of e by , and in the third person plural of - by -. Any
other variation falls within the scope of the standard vowel mutations
(y , a ).
(iii) Future tense This is identical to the formation of first conjugation
verbs.
46
Exercise 6.4.2
Translate the following sentences, carefully distinguishing between the imperfective and perfective aspects. All verbs are of the second conjugation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
6.5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
7 .
.
PERFECTIVIZATION OF THE VERB
As we have repeatedly emphasized, correct identification of the verbal aspect

is essential to resolve the tense and sometimes even the sense of a grammatical
construction; it is therefore worthwhile devoting further attention to the
recognition of the perfective form of the verb.
We have seen (Table 6.3.2) that the perfective aspect is related to the
imperfective through a variety of prefixes, suffixes, vowel mutations, contrac
tions, shifts of stress, etc. In fact, the situation is somewhat more complex
than the table suggests since some verbs may sustain more than one form of
perfectivizing operation, in some cases simultaneously, with an inevitable shift
in lexical meaning.
Since recognition of the perfectivizing feature is the primary objective, we
list in Tables 6.5.1(a)-(c) the various prefixes, suffixes, etc., which may arise.
We should point out that many verbs may take more than one prefix with a
consequential spread in lexical meaning. First we list some of the more
frequently encountered verbal prefixes, together with their general meaning
(Table 6.5.1(a)). All these prefixes perfectivize an imperfective verb, sometimes
with a shift in lexical meaning, sometimes not. I f the prefix tends not to extend
the meaning o f the imperfective verb, then it will generally form the simple
perfective. If, however, the prefix does substantially modify or extend the meaning
of the verb, then, whilst forming a perfective, it will not in general be the perfective
partner of the unprefixed imperfective.
We give examples of the effect of prefixes on imperfective verbs in Tables
6.5.1(b) and (c).
We see, then, that the addition of prefixes to an imperfective verb generally
yields an imperfective, but often with a shift in lexical meaning. How, then,
are their imperfective counterparts formed, whilst retaining their lexical mean
ing? That is, how do we deperfectivize these verbs?
47
Table 6.5.1(a) Verbal prefixes
Prefix
General meaning
in(to)
up
away from, out
up to
suddenly starting up, often of sounds
out
on
over, superabout, around
from, off
across, over, refor a while
under, beneath, up to, subpretowards
through, across
around, scattering, undoing
with, together; from off
away
b(o)B 3 - , -, B C -, BOC -
:()-, :()-, ():()():()-, :()-
* It should be realized that the which may occur before certain consonants is part o f the prefix
and not the verb when consulting a dictionary.
Table 6.5.1(b)
Perfectives formed by the addition of a prefix, with an associated shift

or extension in lexical meaning
Perfectivizing
prefix
Im perfective/perfective examples
/
Bonepe-
-, -
to write
to sign
to dedicate
to write out
to write in
to describe
to finish writing
to copy
to write down
to add
to cover with writing
Remarks
In
a ll t h e s e e x a m p l e s
th e le x ic a lly s h ifte d
p e r f e c t i v e h a s a s its
d e p e r fe c tiv iz e d fo r m
()
(se e b e lo w ).
These lexically shifted perfectives are returned to the imperfective aspect

by the insertion of an imperfectivizing suffix -- or its vowel-mutated
counterpart -- (see Table 6.5.3). Some verbs adopt a perfectivizing suffix
(see Table 6.5.5) whilst others drop the suffix to form the perfective aspect (see
Table 6.5.4). Formation of the perfective by means of the vowel change <-
accounts for a small but important class of verbs. The verb in -a- is invariably
4^
oo
Table 6.5.1(c)
Perfectivizing
prefix
Perfectives formed by the addition of a prefix producing no shift or extension in lexical meaning of the verb
Imperfective/perfective examples
B3-, -, -, -
/ to use, to make use of
/ to teach
/ to talk
/ to cry
/ to characterize
/ to edit
/ to entangle
/ to read
/ to go for a walk
/ to prepare
/ to approach
/ to read
/ to divide
/ to do
/ to sing
/ to multiply
Remarks
The prefix conveys a sense of starting

up, and generally relates to sounds.
Often the prefix no

conveys a sense of stopping,
but without completion; to do for a while.
Compare and .
49
the imperfective component:

Table 6.5.2
Vowel
change
Perfectivization of verb by vowel change <->
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Table 6.5.3
Imperfectivizing
suffix
to study
to receive
to decide
to finish
to fulfil I
to correct )
to answer1
to allow )
Note vowel m utation <->

Note consonant shift
Imperfectivization of perfective verbs
(from (imp.) to write)
/
/
/
/
--
Remarks
to sign
to dedicate
to write out
to write in
Remarks
If the prefix does not
change the lexical meaning
of the perfective,
but merely conveys
a sense of com pletion,
the verb cannot be
deperfectivized by
means of a suffix.
Table 6.5.4 Formation of the perfective by means of dropping a suffix

D ropped
suffix
--
/
/
/
/
/
/
to give
to open
to forget
to cover
to hide
to get up
Remarks
The imperfectives containing
the suffix -- tend to remain
imperfective despite the
addition of prefixes, e.g.
/ to give out.
A number of important verbal pairs form their perfective aspect irregularly.

In all cases, however, the perfective aspect is irregularly contracted with respect
to the imperfective:
/
/
/
/
to
to
to
to
begin
understand
help
save
Table 6.5.5
Perfectivizing
suffix
--
Perfectivization of verbs by means of a suffix
Imperfective/perfective examples
/
/
/
/
/
to reach
to cry
to wave
to gleam
to disappear
Remarks
The suffix -- almost invariably perfectivizes
the verb regardless of prefixes. There are,
however, a few unprefixed imperfective verbs with
the suffix -- which require the
use of a perfectivizing prefix. Examples
of such verbs are
/
to freeze
/
to strengthen
/
to dry
/
to become wet
51
/
/
/
to lie down
to sit
to become
These imperfectives ending in

-- are reflexive verbs, and
are discussed in greater detail
in Section 6.8
For the small class of verbs whose aspect is distinguished by stress, no

typographical distinction may be drawn. Yet others, mainly those ending in
-, have identical imperfective and perfective aspects. In such cases as
these, aspect and translation is determined by context.
Finally, we mention three important verbs whose aspects are expressed by
different words:
/
/
/
to speak
to borrow
to put, place
Exercise 6.5.1
Translate the following infinitives, identifying aspect. Give the second aspect.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Exercise 6.5.2
Translate the following sentences, paying particular attention to the aspect of

the verb.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
.
.
12 .
.
.
.
.
.
.
, .
52
6.6
THE VERBS OF MOTION
The verbs of motion warrant separate consideration, not only on account of

their intrinsic importance, but more particularly because of the distinction
drawn in Russian between definite and indefinite motion. A comparison of
the two kinds of motion is given in Table 6.6.1. A clear distinction should be
drawn between the indefinite, general, non-specific or habitual motion in the
first column, and the definite, specific motion in the second. The difference is
particularly well illustrated in the two sentences
The children run to school.
The children ran to school.
Table 6.6.1
(indefinite, general)
(definite, specific)
Comparison of definite and indefinite motion

Definite motion
Indefinite motion
Im going to school in a minute

This plane is flying to London
Ill carry it for you
The children ran to school
I go to school this year

Planes fly to London
Trucks carry goods
The children run to school
These two kinds of motion are resolved into distinct imperfective infinitives
in Table 6.6.2. These indefinite/definite imperfective pairs must not be mistaken
for the aspect pairs discussed earlier.
Table 6.6.2 Indefinite and definite imperfective
verbs of motion
Indefinite
Definite
to
to
to
to
to
to
carry
lead
carry
walk, go
fly
run
* The past tense of this verb is formed irregularly: , ,

, . assumes the contracted form after a prefix,
e.g. .
Now, whether the application of a prefix perfectivizes an indefinite verb

(those in the first column of Table 6.6.2) depends essentially upon the nature
of the prefix. If the prefix imposes a temporal constraint, then the verb is
perfectivized. If, on the other hand, the prefix imposes a spatial qualification,
then the verb remains in the imperfective aspect. Application of prefixes to
definite imperfectives invariably perfectivizes the verb. These features are
summarized in Table 6.6.3.
53
Table 6.6.3
Effect of prefixes on imperfective verbs of motion

Indefinite
Prefix
Temporal
qualification
f noUa-
Spatial
qualification
11 ]I ^etc.
B-
Perfectivizing
prefix
Definite
Perfectivizing
prefix
Non-perfectivizing
prefix
Exercise 6.6.1
Determine the aspect of the following verbs:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Exercise 6.6.2
Translate the following sentences.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
6.7
.
.
-?
.
.
.
.
THE CONDITIONAL-SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
The conditional-subjunctive mood, corresponding roughly to should or

would expressions in English is simply formed in Russian from the past tense
with the particle , which itself derives from an old Russian conditional form
of the verb , to be. Thus we have,
, , OH
, ,
, ,
I, etc. would/should study
We could equally well have used the perfective form , etc., the
distinction being in the nature of the activity; whether non-specific or general
54
(imperfective), or specific or non-repetitative (perfective). The may appear
anywhere in the sentence, and need not necessarily follow the verb. Compare
.
and
.
both of which would be translated as T should very much like to go to the
institute.
The conditional-subjunctive often appears in if sentences in which the
usually follows (if):
....
If I had the time....
Indeed, sometimes is contracted to one word, , or even .
6.8 VERBS ENDING IN -: THE REFLEXIVE
The ending -, a contraction of the reflexive pronoun (oneself, itself,
etc.), refers the action back onto the subject of the verb, and accordingly
generates the so-called reflexive verbs : / to dress oneself,
/ to wash oneself etc. Clearly such verbs must be intransi
tive since they have implicitly assumed the direct object .
In many cases the ending - imputes a passive connotation:
/ to be built, set up, / to be
governed, / to be found. Reciprocity between two or more
agents may also be expressed by the reflexive: * to fight,
/ to meet; here the sense is of each other. There are
other verbs ending - in Russian which have no immediately obvious reflexive
connotation: to fear, to hope, to study, etc.
These verbs conjugate according to the usual patterns, except that - is
added after consonants and - after vowels:
, ,
, ,
, ,
j
>
J
etc.
6.9 PRINCIPAL VERB FORMS
Below we list alphabetically the first and second persons singular of the present
imperfective or future perfective stem of some principal verb forms. The stem
is one of a small num ber of Russian verbs having no perfective counterpart.
55
specifies the subsequent conjugation (first or second); specific irregularities

are identified as they arise.
Infinitive
First and second

persons singular
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
run
whiten
take care
take
fight
be afraid
shave
be
beat
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
boil
lead
carry
order
blow
see
hang
influence
take
stand up
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
rot
gnaw
drive
burn
grieve
rule
row
threaten
be sad
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
to give
to
to
to
to
,
,
,
,
to go
to eat
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
,
,
,
,
,
,
to know
to call
to ripen
give
move
doze
blow
burn
wait
live
reap
press
chew
,
,
,
Remarks

( + instr.)
Takes genitive case
, , ,
{+dat.) perf
imperf
, , ,
56
Infinitive
First and second

persons singular
to go, walk
to study
to seek
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
shake
chop
feed
redden
cry
turn
forget
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
bark
get into
tell lies
catch
love
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
wave
grind
crumple
be able
thresh
entreat
be silent
wet
wash
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
bore
begin
carry
spend the night
,
,
,
,
to dress
to organize
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
plough
bake
write
cry
plait
swim
spit
go, walk
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
understand
weed
sing
water
ask
spin
,
,
,
,
,
,
Remarks
Past tense: , .
,
Past tense: ,
, ,
57
Infinitive
First and second

persons singular
to hide
to drink
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
work
roar
cut
decide
draw
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
,
,
,
,
,
,
sit
creak
laugh
create
realize
have a
reputation
to ripen
to sleep
to become
to guard
to spread
to knock
to exist
to pour
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
to
to
to
to
to
to
,
,
,
,
,
,
to die
to drop
,
,
to walk
to want
,
,
to read
to revere
,
,
to appear
thaw
endure
weave
push
heat
grate
Exercise 6.9.1

1. * .
2. .
* into ( + .).
Remarks
Same form as
, ,
(+gen.)
58
3. .
4. .
5.
.
6. - ,
- 20 5.
7. , , .
8. , ...
9. ,
.
10.
,
,
.
6.10 CASES ADOPTED BY PARTICULAR VERBS
A number of verbs adopt a specific grammatical case which differs from the
regular accusative or dative forms which generally characterize the direct or
indirect object of the verb. In most instances the adoption of an irregular
case will present little difficulty from the point of view of translation; situations
will arise, however, where the adopted case appears quite anomalous and may
lead to some confusion. Thus,
.
We bought some bread.
represents an example of the use of the partitive genitive (Section 2.8) and as
such the replacement of the accusative by the genitive may be readily under
stood. In the following sentences, however, the use of the genitive is not at
all obvious:
.
The scientists achieved success.
and
.
I am afraid of the cold.
This anomalous adoption of case is by no means restricted to the genitive; for
example,

We are studying Russian
?
Who directs your work?
In these sentences the object of the verb is in the instrumental case.
59
To account for these seemingly anomalous violations of an otherwise regular
grammatical pattern would take us too far afield, and in many cases simply
derive from older forms of the language which have survived into modern
Russian. From the present readers point of view it would be of more practical
advantage to familiarize himself with the verb/case associations tabulated in
Table 6.9.1, and to refer to it when an apparently anomalous case form arises
in the course of translation.
Table 6.9.1
Case of object after various verbs
Case
Accusative
Verb
(i) All transitive verbs as a direct object with a verb in the affirmative
(transitive verbs in the negative adopt the genitive case):

Today I received a letter
(ii) With intransitive verbs to denote a period of time, a distance or
a price:

We stayed a week
Genitive
(i) Transitive verbs in the negative

I didnt receive a letter today
(cf. accusative case for affirmative transitive verbs)
(ii) With the following verbs:
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
Dative
to be afraid of
to achieve
to wish
to avoid
to ask
to be frightened
to demand
to want
(i) As indirect object of verbs which either explicitly or implicitly

denote action directed at or towards some person or thing. Often
the preposition to is implicit. The following verbs adopt the
dative
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
order, to tell to do
give
hinder
explain
answer
refuse
show
help
send
order
60
Table 6.9.1
continued
Case
Verb
(ii) After verbs denoting a state of mind:
/
/
/
to like
to be glad
to be surprised
(iii) With the following verbs:

,
to be getting on
,
to want
,
to have to
(e.g. ? Hows your friend getting on?)
Instrumental
(i) As the object of the following verbs:
to possess, have
command of
/
to choose, elect
to be proud of
/
to study
to be interested in
to command, be in
command
to possess
to make use of
to lead, direct
to govern
(ii) Denoting states of existence:
/
/
/
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
be
become, to get
seem, appear
remain
serve
become, to get
be considered
be
(e.g. . My brother was a professor.)
Exercise 6.10.1
Translate the following sentences:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
.
.
.
.
.
.
61
7.
8.
9.
10.
6.11
.
.
.
.
PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION
1979
.
Q0957 +561 , .
.
.
,
, ,
. ,
,
, ,
.
.

.
, ,
,
. , ,

.

.
, ,
. , ,
. ,
, , ,
, .
, - .
Q0957+561A, .

.
, ... ,
, .
: , ,
, . ? -
.
10
15
20
25
35
62
, . -, ,
,
, , , ( )
40 . -,
:
(
),
.
45
, ,
:
.
- ,
, , ,
50 .
-
- .
Vocabulary
adj. indisputable, unquestionable

brightness
twins6
moreover
Great Bear, Ursa Major
conditional particle should7
near ( +gen.)
cj. you see, you know
spring1
adj. guilty
outward appearance
once again, anew
age
f. possibility
/ v. to arise
- secondly
- firstly
time
/ universe
/ v. to provoke, give rise to
adj. enormous, huge
adj. double
f. pi. twins (diminutive of f. pi. twins)
action
adj. long
adj. additional, further, supplementary
up to now
emphatic particle similar, same12
/ v. to forget
f dependence
adj. mysterious
/ v. to slow down
adj. noticeable, visible
/ v. to lag, be late
adj. foreign
past part, was demanding
little star,2 asterisk (gen. pi. )
adv. considerably, significantly
sight
it is known
adj. well known
radiation
change, variation
/ v. to change
/ v. to curve, to bend
verb adv. using (see Section 8.2)
pres. part. pass, being emitted (see Section 8.2)
source
research
/ v. to seem, appear
adj. indirect
f blood
to the point, in particular
only
(+instr.) to puzzle over, lit. to break ones head
v. to observe
short form pass, past known
- eventually, finally, at last
conversely
/ v. to begin
adj. heavenly, celestial
adj. incredible
adv. impossible4
adj. non-curved
adv. should not, impossible
adv. somewhat
cj. but also
past part. pass, was observed (see Section 8.3)
/ v. to discover
adj. general
/ v. to explain
64
adj. enormous
adj. identical
/ v. to appear, show, seem3
outskirts, outer regions
/ v. to define, determine
adj. remote, distant
/ v. to refuse
divergence
f. relativity
relation, (+dat.) with respect to
/ v. to be evaluated, estimated
adj. variable
past part, writing5
adj. like, similar, such
confirmation
m. pi. search
past pass. part, was predicted (see Section 8.3)
f help
/ v. to hit, to land on
adj. constant
pres. part. pass, being sent (see Section 8.2)
/ v. to appear
/ v. to predict
/ v. to think of, invent, imagine
/ v. to recognize
/ v. to underestimate, to disparage
/ v. to take part10
/ v. to add, attribute
it being
reason
/ v. to continue
/ v. to observe
adj. other
adj. straight
m. path, journey
/ v. to attempt, to try
just, exactly9
split, pair
measure
/ v. to be spread, dispersed
distance, space
decision, determination, resolution
- adj. the very
f. brightness
adj. distinctive
65
adv. strongly
/ v. to weaken
/ v. to follow
event
/ v. to accomplish, to perform
adj. joint, combined
coincidence
constellation
way, method, means
/ v. to compare with, equate with (c + instr.)
side8
existence
/ v. to count, to be considered (+ instr.)
flow, passage
also
gravity
/ v. to be crowned with (+ instr.)
if
already11
f uniqueness
/ v. to strengthen
success
/ v. to specify, make more exact
scientist
six-metre
appearance, phenomenon
Commentary
1. The instrumental case is frequently used to denote the time or

manner of an action (see Table 7.2.1):
.
.
In the evenings I read.

He speaks in a loud voice.
In the second example there is a definite sense of by means of.

2. This is a diminutive form of . is gen. pi. form
of .
3. / v. to appear, to seem takes the instrumental case.
Hence,
... ... appeared practically
identical
Note that is an adverb and should be distinguished from
adj. practical.
66
4. Nothing
unlikely could possibly be imagined. Note use of the genitive with the
negative verb.
5. Past participle verbal adjective (see Section 8.2).
6. From (+gen.) close. Note also Gemini.
7. Particle used for the construction of the conditional subjective tense:
To ...
It would have followed ...
8.
towards ( + .). Distinguish this from ( + prep.)

on the side or aside.
9. Highly idiomatic expression, meaning here just the very, exactly
the.
10. To take part in, to participate in.
CAO. A somewhat idiomatic use of , not readily translatable,

but may be regarded here as an emphatic particle.
11. Distinguish carefully between already, and narrower. In printed
text there is no typographical distinction, being merely a question of stress.
Its translation must be determined by context.
12. An emphatic particle, has a variety of meanings, not always translat
able. The appropriate translation is best decided by context. Some
examples should help:
right now

this very day

All these books are yours?
; ?
What about this one? Its mine
.
too.
In this manner
...
Now, as regards metals ...
...
Let us now consider...
...
The same instance

one and the same

How could this be?
?
The gravitational lens
In the spring of 1979, American astronomers observed an interesting pair of

small stars in Ursa Major. They were entered into the catalogues as the double
quasar Q0957 +561A, B.
The spectra of objects A and appeared practically identical. Nothing more
5 unlikely could possibly be imagined.
The spectrum contains a great deal of information about the star, and so
journalists writing about the heavenly twins tended not to fully appreciate
this unique phenomenon. If the two quasars are to be identified as twins, it
then follows that they would have not only to be similar in appearance, but
10 also have identical cardiograms, X-rays, identical blood analyses and other
related tests.
Scientists were not prepared to accept such a coincidence.
67
Albert Einstein predicted the possibility of deflecting a beam of light by the
action of a galaxy or massive star. As a result, a situation may be created
where part of the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the star arrives at the
Earth virtually directly. Another part, not emitted towards our planet will,
under the action of an enormous mass, be deflected along a considerably more
curved trajectory and a^so fall within the field of observation of the telescope.
The mysterious object in the constellation of Ursa Major has provided confirmation that the existence of the gravitational lens is quite real.
The joint search, in which astronomers from the SAO participated, was
wholly successful. The galaxy responsible for the double quasar was identified.
Moreover, use of the six-metre telescope revealed another baffling
phenomenon, the resolution of which was thought settled.
As we know, quasars are variable sources. However, scientists in other
countries detected no variations in intensity of Q0957 -1-561 A, B. Following
several months observations, they concluded that its emission was constant.
Investigations with the Soviet telescope continued, and all of a sudden the
quasar, just as anticipated, greatly changed its brightness. The following
interdependence was observed: when the brightness of object A became
brighter, the brightness of object conversely grew weaker. How could this
be if the light was coming from one and the same source?
Soviet astrophysicists offered two explanations. Firstly, light curved by
gravitation travels a longer path, and so the variation in brightness lags behind
(in phase) with respect to the direct beam. And secondly, the relativistic effect
should not be forgotten: time passes more slowly in the vicinity of an object
of tremendous mass (this also follows from the general theory of relativity),
which may further delay the signal.
It appears that the gravitational lens effect may be used to clarify cosmological parameters of the universe: its age and size.
We know that quasars are the most distant of the known objects whose
distances, up till now, have been estimated by indirect and, indeed, somewhat
questionable methods. From the time lag of one signal with respect to another,
it will at last be possible for a direct estimate to be made of the distance to
the most remote fringes of the universe.
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
-
,
.
, ,
, . .
,
.

. ,
68
15
20
25
30
: , ...
,
...

. ,
,
.
-

-.
.
,
, -, , ,
, ,
, , ,
.

( - )
,
.
- ,
-.
Vocabulary
a cj. and, but1

amino acid
protein
adj. important
cj. you see, you know, it follows
matter, substance
deposit
/ v. to instill, to install
/ v. to bring in, introduce
rotation
past part. pass. (short form ) has been obtained (see Section 8.2)
implementation
past part. pass. (short form ) has been elucidated (see Section 8.2)
gene
adv. deeply
hormone
adj. given
action, effect
ten: dozens, scores
/ v. to dictate
69
adj. dynamic
DNA
/ v. to achieve ( +gen.)
if you like
adj. living
adj. similar
in a short time
problem, question
knowledge
both2
change, variation
adj. different
pres. part, in which we are interested (see Section 8.2)
utilization6
cell
adj. major3
adj. numerous
must, have to
it is not possible
nucleic acid
now
basis
pres. part, basic, fundamental (see Section 8.2)
/ v. to note, observe
behaviour
pres. part, permitting (see Section 8.2)
f. help5
/ v. to understand
f succession
transformation, conversion
it being, by
space
past pass. part. (short fo rm ) has been developed
development
adv. earlier, previously
arrangement, disposition
opening
past pass, part (short fo rm ) has been deciphered (see Section 8.2)
deciphering
calculation
the question of
determination, resolution
PHK RNA
assembly
/ v. to follow
70
adj. complex
/ v. to take
quite
combination, formation
past pass, part (short fo rm ) has been founded (see Section 8.2)
a hundred
combination
structure
rate, pace
.. = et cetera
/ v. to demand, require (+gen.)
adj. astonishing
v. to be able, to know how
m. level
adv. successfully
past pass, part (short fo rm ) has been identified (see Section 8.2)
pres. part, taking part, participating (see Section 8.2)
enzyme
adv. functionally
number4
/ v. to appear
adj. nuclear
Commentary
1. a generally means b u t ; however, it is also equivalent to and whenever its

purpose is to contrast rather than connect:
,
not only experienced, but also talented
,
yesterday it rained, but today its sunny
2. ordinarily means and, but depending upon context may mean also, even
or be part of an idiomatic expression. In the present case should be
translated as b oth/either... and/or...:

both
mass
either
energy
3. This is the superlative form of the adjective large-scale, big.

4. including.
5. with the help o f by means o f
6. using, by means of.
71
The horizons o f biology
One of the central problems of physicochemical biology is to decode the

structure of biologically vital structures involved in the biological transforma
tions within the cell. Implied is the structure of nucleic acids, proteins and
other biopolymers, and also the many bioregulators of hormones, vitamins,
etc. It follows that without a knowledge of the structure we cannot deeply
understand either the function of a specific substance or its operation within
the living organism. Structure should be understood as the spatial arrangement
of atoms within a given molecule, and the dynamics of this conformation
during a biological function. If you like, we need to shoot a motion picture
of the behaviour of the molecule in which we are interested - an enzyme,
antibiotic or hormone molecule - and if, previously, resolution of the problem
required years and decades, present-day science demands quite another
timescale.
In the world today, hundreds of biological structures have been deciphered.
It is important to point out that the structure of one of the first nucleic acid
carriers involved in protein molecular assembly in the living cell was eluci
dated in the Soviet Union. Our scientists made a fundamental contribution to
the proximate analysis of the DNA sequence, and from there decoded the
structure of major, functionally important DNA elements, the genes. A school
of protein structures was established in the USSR. In just a short time amino
acid sequences in complex proteins have been identified, including trans
aminase, RNA polymerase, rhodopsin and prolactin, and X-ray structures of
pepsin, leghaemoglobin, catalase, crystallin and antinoxanthine have also been
obtained, providing an insight into the spatial structure of the molecules in
these proteins.
Complex methods of structural analysis of proteins (and their short
analogues, the peptides) in solution have been developed and are being
successfully utilized with the combined aid of nuclear magnetic resonance and
optical rotation dispersion techniques plus theoretical calculations. Work to
identify the structure of polysaccharides and similar substances such as the
lipids, using mass spectrometry, has reached a high plateau.
10
15
20
25
30
Chapter 7
The adverb
7.1
INTRODUCTION
The adverb generally qualifies a verb, adjective, and in some cases, another
verb. The adverb denotes manner (in response to the question howl):
He performed badly in the examinations.
or time (in response to the question whenl):
The fog tends to lift in the morning.
or place (in response to the question where 1):
Can you see those hills in the distance ?
or from numerals:
First, let me say this ones twice the price.
The Russian adverb is totally uninflected and is generally easily recognized.

However, since the adverbs are often formed from adjectives, care should be
exercised in distinguishing them from the dative and adjectival short forms
with which they bear considerable similarity. Yet others are formed from nouns
in the instrumental singular, but without a preposition. Again, these forms
should be carefully distinguished. In practice their obvious grammatical associ
ation with the verb should prevent confusion.
7.2
PRINCIPAL ADVERBIAL FORMS
We tabulate in Table 7.2.1 some of the main adverbial characteristics.

Table 7.2.1. lists the basic forms upon which a whole variety of additional
adverbs may be generated from adjectives, nouns, etc. There is, however, a
substantial number of standard adverbial expressions which do not fit readily
into the above classification, but which may be readily located in vocabulary
lists and dictionaries. It serves no useful purpose to provide an exhaustive
listing here, but a representative selection includes:
in the distance
down
72
above
no place
73
Table 7.2.1
Adverb
Ending -
Principal adverbial forms

Remarks
Examples
well
badly
slowly
clearly
quietly
-
-
-
-
-
-
in a new way]1
as in spring (
my way
(
really
Ji
in Russian ]|
in English
1
theoretically [
politically
,1
Ending -,
-, -
in the morning
in summer
in the evening
by day
at night
in spring
homeward
on foot
From numerals
-
-
-
once
twice
three times
firstly
secondly
thirdly
Prefix -
below
where
somewhere
at home
here
from a distance
when
where to
Identical to neuter
adjectival short form
Note masculine dative

singular ending
Derived from adjectives
ending -
Instrumental singular
ending, but without
preposition
Also
Also
long ago
nowhere
very (much)
on the left
again
on the right
from the top
there
7.3 PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION

, ,
, .
, .
- .
74
5

.
, , ,
. -
. ,
,
.
(..
) .
15 ,
.
, ,
, .. .
? , 20 , ,
, -, ,
.
. . ( )
. . ( )
25 ,
,
, ,
.
. ,

100 .
.
,
.
35 , , ,
. ,
, ,
,
. ,
40 ,
. ,
, .

,
45 ,
- .
, , ..
, ,
(10~13-1012).
75
,
, .
, ,
,
. ,
,
, , ..
. ,
, .
,
.
,

( ).

-

.

, ,
.
- .
Vocabulary
majority
cj. as if
adv. fast, quickly, rapidly
matter
v. to interact
glance, look
adv. outward
adj. internal
hydrogen
v. to influence
origin, beginning
prep, round (+gen.)
adj. wave
spinning top
v. to rotate, revolve
pres. part, rotating
time3
due to, on account of
50
55
60
65
70
76
v. to look, appear
/' v. to calculate, compute
superlative adj. the most important
adj. state
boundary
adj. enormous
movement
adv. long ago
/ v. to act, to operate
adv. sufficiently
f. liquid
f relation, dependence
law
pres. part, being occupied (-\-instr.)
adj. occupied
/ v. to change, be changed
measurement
study
in other words
v. to be utilized
past part, was investigated
research, investigation
adj. initial
as is known
- some, a4
it seems
adv. qualitatively
quantity, amount
pres. part, changing
/ target
comp. adj. greater
/ v. to call, name2
adv. the most
the presence, existence
adj. unexpected
/ v. to remind
direction
for example
how important
/ v. to begin
neutron
adj. some
adv. no little, close
adj. immediate, neighbouring
despite
77
adj. high
in no way, by no means
adj. insignificant
v. to possess ( + in s tr .)x
f. area, field
revolution
circumstance
adj. stipulated
volume
adj. conventional, usual
cj. however
adj. definite
orientation
basis, foundation
f . axis
opening, development
/ v. to treat, regard ( -I- d a t.)
reflection
v. to be absent
/ v. to envelop, include
adj. mistaken, erroneous
/ v. to cross, transmit
f. plane
- adv. apparently
/ v. to allow
/ v. to show
adv. completely
/ v. to receive, get
/ v. to give rise to
order, sequence (gen . pi. )
due to
looks like
refraction
/ v. to lead to (k + d a t.)
pres. p a rt. p a ss, being employed
adv. approximately
it being
cause, reason
conduction, transmission
origin
/ v. to happen, occur
interval, space (gen . pi. )
passage, transmission
adj. past, last
adj. straight, direct
78
bundle (gen. sing, )

difference
/ v. to be cleared up, elucidated
diffusion, scattering
dispersion; unscattered
under consideration, being considered
registration
adj. sharp
the question is
c(o) prep, from (+gen.)
property
adj. connected with
force, strength
adv. strongly
prep, through (+acc.)
/ v. to follow
layer
/ v. to serve
adj. own, intrinsic
/ v. to happen
adv. absolutely, totally
state
v. to be
/ v. to remain
way, method
medium
of the colliding particles
state, condition
adj. essential
in this way
adj. hard
.. ( = ) i.e., that is
body
adj. thin, fine
standpoint, point of view
adj. exact, precise
/ v. to liken to, represent by (+ dat.)
/ v. to take into account
cj. although
adj. whole; as a whole, on the whole
f. detail; specifically, in particular
frequency
phenomenon, appearance
adj. nuclear
nucleus
adv. clearly
79
Commentary
1. The verb to possess, and the verb to possess, to have

command of, both assume objects in the instrumental case:

he has the talent

to enjoy good health
See Table 6.10.1.

2. known as spin. The instrumental is used here
since the phrase represents an extension of the object of the verb .
3. at the same time. Other such expressions include

at any time
a long tim e/ while
fo r a while
hitherto
till then
since
by that time
4. - some, a should be distinguished carefully from - somehow.

Similar expressions include
- = -
what, how
some kind o f
The phenomenon o f nuclear precession o f neutrons
As is well known, protons, neutrons and atomic nuclei possess an intrinsic

angular momentum or spin which may be likened to a top rapidly rotating
about its axis. Spin is an essential element of nuclear structures. At the same
time, the spin interacts quite strongly with magnetic and electric fields, and
for that reason may be used effectively in investigating the structure of solids
and liquids.
It is clear therefore that studies of phenomena linked with spin are important,
particularly the dependence of nuclear forces on the spin orientation of
colliding particles. In particular, the interaction of neutrons with nuclei has
long been studied in many laboratories. The most direct method is to record
the scattering of polarized neutrons (i.e. neutrons with a fixed spin orientation)
on the nuclei of a polarized target. After the scattering, the spin of a neutron
may change its direction, and the recording of this change yields important
information on the nature of nuclear forces.
If the target is thin, most of the neutrons pass through without scattering,
i.e. without changing its direction of motion. But what happens to the spin of
these neutrons? At first sight it may seem that the spin orientation cannot
change since apparently the unchanged direction of the motion suggests that
the neutrons have in no way interacted with the nuclei of the target. However,
15
20
80
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
in their initial work, V. G. Baryshevskii (Byelorussian State University) and

M. I. Podgoretskii (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research) showed this to be
incorrect, and that the spin character of a neutron beam that has passed through
a target does change, moreover, about one thousand times more intensively
than in the case of scattered neutrons. The spin of the neutrons begins to
rotate with an enormous frequency around the direction of polarization of the
target nuclei. For example, in a layer of totally polarized liquid or solid
hydrogen the spin makes about 100 million revolutions per second. The
phenomenon was called the nuclear precession of neutrons.
It has long been known that when a neutron moves in a magnetic field, its
spin rotates at a precisely defined frequency. So the nuclear precession of the
spin appears as if the neutron in matter with polarized nuclei is affected by a
magnetic field. However, if we calculate this field from the nuclear precession
frequency, it will be several orders of magnitude greater than the magnetic
field generated in the substance by the magnetic moment of the oriented nuclei.
In other words, the nuclear forces cause the neutrons in a polarized substance
to be influenced by a certain effective field, which, although resembling a
magnetic field, is of a nuclear rather than an electromagnetic origin.
The initiation of a nuclear quasimagnetic field is a cooperative effect caused
by the interaction of the neutrons with all the target nuclei, while in conventional scattering experiments each neutron interacts with a single nucleus. The
fact that the quasimagnetic field is macroscopic, i.e. extending through the
whole of the target, may seem surprising since the range of the nuclear force
is very small (1(13-1( 12 cm). They act only on a minute part of the target
volume filled with nuclei proper, and are not observed between the nuclei.
This paradox is resolved if we take into account that the neutrons propagate
according to the laws of wave mechanics owing to which the passage of the
neutrons through matter resembles the propagation of light. Thus, typical of
neutrons are well known optical phenomena such as refraction at the boundary
of two media, total internal reflection and diffraction. For that reason the part
of neutron physics concerned with the behaviour of neutrons in matter is
called neutron optics. It is quite analogous to conventional optics, despite
the sharp differences in the properties and character of the interaction of
neutrons and photons with matter. For example, the rotation of the neutron
spins in a polarized nuclear target is analogous to the rotation of the plane of
polarization of light in optically active media (Faraday effect).
The discovery has given rise to a new field of scientific research, the neutron
optics of polarized matter, and has served as a basis for the ever more widely
used precise method of measuring the scattering characteristics of neutrons in
their interaction with polarized nuclei of matter.
The phenomenon of nuclear precession enables us to obtain qualitatively
new information about the fundamental properties of matter at low temperatures and also about electric and magnetic fields affecting the nuclei in
matter. On the basis of this discovery methods have been developed for the
measurement of ultralow temperatures.
81

,

.
,
, , , 12, ,
, ... - ,
.
,
- ,
.
,

- . ,
, .
(),
-
. ...

.
,
, .. ,
- ,
- ...
Vocabulary
assets; on the credit side

protein {gen. pi. )
adj. important
weight, mass
f. interrelation
contribution
/ v. to expose
pres. part, explained, elucidated4
gene
v. to be proud (of), to take pride (in)
adv. far off, distant
adj. double
adv. in detail
DNA
10
15
20
25
82
adj. living
f dependence
past pass. part, encoded
adv. thereupon
m. messenger
adj. famous
study
this2
v. to intensify
adj. each3
adj. cellular
template
adv. most
adj. hereditary
/ v. to form
organelle
basis
f. feature, peculiarity
transmission, transcription
adj. foremost
v. to print out, type
achievement
/ v. to permit, allow
position
adj. full, total, complete
/ v. to receive, obtain
cj. in as far as
adj. last; in recent years
f. sequence
highly esteemed (short form of adj. )
adv. strangely, amazingly
/ v. to move forward, press ahead
space
being studied
adv. sharply
genealogy
adv. now
agriculture1
super, adj. most complex
compound
pres. part, corresponding
pres. part, constituent
a hundred (gen. pi. )
f. spiral, helix
adv. comparatively
83
among (+gen.)
deployed
enzyme
storage
adj. Valuable, useful
particle
Commentary
1. collective farm , often abbreviated to .

2. depends very much upon context for its precise meaning. In the
present case the sense is namely, to wit, viz. It also has the meaning of just,
exactly, as in

?

just that very case

just because
who exactly?
it is precisely this which explains
(note the use of the instrumental
by means o f this)
3. every form o f life has its

own protein (note the use of + instr.). is an adjective being used
here as a noun. This is a fairly common occurrence, and it should be noted
that in Russian an adjective used as a noun retains its adjectival endings,
as we see above, and uses them to specify gender and number.
4. The verb / to elucidate, clear up also to turn out takes
the dative case, hence it became clear to them.
Synthesis o f D N A
In recent years research into the chemical synthesis of biologically important

compounds and their analogues has sharply intensified throughout the world,
in as far as this enables us to detect the laws relating structure and function,
and on this basis obtain valuable preparations for medicine and agriculture.
On the credit side world-wide activity in bio-organic chemistry has produced
such achievements as the complete chemical synthesis of structurally highly
complex substances as tetracycline, chlorophyll, prostaglandins, vitamin B12,
hundreds of peptides, proteins and genes. Soviet synthetic-chemists are entitled
to take pride in the fact that their contribution is substantial and highly
esteemed.
Amongst the fundamental biological problems considered in physical biochemistry that have been taken the furthest is how hereditary information is
stored and transmitted. These days it is well known that the living organisms
entire genealogy is encoded in the macromolecule of DNA in the form of a
specific sequence of component messengers - the nucleotides. In fact it is DNA
10
15
84
with its amazing spatial structure that comprises the celebrated double helix.
It is on the DNA template with the help of enzymes that the relatively small
messenger ribonucleic acids (RNA) are synthesized, and by means of which
the respective proteins in the special cellular ribosome organelles are typed.
20 In every living structure is its own protein. In the study of all these processes
Soviet scientists occupy a leading position. They have clarified the specific
structural features of the genetic makeup in micro and higher organisms, have
made a detailed study how transcription works, that is, the synthesis of RNA
from DNA, have discovered the messenger RNA-informosome protein
25
complex, and have analysed the structure and function of nucleoproteinic

particles - the ribosome.
Chapter 8
The participles
8.1
INTRODUCTION
The Russian language uses participles extensively, perhaps more so than

English, and in using them effects a great economy of expression which it is
often difficult to render in English. From the outset it is necessary to resolve
the participles into two distinct kinds, the verbal adjective and the verbal adverb.
The difference between the two may often only be resolved grammatically in
English. They are, however, quite distinct in Russian.
We shall consider the two kinds of participle separately. We may anticipate,
however, that the verbal adjective will decline with case, gender and number
(since it is an adjective), whilst the verbal adverb will not.
8.2
THE VERBAL ADJECTIVE
As its name suggests, this participle has adjectival features in that it qualifies
a noun with which it agrees in case, gender and number in Russian. Its stem,
however, is essentially verbal.
Consider the following sentences:
The people who are causing trouble must leave.
Those students sitting the examination may go.
The person who cooks the dinner does the shopping.
The words in italics are examples of the present participle or verbal adjective.
These words are obviously verbal in nature, yet they qualify the performer of
the action expressed by the participle. Thus, to the question what kind of
people? in the first sentence, answer: the causing trouble people. Again,
what kind of students?: the sitting examination students, and in the last
sentence, the cooking dinner person. The nouns are clearly qualified by the
participles, and are therefore essentially adjectival in nature.
Similar observations apply for the past tense:
The people who caused the trouble ....
The students who sat the examination ....
The person who cooked the dinner....
85
86
from which we conclude that both present and past participles may be formed.
Since the people actively caused the trouble, sat the examination and cooked
the dinner, these participles are said to be active.
The present and past participles are readily recognized in Russian from
their verbal stem and adjectival ending. The present participle adds the adjec
tival endings -, -, - to the third person plural verbal stem of the
present tense, whilst the past participles assume the adjectival endings -(),
-(), -() on the singular verbal stem of the past tense. Aspect persists
in the formation of participles, and so the past participles arise in imperfective/perfective pairs, as shown in Table 8.2.1. Of course, there can be no
perfective counterpart to the present participle.
Table 8.2.1
Present participl ( imperfective)

is
is
is
is
reading
speaking
writing
beginning
Active verbal adjectives

Past participle (imperfective/perfective)
/
/
/
/
was
was
was
was
reading/had read
speaking/had spoken
w riting/had written
beginning/had begun
The use of these verbal adjectives is best illustrated by some examples.

, .
, .
, .
, .
,
.
, .
The boy who is reading a book.

The cat which is walking in the yard.
The books lying on the table.
The students who were reading the
paper.
The professor who gave the lecture.
The mother who loved her son.
Compare this last sentence with

, .
The mother who used to love her son [and

doesnt any more].
Note the presence of the comma after the subject which almost invariably
precedes the participle.
The passive verbal adjectives qualify the object of the participle. To take
our initial three sentences we see that the trouble is being caused, the examin
ation is being sat, and the dinner is being cooked. The trouble, examination and
dinner are being passively qualified; passive participles may be formed which
qualify these objects rather than the (active) agent responsible.
The present passive participles combine the stem of the present tense of the
verb with the characteristic adjectival ending - or -, whilst the past
passive participles are formed from the stem of the past tense with the
87
characteristic ending -. Again, both imperfective and perfective forms
may arise.
Corresponding to the active forms given in Table 8.2.1, we have the passive
counterparts listed in Table 8.2.2.
Table 8.2.2
Passive verbal adjectives
Present participle
( imperfective)
Past participle (imperfective/perfective)
being read
being said
*
/
/
being started
was being read/having been

read
/having been said
was being w ritten/having been
written
/having been started
* Only a few imperfective verbs form passive past participles, the majority being form ed from
the perfective.
Of course, the passive verbal adjective must agree in case, number and
gender with the object of the participle. Moreover, it is obvious that passive
forms are based on transitive verbs (that is, verbs capable of taking an object)
only:
, .
The book being read by the boy.
, .
The newspaper being read by the students.
, .
The lecture given by the professor.
.
The substance being formed in the reaction.
Once again, note the characteristic presence of the comma.
There is also a short-form passive participle which corresponds to the
attributive form of the adjective, agreeing only in gender and number. This
predicate use arises only in equational statements involving the verb 4o be,
implicitly or explicitly, and so there is no variation with case. Its use is therefore
restricted to attributive sentences of the form
.
.
This table is taken.

This book will be read.
We should also point out that a future passive participle may be formed,
based on the perfective verb, but with the - endings (see Table 8.2.2). The
meaning in this case is to be done, can be done or -able:
.
The particles visible in the microscope.
88
Finally, certain reflexive verbs ending in - retain the particle throughout:

, being studied, etc.
We summarize the verbal adjective endings as follows:
Active
Passive
Future
-*
Present
-
1-
Past
* Formed with the perfective verbal stem, implies

capability.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.3
.
.
.
.
.
.
THE VERBAL ADVERB
In the sentence glancing across the room, he noticed the door open slightly,
glancing has obvious verbal qualities, yet also an adverbial feature in that it
answers the question how he noticed (by glancing). Complementing the present
tense verbal adverb, we may form its past tense counterpart; having glanced
across the room,.... Once again we have to deal with both present and past
verbal adverbs, in each case modifying the verb and denoting some additional
feature of the action.
The verbal adverbs are particularly easy to recognize since they are evidently
verbal and are of fixed form, like the adverbs, showing no inflection. The
present imperfective has the characteristic ending -a, or its mutant, -:
living
sitting
reading
The past verbal adverb is formed from the past imperfective stem, with the
characteristic ending -, - or -:
having finished
having read through
having sat
89
Some examples of the use of the verbal adverb are as follows:
, .
Having finished work, he takes a rest.
, .
Reading the book, the student didnt answer the question.
, .
Having read the book, the student knew the answer to the question.
8.4
,
, : ,
, .
- .
.
, ?
.
, ,
. ? ,
, ,
.
- , , .
.

, , ... ,
, , ,
, . ,
.
, , ,
.
- .
:
, .
.
. ,
- ( ,
) .
.
:
, .. ,
10 7 13 3
. ? .
,
.
15
20
25
90

,
( ).

.
40
.

. , ,
,
.
45
.
:
,
.
? ,
50 , . .
.

. ,
, - .
55
.
. , -...
.
.
, .
60 - .
(
)
. SS 433.
-
65 .
-
. - ,
.
?!
35
Vocabulary
ad/. bottomless
adj. white
f infinity
majority
barrel, pit
introduction, installation
spinning top (gen. sing, )
91
- adv. and cj. nevertheless, for all that
/ v. to enter, to join
ord. num. tenth
having reached
hole
genre
law
clutched
there are quite a few of them8
unfortunately
cond. as if
dwarf
of course
cone
curve
adj. circular
adv. incidentally
particle4
cj. either1
adv. only2
with each other
adj. interstellar
adj. multi-channel
must
adj. heavenly, celestial
adj. continuous
pres. part, non-luminous
adj. necessary10
pres. part, having
f. region6
adj. common12
grasp
adj. usual, ordinary
adj. definite
halo
adj. special, distinctive
f. axis
adj. distinctive
/ v. to outline7
f. variation
suspicion
adj. suspicious
search
cj. while5
/ v. to fall into
92
/ v. to be received11
/ v. to present
sign, indication
/ v. to apply
nature
cause, reason
arrival
/ v. to happen, occur
interval, space
speck (gen. pi. )
dimension(s)
dispersing
adj. extremely small
adj. superdense
force9
taken off, down
event
adv. quite
adv. quite recently, not long ago
to an onlooker
means, method
/ v. to collide
adv. so
adj. real; everything
adv. here; the very same, identical
adj. delicate
/ v. to be condensed, packed3
/ v. to settle, identify
adj. tenacious
f. blackholeness
adj. black
adv. clearly
operation, exploitation
Commentary
1. Distinguish carefully between the conjunction meaning or, either as,

for example, in the phrase
one or the other
and the compound form:
-
-
-
somewhere, anywhere
something, anything
someone, anyone
93
2. may arise as an adverb, as in the present case: only,
if only, and as a conjunction: as soon as, as soon as.
3. ... ,
. ... packed tighter and tighter by practically
infinite gravitational compression.
4. is generally used to indicate the interrogative. Here
means whether or not they exist. Other examples of this use include
,
We do not know whether this is the truth
He ,
It does not matter whether the salt is in dry form or solution
The interrogative use of is less likely to arise in scientific literature:
?
Does he know?
5. while often appears in conjunction with when it means until:

until the soaking stops
Often the phrase , ... , literally for such time until, may
be simply translated as until, ... sometimes has a more oblique
meaning:

but we shall not dwell on them at this time
6. beyond which.
7. these criteria were outlined as follows. The
use of is idiomatic and it is employed for emphasis. A more literal
translation might be here we also outlined criteria.
8. here is an emphatic particle.
9. There are a number of expressions involving :
by force

by force of habit
/ to come into force/effect

valid, to be in force

to remain in force

in force

because of
The present expression, is best translated
as which, for certain reasons.
10. Note the use here of the predicate short form of .
11. The verb / has a number of distinct meanings 1. to
act, 2. to treat, to deal with, 3. to join, to enter, 4. to be forthcoming, to receive.
12. ... literally means it has nothing
to do with a detective. A somewhat less literal translation might be it is
not a search of the whodunnit type.
94
Black holes
Stars end their active life by either dispersing matter into space, or forming
one of three types of bodies: white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. Out
of this short list only the black holes are, for the present, purely hypothetical;
the remaining objects have been observed.
5
The existence of black holes is supported by the relativistic theory of
gravitation. But how can they be found if not a single thing can escape their
gravitational clutch? Everything is drawn in as if it were a bottomless pit,
where it is packed tighter and tighter by practically infinite gravitational
10 compression. And how can an object possibly be detected which emits nothing?
Nevertheless, it can in principle be proved that black holes do exist, by
means of their distinct halo.
A superdense non-luminous object attracts protons, neutrons and electrons
15
from the interstellar medium. Before they reach the borderline of no return,
these particles collide with each other, heat up and begin to glow. To an
onlooker it would seem that matter from infinity is falling into a single point.
This is the first distinctive feature of the halo whose luminosity, incidentally,
20 is a thousand times less than that of our Sun.
A second distinctive feature is the continuous spectrum.
We outline these criteria: we must look for an object of small luminosity,
having a continuous spectrum. The first stage of selecting suspects may be
started.
25
There are quite a few of them. Unfortunately the same requirements are
met by the so-called DS dwarfs (white dwarfs which, for certain reasons, have
continuous spectra) and by certain radio sources.
A finer analysis is required. They examine the suspects by means of a crucial
30
test for blackholeness: fluctuations, i.e. random changes in brightness perhaps
over very short intervals of time of the order of 1(T7 to 10~3 sec. The reason?
Their very small size. A gravitationally collapsed star of solar mass will be
compressed until its diameter is a mere three kilometres.
35
Even before the six-metre telescope went into operation, work began on a
unique installation that was named MANIA (multichannel analyser of
nanosecond changes in brightness). It has been used to look for variable
brightness in relativistic objects. At the BTA it has been used to look for black
40
holes.
The brightness curve of such faint objects for such small intervals of time
cannot be plotted by conventional means.
For example, if in one second only a single photon arrives, then in most
cases, nothing will arrive within the period of a thousandth of a second.
45
Counting is meaningless.
But if the reverse is done, studying not the number of photons registered
within fixed time windows, but the time intervals between the arrival of each
successive photon.
What does this mean? The registering of the arrival of each light quantum
50 that the apparatus can detect. Time passes. A certain number of events have
95
occurred. And now the intervals between the arrival of photons may be plotted.
If the object is of constant brightness, the plot will have one shape, whilst if
the brightness is variable, a completely different shape.
A score of objects have been screened in this way. No black holes have
been found as yet-only quasars, DS dwarfs and the like. But more than one
hundred suspects remain on the list.
The delicate experiment goes on.
Of course, this is a search of a different kind to the whodunnit type: any
result is of interest. With the help of the MANIA installation (which has the
highest time resolution in the world) valuable new information has been
obtained about certain types of relativistic objects, including the well known
SS433. Quite recently it produced yet another surprise - a change of one tenth
in its precessional period.
The simplest example of precession is the change in direction of the axis
of a spinning top. In astronomy it is very slow-taking tens of thousands of
years for the rotation axis of a celestial body about a circular cone. But by
one tenth?!

55
60
65
,
, ,
.
.
, . 5
-
,
, ,
.
, . ,
15-25 ,
.
,
(
500- 10 000 ). 15
-
.
, .
,
( ). 20
()
-
.
, ,
96
. ,
,
.

.
30 , .

. 100
,
35
, ( )
,
.
, ,
,
40
, ,
.

.
-
45
.
.
. .

50 .
. ,
90
0 2 - ,
. ,
55 ,
, .

, - .
, .
60

,
.

65

.

,
, .
25
97

,
.

, ,
.

, .
Vocabulary
adj. acoustic
adv. without difficulty
introduction
adj. upper
adv. highly, greatly
explosion
adj. outer
adj. inner
perturbation
wave
owing to
pres. part, giving rise to
its precise specification
adj. hydroxyl
pressure
adv. additionally
adj. regular
/ v. to be conceived, to arise
adj. difficult
is protected
adj. sound
adj. considerable, substantial
invention
adv. sometimes
oscillation, vibration
m. root2
adj. short-time, transitory, momentary
adj. short-term
adj. interplanetary
inclined
direction
70
75
98
adj. direct, immediate; spontaneous
undoubtedly
is difficult
cloud
/ v. to designate, specify, define
envelope
adj. universally recognized, generally accepted
/ feature, peculiarity
adj. particular, special
difference; unlike, in contrast to
/ v. to note, mention
nap steam, vapour
hydroperoxyl
f. plane
f. density
/ surface
/ v. to be absorbed
/ v. to undergo
hindrance, obstacle
conception, idea, notion
adv. at times
adv. approximately1
/ v. to penetrate
/ v. to heat up
rocket
breakdown, disintegration, dissociation
f. connection, tie, bond
certificate
condensation
f. speed, velocity
layer
/ v. to mix up, confuse
sense
/ v. to serve
creation
collaborator, coworker
satellite
surroundings
adj. medium-term, intermediate-term
f. main point, essence
m. level
more precise/accurate definition/specification
adv. partially
f. detail; in particular
phenomenon, appearance
99
Commentary
1. has a second meaning of excellently:

to behave excellently
2. Note the following:
square root
cube root
root index, exponent
The phenomenon of intensity modulation o f the upper atmosphere hydroxyl
radiation by inner gravitational waves
In recent years the use of rockets and satellites has initiated research of the
atmosphere, and specific processes have been discovered in its higher layers,
giving rise to the notion of the upper atmosphere. However, the term is used
to denote different altitude ranges, since it has not been possible to designate
the exact boundaries of a layer. In general, the upper atmosphere is the part
of the Earths gaseous envelope in which an important role is played by
processes of decay of molecules into atoms, ionization and their recombination
into neutral particles. In the upper atmosphere processes characteristic of the
lower atmosphere practically never occur, such as the condensation of water
vapour into clouds. Certainly its lower boundary is located above 15-25 km,
but is not clearly delineated, however. The upper boundary may be regarded
as a surface below which the bulk of the neutral and ionized particles move
together with the Earth in interplanetary space (up to an altitude of approxi
mately 500-10 000 km). This boundary is a fairly dynamic formation, since the
upper atmosphere and the interplanetary medium partially interpenetrate.
Acoustic phenomena, amongst others, occur here. In particular we may
mention the inner gravitational waves (not to be confused with gravitational
waves). The term inner gravitational waves (IGW) denotes long period density
and temperature fluctuations - from five minutes to several hours. The IGW
are caused by sharp pressure changes in the lower atmosphere, for example
in cyclone or explosion areas, and propagate unhindered into the upper
atmosphere. However, during intense geomagnetic disturbances the IGW are
generated directly in the upper atmosphere.
Unlike conventional acoustic waves, the IGW cannot propagate vertically.
Their trajectory is always inclined to the horizontal plane and diminish with
increasing wavelength. While propagating from the lower to the upper rarified
atmosphere, the IGW amplitude increases significantly in inverse proportion
to the root of the density of the medium. At an altitude of about 100 km the
IGW begin to be absorbed intensively; the atmosphere heats up as well and
becomes agitated. Its parameters (density and temperature) undergo considerable variations, sometimes resulting in the migration of disturbances in the
ionosphere. That is why close observation of the IGW, and in particular, their
amplitude and direction of motion, is so important, since the IGW themselves
can provide valuable data concerning the processes producing them.
15
20
25
30
35
40
100
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
Facilities for observing and detecting the IGW have, up to now, been quite
limited. Direct IGW detection in the lower atmosphere is difficult owing to
their small amplitude and heavy interference from fluctuations of atmospheric
pressure. At greater altitudes a short-lived detection of IGW effects has been
achieved.
The situation has changed sharply following the discovery by V. I. Krasovskii
of the USSR Academy of Sciences Institute of the Physics of the Atmosphere
of the formerly unknown phenomenon of the intensity modulation of the
upper atmosphere hydroxyl radiation by inner gravitational waves.
The essential features of the discovery are as follows. It is known that at
an altitude of about 90 km the chemical reaction of ozone with hydroperoxyl
0 2H proceeds continuously, producing the OH hydroxyl which is reactivated
by radiation. The investigator established that radiating hydroxyl elemental
volumes also participate in the mass transport of the medium, generated by
IGW propagation. The periodically ascending elemental volume of atmosphere
cools, whilst the descending volume is heated. Associated with this is a variation
in density and temperature of the hydroxyl emission. The upper atmosphere
hydroxyl radiation is thus regularly influenced by inner gravitational waves,
owing to changes in the electron population of the energy levels of the atoms.
The discovery made has served as a basis for a qualitatively new and highly
efficient optical method of detecting and investigating the IGW. It has also
led to the development of original and already successfully used spectrometric
equipment for determining various IGW parameters, in particular their amplitude, their direction and velocity of propagation. The discovery is of consider
able interest in the solution of the problem of long-range detection of lower
atmosphere cyclones which is an important element in short- and medium-term
weather forecasting.
The IGW detection method based on the discovery provides the necessary
information for models of the upper atmosphere, in particular to calculate the
lifetime of spacecraft in orbit.
The discovery of hydroxyl radiation intensity modulation has enabled co
workers at the Institute of the Physics of the Atmosphere to devise a method
for determining the altitude of the atmospheric hydroxyl radiating layer with
greater precision. The method is protected by a certificate for an invention.
Chapter 9
The numerals
9.1
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we shall consider the cardinal (one, two, three, etc.) and the
ordinal (first, second, third, etc.) number systems in Russian. We shall also
discuss the fractions and collective numerals.
The use of Russian numerals is somewhat more complicated than in English:
the cardinal numerals, with one or two exceptions, inflect with case but not
number or gender, whilst the ordinals behave like adjectives. Unfortunately,
the numeral system has a number of peculiarities and irregularities; these,
however, should present relatively little difficulty when translating from
Russian into English.
9.2
THE CARDINAL NUMERALS
These are listed below, and are annotated as necessary.

1 (masc.), (fern.),
( neut.), (pi)
2 (masc. and neut.), (fem.)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
one on ten etc.
12
13
14
15
16
17
101
102
18
19
20
21
(,
)
22 ()
23
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
101 (, )
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1001 (, )
2000
3000
4000
5000 , etc.
21 000
22 000
1 000 000
In the numbers 21, 22; 31, 32; 41,

42, etc., one and two always agree
with the gender of the noun
Note irregular form
Note irregular form
Note irregular behaviour of
Gen. sing, of
Gen. pi. of
Inflections o f the cardinal numerals
, , inflect with case in more or less the same way as an

adjective, including the rather curious plural form . It is not immediately
apparent how a plural form of might arise; however, it is used for nouns
which only appear in the plural, such as trousers, scissors,
a watch. It also has a sense of only: women only.
The inflections of certain numerals are given in Tables 9.2.1(a), (b) and (c)
and Table 9.2.2; these form the pattern for inflection of the other numerals as
indicated at the bottom of each column.
Compound numbers are inflected throughout, as illustrated in Table 9.2.4.
103
Table 9.2.1(a) The inflection of 1
Singular
m.
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
n.
as nom. or gen.
f.
Plural
(-)
as . or gen.
Table 9.2.1(b) The inflection of 2, 3 and 4

2
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
(m., n.), (/)
as . or gen.
Table 9.2.1(c) The inflection of some other cardinal numbers

5
40
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Numerals
similarly
inflected
6-20, 30
100
500
60, 70, 80
90
600, 700, 800,

900
50
Table 9.2.2 The inflection of 200, 300 and 400
Nom.
.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
200
300
400
104
Table 9.2.3
If the numeral is in the
nominative or accusative
case
Cases adopted by the numerals

,
Takes the gen. sing, noun

Masc. and neut. nouns take
gen. pi. adjectives
Fem. nouns take nom. pi.
adjectives
*
)
upwards J
Takes the gen. pi. adjective

and noun
In any other case (including

the accusative if it differs
from the nominative) the
numeral, noun and adjective
agree in case (and gender if
, , or , )
Takes the nom. or acc. adjective

and noun
>
See Table 9.2.4
* Com pound numerals assume the case appropriate to the final digit. Thus, takes
the genitive singular noun, whilst takes the genitive plural.
Table 9.2.4
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Inflection of 942, an example of a

compound number

Exercise 9.2.1

1. ,
,
,

2. (, ) , (, )
(, ) , (, )
(, ) , (, )
(, )
(, )
105
3. ,

9.3
COLLECTIVE NUMERALS
Collective numerals are used more extensively in Russian than English, and
arise particularly in the expression of masculine and neuter nouns denoting
groups of persons or things. We give the inflections below for two, a pair
and four , a quartet. These provide the basic pattern for the formation
of other collective numerals given in Table 9.3.1. It should be noted that often
the collective numeral alone is used to represent a group of persons previously
referred to: , , I saw two o f them, and then
another three.
Table 9.3.1
The collective numerals
Two
Nom.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Instr.
Prep.
Others
following
this pattern
Four
as . or gen.
(., .)\
(/)
/
both
three
five
six
seven
The collective numerals are also used with nouns used only in the plural:

three watches
four pairs of scissors
The noun is always in the genitive plural. In these cases the collective numeral
has the sense of a pair of, a trio of, etc.:
.
They have four children.
The addition of the prefix to any of the collective numerals results in an

adverb that governs the comparative degree of the adjective. Thus,
.
This book is twice as hard as that one.
106
Note, incidentally, the use of the genitive with the comparative (see
Section 4.4).
9.4
THE ORDINAL NUMERALS
The ordinals - first, fourteenth, one hundredth, etc. - behave just like adjec
tives, and to that extent require little further description. Only the last part of
a compound ordinal shows the adjectival inflection; for example,
, in 1982.
The ordinal is also used in expressions of time and date:
( hour understood)
half past four

a quarter past two

fifth of September
We shall return to the expression of time in Section 9.6.
The ordinals are, as we have already mentioned, of essentially adjectival
form, the stem of which is virtually that of the cardinal number (Section 9.2);
thus
eleventh
thirtieth
hundredth

two hundred and fifth
etc.
The only ordinal numbers requiring particular care are:
first
second
third
fourth
seventh
fortieth
thousandth
millionth
Exercise 9.4.1

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
?
107
9.5
THE FRACTIONS
The denominator of fractions is simply formed from the feminine ordinal feminine because the word (/) part is implied. Remember that the
ordinals inflect like ordinary adjectives, and as such assume genitive plural
form for numerals greater than . Thus,

one fifth
two fifths
one seventh
onethirty-first
three thirty-firsts
Half, third and quarter have their own forms, however. half is a
regular feminine noun:
20^
whilst a third and a quarter inflect as regular soft sign feminine
nouns. There is also a special form meaning one and a half:

9.6
a year and a half
EXPRESSIONS OF TIME
Expressions such as in 1982 are generally rendered in Russian simply as

1982. (b + prepositional ordinal) and are rarely written in full:
(note the prepositional ending ; see
Section 2.7).
( + genitive ordinal) is used to represent before 1982 or up to 1982:
1982. =
Notice that only the last part of the numeral is inflected.
Ordinal numerals are also used to denote dates, both the noun and the
numeral being in the genitive:

1-
first of October
1st October
In the specification of age the usual rules governing the use of the nominative,
genitive singular and genitive plural after numerals apply (Table 9.2.3), except
that the genitive plural of is , deriving from the word summer :

is 21 years old.
22

23

24

25

In fifteen years
108
Exercise 9.6.1

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Exercise 9.6.2

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Exercise 9.6.3

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.7

109
, , . ,
,
, , 5
. . ,
, ,
! ,
,
, ,
;
.
?
, , , , ...
, 15
, ...

(, )
.
... 20
, .
, , ,
, ,
, .
- , 25
,
,
.
.
-
,
, ,
... ,

. , , 35
, ,

.

40
-

.

, 45
, , , . .
,
110
50
55
, , ,
,
...
,

,
.

,
. ,

.
Vocabulary
V. to block
/ pain
attention
adj. in-built
/ v. to call for, to give rise to1
animal
f. vital activity
disease
adv. beforehand
adj. protective, defensive
cj. for
play, game
adj. pretty well
v. to liquidate, eliminate
breaking, challenging
brain
adj. inherited, hereditary
ailment
no less important
adv. apparently, evidently
adj. All-Union
adv. gratifyingly
sensation
f memory
/ v. to overrate
transplantation
method of approach
knowledge
adj. beneficial
/ v. to overcome
Ill
adj. controversial2
adj. tied to
acclaim
conduction
v. to be understood
limits
opening, disclosure
plant
essence; in essence
f tissue
talk
/ v. to demand, require
condition(s)
assistance, service
discretion, judgement
draft plan, sketch
Commentary
1. to give rise to much discussion, has the sense

of informal talk, chatter, gossip.
2. Here the adjective is taken to represent the noun: means
the controversial ones, the ones who participate in the controversy.
Genetic technology
The emergence seven or eight years ago of genetic, or gene, engineering should
be seen as a revolution for genetics in physicochemical biology. Basically it
enables DNA to be restructured at will, exchanging one gene for another,
redeploying them, adding man-made genes, etc.: in other words, the controlled
designing of genetic systems and hence the programmed creation of totally
novel organisms. Such operations are already being done by means of special
enzymes in the simplest case on bacteria and viruses: however, some
laboratories are already attempting to modify higher organisms.
Is there any point in playing with such a biological Meccano set?
Apparently, yes very much so. Genetic engineering techniques enable us to
comprehend and directly establish how the genetic apparatus of the cell is
arranged, how it works, and the function of each gene. No less important is
the opportunity provided for the possibility of creating organisms with qualities
needed by man (for example, beneficial microorganisms) or to rectify inherited
defects in plants and animals. And to begin the approach towards eradicating
congenital diseases in man. In principle biology can already solve these
problems. Though genetic engineering is the subject of controversy at times,
the practical prospects are so clear however that throughout the world, as in
this country, progress is staggering.
10
15
20
112
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
As for other aspects of physicochemical biology, let us mention the noted

successes in the study of structure and function of enzymes, the understanding
of bioenergetic processes, and the investigation of the functioning of cellular
membranes. In these areas, the work of Soviet scientists has received world
wide acclaim.
In recent years physicochemical approaches have been making headway
into such vital areas as the study of the nervous system, higher nervous activity,
the explanation of the nature of immunity. For example, progress in
neurobiology is indebted to our knowing the role played by nerve membranes
and their in-built ionic canals. Here vital assistance was provided by toxic
poisons emitted by snakes, scorpions and marine animals, being convenient
instruments of research since they specifically block various sections along the
passage of the nerve impulse, providing conditions for their thorough examin
ation. Related work in the Soviet Union are the national programmes Nervous
Impulse and The Ionic Canal coordinated by the joint scientific and technical
advisory board for problems of physicochemical biology and biotechnology
under the USSR State Committee for Science and Technology and the
Praesidium of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Amongst the most important events in the study of the brain, we should
mention the discovery of neuropeptides involved in regulating such manifestations of higher nervous activity as memory, sleep, the sense of
pain, etc. These chemical aspects of brain function, which fundamentally
change established ideas, would appear to demand more attention on
the part of Soviet neurophysiology which at times seems tied to traditional
approaches.
It is hard to overestimate the significance of new advances in immunology,
as elucidation of the nature of immune response allows, in the case of any
sickness, to better exploit the organisms defence potential and overcome the
difficulties encountered in tissue and organ transplantation. In research of the
fundamental basis of cellular and molecular immunity, Soviet scientists are
successfully using modern physical and mathematical techniques, and broaden
ing the investigation of the chemical characteristics of the components of the
immune system. It is to be welcomed that immunology is the centre of attention
in the USSR.
... ?

.
. , ,
, . ,
5 .
, ( -
) - .
, .

, 440
. .
. ,
.
, , . .
, ,
, , .
15
- ,
, .. ,
. , , ,
,
. 20
:
, -.
,
. , ,
() .
25
, : ,
,
.
-
. ...
? ?
, , -
,
, , .
, , 35
. , . .
. . ,
.
, - .
40
.

, . . - , ,
. .
45
? -
. ( , ,
.)
, . ...
, . . 50
- .
.
.
- (, ).
114
55
60
65
70
75
80
85

. - . ,
. .
,
- , ,
.
. ?
30 .
. , ,
. , ,
, .
.
.
. - .

. -10
. . ,
, , , ,
. ,
, .
.
- . ,
, .
-
.
, ,
. ,
- , - ?

.
. .
Vocabulary
adj. incredible
doughnut
adj. rich
moreover
adj. relative
adj. in general
/ v. to arise, crop up
adv. hardly, scarcely
universe
115
choice
in the time
ghost
riddle, puzzle (gen. pi. )
adj. closed
in other words
curvature
cj. thus, so
ring
adj. quasar-like
curvature
circle
- pseudo
sheet of paper
scale
universe
opinion; according to
adj. continuous
one and the same
adj. simple
f. circle
deformation
()/ v. to identify
adj. next
pair
f. repetition, recurrence
calculation
adv. completely, utterly
adv. simply
- adv. variously, in different ways
/ v. to turn into, convert
adj. hypothetical
adj. notable, special
omission
v. to attempt, try
row, series
glued together
accumulation
adj. hidden, secret
comp. adj. more complex
point of information
adj. strange
torus
adv. convincingly
convenient
116
simplification
adj. conditional
chain, sequence
adj. spherical, globular
stage
What shape has the universe?
10
15
20
25
30
35
Very faint galaxies have been counted in a random sector of the sky, and then
their number plotted against apparent stellar magnitude. As we know, the
fainter a galaxy the more likely it is to be further from us. This means the
graph enables us to make a choice between this or that cosmological model.
Estimates showed that up to very great distances (up to five to seven thousand
million light years) no evolutionary effects can be detected. Thus, within these
limits the world is more or less stable.
In a complex analysis which involved a large sample consisting of 440 pairs
of galaxies, their relative positions were determined. From their spectra their
velocities were derived. As is well known, the masses of interacting objects
determine their relative motion.
Thus, knowing their relative positions, we know their velocities, and their
masses are determined. If this differs from the result obtained by a different
method, there is the baffling problem of the missing mass.
Topology is that branch of mathematics concerned with the topological
properties of figures, i.e. properties which remain unchanged in the process
of continuous deformation. As an example, a circle, an ellipse and a square
all have one and the same topological property since these lines may be
deformed one into the other. At the same time, a ring and a circle have different
topological properties since a circle is bounded by one contour and a ring by
two.
Mathematicians claim that every metric space can be transformed into a
topological space. Moreover, according to them, our space (which is metric)
is in general, a particular topological case.
It is a fact that for several decades now scientists studying quasar-like radio
sources have found no explanation of the strange regularity in their locations.
A recurrence of identical objects every 1000 million light years is hardly
something that can be attributed to chance. But what if we are observing
different images of the same objects? What if the universe has another surprise
for us?
It is true that according to a number of cosmologists the findings of radio
and extragalactic astronomy indicate that over large distances space is uniform
and therefore its curvature is the same. All these findings do not, however,
fully determine the overall structure of the universe. In principle, according
to the Soviet physicists D. D. Sokolov and V. F. Shvartzman, the geometrical
model of the world can be visualized as a topologically glued together closed
structure.
117
Remember that a metric space is a particular topological case. A glued
together world may be obtained by the identification of opposite boundaries.
Since, for our three-dimensional space, this is very difficult to visualize, for
the sake of simplicity consider a two-dimensional world, modelled by a sheet
of paper. Some force, let us say gravitational, now bends the sheet into a
cylinder. A topological model is then produced.
How will the stars in the sky appear? Let us observe some bright star. (But
dont forget that the world is two-dimensional, and we ourselves and a ray of
light can only travel around the surface of the cylinder.) As always, the rays
from it will travel by the shortest route. But, a ray may reach our eyes having
travelled around the cylinder, and we obtain a second image. Rays may travel
round the cylinder several times, producing a series of images. These are
distinguished from the originals by the authors of the hypothesis as ghost
images.
It is much more difficult to visualize a three-dimensional glued together
space. The simplest model of it is a torus (simply, a doughnut). Such a
configuration may be produced by the identification of the opposite boundaries
of a parallelopiped. Now suppose we are astronomers in such a world. We
will find the same laws to be valid as in a two dimensional world, except that
the number of ghost images increases.
And if we recall the surprises originating from the curvature of space, such
as the pseudodouble quasars or the hypothetical surprises such as black holes,
then the topological model does not seem so incredible.
At the BTA they are attempting to identify the originals with their ghosts.
But where are they to be found? Distances within 30 million light years are
beyond suspicion. These regions have been studied thoroughly. The shapes
and structures of the objects found here are too dissimilar. Beyond, the details
are already difficult to distinguish; moreover, in the time it takes the light to
reach us, their form could have changed markedly. These are the regions of
riddles.
Astronomers have chosen for identification dense clusters of galaxies. These
are the most massive formations in the universe. Amongst them are the so-called
regular clusters, of globular form. What makes them convenient for investigation is their outward appearance, being independent on the direction of
observation of the cluster. Their characteristic lifetime is 10 thousand million
years. Equally important, if an object has existed for only a short time on the
Earths timescale, then the light, of course, in covering different distances, can
bring us information about different stages of its evolution. In other words,
an object may have changed beyond recognition.
There exist catalogues of such clusters of galaxies. But different authors
differ in their definition of their boundaries. Besides, there is no region of the
sky for which these objects have been described without omissions.
That is why the first stage of the work at the BTA requires the observation
of the three-dimensional locations of all galactic clusters within a certain cone.
Then there will be a time for analysis, a search for sectors of the sky that can
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
118
be made to coincide on the heavenly sphere. Soon there may be a sequence,

the first being the original, whilst the remainder are ghosts.
The strange regularity in the distribution of quasar-like radio sources will
85 have been explained. The world will have turned out ten times smaller. But
much more complex and interesting.
Chapter 10
Word formation and technical nomenclature
10.1
INTRODUCTION
By this stage the reader should have a reasonable grasp of the language, and,
with the aid of a dictionary, should be able to produce reasonable translations
into English of modern Russian technical matter. Indeed, the main frustration
from the point of view of the student at this stage is not so much grammatical
as simply lack of vocabulary, and the tedium of repeated consultation of the
dictionary. In the course of any extended translation in which certain key
words are likely to appear with any frequency it is always a good idea to make
a short list of these at the outset. The extra effort involved is more than
compensated for in terms of constant referral to the dictionary. There are,
however, a number of systematic transformations between the Russian and
English vocabularies, particularly in the case of technical vocabulary, which
greatly reduces the task of learning several thousand scientific terms to that
of taking active note of some fifty or so Russian roots. An appropriate example
is the word word formation. This may be resolved into three
components, //, each of which may be separately translated:
word, to form and --don.
We have already introduced a number of suffixes involved in the formation
of the perfective aspect (Table 6.5.1(a)), in many cases producing a lexical
shift in the meaning of the verb. These suffixes arise extensively throughout
the language, and are by no means restricted to the formation of verbs. Indeed,
these suffixes form compound associations with various other stems, roots and
cognates to produce nouns, adjectives and adverbs, in addition to the formation
of perfective verbs as discussed in Chapter 6. The general meanings listed in
Table 6.5.1(a) are retained throughout, however, and the student would be
well advised to familiarize himself with the suffixes listed therein since, in
conjunction with a couple of dozen roots and stems, probably well over half
the scientific vocabulary is then accounted for.
10.2
NOUN-FORMING SUFFIXES
Suffixes denoting agent or performer and suffixes forming abstract nouns are
given in Tables 10.2.1 and 10.2.2 respectively.
119
120
Table 10.2.1
Suffix
Suffixes denoting agent or performer
Example
Remarks
- (m.)
secretary
doctor
innovator
fighter
Dutchm an
republican
foreigner
Feminine forms end -:

,
,
, etc.
worker
clerk
flyer
translator
physicist
chemist
m athem atician
old man
Feminine forms end -:

,
, ,
, etc.
Some nouns do not
have feminine forms,
however: , ,
, for example.
citizen
Bulgarian
-, - generally
designates a resident.
Feminine form ends -:
, ,
Muscovite
teacher
leader
writer
Feminine nouns end -:

,
,
.
There are also a substantial number of diminutive and augmentive noun

suffixes, but these are primarily of literary usage and are sufficiently unlikely
to arise in a scientific context to warrant their inclusion here.
10.3
PRODUCTIVE ROOTS
The combination of prefixes, suffixes and certain Russian roots provides a

particularly rewarding source of vocabulary, as we see from Table 10.3.1. Not
all roots are equally productive, of course; the most productive are marked
with an asterisk in the table, and the student is recommended to familiarize
himself with these. Quite frequently the root modifies when associated with
certain prefixes and suffixes; a discussion of the rules of association which
account for these variations (and then only partially) would take us too far
afield, and the effort would be better spent in familiarizing oneself with the
more productive roots in the table.
121
Table 10.2.2 Suffixes forming abstract nouns
Suffix
Examples
Remarks
- (-)
attention
form ation
teaching
specification
dereliction
reading
surprise
-, - often, but not

always, may be translated as
- tion
organization
qualification
electrification
Generally corresponds to
-ation
building
preparation
width
height
whiteness
cheapness
- (-)
activity
organization
industry
fluidity
blackness
darkness
height
Generally derived from the

adjective and corresponds
to '-ness'
production
construction
Generally corresponds to
-tion
Generally has a sense of

'-ness'
Exercise 10.3.1
Determine the meanings of the following words on the basis of your knowledge
of cognates, prefixes, suffixes and roots.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
122
Table 10.3.1
Root
',
',
,
'
,
'
'
',
Meaning
take
hit
possess
near
big
believe
turn
top
speak
see
hang
lead
wish
knot
face
mistake
give
divide
do
hold
suitable
long
know
call
seek
show
touch
bend, incline
to close
end
circle
twist
cover
lay
ease
face
change
measure
mix
place
many
to be able
close
new
carry
one
fall
flat
thick
full
Some productive roots

Examples
sample, choice
battle, to decompose
to possess, domain
nearness, to approach
grandeur, size
belief, true
to return
upper, peak
answer, correspondence
apparently, in view of
to depend on, dependence
conclusion, conductor
arbitrary, at will
bond, to connect
boundary
error
to transmit, to publish
divisor, to distinguish
to do, business
content, to contain
unsuitable, similarity
to prolong, long
that means, knowledge
to cause
to search out, search
to prove, to say
tangent, to osculate
inclination
inclusion, conclusion
end, infinite
circumference, outlook
torsion
postcard, discovery
impose, position
easily, impossible
different, distinction
change, to alter
example, three-dimensional
to mix
replacement, together
multiplier, plynomial
possibility, help
closure, contiguity
innovator, news
carrier, translation
homogeneous, to unite
to fall in, to coincide
plane, area, square
density, to condense
completeness, fully
123
Table 10.3.1 (cont.)
Meaning
Root
*
*
*
right
ask
simple
straight
equal
grow
cut
speak
birth
break
row, series
cut
follow
look
stand
construct
demand
pierce
learn
go, come
begin
part
consider
wide
evident
clear
Examples
rule, to direct
question, to ask
simple, simplicity
straight line, frank
equal, equation
increase, plant
chisel, segment
contradiction, decision
homogeneous, genus
discontinuity, to tear
order, rank and file
to cut off, intersection
corollary, in consequence
review, to look at
stop, remainder
structure, building
requirement
point
science
exit, transition
origin, to start
section, to participate
to read, to subtract
width
to appear, implicit
clearly, to clarify
*denotes more productive roots.
10.4
, ,
. ,
, .

. , 5
-.
-. .
.

. , -
.

20, 30, 50 ,
:
.
15
124

, . :

.
20
.
.
- .
, ,
, . ,
25 . .
, . --
.
. , .
,
30 - . .
,
( )
(, , ), .
, ,
35 , .
-.
. .
, -
.
40 .

, .
- .
,
45 .
... . , , , .
- .
, .
. - ,
.
Super-supergiants
Nikolai Copernicus, displacing the Earth from the centre of the Universe dealt
the human ego a great blow. Giordano Bruno postulated an infinite multitude
of worlds in the universe, relegating the Sun to one of the ordinary stars. The
present table of ranking does not give us the slightest claim to an exclusive
position. Whats more, our planet revolves around a dwarf star.
However, there are giant stars, and super-giants. They are a million times
brighter than the Sun.
125
Its own radiation destroys its outer envelope, and constantly dissipates part
of its substance. The process is so intensive that in a million years or so it will
lose two to five solar masses. And since its own mass cannot exceed that of
the Sun by more than 20, 30 or at most 50 times, then a simple arithmetic
calculation shows that a super-giants lifetime is comparable to the human
lifespan on our modest planet.
The BTA has initiated a means of effectively studying these young, most
rapidly evolving stars. Dont forget that their extreme remoteness makes them
very modest objects in terms of their apparent stellar magnitude.
In the Serpens constellation there is the Omega Nebula. Usually, such
nebulae seem to glow due to the hot giants within them. Omegas glow could
not be explained for a long tim e-no giants could be found. Only in recent
years with the help of a satellite-borne infrared telescope was the problem
resolved. The bulk of it is obscured by dust. And it is there that the
objects causing the glow are located. On the periphery of this gas-star-dust
complex there twinkled two faint stars. Usually the birthplace of stars is
difficult to observe, being shrouded in gas and dust. Here the newborn
stars were not hidden in the incubator because of their location at the very
boundary.
Nowhere in the world were there spectra whose processing would yield
sufficiently accurate (in width and height) spectral line profiles of such objects
(and, therefrom, the measurement of the velocity of emissions). Yet the first
results obtained at the BTA made it possible to identify the twins in the
Omega nebula not just as super-giants, but as super-super-giants.
There are not many such stars. In our northern skies there is only P. Cygnus.
It is visible to the naked eye, and changes in its brightness by two or three
stellar magnitudes are recorded in historical chronicles. Thus, to investigate
and compare the new object was all the more interesting.
In the classic case, a super-giants envelope dissipates so intensely that it is
difficult to determine even its temperature. With the newly discovered object
were all the signs of envelope formation. This transition phase is extremely
informative about stellar phenomena, because of the possibility of spectral
analysis.
Under normal circumstances man eats, sleeps, works, rests and it is not easy
at such times to evaluate him. It becomes particularly apparent under condi
tions of stress, when things are at their extreme.
So it is with stars. Super-giants are such objects where all processes go to
the limit.

.

- .
- .
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
126
5
10
15
20
,
, - - - ,
, .
, , , ,
-
( , ).
,
,
.
.
. -
. , (
).
.
, ,
. .
... .

? .
-.
Stellar evolution
10
15
20
According to present-day notions, our civilization has been fortunate. The

finely adjusted mechanism of the Sun has been steadily emitting energy at
an almost constant rate for 5000-7000 million years. And it should continue
to do so for another seven or eight thousand million years.
But when all the hydrogen has burned up in the thermonuclear furnace and
turned into helium, the S u n -a typical quiet dwarf star-w ill, according to
theoretical calculations, become a red giant. A short time later its outer envelope
will disintegrate, from which will emerge what is known as a white dwarf - an
extremely dense, hot star of small dimensions. (Not to be confused with the
usual or red dwarf.)
Modern theories of stellar evolution, which are far from being fully confirmed
by observation, present the following biography of a star. The formation of
a protostar as a result of gravitational accretion of interstellar gas and dust.
The birth at the centre of the contracting star of a thermonuclear energy source.
Then burning of hydrogen in the nucleus and the transformation of the star
into a giant, and finally into a white dwarf (for stars of solar mass). In the
case of massive stars, the final stages of evolution follow a somewhat different
path. Gravitational collapse compresses them forming either neutron stars or
the so-called black holes. This process results in a supernova explosion.
In close binary systems the evolution likewise follows a distinctive path. Do

all stars end up in supernova explosions, and what remains after such an
explosion? There are also extraordinary objects of immense luminosity, and
these we can call the super-super-giants.
127

-
,
,
..
- , , ,
.
, .

,
, ,
. ,
-
. , ,
, .
-

,
- ;
.
.
, ,
, ,
,
- ,
- ,
.

.
.
.

.
, ,
, ,
,

- ,
. ,
, ,
,
.
-
.
15
20
25
35
40
128
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
-
,
, , ;

;
, ,
; ..
-
- 20-
, - ,
,
,
, , .

.

- ,
.
, ,
, , , .
,
.

. ,
,
, ..
,
,
, , ,
...

, .
,
, ,
.
, ,
. , ,
, , , , , .

( , , .)
(
).
129
,
,
. ,
-
,
,

, ,
..

,
. ,
,
, ,
.

,
,
.

.
,
. , ,
, .
,
,
, ,
. ,
, ,
,
,
... ,
, ,
.
,
1981-1985
1990 , XXVI ,
.
,
.
,
,
, .
?
. - ,
90
95
100
105
115
120
125
130
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
, ,
, , . , -
, ,

- . ,
,
. ,
,
,
.
, .

, .

- .
:
,
,
!
, .
, , ,
.
- . -
,
. ,
, ,
. ,
.
,
- , ,
.
. ,
:
, ,
... ,
.
, ,

.
-
, . ,
,
. , , ,
, ,
,
131
,
.
-
. ,
, ,
. , ,
( )
.
,
, ,
.
.
,
...

, , ..
185
190
195
Horizons o f biology
Physicochemical methods are increasingly being used in the study of photosyn

thesis and root nutrition in plants, how growth stimulants work, research into
animal behaviour, etc. These techniques are being extensively employed in the
medical sciences such as oncology, cardiology, gynaecology and pharmacology.
5
Soviet scientists actively participate in the research making a useful contribu
tion to the science.
Before ending this brief survey of topical trends in physicochemical biology,
we should draw attention to some unresolved problems, the unfinished and
weak points in the field in this country. It does not follow that we are to any
extent under any illusions and unwarranted self-satisfaction. On the contrary,
we recognize our achievements, at the same time recognize our shortcomings,
and realistically assess the status of the investigations.
The weakness of many biological centres is the gap between theoretical 15
levels and practical results in central and peripheral laboratories, inadequate
material and technical facilities, and some inadequately qualified specialists.
This must be decisively and rapidly rectified. We must keep abreast of 20
developments, the level and stage of research, and participate in the resolution
of the pressing issues of contemporary science, clearness of purpose, program
med planning and clear-cut coordination of effort taking into account our own
and foreign experience - these are the principles which determine the extent
of development of Soviet physicochemical biology, warranting the nations 25
confidence in it.
Today science is a productive force, particularly so for contemporary biology.
Its latest achievements are finding extensive and rewarding practical applica
tion. The economic effects in our country amount to hundreds of millions of 30
roubles annually.
132
One of the recipients of the successes in biology is modern medicine. The
elucidation of the nature of the grave diseases of mankind and radical methods
35 of combating them, new vaccines, antibiotics, man-made and natural
medicines, surgical tissue and organ transplantation, and understanding of the
basis of longevity and a high standard of mental and physical activity in the
face of the modern pace of life. This is far from a complete list of problems
resolved by medicine in close association with biology. Incidentally, the biggest
40 medical centres, such as the All-Union Oncological and Cardiological Scientific
Centres, are at the same time advanced centres of fundamental biology.
The achievements of physicochemical biology are shown directly in the
increased effectiveness of agricultural production. We may mention improved
45 genetic selection based on radiation and chemical mutagenesis; the latest
techniques of cellular biology, biochemistry, genetic engineering; application
of achievements in embryogenetics and endocrinology to raise animal hus50 bandry performances; the introduction of new pesticides, growth regulators
and pheromones into farming practice; biological action against pests; etc.
Speaking in Alma-Ata on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the Virgin
Land Development Scheme, Leonid Ilich Brezhnev said agriculture needed
55 new ideas to revolutionize agricultural production, a steady influx of funda
mental knowledge about plants and animals which biology, genetics and
molecular biology could provide.
These days the achievements of biology are widely utilized in industrial
production. This is clearly exemplified by the commercial microbiological
60 synthesis of protein feed additives and protein-vitamin concentrates, as well
as many other physiologically active compounds. Products obtained from raw
materials include the paraffin carbohydrates of oil, methane, natural gas,
methanol and ethanol, and the waste products of woodworking, pulp and
65 paper, sugar-refining and other industrial wastes. The scientific basis of such
production techniques were developed in the Soviet Union, and our country
boasts the greatest microbiological industry in the world.
Biological techniques are used on a wide scale for the control of environment
70 pollution. Purification installations, where the role of hygiene officer is taken
by microorganisms, cope well with the detoxification of wastes of a whole
series of industries, purification of sewage, etc. The ubiquitous microbes being
amazingly omniverous and prolific, turn out useful in the widest range of
fields, as for example, in enhancing the oil output from wells and abating gas
75 levels in coal mines.
Steadily advancing these days are the traditional biochemical techniques,
being deeply rooted in our science. Here the extraction of edible protein from
plant and animal products, the production of various enzymes, and the develop80 ment of new forms of technology for the production of foods, including wines
and beers.
The global energy shortage has naturally posed new questions to biology
as well as others, and not only because the oil, coal, gas, peat and shale which
85 represent the foundation of todays energy supplies and are rightly seen as a
133
part of the priceless bioresources of our planet. One of the ways of surmounting
the energy crisis in a number of countries (in Brazil, India, Sweden, and others)
is based on continually renewable raw material (tropical flora or forests in
moderate zones). The motor fuel obtained in this way, as well as biogas from
90
other forms of biological waste, has these days become a major well-developed
industry, the competitiveness of which grows in parallel with the world oil
prices. Note that achievements in physicochemical biology augment the con
ceivable role of future energy supplies, in so far as scientists are dealing with
the task of the sharply rising efficiency of photosynthesis, and also the applica95
tion of the photosynthetic apparatus of plants and bacteria, not only for the
production of biomass, but also to directly obtain carbohydrates, hydrogen, etc.
Another exciting prospect for the service of mankind is the amazing proteins
of halophile bacteria, capable of most effectively using solar energy to sustain 100
life. We believe that this form of biological machine has reached perfection
by natural evolution, and, as recently shown by scientists in our country, that
practically the same principles of transformation of light is used in the human
eye.
In the Soviet Union, with its massive resources of energy, along with nuclear 105
power, controlled thermonuclear fusion and other sources, take into account
the great promise afforded by bioenergy.
The prospects of applying modern biologys record of achievement in mans
endeavours are indeed unbounded. The past five years have seen a distinctive 110
boom due to the emergence of modern biotechnology. Strictly speaking
everything mentioned above is included under the heading of biological
technology. However, today the term biotechnology has taken on a new
meaning, making biotechnology a popular field of practical activity in business 5
and, in the West, widely discussed in the press. We speak of the foundation
of mobile, highly efficient compact industries based on the latest achievements
of biological science, more specifically on the methods of genetic and cellular 120
engineering, and the application of new types of immobilized enzyme and
bioregulators. In other words, we are speaking of a technology of the future,
similar to those emerging in microelectronics and aerospace technology. This
new field is developing rapidly in the Soviet Union, and no wonder, for in
Guidelines for Economic and Social Development in the USSR for the period 125
1981-1985 until 1990 endorsed at the Partys 26th Congress, the significance
of biotechnology was mentioned for the first time. Great significance is attached
to it by dozens of firms, large and small, national and private, such as Genentex 130
and Hybritech in the USA, Biogen in Switzerland, Kabigen in Sweden,
and so on.
What can biotechnology do? Let us give some examples. First, it can produce
unique, hitherto virtually inaccessible bioregulators for medicine and farming, 135
such as insulin, interferon, and growth hormones. As we know, insulin is a
proteinic hormone formed in the pancreas, and causes glucose to accumulate
in the blood and causes the severe illness diabetes. To counter the terrible
effects of diabetes tens of millions of people throughout the world use insulin 140
134
145
150
155
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
produced by animals. But since human and animal insulin differ in their
structure, many victims are unreceptive to the foreigner which provokes
troublesome allergic reactions. The number of such victims is increasing, and
they need human insulin. Attempts to obtain human insulin by chemical
synthesis have been successful in a number of countries, including the Soviet
Union. However, commercial production on this basis is so far impracticable
due to the excessively high cost of preparation. A solution was recently found
thanks to the techniques of genetic engineering: the insulin gene was isolated
from the human cell, and injected into the DNA of an ordinary intestinal
bacillus; the enzymes of the biotechnical workshops become a source of the
unique human hormone! This microbial insulin has undergone detailed clinical
studies, a number of which were in this country. And it should be realized
that soon, after verification of its effects, it will become available to the public
health service.
An even clearer example is interferon. Interferons are natures antiviral
agent, being manufactured by the organism in response to the foreign virus.
They are as effective as medicines in the battle against viral diseases and,
according to preliminary results, against certain forms of cancer. The only
problem is that these proteins are virtually unobtainable in pure form. At
present, the best source appears to be donor blood from which the white blood
cells, the leucocytes, are isolated and infected with a virus, after which human
interferon is isolated. This technique is successfully applied in this country
too, but to speak of wide-scale production one has to take account of a simple
calculation: the treatment of those suffering viral infection requires so much
interferon that no amount of blood would be sufficient, even if all humanity
were to donate. Another way has to be found, and again scientists are turning
towards the DNA Industry and cellular technology. Right now in a series of
laboratories, including the Soviet Union, interferon genes have already been
obtained and the first experimental insertion into the amazing intestinal bacillus
has been successful. In our country work on the direct chemico-enzyme
synthesis of the interferon gene is approaching conclusion, which will represent
a record spectacular for bio-organic chemistry. In the not too distant future
biotechnology will overcome this substantial hurdle and sufficient interferon
will be available for extensive clinical trials. It will take time, of course, to
understand the mode of action of the interferons, and to evolve their optimum
applications. Then we shall be able to speak of opening a new chapter in
modern medicine, moreover in the more attractive field related to mobilizing
the protective powers of the human organism.
The methods of genetic engineering in biotechnology offers hopeful results
in other areas. One, in all likelihood, is in work on the decoding and transplanting of nitrogen-fixing genes. Certain microorganisms, for example rhizobium
which, in symbiosis with certain plants (primarily, legumes) are able to absorb
atmospheric nitrogen. If we were able to inject these genes into the genetic
apparatus of other microorganisms and cereals, figuratively speaking, to make
them work for agriculture, then wed have largely solved the nitrogen problem,
135
and this would be a major revolution in agricultural production. At the moment
work in this area is being conducted collectively in many institutes, including
the Pushchin Academic Centre. Tangible achievements are being obtained
with the aid of recombinant DNA to obtain new, effective producers of
antibiotics, proteins, aminoacids, etc.
195
Answers to the exercises

Exercise 1.5.1
address
act
anecdote
argon
argument
artist
architect
aspirin
atom
bazaar
balance
ballerina
bandit
bank
battalion
benzene
billion
block
vacuum
bicycle
vibrator
wagon
volt
whisky
gasoline
garage
homologue
hospital
graphite
horizon
diagonal
defect
differential
document
diameter
doctor
instrument
integral
ion
interval
isotope
impulse
institute
engineer
inertia
camera
candidate
climate
cobalt
class
continent
control
cathode
kilometre
cone
crisis
concert
lava
logarithm
litre
linguist
moon
literature
maximum
method
minus
metal
mechanism
microbe
mineral
moment
million
neutron
neon
nerve
ohm
object
ocean
original
organ
opera
parabola
parameter
period
paraffin
potential
product
principle
pole
process
137
138
radical
resonance
result
radio
radius
regime
rouble
republic
rhythm
signal
spectrograph
student
symbol
sofa
spiral
socialism
sulphate
chair
telephone
theatre
thermometer
tomato
tractor
text
ultimatum
ultra
uranium
film
filter
phosphorus
fruit
photoelement
formula
character
chorus
chromium
cellulose
centre
cyclohexane
cylinder
zinc
cycle
cipher
circus
equator
experiment
electron
electrolyte
ellipse
ether
element
echo
Exercise 1.5.2
function
television
religion
additivity
profession
theory
aluminium
faculty
analysis
clarification
polymerization
proportionality
condensation
laboratory
chemistry
university
physics
osmosis
Exercise 2.3.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
argon
atom
bank
billion
visit
volt
disc
drama
doctor
integral
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
m.
f
m.
m.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
continent
compass
litre
mechanism
opera
organism
parabola
potash
proton
resonance
m.
m.
m.
m.
f
m.
f
m.
m.
m.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
sofa
tractor
telephone
photon
formula
character
experiment
electron
ellipse
echo
/
m.
m.
m.
f
m.
m.
m.
m.
n.
139
Exercise 2.4.1
1. weather: nominative; subject of verb has been
2. yours: nominative case of possessive pronoun
3. he: nominative; subject of verb gave
dog: dative; (to the dog is implied) indirect object of verb gave
bone: accusative; direct object of verb gave
4. Government policy: dative; after Thanks to
/: nominative; subject of verb pay
tax: accusative; direct object of verb pay
5. title: nominative; subject of verb misleads
of a book: genitive; possessive
reader: accusative; direct object of verb misleads
6. whose: genitive (= of whom) possessive form of interrogative pronoun
this: nominative; subject of verb is (= this is whose?)
/: nominative; subject of verb will
it: accusative; direct object of verb give
to the organizer: dative; indirect object of verb give
7. in India: prepositional.
fields: nom inative; subject of passive verb are ploughed
by bullocks: instrum ental; means by which fields are ploughed
8. with luck: instrum ental; agent or means of achievement
in London: prepositional
of the week: genitive
9. package: nominative; subject of verb arrived
of books: genitive
by train: instrumental; means by which books arrived
10. with a friend : instrumental
on foot: instrumental; means of travel
Exercise 2.5.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
prep. pi. (book f )

instr. sing, (table m.)
dat. sing, (apricot m.)
dat. sing, or prep. sing. (dog. f )
acc. sing. (M oscowf)
gen. pi. (ladyf.)
nom. sing, or acc. sing, (tree n.)
dat. pi. (newspaper f )
prep. pi. (train f )
gen. pi. (newspaperf)
instr. pi. (spoon f )
gen. sing, (journal m.)
instr. sing, (council m.)
140
14. gen. sing, or acc. sing. ( citizen m.)

15. prep. pi. ( university m.)
16. dat. pi. ( morning n.)
Exercise 2.6.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
dat. pi. (field n.)

instr. sing. (salt, fi)
acc. sing, (reaction fi)
gen. pi. (case m.)
instr. sing, (field n.)
dat. sing, (garage m.)
gen. sing, or nom. pi. or acc. pi. (mass fi)
nom. pi. or acc. pi. (volume m.)
instr. sing, (building n.)
gen. pi. (time n.)
gen. sing, (body n.)
nom. pi. or acc. pi. (body n.)
prep. sing, (knife m.)
acc. sing, (lamp fi)
gen. pi. (gas m.)
dat. pi. (ion m.)
Exercise 2.6.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
instr. pi.
dat. pi.
nom. sing.
gen. pi.
dat. sing./prep. sing./nom. pi. and acc. pi. note distinction between
and (gen. pi.).
gen. sing./nom. pi./acc. pi.
nom. pi./acc. pi.
gen. pi.
instr. pi.
gen. pi.
gen. pi.
gen. pi.
gen. pi.
instr. sing.
dat. sing.
nom. pi./acc. pi.
gen. pi.
gen. sing.
gen. pi.
gen. sing.
141
Exercise 2.7.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
temperature of the gases

the mass and weight of a body
the principle of inertia
the poles of the element
the volume of a glass of water
composition of gases of the air
many cases
a quantity of matter
the formation of oxides
the kilogram is the unit of mass
Exercise 2.8.1
1. dat. (indirect object), acc. (direct object)

Don't give my brother tea.
2. instr.
He lives with (his) brother.
3. gen.
(y + gen. = a t...)
He lives at his fathers.
4. dat.
He didnt tell (to) me.
5. prep.
She is the best student in the class.
6. dat. (indirect object), acc. (direct object).
Give me a book to read.
7. instr.
You with (and) your sister.
8. gen. (Note this important use of the genitive after a negative
verb.)
This invention has no application.
9. dat.
This does not correspond to the facts.
(Note that the genitive is generally but not invariably, used in negative
constructions.)
10. instr.
Phosphorus burns with a white flame.
11. gen. sing, (after a negative verb)
I have no sister.
12. gen. sing, (idiomatic expression of I have)
, gen. sing, (after numerals 2-4)
(Note forms masc., fem., two)
I have two sisters and two brothers.
142
Exercise 3.2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
at breakfast
in the rain
with milk
after lessons
about the table
at the meeting
in a minute
in the middle of the square
into the month
into the theatre
across the road
about Pushkin
on finishing
in August
at the factory
from behind the wood
after the lesson
opposite the window
from under the snow
around the table
without frosts
outside the house
from the town
as far as Moscow
Exercise 4.2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
a dark sky
in the green meadow
into the farm fields
with happy songs
in the fresh greenery
topological space
mathematical statistics (acc.)
of a spectral synthesis
without electrical charge
towards the magnetic poles
an open sequence (acc.)
by oscillatory movement
a constant m agnitude (acc.)
from the physical properties of a liquid
of turbulent motion
by basic correlations
143
17.
18.
19.
20.
of this mass
five nonmetallic metals
with important exceptions
of professional specialities
Exercise 4.3.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
this report is interesting

such vectors are equal
that fact is simple
how clear the air is
she was very happy
the apple is so fresh
beautiful are the summery misty days
Exercise 4.4.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
this metal is stronger than that

my problem is more interesting than this
the temperature is always somewhat higher
as mentioned above
as accurate as possible
a less complex process
more important problems
a stronger acid
the solution is simpler than in other cases
the strongest metal
the most important report
the shortest wave
Exercise 4.4.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
At the highest possible pressures.

It is necessary to calculate the results as accurately as possible.
The solution here is easier than in other cases.
The most famous type of volcanic eruption is the eruption of Vesuvius.
The drawing must occupy no more than one page.
The solution of the equation is extremely simple.
The temperature of the tube is always somewhat higher than the
surrounding space.
8. Potassium is a readily soluble substance.
9. Of the physical theories, some are easy and some are difficult.
10. The colour of some substances, for example, the violet colour of
litmus....
144
Exercise 5.3.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Whose are these things?

one and the same (also simply )
in those places
What kind of force is this? (Note use of short form = ?)
It is related to the fact th a t...
amongst themselves ( takes the instrumental)
they do not interact
It can always be imagined th a t... (literally, to present oneself)
How many books are there in the library? ( takes the genitive)
In order to get a clear understanding of what an enormous quantity of
electricity a coulomb represents ...
Exercise 5.3.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I can see someone in the distance.

The professor is chatting with someone.
Did you ask me about something?
I gave someone the new journal to read.
My son is playing in the garden with some children.
Exercise 6.4.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
I shall write letters (imp.)

I read an interesting book ( perf )
My friend will do the work (perf.)
My sister will write a letter (perf)
She was always reading in the library (imp.)
My brother will study Russian (imp.)
Only he is starting this problem (imp.)
Tomorrow morning I shall read a book (perf)
Yesterday we began work at 8 in the morning (perf.)
Usually we start studying at 9 in the morning (imp.)
Exercise 6.4.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The workers built the station in Moscow, (perf)

My sister will receive a present, (perf.)
We talked quietly in the library, (perf.)
Today I received a letter from my brother, (perf)
I divided the apple amongst my brothers, (perf.)
We built up a heavy industry over a period of years, (imp.)
We have already studied Russian, (perf)
I shall talk with the comrades, (imp.)
Today they finished work at 7 oclock, (perf)
The workers were building a hydroelectric station in Leningrad, (imp.)
Exercise 6.5.1
imp.
perf
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
take
open
get up, arise
give
transcribe
read
build
take
investigate
lay (down)
help
understand
begin
lie (down)
save
study
reach
shout
go for a walk
Exercise 6.5.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The students will copy the lecture. ( perf.)

He talked for a long time. (imp.)
Yesterday I went to bed at 12 oclock, (perf.)
I always get up early in the morning, (imp.)
In the mornings a thick mist used to cover the fields, (imp.)
The students will do the lessons, (perf.)
I copied out the work, (perf.)
Yesterday I read this story, (perf )
Today I took the works of Pushkin, (perf.)
He will tell me everything he knew, (perf.)
Exercise 6.6.2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Peter came into the room.

Planes fly over New York.
Did anyone visit me?
Birds were flying in the woods.
The children are running outside.
Planes fly over the pole.
Comrades came to you.
146
Exercise 6.9.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Water dissociates into ions.

We shall be measuring the mass.
A glass tube passes through the stopper.
Let us fill the flask with water or any other liquid, and close it with a stopper.
The non-metallic oxides and the oxides of metals give different kinds of
hydrate.
Phosphorus burns with a dazzling white flame and forms a white vapour
of the solid oxide, phosphorus anhydride P20 5.
All that, of which physical bodies consist is called matter (,
literally calls itself, takes the instrumental).
The one with whom we were talking.
We know that oxygen is the most widespread element on earth.
By means of television it is possible to avoid this fundamental difficulty
since the image travels along an artificial path, completely independent
of the propagation of light.
Exercise 8.2.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
the book was noted

In the Soviet Union, the structure of DNA was determined.
In the USSR a school for the structure of protein substances was established.
The amino acid sequence in the most complex proteins has been identified.
An X-ray analysis of pepsin has been obtained.
A complex method of analysis has been developed and is being successfully
applied.
Exercise 9.2.1
1. one current, one strong current

one mass, one heavy mass
one window, one clean window
twenty-one months
forty-one metals
one hundred and one days
one thousand, three hundred and one minutes.
All adjectives and nouns in nominative singular.
2. two (three, four) currents, two (three, four) strong currents

two (three, four) masses, two (three, four) heavy masses
two (three, four) windows, two (three, four) clean windows
thirty-two (three, four) degrees
one hundred and two (three, four) large parts
Adjectives in genitive plural; nouns in genitive singular.
147
3. five molecules, nine weeks
forty-six large houses
one thousand and twenty-eight dollars
one hundred and twenty-five new books
thirty-eight good students
forty-seven important people
Adjectives and nouns in genitive plural.
Exercise 9.4.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
You will find the answer on the 125th page.

His sixth year is coming up.
We live in the 94th apartment.
Our seats were in the seventh carriage.
Theres an interesting article in the 129th edition of the journal.
We stopped on the 180th page.
My father was at the first trade union congress.
There was a lot of interest in your third letter.
This is the twentieth year weve lived here.
Which text was on the hundredth page?
Exercise 9.6.1
1.
4.
7.
10.
5200
100 324
895
875
2. 36
5. 3707
8. 2346
3. 1845
6. 5261
9. 333
2. 4/10
5. 6/16
8. 1/2
3. 5/12
6. 3/8
9. 40/140
Exercise 9.6.2
I.
4.
7.
10.
2/4
1/3
1/4
21/90
Exercise 9.6.3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
three atoms
the third molecule
a third of a mile
thirteen students
thirty books
three professors
148
Exercise 10.3.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
//
//
//
//
//
/
//
//
//
//
///
//
//
/
/
//
/
///
/
///
//
//
///
//
use, application
size
to verify
calculation
to deposit
volume
to go round
assistant
to lead out
deserter
to produce
to sign
correspondingly
num erator
account (attr. adj.)
justice
idea
to meet
historian
derivative
copyist
decomposition
superiority
resolution
Russian-English Vocabulary
A a
a conj. but; and; yet
m. apricot
||, -, -oe; - apricot
(attr.)
m. August
m. autobus, bus
m. automobile works
||, -, -oe; - automatic
f . automobile, car
m. automobile, car
||, -, -oe; - automobile
(attr.)
m.
author
m. agronomist
f (n o pi.) agricultural
technics
m. lawyer
, -, -oe; -
administrative
f. administration, man
agement
n. Admiralty
m. (pi. -a) address
m. academician
f. academy;
Academy of Sciences of the
USSR
f . acacia
adv. neatly, accurately
m. actor
adv. actively
||, -, -oe; - active
m. assembly hall (in an educa
tional in stitu tio n )
f . actress
m. (gen. , pi. )
an Albanian
f . alley, path, avenue
m. diamond
||, -, -oe; - diamond (attr.)
m. alphabet
||, -, -oe; - alphabetic(al)
m. album
m. alpinist
||, -, -oe; - alpinist
(attr.)
m. aluminium
m. (gen. , pi.
) an American
f . (gen. pi. ) an
American woman
||, -, -oe; - American
adv. analogously
||, -, -oe; - analogous
(attr.)
||, -, -oe; - English

m. (pi. , gen. pi.
) Englishman
f. (gen. pi. )
Englishwoman
/ England
-||, -, -oe; - AngloRussian
m. ensemble
f . Antarctica
f. anthropology
adv. apathetically
m. orange
||, -, -oe; - orange (attr.)
I (||, -) to
applaud
pi. (n o sing.) applause
m. apparatus
m. appetite
m. April
m. arrest
I p. (fu t. ||, -),
I (||, -)
to arrest
f . army
m. (pi. , gen. pi. )
an Armenian
f. (gen. pi. ) an
Armenian woman
||, -, -oe; - artillery
(attr.)
f . artillery
149
150
. actor, performer, artiste (m.)
f (gen. pi. ) actress,
performer, artiste (/)
- arch m. archives
m. keeper of records, archivist
||, -, -oe; - archival
m. architect
f . architecture
, -, -oe; - architec
tural
f . asymptote
m. postgraduate
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
assign, to grant
/ associativity
m. astronomer
||, -, -oe; - astro
nomical)
/ astronomy
||, -, -oe; - paved
with asphalt
f . attack
f atmosphere
-||, -, -oe; -
atomic-molecular
||, -, -oe; - atomic
m. certificate; ~
graduation certificate (fr o m m iddle
sc h o o l)
/ 1. lecture room; 2. audience

I p. (fu t. ||, -) to gasp
m. aerodrome
m. airplane, plane
6
f . (gen. pi. ) grand

mother
m. (gen. -a, no pi.) luggage;
~ to check ones luggage
m. ballet
m. balcony
m. banana
f . (gen. pi. ) jar
f . (gen. pi. ) arch, miss
m. basketball
m. pool, basin
f . (gen. pi. ) tower;
~ watchtower
I (||, -) to run
f . trouble, misfortune
f . poverty; due to
poverty
, -, -oe; - poor
m. misery
m ix. conj. (, ... )
to run
prp. (-\-gen.) without
adv. irrevocably
||, -, -oe; - boundless
f . abyss, chasm
, -, -oe; - bottomless,
unfathomable (a ttr.)
adv. lifelessly
, -, -oe; - lifeless
||, -, -oe; - moonless
, -, -; - speechless,
silent
I () to show white, to whiten
m. protein
||, -, -oe; - of white
stone
, -, -oe; - fair-haired,
blond
||, -, -oe; - Byelorussian
||, -, -oe; - white
m. (gen. , pi.
) a Belgian
n. linen, underwear
m. (pi. -a) shore, bank
||, -, -be; - riverside (attr.),
coastal
adv. carefully
f . birch
f . talk, conversation
f (gen. pi. ) arbour
I (||, -) to talk, to
converse
adv. infinitely
||, -, -oe; - endless,
infinite, interminable
||, -, -oe; - careless, carefree
adv. free of charge
II (||, -) to dis
turb, to trouble, to make anxious
||, -, -oe; - restless
adv. self-evident, unques
tionably
||, -, -oe; - without (any)
rights
adv. without difficulty
||, -, -oe; - unparal
leled, without precedent
||, -, -oe; - fearless
/ library
||, -, -oe; - library (attr.)
m. ticket
m. billiards
151
/ b io g r a p h y
f b io lo g y
f b a ttle
I (, ) to beat, to hit; to
strike; to gush out
I (, ) 1. to fight; 2. to
try
n. {pi. -a) the good, happiness
II (1|, -) to
thank
prp. {+ dat.) o w in g to ; ~ ,
cj. th a n k s to
, - , -o e; - b e n e fic e n t
, - , -o e ; - fa v o u r a b le
, - , - ; - w e llb u ilt, w e ll-o r g a n iz e d , c o m fo r ta b le
, - , -b e; - lig h t b lu e
, - , -o e; - p a le
m. {no pi.) g le a m , g litter
II ( , ) to sh in e ,
to sp a rk le
|| , - , -; - b r illia n t, sp a rk
lin g , s h in in g
, - , -; - n e a r est, n e x t
adv. n ea rer
||, -, -; - near, nearby,

neighbouring
prp. {+ gen.) near
II () to approach
||, -, -oe; - near, nearby;
in tim a te
adv. n ea r
f . n e a r n e ss
/ b lo c k a d e
, - , -o e; - le g u m in o u s
n. w e a lth , r ich es
|| , - , -o e; - rich
m. h e r o ; a th le te
adv. c h e e r fu lly
, - , -o e; - c h e e r fu l, b ra c in g
|| , - , -b e; - m ilita n t, fig h tin g
m. {gen. , pi. ) so ld ie r ,
fig h tin g m a n , c h a m p io n
m. {pi. , gen. pi. ) b a ttle ; no pi.
str ik in g , c h im e
adv. m o re
f . illn e s s
I ( || , - ) to b e ill
II ( ) to a c h e , to hurt
, - , -o e; - m a rsh y
n. m a rsh
f . h o s p ita l
|| , - , -b e; - ill, sic k
n. {no pi.) m a jo rity
, -, -be; - large, big;

Bolshoi Theatre
II (, ) to bomb
m. {gen. , pi. ) fighter
f . {pi. , gen. pi. ) beard
I (, ) (c + instr.)
to fight
m. {pi. -) side { o f a ship)
f . struggle, fight
||, -, -oe; - botanical
m. {gen. , pi. )
shoe
f . barrel
II (||, -) (-\-gen .) to
fear, to be afraid
m. {pi. ) brother
||, -, -oe; - fraternal
I (||, -) to take; ~
to take aim
I (, -) to undertake,
to take up
f . team, brigade
m. diamond
||, -, -oe; - British
f . {gen. pi. -) eyebrow
f . {no. pi.) bronze
, -, -oe; - bronze {attr.)
I (||, -), II p.
{fu t. , ) to throw
II p. {fu t. , )
to throw oneself, to rush (to, on,
upon)
pi. {no sing.) trousers
, ~ cj. as if, as though
verb. adv. being
n. the future
||, -, -; - future
f . letter
m. boulevard, avenue
m. boom, sensation
f . paper
||, -, -oe; - paper {attr.)
||, -, -oe; - stormy, impetuous
f . storm
f {gen. pi. ) bottle
m. 1. sideboard; 2. refreshment
room
f bay
I () to be, to happen;
it happens, it occurs;
used, would
||, -, -; - former
f {gen. pi. ) blade of
grass
152
adv. quickly, rapidly
, -, -oe; - quick, rapid
m. way of life
I (pres, , fu t. ||, -) to be
m. blotting pad
m. bust
()
prp. (-., d ire c tio n ; -\-prepos.,

lo ca tio n )
m. carriage
adj. it is important; adv. impor
tantly
n. important thing
||, -, -oe; - important
f . vase, bowl
, , ; pron. your(s)
I (||, -), mix.
conj. (, ... ) to run
into
. introduction
adv. upwards, upstream
: ~ cj. in view of, owing
to the fact that
II (, ) to introduce
adv. upwards, into the air
adv. deep into
adv. far away (place)
adv. far away (p la c e )
adv. far away (d irectio n )
adv. twice as much
prp. (+ gen.) along
II p. (fu t. , ) to inspire
adv. suddenly
||, -, -; - leading
part, you see, as you know
adv. everywhere
I (||, -; p a st , ||, -;
-) to carry, to drive, to bring, to draw
m. (pi. -a) century
II p. (fu t. ||, -) to order, to
tell (to)
m. giant
||, -, -oe; - great
adv. magnificently
||, -, -oe; - magnificent
||, -, -oe; - majestic
n. grandeur
f . (pi. ) size
m. bicycle
m. cyclist
m. besom
m. (gen. , pi. ) wreath

f belief, faith
II (||, -) to believe
it is true, it is right, it is correct
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
return, to come back
, -, -oe; - true, correct, right
, -, -oe; - probable (attr.)
m. top
||, -, -; - upper
Supreme Soviet
f . summit, top, vertex
m. (n o pi.) weight
II (||, -) to have
a good time, to amuse oneself
adv. jolly, gaily, merrily
||, -, -; - spring (attr.)
||, -, -; - jolly, gay
II (, ) to weigh
. (pi. , gen. pi. ) oar
adv. highly, greatly
f . (pi. , gen. pi. ) spring
adv. in spring
I (||, -; p a st , ||, -;
-) to lead, to guide, to conduct, to
direct; ~ to keep up corres
pondence, to write to one another; ~
to work (at)
I (; p a st , ||,
-; -) to be conducted
f. (gen. pi. -) news, tidings
, , ; pron. all, everything
f. (gen. pi. -) branch
m. (gen. , pi. ) wind
f . (gen. pi. ) branch, twig
m. (pi. -a) evening; ~ in the
evening, every evening
||, -, -; - evening (attr.)
adv. in the evening
adv. eternally
||, -, -oe; - evergreen
I (||, -) 1. to hang (up),
2. to weigh
n. substance, matter
f . (gen. pi. -) thing
adv. mutually
, -, -oe; - mutually
advantageous (attr.)
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
excite, to make anxious, to stir
m. glance, look
I p. (fu t. , )
( +acc.) to glance up, to cast a
glance
153
I . {f u t . , -),
I (||, -) to sigh
II . {fu t. , ) to
soar
I . {fu t. ||, -; p a st
||, -, -; -) to rise, to
go up; to ascend
m. glance, look
, -, -oe; - adult, grown-up
n. capture, seizure
I p. {fu t. ||, -) to take; ~
to take the floor
I p. {fu t. ||, -) to take
up, to begin
m. 1. view; 2. species { o f a p la n t or
a n im a l ); 3. gram , aspect
||, , ; is seen
II (, ) to see
II (, ) ( + instr.)
to see (one another), to meet
adv. apparently, evidently
, -, -oe; - eminent, out
standing
I (||, -) to
modify
m. visit
f . {gen. pi. ) fork
n. {pi. ) wine
, -, -oe; - guilty {attr.)
m. culprit; the one responsible
m. {no pi.) grapes
m. vineyard
||, -, -oe; - grape {attr.)
f. {gen. pi. ) rifle
II (, ) to hang
f. rayon
, -, -oe; - rayon {attr.)
||, -, -oe; - cherry {attr.)
f {gen. pi. ) cherry; cherry
tree
m. deposit
I (||, -),
II p. {fu t. ||, -) 1. to include;
2. to tune in, to switch on
I () to be tuned in
adv. briefly
n. taste
(it) is tasty
||, -, -oe; - tasty
I (, -) ( + instr.) to
possess, to be master of
m. sovereign, lord
f {gen. pi. -) power
adv. on, to the left
I (||, -), II p.
{fu t. , ) to fly into
n. influence; ~ to exert
influence
II p. {fu t. , ) to
put in(to)
adv. together
prp. {+ gen.) instead of
n. introduction, instillation
||, -, -oe; - outside the
integral sign
I p. {fu t. ||, -; p a st ,
||, -; -) to bring in, to carry
in; ~ to submit a sug
gestion
adv. down, downwards, downstream
adv. below, downstairs; underneath
n. attention; ,
~ to pay attention
adv. attentively
adv. anew, again, once again
II (, ) to bring in,
to carry in; ~ to submit
a suggestion
m. grandson
adv., prp. {-\-gen.) inside (of)
f. {gen. pi. ) granddaughter
I (||, -) to inspire to
suggest
all in all
I (||, -) to draw
into, to involve
adv. in time
f. {pi. ) water
, -, -oe; - water {attr.), aquatic
II (, ) to conduct, to
guide
m. water supply
, -, -oe; - military, war {attr.)
m. {gen. -, pi. -) leader
I (||, -) to
excite, to arouse
II p. { fu t. ,
) to return, to be back
||, -, -oe; - reciprocal
{attr.)
I (||, -) to
return, to give back
I (||, -)
to return, to go back
n. return
I (||, -) to
rise, to tower above
n. culture
154
. air
||, -, -; - air (attr.), aerial
II (, ) to carry, to drive,
to convey
I (||, -) to lay; ~
to set hopes on
II p. {Jut. ,
) to lay
f possibility
||, -, -; - scan
dalous, disgraceful
n. origin
I p. (fut. ) to arise,
to appear
I p. (fut. ) to grow, to
increase
m. warrior
f military unit
n. (pi. ) troops
I p. (fut. ||, -; past ||,
-, -; -) ( + .) to enter
. station
adv., prp. (-\-gen.) round, around
. (gen. pi. ) wolf
f . (pi. ) wave
n. 1 . roughness (the sea); 2.
excitement, agitation, nervousness
||, -, -; - wavy
I (||, -) to excite, to
stir
I (||, -) to be
excited, upset; to be in agitation
||, -, -; - exciting,
stirring
pi. (gen. pi. ) hair
n. magic, enchantment
f . liberty, freedom
, -, -; - free
f. 1 . freedom, liberty: 2. will
n. imagination, fancy
n. armament
m. question
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
force ones way in
pi. (no sing.) gate(s); goal
I p. (fut. , -)
to exclaim
n. Sunday
, -, -; - Sunday (attr.)
n. education, upbringing
m. educator
I p. (fut. ||, -),
I (||, -) to
bring up, to educate
n. memory, recollection
II p. (fut. ,
) archaic to glorify
I (||,
-) to restore, to rebuild, to recon
struct
n. uprising
II p. (fut. ,
) to reconstruct, to
rebuild, to restore
n. reconstruction
I p. (fut. ||, -) to rise
m. East
adv. enthusiastically
I p. (fut. ||, -) ( + instr.) to tri
umph (over)
, -, -; - eastern
I (||, -)
(-\-instr.) to admire
. admiration
part, here is;
adv. just in
a moment; ~ just in the same
way
I (||, -) to fall into
n. confluence, mouth
I p. (fut. ||, -) to fall into
adv. for the first time
adv. in front of
adv. forward, ahead
n. impression; ,
~ to make an impression
I p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to enter
(in a book), to inscribe
adv. afterwards, later
adv. to (on) the right
, -, -; - is harnessed
m. (gen. -a, pi. -) enemy
f. (no pi.) enmity, hostility
m. (gen. -a, pi. -, gen. pi. -) doctor,
surgeon
n. rotation
m. (gen. -a), harm
m. pest; saboteur
||, -, -; - harmful, bad
, -, -; - temporary, pro
visional
. time; ~~ during; in
(on) time
adv. hardly, scarcely
m. rider
pron. pi. all, everyone
adv. always
||, -, -; - usual
adv. only, in all
155
f . universe
|| , - , - ; - world (attr.)
, - , -; - universal, general
, - , - ; - All-Russian
|| , - , - ; - All-Union
pron. . all, everything; ~ still, all
the same
- cj. for all
adv. aloud
that
I (||, -) to
remember
I ( ) to c o m e
to m e m o r y
II p. (fu t. , - ) to
reca ll
, -, -; - auxiliary
(a ttr.)

I ( || , - ),
I . (fu t. , - ) to
fla sh u p , to b la z e ; to flu sh
I ( || , - ), I p. (fut.
||, - ) to rise, to g e t u p , to sta n d
up
II p. (fu t. , )
to m e et

II p. (fu t. ,
) to m e e t (o n e a n o th er )
f. m e e tin g , g e t-to g e th e r
I ( || , - ) to m e et
I ( , - ) to
m e et (o n e a n o th er )
I ( || , - ),
II p. (fut. , )
to e n te r; to jo in
II ( ) to rise (th e su n )
adv. e v e r y w h e r e
pron. f. all
, - , - ; - e v ery , a n y ; e v e r y o n e ,
anyone
prp. (+ gen.) during
II (, - ) to echo
m. Tuesday
, - , -be; - second
adv. all three (together)
m. ( = )
higher school, higher educational insti

tution, university
m. entrance
II (, ) to enter
adv. yesterday
||, -, -; - yesterdays
pron. you
I (||, -),
m ix. conj. . (fu t. , ...
) to run o u t
I (||, -) to choose,
to elect
m. choice
I (||, -) to
throw out (away)
I p. (fu t. , -) to choose,
to elect
I p. (fu t. ||, -; p a st
, -, -; -) to take out; to
export
I p. (fu t. ||, -; p a st
, -, -; -) 1. to take out; 2. to raise
m. conclusion
II () to be ex
ported
II (, ) to
look
m ix. conj. p. (see ) to give
away; to betray
, -, -; - out
standing
I (. ) to pull out. to
move out
I (||, -) to
stand out
II p. (fu t. ||, -) to
bear, to suffer, to endure; ~
to pass an examination
I (||, -) to
bear, to suffer, to endure, to sustain
I (||, -), , I
p. ( fu t. ||, -) to leave, to move
(from), to ride, to drive (out)
I p. (fu t. , -) to evoke,
to call (forth)
n. (n o p i ) recovery
m. challenge, summons
I (||, -) to evoke, to
call (forth), to arouse
I (||, -) to
gain
I p. ( fu t. ||, -, p a st ||,
-, -; -) to go out
f. laying out
I (||, -),
II p. (fu t. ||, -)
to tune off, to switch off
II p. ( fu t. ,
) to nourish, to bring up
f (gen. pi. ) pattern
I (||, -), II
p. (fu t. , ) to fly out;
to leave, to start (b y p la n e)
II p. (fu t. ,
) to utter
156
I . ( f u t . , - ; p a s t
, - , - ; - ), II
( , ) 1. to ta k e o u t, to
carry o u t; 2. to e n d u r e
I p . ( f u t . ||, - ) 1. to
w rite ( c o p y ) o u t; 2. to su b sc r ib e
f ( g e n . pi. ) e x c e r p t;
to c o p y o u t
I ( || , - ) 1. to
w rite (c o p y ) o u t; 2. to su b s c r ib e
I p. ( f u t . , - ) to d rin k u p
I ( || , - ) to sm e lt
I ( || , - ) to sw im
o u t; to e m er g e
n. fu lfilm e n t (p la n ); ca rryin g
o u t (p r o g r a m m e )
II p. ( f u t . , - ),
I ( || , - ) to fu lfil
I ( || , - ) to p r o
d u c e ; to r e le a s e
m. ( g e n . -a , pi. -) g ra d u a te
II p. ( f u t . , )
to p r o d u c e ; to r e le a s e
I ( || , - ),
I p. ( f u t . || , - )
to p r o d u c e ; to w o rk o u t
I ( || , - ) to e x p r e s s
n. e x p r e s s io n
f . e x p r e s s iv e n e s s
, - , -o e; - e x p r e s s iv e
II p. ( f u t . , )
to e x p r e s s
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to grow
up, to spring up
II p. ( f u t . , )
to grow
I ( || , - ) to
g r o w u p , to c u ltiv a te
I p. ( f u t . ||, - ) to tear o u t
f . ( g e n . pi. ) cu ttin g
I ( || , - ) to h e w o u t,
to cu t
f . ( g e n . pi. ) g la d e ,
c le a r e d s p a c e ( i n a f o r e s t ) .
I ( || , - ), I p.
( f u t . , ) to ca rve
II p. ( f u t . ||, - ) to
ju m p o u t, to le a p o u t
I p. ( f u t . || , - ) to
lis te n (till th e e n d )
( ) I ( p . ( )) to p u t
o u t, to th ru st o u t
, - , -o e ; - h ig h
a d v . h ig h
f ( p i . ) height
f . ( g e n . pi. ) exposition
m . shot
II p. ( f u t . ||, -)
to fire
II p. ( f u t . ||, -) to
build up
I
(||,
-),
II p. ( f u t . ,
) 1. to speak, to take the
floor; 2. to perform; 3. to project, to
stand out
n. public address, speech
higher school
, -, -; - highest; supreme
I () to flow out
II p. ( f u t . ||, -) 1. to
learn (something); 2. to teach
II p. ( f u t . ||, -) to
learn
m . exit
II (, ) to go
out
m. residue
I (||, -) to
compute
n. subtraction
I (||, -) to subtract
a d j ., a d v . higher
/ ( g e n . pi. ) embroidery
() II p. ( i m p . ) to
expose

m . gas
f . newspaper
m. ( g e n . -a, pi. -, g e n . pi. -) garage
I () to extinguish, to go out
m . ( g e n . -, g e n . pi. -) nail
a d v . where ( p l a c e ) ; -, ~~-
somewhere ( p l a c e )
m . hectare (2471 acres)
||, -, -oe; - brilliant, of
genius
m. genius
f . geography
m . geologist
f . geology
, -, -oe; - for
geological prospecting
f . geometry
f Germany
m . heroism
||, -, -oe; - heroic
157
. hero;
of Socialist Labour
a d v . heroically
||, -, -; - supple
I (||, -) to perish
. giant
||, -, -; - gigantic
() / hydroelec
tric power station
. (national) anthem
f . a r c h a i c middle school
f . ( n o p i ) gymnastics, calis
thenics
f hypothesis
/ ( p i ) 1. chapter; 2. head;
at the head
||, -, -; - main, principal;
chief; ~ headquarters;
mainly
m . ( p i -a, g e n . p i ) eye; ~
approximately; ~ to
estimate by sight
I (||, -) to swallow
m . ( g e n . , p i ) sip
a d j . , a d v . deeper
||, -, -; - deep
a d v . deep, deeply
f . depth
a d v . tonelessly, hollow
II (, ) to look (at)
II (, ) to drive (away)
m . oppression
II (, -) to speak
II () to be said, to
be told
m. ( p i -, -a, g e n . p i ) year
f . anniversary
/ ( p i , g e n . p i ) head
m. hunger
I (||, -) to starve
m . ( p i -a) voice
||, -, -; - blue-eyed
, -, - light blue
. ( g e n . p i -) pigeon
||, -, -; - bare, naked
/ ( p i ) mountain, hill
II (, )
(+ i n s t r .) to be proud (of)
a d v . proudly
/ pride
||, -, -; - proud
. ( p i ) grief
II (||, -) to burn, to be on
fire
m . horizon
, -, -; - horizontal
. throat
, -, -; - mountain; mining
. ( p i -a) city, town
||, -, -be; - urban
/ ( g e n . p i -) handful
||, -, -; - hot
a d v . hotly, warmly; fervently
/ hotel
II (, ) to stay with
(at), to be on a visit to, to be a guest of
m. ( g e n . p i -) guest
||, -, -; - state
( a t t r . ) \ ~ m. statesman
n. state
-, -; - is ready
II (, ) to
prepare
II (, ) to
prepare (oneself)
, -, -; - ready
. ( p i , g e n . p i
) citizen (male)
/ ( g e n . p i ) cit
izen (female)
m . gram(me)
/ grammar
||, -, -; - gram
matical
||, -, -; - literate
, -, -; - vast, huge,
immense, grandiose
||, -, -; - faceted, cut
. granite
||, -, -; - granite ( a t t r . )
/ border, frontier; -
from abroad
. graph, diagram; timetable,
schedule
f . grace
II () to thunder, to clatter
I (||, -) to warm
||, -, -; - Greek
. ( g e n . -a, p i -) mushroom
/ ( p i ) thunderstorm
a d v . threateningly
, -, -; - terrible, menacing,
threatening
. thunder
/ great bulk
||, -, -; - immense, huge
||, -, -; - loud
/ chest
158
. load
II (, ) to load
II (, ) to
embark; () to be loaded
m. ( g e n . -a, pi. -) truck, lorry
f group
||, -, -oe; - sad
/ pear
I p. ( f u t . ) to crash, to break
out, to burst (forth)
II () to drone, to hoot
m . ( g e n . , pi. ) hooting
I (||, -) to walk, to stroll,
to go for a walk
||, -, -be; - dense, thick
m . ( g e n . pi. -) goose
a d j ., a d v . denser, deeper

p a r t , yes: cj. and, but

I (||, -) to give
I () to be given
n. pressure
a d v . long ago
- a d v . very very long ago
p a r t , even
long live
a d v . farther, further; farther on
a d v . far
||, -, -oe; - far, far away,
remote
/ distance
||, -, -; - far, distant
farther (on), further
f lady ; ~ Queen of
Spades
m. ( p i . -) gift
m i x . co nj. p. ( f u t . , , ,
, , ) ( + d a t . ) to give
f . summer house
m ., n. n u m . two
. twenty
a d v . twice
f . n u m . two
n u m . twelve
f . ( g e n . pi. -) door
I
(||,
-;
to move
n. movement, motion; traffic
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to
move, to advance
, -, -; - double ( a t t r . )
m . ( g e n . -a, pi. -) court, courtyard
m . ( g e n . , pi. ) palace
||, -, -oe; - palace ( a t tr . )

m . ( p i . ) nobleman
||, -, -oe; - of the nobility
||, -, -oe; - twodimensional
f ( g e n . pi. ) little girl
f . ( g e n . pi. ) young girl
m. grandfather
m . ( g e n . pi. ) grandfather
n. action
a d v . really
f . reality
n. personage, charac
ter ( i n a p l a y )
m. December
||, -, -oe; - decorative
f . settings, scenery
I (||, -) to do, to make
I (||, -) to become
m., - / ( g e n . pi. )
delegate
f . delegation
n. ( p i . -a) matter, business, affair,
work
f . delta
m. democrat
||, -, -oe; - demo
cratic
f . democracy
I ()
to be demonstrated, shown
m . ( g e n . , pi. ) day
pi. ( g e n . pi. ) ( n o s in g .) money
m. deputy
I (||, -) to pull
f . ( g e n . pi. ) village;
country
n. ( p i . , g e n . pi. )
tree; n o pi. wood ( m a t e r i a l )
||, -, -oe; - wooden
||, -, -oe; - majestic,
mighty
(, ) to hold
m . ( g e n . , pi. ) ten
||, -, -oe; - n u m . tenth
. ten
pi. ( g e n . pi. -) children
||, -, -; - childrens, childish;
~ childrens home, orphanage
n. childhood
m.
~
statesman
f . activity, career
m . sofa
159
|| , - , - ; - 1. w ild , sh y ; 2. u n c u l
tiv a ted
. d ic ta tio n
I ( || , - ) ( + d a t .) to
d ic ta te
. d ir ec to r, m a n a g e r
/ m a n a g e m e n t
m. c o n d u c to r
f . d is c u s s io n
m. d iffe re n tia l
|| , - , - ; - lo n g
/ d u ra tio n
|| , - ; - ; - le n g th y , p r o
tra cted
p r p . ( + g e n . ) fo r
a d v . in th e d a y tim e
n. b o tto m ; at th e b o tto m
prp . ( + g e n .) 1. b e fo r e , till, u n til; 2. as
far as
II p. ( f u t . , ),
I ( || , - ) to a d d
/
a d d itio n
m ix . con j. p. (s e e ); to
reach (running)
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) ( + g e n . )
to g e t, to a c h ie v e
, - , - ; - v a lo r o u s
, - , - ; - g o o d , g o o d -h e a r te d
I ( || , - ) to ex tra ct, to
m in e
I ( ) to b e e x tr a c
te d , m in e d
I p. ( f u t . || , - ) to g et, to
o b ta in , to p ro cu re
f e x tr a c tio n
I p. ( f u t . ||, -; p a s t ,
||, -6; -) to bring to ( b y s o m e
m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t ); to give a lift
n. trust
I p. ( f u t . ||, -; p a s t ,
||, -6; -) to lead; to drive to
a d v . sufffcient(ly), enough; that
will do
, - , - ; - p le a s e d , g la d ;
to b e p le a s e d
f . ( g e n . pi. ) c o n je c tu r e ,
su rm ise
U p . ( f u t . , ) to
c a tch u p , to o v e rta k e
I p. ( f u t . || , - ) to reach
(b y s o m e m e a n s o f tran sport)
, - , - ; - rain y
. ( g e n . - , pi. - ) rain
I . ( f u t . || , - ; p a s t || ,
- , - ; - ) to r ea ch , to c o m e
to
I p. ( fu t. , ),

I ( || , - )
( + . , -I- d a t . ) to p r o v e
I ( || , - ) to
fin ish
m . rep ort, p a p e r
m . ( p i . - a ), d o c to r
m. d o c u m e n t
, - , - ; - lo n g
a d v . fo r a lo n g tim e
I ( || , - ), II
p. ( f u t . , ) to fly so far,
to rea c h (fly in g )
|| , - , - ; - m u st, o u g h t, h a v e
to
f . v a lle y
m . ( p i . -a ) h o u s e , h o m e ; ~
rest h o m e
a d v . at h o m e
|| , - , - ; - h o u s e ( a t t r .),
d o m e s t ic ; p o u ltry
a d v. hom e
I p. ( f u t . || , - ; p a s t ,
|| , -6 ; - ) 1. to carry, to ta k e (as
far a s); 2. to rep ort, to in fo r m
a d v . to th e b o tto m
II ( , ) 1. to
carry, to ta k e (a s far a s); 2. to rep ort, to
in fo r m
I p . ( f u t . , ),
I ( || , - ) to fin
ish w r itin g
|| , - , - ; - a d d i
tio n a l, su p p le m e n ta r y
I ( || , - ) to p erm it,
to a llo w , to a d m it
|| , - , - ; - p r e
r e v o lu tio n a r y
f. road
|| , - , -be; - 1. d e a r ; 2. e x p e n s iv e
f ( p i . , g e n . pi. ) 1. b o a r d ;
2. b la c k b o a r d
a d v . a h e a d o f s c h e d u le
II p. ( f u t . ,
), I ( ,
- ) to d e liv e r ; ~ to
g iv e p le a su r e
, - , - ; - su fficien t
I . ( f u t . , - ) to
rea c h , to a c h ie v e
n. a c h ie v e m e n t, s u c c e s s
160
. dignity
, -, -; - worthy, suitable
I (||, -),
II . (f u t . , -) to fin
ish building
||, -, -; - accessible, open
to
II (, ) to reach
. assistant professor
/ daughter
f jewel
||, -, -; - precious
/ drama
||, -, -; - dramatic
I (, -) to fight
||, -, -; - old Russian
||, -, -; - ancient, old
/ antiquity
||, -, -; - fractional
/ fraction
p i ( s i n g .) firewood
II (||, -) to tremble
||, -, -; - trembling,
quivering, tremulous
. ( p i , g e n . pi. ) friend
||, -, -be; - other, another
/ friendship
||, -, -; - friendly
adv. in harmony
||, -, -; - friendly
. ( p i . -) oak tree
/ thought
I (||, -) to think
I (||, -) to blow
f ( p i ) soul
/ duel
. smoke
/ melon
/ hole
. breath
II (||, ) to breathe
. uncle

/ Europe
||, -, -; - European
pers. pron. gen., . o f
poss. pron. his, its
adv. scarcely, hardly, with difficulty
f . unit
adv. unanimously
/ uniqueness
||, -, -; - the only,

unique
pers. pron. acc., gen. o f
poss. pron. her, hers
adv. annually
||, -, -; - annual
II (||, ) to ride, to drive,
to travel
pers. pron. dat. o f
f. fir-tree, spruce
pers. pron. dat. o f
, ~ cj. if
n. (n o p i ) natural science
pres, tense o f the verb
m ix. conj. (, , ; , ,
, p a s t , -, -, -) to eat
I (||, -) to ride, to drive, to
travel
adv. more; also, too; yet, still

adv. greedily, avidly
I (||, -) to be sorry; to
spare
f . complaint
adv. it is a pity; ~ I am sorry
m. genre
m. (n o p i ) fever, temperature
f . heat
||, -, -; - hot
adv. hot(ly); adj. it is hot
||, -, -; - burning
I (, ) to wait
part, and; as to; but
n. desire, wish
I (||, -) ( + gen.) to wish,
to desire
railway
, -, -; - railway
(attr.)
||, -, -; - iron (attr.)

. ( p i ) iron
/ ( p i ) wife
p i married ( o f a m a n )
II . (pres, a n d fu t. ,
) to marry
||, -, -; - female, womens,
womanly, feminine
m. ginseng
f woman
f . victim; p i casualties
||, -, -; - cruel
/ cruelty
161
|| , - , - ; - y e llo w
(+ d a t.) (h e ) liv e s
adv. v iv id ly , w ith a n im a tio n
||6 , - , -b e; - a liv e , liv e , liv in g
it is p ic tu r e s q u e
, - , - ; - p ic tu r e s q u e
f. ( pi.) p a in tin g
. a n im a l h u sb a n d r y ,
c a ttle b r e e d in g
, - , - ; - c a ttle b r e e d in g ( a ttr.)
. a n im a l
, - , - ; - c h e e r fu l,
buoyant
/ life
||, -, -; - housing
||, -, -be; - dwelling, living
||, -, -; - similar
. inhabitant
I (||, -) to live
. magazine
. - f journalist
II () to babble, to
murmur
|| ,
- ,
- ;
-
fr ig h te n in g ;
(+ d a t.) o n e fe e ls
fr ig h te n e d
3
prp. ( + acc., -\-instr.) behind; at; for
I (||, -) 1. to drive in,
to nail; 2. to score
I (||, -) to light
f solicitude, care, concern
I p. (fut. ) to begin to
beat (to thump)
II (, ) to
take care of, to show concern for
adv. thoughtfully, solicitously
I (||, -), I p.
(fu t. ||, -) to forget
n. institution, establishment;
~ higher school
m. (is declined as an adj. o f
m ix e d decl.) manager
II p. (fu t. ||, -) to
complete
II p. (fu t. ) to be
completed, consummated
m. factory, plant, works, mill
||, -, -be; - factory (attr.)
I (||, -) to
conquer
adv. tomorrow
m. breakfast
I (||, -) to have
breakfast
||, -, -; - tomorrows
I . (fu t. , ),
I (||, -) to tie;
to establish
f. (gen. pi. ) riddle;
to ask riddles
||, -, -; - mysterious
II . (fu t. ||, -) to
muffle
II . (fu t. , -) to
begin to speak, to enter in conversation
I (||, -) to catch
fire, to burn, to begin to burn; to light up
II p. (fu t. , -) to get
sun-tanned
II p. (fu t. , -)
to catch fire, to burn with
adv. abroad (p la ce)
adv. abroad (d irection)
II p. (fu t. ) to thunder
I (||, -) (+ dat.): ~
to ask a question; ~ to
ask riddles; ~ to give homework
m. task, job, homework,
assignment
m ix. conj. (see ) (+ dat.): ~
to ask a question; ~ to
give homework
f. 1. problem; 2. task
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to begin to move
adv. long before, long in advance
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
begin to tremble
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to muse, to lapse into thought
adv. thoughtfully
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to visit a
place or person on ones way
I p. (fu t. , ...
) to set fire, to set alight
I (||, -) to light, to
set fire; to make a fire, to kindle
I () to light up, to
catch fire
I p. (fu t.
, -) to take an interest,
to become interested
162
I . {fut. ||, -; past ||, f. reserve
I p. {fut. , -),
-, -, -) 1. to call on, to drop
II p. {fut. ||, -) to
in; 2. to set (about the sun); ~ to look
grow silent
up (somebody)
; ~ to marry {about a
m. order
woman)
I p. {fut. , ),
I (||, -) to married {a woman)
f {gen. pi. ) curtain
order
II p. {fut. ||, -) to I p. {fut. ||, -; past ,
||, -6; -) to bring, to leave on
harden
ones way
I (||, -) to fin
I (||, -) to occupy,
ish, to complete
to take up
I () to come
I (||, -) 1. to
to an end, to end, to finish
be engaged in, to be busy with; 2.
m. sunset
{+instr.) to study; ~ c {+instr.) to teach
I () to consist
II p. {fut. ||, -) to adv. anew
II (, ) to bring,
enclose
to leave on ones way
m. law
n. 1. occupation; 2. lesson
f. lawfulness, legality
II p. {fut. , -) to pi. study, studies
||, -, -oe; - engaged, busy,
finish
occupied
II p. {fut. ) to fin
I p. {fut. ||, -) to occupy,
ish, to end, to be finished
to take up
II p. {fut. ||, -) to
I p. {fut. ||, -) to
utter a cry
occupy oneself, to take up
I (||, -) to close
I () to close, to , -, -oe; - by correspondence
m. west
be closed
I p. {fut. , -) to close ||, -, -oe; - west {attr.),
western
m. hall
pi. disused, long-fallow I to delay, to lag
m. smell, odour
land
I (||, -), II I p. {fut. , -) to lock
I p. {fut. , -) to
p. {fut. , ) to fly in
lock oneself in
m. bay, gulf
||, -, -oe; - locked
I () to flood
I p. {fut. ||, I p. {fut. ||, -) to begin to
sing
-) {+instr.) to admire, to start
I p. {fut. , ) to
to admire
write down, to record
||, -, -oe; - alluring {attr.)
II p. {fut. , ), pad, notebook
I (, -) to replace, I (||, -) to write
down, to record
to take the place, to substitute
II p. {fut. , ) to f. record
I p. {fut. ||, -) to
notice
begin to weep, to cry
adv. noticeably
II p. {fut. , )
||, -, -oe; - noticeable
to pay
, -, -oe; - wonderful,
II p. {fut. ||, -),
remarkable, striking
I (||, -) to fill
I (||, -) to notice
in
I p. {fut. ||, -)
II p. {fut. ||, -) to
to mine
commit to memory, to remember
I () to die away
163
II . ( f u t . ) to be f . ( p i . ) star
remembered
/ little star; asterisk
n. ban
II () to ring
m . inquiry; demand
m . messenger
I (||, -) to m . ( g e n . pi. -) beast
earn
m . chiming, ringing
I to infect
II (||, -) to ring
m . sound
a d v . in good time
I (p. ) to be con ||, -, -oe; -tie sound ( a t t r . )
ceived, to arise
II () to sound
, -, -oe; - foreign, be ||, -, -oe; - sonorous,
yond the frontier
resounding
f . ( p i . ) dawn
n. building
I p. ( f u t . ) to flash
a d v . here
II p. ( f u t . ) to light ||, -, -; - local
up
I (||, -) to
n. sitting, conference, meeting
greet
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to sow
||, -, -; - healthy
I (||, -) to hide, to . health
cover, to screen
. care of public health
, -, -oe; - honoured
, - how do you do, hullo
II p. ( f u t . ||, I () to grow green
) to deserve, to earn
f . verdure
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) ||, -, -oe; - green
to burst into laughter
n. agriculture
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to fall asleep n. earthquake
I (||, -) to force, f ( p i . , g e n . pi. ) earth,
land
to compel
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to find in globe
II p. ( f u t . ) (to n. ( p i . -a) mirror, looking glass
begin) to stream
n. ( p i . , g e n . pi. ) grain
I (||, -) to fall asleep f . ( p i . ) winter
, -, -; - wintry, winter
a d v . after that, then, afterwards
(a ttr.)
I (||, -) to screen
a d v . in winter
f difficulty
II (, ) to call on, cereals
to drop in; to set ( t h e s u n )
||, -, -oe; - gold-headed,
gold-domed
m ix . c on j. p. ( f u t . ,
||, -, -be; - evil ( a t t r . )
... ) to want, to wish
I p. ( f u t . ) (to begin) to m . dragon, serpent
bloom
m . sign, token, symbol
a d v . often
II
(,
) ( + in str .) to make
I p. ( f u t . , )
someones acquaintance, to acquaint
(to begin) to whisper
II p. ( f u t . ||, -) to sew up
oneself, to familiarize oneself
II p. ( f u t . , ) , -, -oe; - familiar
to begin making a noise, (to begin) to m., - / , - pi. friend,
acquaintance
rustle
f . denominator
m. defender
I (||, -) to defend ||, -, -oe; - famous
I (||, -) to n. ( p i . ) banner
n. knowledge
defend oneself
n. title, name
||, -, -oe; - distinguished,
I (||, -) to call
notable
164
I (||, -) to know
. meaning; importance
, -, -; - consider
able; important
||, -, -; - golden, gold
like
. gold
, -, -be; - golden, gold
(attr.)
||, -, -; - gilded
/ zoology
. (= ) zoo
, -, -; - sharp-sighted
. spectacle
/ maturity
. sight, vision
I () to ripen
. spectator, onlooker
. (gen. pi. -6) tooth

cj. 1. and; 2. also, too
cj. for, as
/ (pi. ) needle
f. (pi. ) play; game; acting, per
formance
I (||, -) to play
f. (gen. pi. ) toy, play
thing
adv. ideally
f. idea
I (||, -; past , , ;
) 1. to go, to walk; 2. to become (a
dress, etc.)
pep. (+gen.) from, out of
I p. (fut. , -) to choose,
to elect
n. news
it is known
f. reputation, fame
, -, -; - (well) known
II p. (fut. , -) to
excuse
I (, -) to
apologize
I () to be published
adv. long since
adv. from afar
adv. from afar
n. 1. publishing; 2. edition
mix. conj. p. (see ) to publish
n. article
- prp. (+gen.) 1. from behind; 2.
because of
n. change
II p. (fut. , ),
1. to change; 2. to betray
II p. (fut. ,
) to change, to be changed
I (||, -) 1. to change;
2. to betray
I (, -) to
change, to be changed
n. dimension
I (||, -) to measure
I (||, -) to wear out,
to exhaust
I (||, -) to
depict, to represent, to portray
n. depiction, portrayal, pic
ture, image
II p. (fut. , ) to depict, to represent, to
portray
I p. (fut. ||, -),
I (, -) to invent,
to discover
adv. now and then, from time to
time
adv. fairly, pretty well
n. amazement
I (||, -) to study
n. study
II p. (fut. , ) to
make a study of, to learn
, -, -; - elegant
cj. or
n. estate
part, namely; just
I (||, -) to have
I ( there is) to be
n. (pi. ) name
adv. differently, otherwise
/ (gen. pi. ) an Indian
woman
m. (gen. , pi. ) an
Indian
||, -, -; - Indian
. ( pi.) hoar-frost
. engineer
f. initiative
adv. sometimes
||6, -, -be; - different, other
. (gen. , pi.
) foreigner (male)
165
f
(gen. p i )
fo r e ig n e r (fe m a le )
, - , -o e; - fo r eig n
m. in stitu te , c o lle g e
m. in str u c to r
m. in str u m e n t
/ in te llig e n ts ia
m. in te re st
adj. it is in te r e stin g ; adv. in te r
e stin g ly
, - , -o e; - in te re stin g
I ( || , - ) to
in te re st
I (||, -)
(+ instr.) to be interested in
, -, -oe; - inter
national
f intrigue
m. (ind eclin a b le) Soviet
Information Bureau
n. seeking
I (, ) to seek, to look for
||, -, -oe; - excep
tional, rare
/ spark
|| , - , -; - sin c e r e
, - , - ; - artificial
. art
I . (fu t. , ) to
c o v e r w ith w ritin g
m. p e r fo rm e r
II p. (fu t. , - ),
I ( || , - ) to
p erfo rm
n. u tiliz a tio n
I, I p. (pres., fu t. ,
- ) to u tiliz e , to m a k e u se o f
I ( ) to be
u tiliz e d , to b e m a d e u s e o f

II p. (fu t. ,
),

I
( || , - ) 1. to c o rr ec t; 2. to
rep a ir
, - , -o e; - fr ig h te n e d
I p. (fu t. || , - )
to ta k e frig h t
I ( || , - ) to
e x p e r ie n c e
n. r esea rch (w o r k );
to carry o n resea rch
|| , - , -o e; - resea rch
(attr.)
, - , -o e; - tru e (attr.)
m. so u r c e
||, -, -oe; - historical

f history
m. source
I (||, -), I
p. ( fu t. ||, -) to disappear, to
vanish
n. calculus
cj. so, thus, and so
f . Italy
, -, -oe; - Italian
m. sum, total; fig . result
pers. pron., gen., acc. o f
poss. pron. theirs, theirs
m. June
m. July

() prp. (+ d a t.) to, towards
/ cockpit
m. study
pi. (n o sing.) personnel
||, -, -oe; - each, every
it seems
f barracks
I (, ) to seem
II p. (pres., fu t. ||, -) to
execute
adv. how; cj. as, like; just,
exactly: just the same;
-, -, - somehow;
sometime; as soon as; ~
as much as possible
||, -, -be; - what (a), which; how;
whatever; -, -,
- some, any; in what
manner
, - , -o e; - s to n e , b rick
(attr.); c o a l, a n th ra c ite
m. (gen. , p i , gen. p i
) s to n e
m. (gen. -a , p i - ) r ee d , ru sh
m. c a n a l
p i (n o sing.) vacation
m. captain
f (gen. p i ) drop
m. corporal
m. (in d eclin a b le) Capri
f. (n o p i ) cabbage
m. (gen. -a, p i -, gen.
pencil
pi
f ca rria g e, c o a c h
, - b r o w n (o n ly a b o u t eyes)
m. d w a r f
m. p o c k e t
-)
166
f
/ picture
/ tangent
||, -, -; - tangential
(attr.)
I (||, -) to go for
drive; ~ to skate; ~
to go boating
II (, ) to roll
. (gen. , pi. ) skatingrink
. (indeclinable) coffee-house,
cafeteria, tea-room
I (||, -) to rock
I (||, -) to swing,
to rock
/ cabin, state-room; f wardroom, messroom
m. square
m. 1. block; 2. quarter
f. apartment, flat
adv. upwards
m. cedar
n. (indeclinable) kilo
m. kilogramme
m. kilometer
m. dagger
n. (indeclinable) cinema
m. film camera
m. newsreel
f film studio
m. film
I p. ( fut. ||, -) to fling, to
throw
m. cypress
||, -, -; - boiling, ebullient
||, -, -; - Kirghiz (attr.)
/ acid
. (gen. , pi. )
Chinese, Chinaman
. China
||, -, -; - Chinese
/ (gen. pi. ) a Chinese
woman
||, -, -; - intestinal (attr.)
. cemetery
. 1. class; 2. classroom, form
||, -, -; - classic
I (||, -) to lay, to put, to
place (horizontally)
f. cell
m. climate
f. (gen. pi. ) nickname
m. (gen. , pi. ) bit
m. club
||, -, -; - club (attr.)
m. (gen. -a, pi. -, gen. pi. -) 1. key,
clue; 2. source
I (||, -) to swear
f. oath
f. book
book-case
adv. downwards
m. (gen. , pi ) carpet, rug
adv., cj. when, ~ -to adv. once, for
merly
- adv. here and there
- adv. somehow
- pron. someone
- adv. somewhere (direction)
- pron. something
f. skin; leather
, -, -; - leather (attr.)
f. (pi. ) goat
n. fluctuation, oscillation
n. (pi. -) knee
n. quantity
m. collective body, association;
group
f. collection
m. (pi. -a) bell
f. (gen. pi. ) belltower
f. column
f. colonnade
I (, ) to stab; to chop;
~ to split wood
m. collective farm, kolkhoz
m., - f. collective farm
member
, -, -; - collective farm
(attr.)
f. cradle
n. (pi. ) ring
f. team
m. commander
f. (gen. pi. )
commission, business trip
m. combine
m. committee
f. commune
m. communism
||, -, -; - com
munist
f. commutativity
f. room
f. constitution
m. composer
167
. ( g e n . , p i
), f ( g e n . pi.
) Komsomol member
, -, -; - Komsomol
(attr.), of the Young Communist League
||, -, -; - com
fortable
. congress
. ticket collector
. ( g e n . , pi. ) end
a d v . of course
/ finiteness
||, -, -; - finite (attr.)
. contest
/ conservatoire
/ constitution
. continent
/ office
/ conference
. embarrassment, confusion,
shame
. concert
||, -, -; - concert ( a t t r . )
I (||, -), II .
( f u t . ||, -) to finish
I (), II .
( f u t . ) to finish, to end
m . ( g e n . -, g e n . pi. -) horse, steed
p i skates
/ coordinate
f . ( g e n . p i ) copeck
m . ( g e n . , p i )
ship
m . ( g e n . , p i ) a
Korean
||, -, -; - Korean ( a t t r . )
m. ( g e n . , p i g e n . p i
) root
f . basket
m . corridor, passage
/ ( n o p i ) stem
II (, ) to feed
f . ( g e n . p i ) box
f . cow
f . queen
n. coronation
, -, -; - short
a d v . briefly
m . ( p i -a) building
m. correspondent
|| ,-, -, - oblique
m. ( g e n . , p i ) camp
fire
m . suit, costume, outfit
, -, -; - which, that
m . coefficient
m . ( p i ) edge, brim; territory
a d v . extremely
||, -, -; - extreme
m . ( g e n . , p i ),
f . a beauty
a d v . beautifully, a d j . it is beautiful
||, -, -; - beautiful
II (, ) 1. to colour;
2. to adorn
/ ( g e n . p i ) colour
m . ( g e n . ,
p i ) Red Army man
n. ( n o p i ) eloquence
||, -, -; - red
/ beauty
, -, -; - short-term
/ multiplicity
. cruiser
||, -; -; - Kremlin ( a t t r . )
||, -, -; - strong, sturdy
a d v . strongly; soundly
I (||, -) to grow strong
f . ( g e n . p i -) fortress
n. ( g e n . p i ) arm-chair, easychair
m . ( g e n . -a, p i -) cross
m . ( p i , g e n . p i
) peasant
f . ( g e n . p i ) a
peasant woman
||, -, -; - peasant
(a ttr .)
n. peasantry
f . curve
f . curvature
m . scream, cry
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to cry
out
m . crystal
m. critic
II (||, -) to shout
f . bed
f . blood
pr. (-\- gen .) except, besides; ~
besides
m . ( p i -) circle
||, -, -; - round
. outlook ( m e n t a l )
a d v . , pr. (-\ -ge n .) round, around
n. ( p i -a) lace
m . ( g e n . , p i )
circle
168
||, -, -; - large, big;
important
f . steep slope
n. torsion
n. ( p i . , g e n . p i )
wing
/ root
a d v . in succession
to the point; at the same time
p r o n . who; -, -,
- somebody, someone
m . crew space
a d v . where (to); , -,
~ somewhere ( d i r e c t i o n );
wherever
||, -, -; - curly, wavy
. ( p i . -a) body ( o f a l o r r y )
f . maize
I () to
be cultivated
f . culture
a d v . in a cultured way
-
culturaleducational
||, -, -; - cultural
. bathing, swimming
I (||, -) to bathe;
to take a bath
n. ( i n d e c l i n a b l e ) compartment (on a
train)
II p. (f u t . , ) to buy
||, -, -; - bought
. ( p i . -a) cupola, dome
pi. ( s i n g . ) chimes
II (, ) to smoke
f . (pi. ) hen
m . health resort
m . course
m . ( g e n . , pi. ) piece,
lump
m . ( g e n . -a, pi. -) bush
|, -, -; - handicraft
( a t t r . ) ; hand made
/ ( g e n . pi. ) kitchen
/ heap

f . laboratory
I (||, -)
manoeuvre
m . (pi. -) camp
II (, ) to climb
m . ( n o p i.) bark
f . lamp
to
m . litmus
||, -, -; - Latin
||, -, -; - left
/ legend
a d v . easy, easily; a d v . easier
m . (pi. -) glacier
m . ice-breaker
, -, -be; - ice ( a t t r . )
II (||, -) to lie
n. medicine
m . lecture-hall
f . lecture
||, -, -; - lazy
. ( g e n . , pi.
) Leningrader
, -, -; - Leningrad
(a ttr.)
. (pi. -a) forest, wood

. ( g e n . -a, pi. -) forester
, -, -be; - forest ( a t t r . )
/ staircase
(p i. o f ) years
I (||, -) to fly
||, -, -; - flying
II (, ) to fly
||, -, -; - summery, summer
(a ttr.)
. summer
a d v . in summer
n. cure, treatment
I p. ( f u t. ||, -; p a s t ,
||, -; -) to lie down
||, -, -; - easy, light
. ( g e n . , pi. ) ice
. ( g e n . ) flax
. flyer, pilot
- pseudo
in te r, p a r t , if, whether
I p.
(pres.,
fut.
||, -) to eliminate, to
liquidate
, -, -; - lilac, lilaccoloured
m . lemon
, -, -; - lemon ( a t tr . )
. linguist
/ ( g e n . pi. ) ruler
||, -, -; - linear ( a t tr . )
/ lens
/ line
. (pi. ) leaf ( o f a tree)-, (pi.
) leaf ( o f a b o o k )
f . ( n o p i.) foliage
f . ( g e n . pi. ) leaflet
169
f . literature
, -, -; - literary
. litre
1 (, ) to pour
I () to pour
, -, -be; - evil, bold
/ fever
. (p i . ) face; face
to face
, -, -; - personal
cj. as soon as; a d v . only
m. ( g e n . , pi. ) forehead
II (, ) to catch
, -, -; - adroit, deft
f ( g e n . pi. ) boat
II (||, -) to lie
down
f . ( g e n . pi. ) spoon
I (||, -) to break
... to puzzle over
/ breaking
f . spade
I p. (fu t. ) to burst
f ( g e n . pi. -) horse
m . (pi. -a) meadow
f . ( g e n . pi. ) lawn
f moon
m. ( g e n . -a, pi. -) ray
a d j . , a d v . better
||, -, -; - best
||, -, -; - polite, obliging
||, -, -; - loved, favourite
. amateur
II (, ) to love
I (||, -) ( + i n s t r .)
to admire
f . ( g e n . , n o p i. ) love
||, -, -; - curious
. ( pi .) curiosity;
out of curiosity
pi. (pi. o f , g e n . -) people
m . March
n. butter
||, -, -; - mass ( a t t r . )
m . (pi. -a) foreman; expert
f . shop
n. skill, craftsmanship
f . mathematics
m . material
f . matter
f . matrix
m. sailor
m . sport match
f . mother
f . machine, automobile
n. machine building
f . ( n o p i. ) haze
n. instant, moment
a d v . instantly, in a flash
f . ( n o p i. ) furniture
f . medal
m . bear
f . medicine
a d v . slowly
||, -, -; - slow
||, -, -; - copper ( a t t r . )
f . ( p i. ) copper
pr. ( + i n s t r . ) between, among; ~
by the way; ~ meanwhile
, -, -; - interna
tional
. ( p i.) chalk
||, -, -; - 1. small, nonde
script; 2. shallow
f . melody
I () to flash (by), to
appear for a moment
I p. ( fu t. ) to flash (by),
to appear for a moment
a d v . less
a d j . smaller, a d v . less
I (||, -) to change
I () to change
f . degree; measure; to
M
what extent
I to gleam, twinkle
m. mausoleum
a d v . here and there
m . shop
f . place, locality
m. May
||, -, -; - local
||, -, -; - small, little
a d v . little, few; - little . (pi. -a) place
. g e o l. layer, deposit
by little
. month
||, -, -; - fellow
. metal
. boy
II (, ) to lure, to , -, -; -
metal-working
entice
170
|| , - , - ; - m e ta l
lu r g ic a l
/ m e ta llu r g y ; ~ fe r
ro u s m e ta llu r g y
I ( , ) to rush
about
. m e th o d
. m etre
. ( in d eclin a b le ) u n d e r g r o u n d
. ( p i . -a ) fur
/ m e c h a n iz a tio n
,
- ,
- ;
-
m e c h a n iz e d
|| , - , - ; - m e c h a n ic a l
/ d rea m
. d r e a m er
I ( || , - ) to d ream
I ( || , - ) to im p e d e , to
d istu rb
m. (gen. , p i ) b a g ,
sa ck
|| , - , - ; - d e a d
. instant; ~ in a flash
. m illia rd , b illio n
. m illio n
adv. n ic e ly
/ fa v o u r , g r a ce , m ercy
|| , - , - ; - d ea r, d a r lin g
adv., pr. (+ gen.) p a st, by
m. (n o pi.) a lm o n d s
m. m in era l
/ m in e r a lo g y
/ ta rg et
n. m in istry
m.
Minister
f . m in u te
m. 1. ( p i - ) w o r ld ; 2. (n o p i ) p e a c e
adv. p e a c e fu lly
|| , - , - ; - p e a c e fu l, p e a c e
(attr.)
|| , - , -b e; - w o r ld (attr.)
|| , - , - ; - p e a c e lo v in g , p e a c e a b le
. m e e tin g
|| , - , - ; - y o u n g e r
. o p in io n
m a n y
adv. m a n y , m u c h
, - , - ; - c e n tu r y -o ld
, - , - ; - m a n y -v o ic e d
/ m a n y -v a lu e d n e s s
, - , - ; - m u lti
d im e n s io n a l
. m a n ifo ld
|| , - , - ; - n u m er o u s
. p o ly n o m ia l
, - , - ; - m an ys to r e y e d
. (g rea t) m a n y , a great d ea l,
m u ltitu d e (s ), a lo t; set, a g g reg a te
/ g ra v e
|| , - , - ; - m ig h ty , p o w er fu l
f . m o d e l
m. d e sig n e r
, - , - ; - f a s h io n a b le , o f th e
la test fa s h io n
/ m o d u la tio n
pron. n. m y, m in e
p e r h a p s, m a y b e
it is p o s s ib le
f. m o s a ic , in la y
|| , - , - ; - m o sa ic
. b rain
, , ; pron. m y, m in e
, - , - ; - w et
|| , - , - ; - m o le c u la r
/ lig h tn in g
/ ( p i ) y o u th
|| , - , -be; - y o u n g
/ ( p i) y o u th ;
in o n e s y o u th
. ( p i ) m ilk
. h a m m e r
||, -, -; - silent, taciturn

II (||, -) to be silent
. moment
. (gen. pi. ) a Mongolian
, - , - ; - Mongolian
(attr.)
/ coin

.
a s s e m b lin g ,
m o u n tin g ,
in s ta llin g
. ( p i - ) se a
. fro st
, - , -; - frosty
|| , - , - ; - sea (attr.), naval
. (gen. -a, p i - ) seaman
. (gen. -a, p i - ) Moscovite
|| , - , - ; - of Moscow,
Moscow
(attr.)
m. (gen. -a, p i - ) bridge

m. motif; m us. tune
m. motorcycle
I ( , ) can, to
be able,
may
f . p o w e r , a b ility
, - , - ; - p o w e r fu l, m ig h ty
pron. f. m y, m in e
171
. marble
|| , - , - ; - m a rb le ( attr.)
, - , - ; - g lo o m y
. (pi. ) h u sb a n d
adv. b r a v e ly , g a lla n tly
. ( pi) c o u r a g e
. m a n
. m u se u m
J. ( pi) m u s ic
, - , - ; - m u s ic a l,
m u s ic (attr.)
. m u s ic ia n
. m u s c le
II (||, -) to speed
(tear) along
pron. we
n. soap
, - , - ; - s o a p (attr.); ~
m. s o a p b u b b le
m. th in k er
f. th o u g h t, id e a
I ( || , - ) to w a s h ; ~
to w a s h u p
, - , - ; - so ft
|| , - , - ; -
h e a r ted , k in d -h e a r te d
. ( pi) m ea t
. (gen. -a , pi - ) b a ll, sp h e re
so ft

prp. (+., direction; -\-prepos., loca
tion) o n , at, to
f. e m b a n k m e n t, w a te rfr o n t
I to c lim b

I
( || ,
- )
( i-instr.) to o b s e r v e
m. se t, c o lle c t io n
m. (gen. , pi )
sk e tc h , dra ft
p r o b a b ly , m o st lik e ly , fo r c erta in ,
c e r ta in ly
adv. u p sta irs (direction)
adv. a b o v e , u p sta irs, o n th e to p
flo o r
II p. (Jut. , - ),
I ( || , - ) to v isit,
to c a ll o n
n. flo o d , in u n d a tio n
II p. (Jut. || , - ) to
flo o d
adv. fo r ev er
adv. to m e e t
II p. (Jut. ,
- ) to sp e a k as m u c h as o n e w a n ts
f. rew a rd , a w a rd
II p. (Jut. , )
to r ew a rd , to aw a rd
I ( || , - ) (+instr.)
to load (with)
prp. ( +instr.) over, above
I (||, -) to put on
J. hope
I ( , - ) ( + .)
to h o p e ; to relay
m. (no pi) s u r v e illa n c e
it is n e c e s sa r y
/ n e c e s s ity
mix. conj. p. (Jut. || , - ,
- ; - , - , - ) ( + dat.) to b o re
adv. fo r lo n g
J. in sc r ip tio n
I ( || , - ),
II p. (Jut. , - )
to b u ild a su p e rstru ctu re
adv. 1. b a c k ; 2. a g o
n. n a m e , title
I p. (Jut. ||, - ) to call
I p. (Jut. ||, - ) to
c a ll o n e s e l f
I ( || , - ) to a p p o in t;
to fix
n. p u r p o se
I ( || , - ) to ca ll
I ( , - ) to ca ll
o n e s e lf , to b e c a lle d , n a m e d
adv. m o st
adv. b y heart
|| , - , - ; - th e b e st, th e very
b e st
adv. lea st
, - , -; - is fo u n d
I p. (Jut. ||, - ; past || ,
- , - ; - ) to fin d
. p u n is h m e n t
I ( || , - ) to
bend
adv. at la st, fin a lly
n. a c c u m u la tio n
I ( || , - ) to
a c c u m u la te
I ( || , - ) to c o v e r
adv. to (o n ) th e left
I ( || , - ), I p.
(Jut. , ; past ,
|| , -6; - ) to le a n o n
I ( || , - ) to p la n
b a c k to fr o n t, w r o n g w a y r o u n d ,
o n th e co n tr a ry
172
I . (fut. ||, -)
to print
I . (fut. , ) 1.
to write; 2. to paint (a picture)
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
drink
II p. (fut. ||, -) to
fill
I (||, -) to
remind
m. pressure, head
II p. (fut. ,
) to direct
II p. (fut. ,
),
I
(, -) to make for; to
make ones way to
adv. to (on) the right
adv. in vain, to no purpose
adv. for example, for instance
n. tension, effort
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
draw
m. people
national economy
, -, -oe; - folk (attr.),
national
I (||, -) to
disturb
||, -, -oe; - well dressed,
smart
n. population
f. population
adv. to what degree
n. heritage; no
to be inherited, to come
from one generation to another
I (||, -) to in
sist
I p. (fut. ) to come
adv. persistently
adv. so, that much
n. insistence
, -, -; - 1. genuine; 2.
present
n. mood, spirit
I (||, -) to advance,
to attack; to be on the offensive;
() to come
II p. (fut. ) to come
n. advance, offensive
I (||, -) to
number, to count
f. science
II p. (fut. , ) to
teach
II p. (fut. , )
(+dat.) to learn
-||, -, -oe; -
scientific research (attr.)
-||, -, -oe; - popu
lar science (attr.)
||, -, -oe; - scientific
II (, ) to find
II (, ) to
be, to be found
f. nationality
, -, -oe; - national
f nation
n. beginning
m. chief
I p. (fut. ||, -) to begin
I p. (fut. ) to begin
n. undertaking, initiative
I (||, -) to begin
I () to begin
c prp. (+gen.) beginning with
part, not
||, -, -oe; - celestial, heavenly
(attr.)
n. (pi. ) sky
, -, -be; - not great, small
m. sky
m., f. ignoramus
, -, -oe; - incredible
(attr.)
||, -, -oe; - unprecedented,
unheard of
it is impossible
, -, -oe; - impossible
adv. involuntarily
f. immunity (to), lack
of receptivity
||, -, -oe; - unbearable
adv. beyond expression
||, -, -oe; - not tall, not high
adv. nowhere, there is nowhere
m. Negro
||, -, -oe; - illiterate
f. illiteracy
||, -, -; - recent
adv. recently
adv. not far
f week
adv. not long
adv. inexpensive(ly)
m. (gen. , pi.
) shortcoming
173

adv.
in su ffic ie n tly ,
in a d e q u a te ly
it is b e y o n d ...
|| , - , -o e; - in a c c e s s ib le
m. a ilm e n t
, - , -o e; - u n n a tu ra l
|| , - , -o e; - te n d e r , d e lic a te
|| , - , -o e; - u n fo r
g e tta b le
|| , - , - ; - in d e p e n d e n t
attr.)
( ) adv. n o t lo n g b e fo r e
, - , -o e; - u n fin ish e d
adv. im p e r c e p tib ly
, - , -o e ; - u n fa m ilia r,
unknow n
, - , -o e; - in s ig
n ifica n t, in c o n s id e r a b le
adv. in e v ita b ly
, - , -o e; - in e v ita b le ,
u n a v o id a b le
it is n o t k n o w n
, - , -o e; - u n k n o w n
{attr.)
adv. 1. th ere is n o tim e ; 2. o n c e ;
fo r m e r ly
pron. th ere is n o o n e
, - , -o e; - s o m e
pron. s o m e o n e
adv. n o w h e r e ( direction), th ere is
n o w h e r e ...
adv. it is n o t e a sy
adj. a w k w a rd
it is im p o s s ib le , o n e c a n n o t, o n e
m u st n o t
adv. n o t a little , m u ch
|| , - , -o e; - o f n o sm a ll
im p o r ta n c e (attr.)
adv. im m e d ia te ly
m. {gen. , pi. ) G er m a n
, - , -o e ; - G er m a n
fe w
adv. s lig h tly , s o m e w h a t, a little ,
rath er
adv. a little
|| , - , -b e; - m u te
II ( , - ) to h a te
|| , - , - ; - b o u n d le s s ,
im m e n s e
it is n e c e s sa r y
n. th a t w h ic h is n e c e s sa r y
|| , - , -o e; - n e c e s sa r y
|| , - , -o e ; - im m e n s e ,
u n b o u n d e d , b o u n d le s s
adv. u n c o m m o n ly
, - , -o e ; - u n u s u a l,
uncom m on
|| , - , -o e ; - u n u su a l
adv. u n u s u a l, u n u s u a lly
, - , - ||-
u n b o u n d e d {attr.)
adv. r e p e a te d ly , o fte n
, - , - ||-
i n h o m o g e n e o u s {attr.)
adv. u n e x p e c t e d ly
|| , - , -o e ; - u n e x p e c te d
|| , - , -o e ; - in d e fin ite
{attr.)
|| , - , -o e ; - in e x p e r ie n c e d
f. c a r e le s s n e s s ,
im p r u d e n c e
|| , - , -o e ; - in se p a r a b le
adv. fro m n o w h e r e
adv. n o t b a d (ly ), rath er w ell
adv. m o t io n le s s
|| , - , -o e ; - m o tio n le s s
|| , - , -o e; - g e n u in e
|| , - , - ; - u n c o v e r e d
|| , - , - ; - in c o m p r e h e n
s ib le , n o t cle a r
adv. s p o n ta n e o u s
, - , - ; - irregu lar
adv. w ith o u t fa il; c er ta in ly
adv. in c e s s a n tly
, - , -o e ; - irr ed u c ib le
{attr.)
|| , - , -o e ; - u n p le a sa n t
adv. in e q u a lity
adv. in d is s o lu b ly
adv. fr e q u e n tly ; lit. n o t

in fr e q u e n tly
, - , -o e; - u n e v e n
|| , - , -o e ; - in d e str u c tib le
pron. s o m e , s e v e r a l, a fe w ; a
little
pr. {-\~acc.) in sp ite o f, n o t
w ith s ta n d in g ; ~ , cj. in sp ite
o f th e fa c t th a t, d e s p ite
f. in c o m m e n s u r a b ility
, - , -o e ; - u n q u e s t io n
a b le {attr.)
I ( || , - ; past , || , - ;
- ) to carry, to b ea r
I ( ||, - ; past ,
|| , - ; - ) to ru sh , to fly
part, n o , n o t
it is n o t d ifficu lt
it is in c o n v e n ie n t
174
, -, -; - steadfast (attr.)
part, is it possible?
oilextracting industry

cracking, oil-refining industry
f. oil
II p. (fut. ) not to be
enough, to be short of
pron. there is nothing; ~
there is nothing to do
, -, -; - not black
soil (attr.)
adv. indistinctly, carelessly
, -, -; - implicit (attr.)
part, not , ... neither... nor
adv. nowhere (location)
adj., adv. below, lower
, -, -; - lower
/ depression, a low place
, -, -; - low
adv. in no way
, -, -be; - pron. no, not any,
none... whatever, none
adv. never
pron. nobody, no one
adv. nowhere (direction)
adv. from nowhere
f. (gen. pi. ) thread
f. thread
pron. nothing, its nothing, never
mind
, , , pron.
nobodys
pron. nothing
, -, -; - worthless,
insignificant
f. misery, destitution, poverty
cj. but
m. innovator
, -, -; - New-Year (attr.)
n. the new
f. (gen. pi. -) news
, -, -; - new
f. (pi. ) foot, leg
m. (gen. -a, pi. -, gen. pi. -) knife
pi. (no sing.) scissors
m. (gen. -, pi. -) zero
m. (pi. -a) number
f (pi. ) burrow, hole
f. Norway
m. (gen. , pi.
) Norwegian
hoc m. (pi. -) nose

m. porter
II (, ) 1. to carry; 2.
to wear
II (, ) to rush
m. (gen. , pi. ) sock
f. note
I (||, -) to stay, to spend
the night
m. (no pi.) lodgings for the night
, -, -be; - night (attr.), noc
turnal
f. (gen. pi. -) night
adv. at night
m. November
II (, ) to
like, to be liked
f. (pi. ) need
I to need, want
, , , is
necessary
it is necessary
||, -, -; - necessary
||, -, -; - present, nowa
days (attr.)
f. nurse

(, ) prp. (+prepos.) about, of
. oasis
., f . both
. charm
II . (fut. , ) to
scald
I (||, -) to twine
round, to entwine
||, -, -; - bewitch
ing, charming
m. dinner
I (||, -) to dine, to have
dinner
I p. (fut. , -) to grow
poor
mix. conj. p. (fut. ,
... ) to run round
I to render harmless
I p. (fut. ||, -)
to turn round
n. promise
I (||, -) to promise
||, -, -; - inhabited
I (||, -) (+instr.) to
possess
175
. ( p i . -a, g e n . pi. -) cloud
I . (f u t . ||, -) to
caress
f . ( g e n . pi. -) 1. region; 2. sphere,
branch
I (||, -),
II p. ( f u t . ||, -) to make easier,
to alleviate
||, -, -oe; - covered with
ice
II p. ( f u t . , ) to
fly (all over), to spread (all over)
m . ( g e n . , pi. )
debris, wreckage
m. deception, delusion
m. exchange
I (||, -)
to exchange
||, -, -oe; - exchange ( a t t r . )
I to give hope
II p. ( f u t . ||, -)
to discover, to display
I p. ( f u t . , ) to
. embrace
II p. ( f u t . ,
) to enrich oneself
I (||, -) to enrich
n. enrichment
around, skirt around
I (||, -) to adore
f . cover, casing
f defence
m. revolution, rotation
I (||, -),
I p ( f u t . ||, -)
to till, to process, to work up, to make
a thorough study
f . working up
I p. ( f u t . ||,
-) to grow glad
m. image; character;
mainly; in this
way
m . ( g e n . , pi. )
specimen, sample, model
n. education; ~ educated
I p. ( f u t . | -) to
form
I p. ( f u t . ) to be
formed
I (|, -) to form
I () to be
formed
II p. ( f u t . , ):
~ to turn (pay) attention
II p. ( f u t . ,
) to address (oneself), to
appeal
a d v . back, conversely
I (||, -): ~
to turn (pay) attention
I (||, -) to
appeal, to turn to, to address
n. address, appeal
f. observatory
f. ( n o pi. ) surroundings, condi
tions
n. circumstance
I (||, -) to
fire, to shell
I (||, -) to discuss
||, -, -be; - footwear, boot,
shoe ( a t t r . )
f ( n o pi. ) footwear, shoes
||, -, -oe; - stipulated
( a t t r .)
n. hostel
, -, -oe; - uni
versally recognized ( a t t r . )
||, -, -oe; - public; ~
public figure
n. society
||, -, -; - general, common
n. union, unification
, -, -oe; - united
I (||, -),
II . ( f u t . ||, -)
to unite, to unify
f. objectivity
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to travel
(over), to go (ride)
II p. ( f u t . , )
to announce
n. advertisement; announce
ment, notice
I (||, -) to
announce
I () to be
announced
II p. ( f u t . ||, -),
I (||, -) to
explain
n. embrace
, -, -oe; - plain,
ordinary
m . custom
176
a d v . g e n e r a lly , u s u a lly
, - , -o e; - o b lig e d
I ( || , - ),
I . ( f u t . , - ) ( + i n s t r .) to
ta k e p o s s e s s io n o f, to s e iz e
p i ( g e n . p i - ) v e g e ta b le s
I ( || , - ) to r o u n d , to
sk irt, to d o u b le
n. c o n te n ts
I ( || , - )
to lo o k a r o u n d
m . ( g e n . , pi. ) fire
f . r a ilin g , f e n c e
, - , -o e ; - h u g e , v a st,
im m e n s e , tr e m e n d o u s
I ( || , - ) to d ress
(so m eo n e)
I ( || , - ) to d ress
( o n e s e lf )
f . c lo th e s , g a r m en ts
I p. ( f u t . ||, - ) to d ress
(s o m e o n e )
I p. ( f u t . || , - ) to d ress
( o n e s e lf )
n. b la n k e t
, , , . o n e ;
o n e a n d th e sa m e
, - , - ; - sa m e , sim ila r
f. . on e
adv. once
cj. h o w e v e r
pi. n u m . o n e , p r o n . th e o n e s
n. n u m . o n e
a d v . s im u lta n e o u s ly
, - , -o e; - u n ifo r m ,
h o m o g e n e o u s (a ttr.)
I p. ( f u t . , - ) to o v e r
p o w e r , to o v e r c o m e
n. a n im a tio n
a d v . a n im a te d ly
, - , -o e ; - a n im a te d
I ( || , - ) to w a it (fo r)
, - , -o e ; - w ir ed fo r s o u n d
n. ( p i . ) la k e
II p. ( f u t . ,
)
(c + in str .) to
g et
a c q u a in te d w ith
I ( ) to m e a n , to sig n ify
I p. ( f u t . ) to turn o u t
I ( || , - ) to ren d er;
~ to g iv e h e lp
I ( || , - ) 1. to
fin ish ; 2. to g r a d u a te
m . o c e a n
(I p .) to glance over, to
cast a glance
I
p.
(pres.,
fut.
||, -) to occupy
I (||, -),
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to call
n. ( p i . , g e n . pi. ) window
a d v . , p r p . (-\- gen .) near, alongside
n. 1. end; 2. g r a m , ending; 3.
( n o p i.) graduation
II p. ( f u t . , -) 1. to
finish, to end; 2. to graduate
II p. ( f u t . ) to end
f . outskirts
pi. vicinity
I (||, -),
lip . ( f u t . ||, -) to surround
m . October
||, -, -oe; - October ( a t tr . )
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to
dip
I () to wash
p r o n . he
p r o n . she
p r o n . they
oho
p r o n . it
I () to fall off
I (||, -) to be late
I (||, -) (+gen.)
to be afraid of
it is dangerous
||, -, -oe; - dangerous
f . opera
II p . ( f u t . , )
to outstrip, to leave behind
I (||, -) to lean
upon
n. description
I p. ( f u t . , ) to
describe
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to be
late
I p. ( f u t . ||, -) to
justify
n. definition
, -, -oe; - definite
(a ttr.)
I (||, -), II
. ( f u t . , ) to lower
/ ( g e n . pi. ) 1. edge of a
forest; 2. fur trimming
m . experience, experiment
, -, -oe; - experienced
a d v . again
177
||, -, -; - orangecoloured
. organ
. organizer
/ organization
I . (fut. ||, -)
to organize
. (pi. -a) order, decoration
. halo
, -, -; - original
II . (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to irrigate
. instrument, implement; mil
artillery piece
n. (no pi) arm(s)
f . siege
I (||, -) to
assimilate
II p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to illumi
nate, to light up, to throw light on
I () to be lighted,
to brighten
n. lighting (up)
II p. (fut. ,
),
I
(||, -) to liberate, to
emancipate, to release
n. liberation
n. mastering, coping
, -, -; - autumnal, autumn
(attr.)
f . autumn
adv. in autumn
I p. (fut. , -) to
weaken, to grow weak
I (||, -) to weaken
I (||, -) to
view, to examine, to survey
m. examination; sight-seeing
II p. (fut. ,
) to view, to examine, to
survey
f . foundation, basis
n. foundation
m. founder
I p. (fut. ||, -) to found
, -, -be; - chief, principal,
main
adv. particularly, especially
f . particularly;
in particular
, -, -; - special
, -, -; - special, particular
/ smallpox
I (||, -) to
remain, to stay
II p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to leave
(behind)
n. the rest
, -, -be; - the rest of
pi the rest, the others
I (||, -) to
stop
I (||,
-) to stop
II p. (fut. ,
) to stop
II p. (fut. ,
) to stop
f. (gen. pi. ) stop
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
remain; to stay
adv. carefully
m. (pi. -a) island
||, -, -; - witty, keen
, -, -; - sharp, acute
II . (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to con
demn, to censure
prp. (-\~gen.) form
I p. (fut. ||, -, past ,
||, -6; -) to take away, to drive
away
I p. (fut. ||, -; past ,
||, -6; -) 1. to take to; 2. to allot,
to give
m. answer
II p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to answer
II (, ) 1. to take
to; 2. to allot, to give
I p. (fut. ||, -) to win
II (, ) to take
away, to drive away
II p. (fut. , )
to open
II p. (fut. ) to be
opened
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
guess
I (||, -), mix.
conj. p. (fut. see ) to give (back, up)
, , ,...
) to give oneself
m. department
178
I . (fut. ||, -) to dec
orate, to trim
n. department
II p. {fut. , ) to
cut of!, to separate
f trimming
||, -, -oe; - separate
I (||, -) to cut off, to
separate
I p. (fut. ||, -) to rest,
to have a rest
m. rest
I (||, -) to rest
m. (gen. , pi. ) father
, -, -oe; - patriotic
n. fatherland
I p. (fut. ,
) to refuse, to give up
I (||, -) to
refuse, to deny
I (||, -)
to refuse, to give up
I (||, -) to
respond
I (||, -) to open
I () to open, to
be opened
n. 1. discovery; 2. inauguration,
opening
||, -, -oe; - open
I p. (fut. ||, -) to open
I p. (fut. ) to open,
to be opened
adv. from where, whence; -, -, - from somewhere
I p. (||, -),
II . (fut. , ) to fly off
(away)
I p. (fut. , -) to cast in
mould
I (||, -) to dis
tinguish (from), to differ
adv. perfectly
f. abolition
I (||, -) to mark, to
mention
I () to be marked
I p. (fut. ||, -; past
, ||, -6; -)
II (, ) to take
to, to carry
II (, )
( + dat.) 1. to treat, to regard; 2. to date;
to concern
n. treatment, relation, terms,

standing; ratio
adv. from now on
I p. (fut. , ) to
take away
||, -, -; -) to move
away, to leave; to depart;
to step aside
II p. (fut. ,
) to send off, to dispatch
II p. (fut. ,
) to set off, to depart,
to go
I (||, -) to send
off, to dispatch
I (, -)
to set off, to depart, to go
m. (pi. -a) leave
||, -, -oe; - gratifying
(attr.)
I (||, -) 1. to reflect;
2. to repulse
I (||, -) to be
reflected
n. reflection; to be
reflected
II p. (fut. , ) 1.
to reflect; 2. to repulse
II p. (fut. ,
) to be reflected
I p. (fut. ||, -) to cut off
I (||, -) to
lose touch with, to come off; to be torn
off
m. detachment, group
I (||, -) to retreat
n. absence
() cj. because (of)
adv. from there
II (, ) to move
away, to leave, to depart
m. pi. waste material
adv. why
||, -, -oe; - clear
f. fatherland
m. departure
, -, -oe; - official
I (p. ) to become
cool
I to envelop
II (, ) to
hunt
adv. gladly, willingly
179
I (||, -),
II . (fut. , ) to value, to
appraise
f estimate
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
charm
adv. very
/ turn; ~ in the first
place
m. feature (story), sketch
pi., archaic (gen. pi. -) eyes
||, -, -oe; - staggering
(attr.)
f. (gen. pi. ) mistake
||, -, -oe; - erroneous
(attr.)
II p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to feel
n. feeling, sensation
n
1 (||, -) to fall
||, -, -; - fallen
/ chamber; palace
f. bacillus
m. pamphlet
m. monument
f. memory; ~ as a keepsake,
a souvenir, from memory
n. (indeclinable) panel
f. panorama
f. cigarette
f. (gen. pi. ) file, paper-case
nap m. (pi. -) vapour, steam
f. pair, couple
m. parade
m. parachute
m. parachutist
m. park; ~ park
of culture and rest
m. parliament
f. 1. game, set; 2. polit. party
m. (pi. -a) sail
||, -, -oe; - sailing, sail (attr.)
||, -, -oe; - cloudy
m. passenger
||, -, -oe; - passenger
(attr.)
I p. (fut. ||, -) to fall
m. (gen. -a, pi. -) spider
I (, ) to plough
I (||, -) to smell (of)
m. (gen. , pi ) singer (a
man)
f. singer (a woman)
m. pedagogue
||, -, -oe; - peda
gogical
n. singing
m. (gen. , pi ) stump
||, -, -oe; - . first
m. pass
, ||, -6; -) 1. to trans
late; 2. to transfer
m. 1. translation; 2. transfer
II (, ) to
translate
II (, ) to
transport, to put (carry) across
n. overfulfilment
II p. (fut. ,
-), I (
, -) to overfulfil
II p. (fut. ,
) to outstrip
pi (no sing.) negotiations,
I (, -),
II p. (fut. ,
) 1. to overload; 2. to
reload
prp. (-\-instr.) before
I ( ||, -) 1. to pass,
to give, to hand; 2. to broadcast, to
transmit
I () to be trans
mitted
mix. conj. p. (fut. etc.,
see ) 1. to pass, to give, to hand; 2.
to transmit, to broadcast
f. radio broadcast
I p. (fut. ||, -),
I (||, -)
to redo, to remake
||, -, -be; - advanced, pro
gressive
I (||, -),
I p. (fut. ||, -) 1.
to cross, to run over; 2. to move
I (|, -),
I p.(fut. ||, -) to
suffer, to experience
||, -, -oe; - experienced
I p. (fut. , -; past
||, -, -; -) to cross,
to go over
I
(||,
-) to call to one another
180
I (||, -),
II . {fut. ,
) to fly over
. tint
/ change
I . {fut. ||, -; past
,
||,
-6;
-),
II (, )
1. to carry from one place to another;
2. to bear, to stand, to endure
I (||, -),
I p. {fut. ||,
-) to change (ones clothes)
I p. {fut. ,
) 1. to rewrite; 2. to copy
f. correspondence;
to correspond, to be in cor
respondence
I (||, -) 1.
to rewrite; 2. to copy
I (||,
-) to work ;nto, to manufacture,
to work up, to process, to rework,
to remake
I ()
to be worked into, to be manufactured,
to be worked up
I p. {fut. ||,
-) to work up, to rework, to
remake
m. interval, recess, break
f. transfer, transplantation
I p. {fut. ||, -) to
stop, to cease
I (||, -),
II p. {fut. ||,
-) to rebuild
I (||, -) to
cross
II (, )
to cross, to go over
m. enumeration, list
II p. {fut. ||, -)
to enumerate
I p. {fut. ||, -),
I (||, -)
to reread
m. period
n. {pi. , gen. pi. ) pen, nib
f. perspective, prospects,
outlook
f. {gen. pi. ) song
I (||, -) to sing
||, -, -oe; - sad
f. 1. press; 2. stamp, seal

adv. on foot
m. {gen. -a, pi. -) coat, jacket
m. peak
f. {pi. ) saw
II (, ) to saw
m. pioneer
||, -; -oe; - pioneer
{am.)
m. {gen. -a, pi. -) pie
m. writer
I (, ) to write
f. written language
writing-table, desk
n. {pi. , gen. pi. ) letter
n. {no pi.) food, nourishment
I (||, -) to feed, to
live on
I (||, -) to drink
||, -, -be; - food {attr.)
n. 1. swimming; 2. sailing
I (||, -) to swim
adv. smoothly
I (||, -) to weep, to
cry
n. {gen. , no pi.) flame
m. plan
f. planet
II (, ) to pay
f. platform, railway platform
n. {gen. pi. ) dress
, -, -oe; - breeding,
pedigree {attr.)
m. captivity
||, -, -oe; - charming,
fascinating
n. {pi. , gen. pi. ) shoulder
m. {pi. -) fruit
, -, -oe; - fertile, rich
, -, -oe; - fruitful
, -, -oe; - flat
m. {gen. -a, pi. -) raft
f. dam
adv. closely, solid
, -, -oe; - dense, close, solid
adv. bad, poor, poorly, badly
, -, -be; - bad
f. {gen. pi. ) grounds,
court
f. {gen. pi. -) square
m. {pi. -) plough
I (||, -) to swim, to sail,
to float
m. beach
181
noprp. (-I-c/af.) along; (+acc.) till; ~
in the morning
- adv. English, in English
I p. (fut. ||, -) to run
(for a little while)
/ victory
II p. (fut. , )
to w in , to c o n q u e r
mix. conj. r. (fut. ,
... ) to start ru n n in g ,
to run (o ff)
I ( || , - ) to c o n
q u er, to v a n q u ish , to g a in a v icto r y
(o v e r)
, - , -o e; - c o n q u e r e d ,
v a n q u is h e d
II p. (fut. ,
- ) to th a n k
I p. (fut. , - )
to g r o w p a le
I p. (fut. || , - ) to visit
m. (pi. -a ) c o o k
I p. (fut. ||, - ) to
th r o w d o w n
II p. (fut. , - ) to
b e lie v e
I p. (fut. ||, - ) to turn
I p. (fut. ||, - )
to turn
f . su rfa c e
- adv. lik e in sp rin g
I p. (fut. ||, - ; past
, ||, -6; - ) to lea d
f . n o tic e ; ~ a g e n d a
f . n o v e l, sto ry
I p. (fut. || , - ),
to se e (o n e a n o th er )
m. o c c a s io n , c a u se
I ( || , - ) to
turn
m. turn
, - , -o e;
- d a ily ,
everyday
adv. e v er y w h e r e
n. 1. rev iew , r e c a p itu la tio n ; 2.
r e p e titio n
II p. (fut. , - ),
I ( , - ) to
repeat
n. rise
, - , -o e; - h e ig h te n e d
I ( || , - ),
I . (fut. || , - ) to p e r ish , to d ie
(p. ) to ta k e up
I (||, -) to
glance at
II p. (fut. , -)
to talk, to have a talk
f. weather
I p. (fut. ||, -) to go
for a walk
prp. (+acc., +instr.) under
I (||, -) 1. to serve (at
table); 2. to give, to heave
II p. (fut. , )
to suppress, to crush
II p. (fut. , )
to present, to give, to offer
m. (gen. , pi. )
gift
mix. conj. p. (fut. , etc., see
) 1. to serve (at table); 2. to give
... ) to run up (to);
to come running
(p. ) to
undergo
m. exploit; heroic deed
, -, -oe; - submarine, sub
merged
II p. (fut. ,
) to prepare (oneself)
f preparation
II p. (fut. , ) to support
f. support
f. pancreas
m. incendiary
, -, -oe; - near Mos
cow, in Moscows environs
I (||, -) to lift, to
raise
I (||, -) to
rise, to go up, to ascend
n. foot
I p. (fut. , )
to raise, to lift
I p. (fut. ,
) to climb, to raise, to
ascend
adv. like; ~ as
, -, -oe; - similar, such, like
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
wait
n. suspicion
, ||, -6; -) 1. to
approach; 2. to fit, to go well with
182
adv. for a long time
I p.
(fut.
,
) to sign
I p. (fut. ,
) to sign
I (||, -) to
sign
f signature
, -, -oe; - underground
f friend
- adv. as friends, friendly
I
(||,
-) to take a seat beside someone
f. substitution
n. confirmation
II p. (fut. , )
to undermine
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
think
I p. (fut. ||, -) to blow
II (, ) 1. to
approach, to come up; 2. to fit, to go
well with, to be suitable;
does not fit
||, -, -; - suitable
I to underline
m. entrance
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
drive up (to)
m. (pi. -a) train
f. (gen. pi. ) trip
I p. (fut. ||, -) to go, to
set off, to depart
please
m. fire
I p. (fut. ||, -) to press;
~ to shake ones hand
n. wish
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
wish
I p. (fut. , -) to
grow yellow
I (||, -) to live, to
get on
I (||, -) ~
to shake ones hand
I p. (fut. ||,
-) to have breakfast
adv. day before yesterday
adv. behind
I p. (fut. ||, -) to call
II p. (fut. , -) to
ring, to ring up
, -, -; - late
adv. late; adj. it is late
I p. (fut. ||,
-) to greet
II p. (fut. ,
), I (
, -) to congratulate
I . (fut. , -) to
grow green
f. position
II p. (fut. ,
) (c+instr.) to get
acquainted
n. knowledge
I p. (fut. ||, -) to play
(a little, for a while)
pi. search
indeed
- adv. (in) Italian
II (, ) to water, to give
to drink
I p. (fut. ||, -; past ,
||, -6; -) to go
adv. while, as long as, for the time
being
, -, -oe; - exponen
tial (attr.)
I p. (fut. , ) to
show
I p. (fut. ,
) 1. to show oneself, to
appear; 2. to seem
I (||, -) to
show; ~ to present a play
I (||, -)
to appear, to show
I (||, -), I
p. (fut. ||, -) to leave, to aban
don, to depart
m. rest, peace
n. generation
I (||, -) to cover
I (||, -) to
cover oneself, to be covered
I p. (fut. , -) to cover
I p. (fut. , -)
to cover oneself, to be covered
m. buyer, purchaser
I (||, -) to buy, to
purchase
f. (gen. pi. ) purchase
m. (pi. -) floor
half a year
m. (gen. ) noon, midday
n. (pi. -) field
||, -, -be; - field (attr.)
it is useful
183
, -, -; - useful;
fossils, minerals
II . (f u t . , ) to
fly
- adv. as in summer
I (||, -) to water, to
pour (on)
f. (n o p i) politics
||, -, -; - political
I . (fu t. ||, -) to water
f police
f. (gen. p i ) shelf
m. (gen. , p i
) general, captain
, -, -; - deep, abun
dant (in water)
adv. completely, utterly
f. (gen. ) midnight
, -, -; - full
f. half
n. situation, condition
||, -, -; - positive
(attr.)
II p. (fu t. , )
to put, to place ( h o rizo n ta lly )
f. ( p i ) stripe
f. (gen., p i ) stripe
n. linen
. one and a half
m. semi-circle
m. semi-darkness
I (||, -),
II p. ( fu t. , ) to receive,
to get
m. (gen. ) half an hour
f. use; in favour of;
(), (I p.)
to be very useful, to help
I (||, -)
(+ instr.) to use, to make use of
II p. (fu t.
,
) to grow fond, to like
I p. (fu t. ||,
-) to admire
m. pole
f. glade
||, -, -; - polar
f. (gen. p i ) mark, note
f. hindrance
I (|, -) to put, to
place
I (||, -) to
be housed, to be situated
n. premises
m. landowner
II (||, -) to remember
I (||, -) to help
- to my opinion
I p. (fu t. , ; p a st
, -, -; -) to help
f . help
II p. (fu t. ||, -)
to dart
II p. ( fu t. ,
) to have need of
- adv. in our opinion
m. Monday
- adv. (in) German
adv. little, a little at a time
I (||, -) to under
stand
- adv. in a new way
II p. (fu t. ,
) (+ d a t.) to like, to take a
liking, to inspire a liking, to be liked
n. notion
, -, -; - comprehensible,
easy to understand
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to under
stand
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
have dinner
I (||, -), I
p. (fu t. ||, -) to get, to find
oneself
adv. half-and-half
- adv. Polish
II p. ( fu t.
,
),
I
(||, -) to correct; to
repair, to adjust
- adv. as formerly
II p. ( fu t.
,
) to ask (for)
I p. (fu t. ||,
-) to say good-bye, to take leave
f. popularity
, -, -; - popular
f . attempt, endeavour
adv. it is time
f . time; nop? till when?;
nop till now; ? from
what time on?
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to work (for a while), to do some
work
I (||, -) to astonish,
to strike
||, -, -; - astonish
ing, surprising, amazing
184
. (f u t . , ) to
astonish, to strike
m. threshold
, -, -oe; - thoroughbred,
pedigree (attr.)
I to give rise to, to give birth to
, -, -oe; - at times, now and
then (attr.)
m. port
II (, ) to spoil
m. portrait, picture
m. bag, brief-case
- adv. (in) Russian
n. assignment, commission
II p. (fu t. , )
to entrust, to assign
m. burst, gust, transport
m. (gen. , p i )
order; one after another
II p. (fu t. , ) to
plant
f . (gen. pi. ) planting
- adv. in ones own way
II p. (fu t. , )
to dedicate, to devote
m. crops, acreage under crops
II p. (fu t. ||, -)
to settle, to take residence
adv., prp. (+ gen.) in the middle
(of)
m. visitor
II p. (fu t. , ),
I (||, -) to visit,
to attend
n. visit
m. (gen. , pi. )
settlement
cj. so far as, so long as
adv. sooner
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to send,
to dispatch
adv., prp. (+ gen.) after; ~ ,
cj. after
||, -, -; - last, latest
f consistency, suc
cession, sequence
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
follow, to go after
n. the following, subsequent
adv. the day after tomorrow
f proverb, saying
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
listen (fo r a w hile)
II p. (fu t. ) to
be heard
adv. posthumously
II p. ( fu t. ,
) to look at, to take a look
n. textbook
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to advise
m. (gen. , pi. )
ambassador
I () to grow ripe, to
ripen
adv., prp. (~\-gen.) in the middle
(of)
m. post, position
II p. (fu t.
,
) to place (vertically)
m. pedestal, base
f . (gen. pi. ) pro
ducing, staging, setting up
I p. (fu t. ||,
-) to try
adj. elder, elderly
f . bed, bedding
adv. gradually
I p. (fu t. ||, -), to
understand
adv. constantly
, -, -oe; - constant, per
manent
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to suffer
II p. (fu t. ||, -) to
build
I
(||,
-),
II p. (fu t. ,
) 1. to act; 2. to enter
f (n o pi.) crockery, dishes, kitchen
utensils
I p. (fu t. ||, -) 1.
to count; 2. to consider
I (||, -) to send, to
dispatch
I p. (fu t. ) to grow
dark
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
lose
adv. quietly
m. stream, torrent
m. (gen. , pi. )
ceiling
adv. then, later
cj. because
I p. (fu t. , ) to
sink, to drown
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to demand
185
II . (fut. ,
) to work
I . (fut. ||, -) to
strike, to shake
adj. a little more narrow
- adv. (in) Uzbek
adv. in the morning
- adv. (in) French
II p. (fut.
,
) to praise
m. 1. march; 2. hike, excursion
II p. (fut. , )
to walk (for a while)
( ) it looks as if
, -, -; - similar, alike,
resembling
I p. (fut. ||,
-) (-\-instr.) to kiss
f. soil
adv. why; ~ -to for some reason
m. (no pi.) honour(s)
||, -, -oe; - honourable
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
read (for a while)
f. 1. mail, post; 2. post office
adv. almost
I p. (fut. ||,
-) to feel
f. poetry
f. poem
m. poet
||, -, -oe; - poetic
adv. therefore
II p. (fut. ,
), I (,
-) to appear
II p. (fut. ||, -) to
explain
f. truth
n. rule
adv. correctly; adj. it is cor
rect
f. 1. correctness; 2. regu
larity
n. government
n. (pi -a) right
||, -, -oe; - right
m. holiday
I (||, -) to cele
brate
f. practice
n. stay, sojourn
II (,
) to surpass, to exceed, to out
number
II p. (fut. ,
),
I
(||, -) to transform
I (, -)
to transform (oneself), to be trans
formed
f. barrier, obstacle
II p. (fut. , npe), I (
, -) to block, to bar
||, -, -oe; - pre
liminary, in advance
n. leadership
m. limit
n. preface, introduction
I (||, -) to offer,
to propose
n. 1. offer, suggestion, pro
posal; 2. gram, sentence; ~ to
submit a suggestion
II p. (fut. ,
) to offer, to propose
m. 1. object, thing; 2. subject
n. project
n. enterprise
m. chairman
n. chairmanship
m. representative
II p. (fut. ,
) 1. to represent; 2. to
present
n. 1. presentation, perfor
mance; 2. idea, notion
I (||, -)
() 1. to represent, to embody; 2.
to present
I (||, -)
1. to anticipate; 2. to want
I (||, -) 1. to
show, to produce; 2. to put forward
(demands)
n. the preceding
adv., prp. (+gen.) before; ~
cj. before; ~ first
||, -, -; - former, first
m. praesidium
n. admiration, worship (for)
||, -, -oe; - beautiful, fine
II p. (fut. ),
I () to
stop, to cease
f. premium; prize
m. prime minister
pi (no sing.) discussion, debate
186
I () to predomi
nate, to prevail
I (||, -) to
transform
I
(||,
-) to transform (oneself), to be
transformed
II p. (fut. , ) to transform
n. transformation; reform
m. remaker, reformer
I p. (fut. ,
-) to transform, to remake
I p. (fut. )
to be transformed, remade
I (||, ),
I p. (fut. , -)
to overcome
m. teacher
I p. (fut. ||, -;
past , ||, -6; -)
to present
n. obstacle
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
interrupt
I (||, -) to per
secute
prp. (+prepos.) 1. by, under; 2. in the
time of, in the presence of
II p (fut. ,
) to add
... ) to come
running
I (,
-) to approach (intransitive)
adv. approximately
II p. (fut. ,
) to approach (transitive)
m. breakers, surf
I (||, -),
I p. (fut. ||, -) 1. to arrive, to
come; 2. to rise, to grow (water)
, ||, -6; -) to bring
, ||, -6; -) to bring
(someone)
m. regards, greetings
adv. friendly, in a friendly
way, affably
||, -, -oe; - friendly,
affable
I (||, -) to
greet
I (||, -),
I p. (fut. ,
) to attract
II (, ) 1. to
bring (someone); 2. to cite
II (, ) to
bring, to deliver by transport
I (||, -),
I p. (fut. ||,
-) to grow accustomed, to get used
to
f. (gen. pi. ) habit
||, -, -oe; - habitual
f. attachment
I p.
(fut.
,
) to tie, to attach
II p. (fut. ,
), I (
, -) to invite
. invitation
II . (fut. ,
) to prepare
II . (fut. ,
) to prepare (oneself)
I (||, -) to
prepare
I (||, -),
mix. conj. . (fut. etc., see )
to impart
, -, -; - court (attr.)
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
think of, to invent
m. arrival
I (||, -),
I p. (fut. ||, -) to
arrive (by train, by boat, etc.)
m. 1. reception; ~ to
receive; 2. listening in; 3. method
m. radio set
I p. (fut. ||, -),
I (||, -) to
press
m. prize
I p. (fut. ||, -) to call
upon, to appeal
II p. (fut. ||,
-), I (-
||, -) to land
. 1. recognition; 2. confes
sion
. appeal
I (||, -) to call
upon, to appeal
I p. (fut. ||, -, past
, ||, -6; -) to come
187
I . (fut. ,
), I (||, -) to order, to command
I
(||,
-),
II . (fut. ,
) to come flying, to come
hurrying
n. application
II p. (fut. ,
),
I
(||, -) to apply
I () to be
applied
m. example
, -, -oe; - primitive
||, -, -; - seaside,
maritime
II (||, -)
(+dat.) to belong (to)
, ||, -6; -) 1. to bring;
2. to yield
n. humiliation, disparage
ment, belittling
I (||, -) to
receive, to accept, to take
II (, ) to
bring
m. principle
I p. (fut. , ) to
receive, to accept, to adopt; ~
to take part; ~ to take ones
oath
I p. (fut. , -),
I (, -) to
acquire, to gain
I p. (fut.
,
),
I
(||, -) 1. to add (to a
letter); 2. to ascribe, to attribute
n. increment
f nature
II p. (fut. , -) to
appropriate, to assume; ~ to be
given the name (the title) of
I p. (fut. ||, -) to send
II
p.
(fut.
, -) to join
f. landing-stage, pier, quay
I (||, -),
II p. (fut. , -)
to build out, to add to a building
II p. (fut. ,
) to proceed, to set about,
to start
II p. (fut. ,
),
I
(||, -) to award
I ( ||, -)
to be present
I (||, -) to send
(to)
m. tributary
I to attract
II p. (fut. , )
to train, to accustom; () to acquire
the habit
II (; ) to
come
impers. (+dat.) have, has to
it being
I
(||,
-) to comb, to do ones hair
f. reason, cause
impers. (+dat.) had to
m. shelter
II p. (fut. , )
to give shelter
adj. it is pleasant; adv. pleasantly
, -, -oe; - pleasant,
agreeable
prp. (+acc.) about, of
f test
... ) to pass run
ning, to run by, to fly past
I p. (fut. ||, -) 1. to
pierce; 2. to strike; ~ to make
ones way through
f. stopper
I (||, -) to try, to
taste
I (||, -) to
awaken, to wake up
I p. (fut. ||, -) to stay,
to remain
II p. (fut. |, -),
I (||, -) to
check, to verify
f. verification, check-up
I p. (fut. ||, -, past
, ||, -6; -) to spend
II (, ) I. to
carry out; 2. to hold; 3. to see off; 4. to
spend; ~ to spend the time
I (||, -) to see
off, to accompany
II p. (fut. , )
to drive away
f. programme
188
f (gen. p i ) stroll, walk
I (||, -) to sell
, -, -oe; - food
(a ttr.)
I (||, -) to go
on, to continue, to carry on
I () to con
tinue, to last, to go on
n. continuation; continued;
~ to be continued
m. product
f production, output
I
(||,
-),
I p. (f u t . ||, -) to
pass by, to go by, to drive by
f projection
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to live,
to stay
f prose
II p. (fu t. ) to ring,
to be heard
||, -, -oe; - transparent
n. work
I p. (fu t. ||, -;
p a st , ||, -6; -),
II
(,
)
to produce;
~
to make an impression, to
give the impression
II () to be
produced
f . derivative
n. production, manufacture
I p. (fu t. ||, -;
p a s t , ||, -6; -) to
utter, to pronounce
n. pronunciation
I p. (fu t. ; p a st
, ||, -6; -), II () to take place,
to happen, to occur
I p. (fu t. ||, -; p a st
, ||, -6; -) to go, to walk
by, to pass
||, -, -oe; - proletarian
I
(||,
-),
II . (fu t. ,
) to fly by
I (||, -) to shed
II . (fu t. ,
) to lay, to build
m. interval, space, span
||, -, -oe; - washed
f . industry
, -, -oe; - indust
rial
I p. (fu t. ||; -; p a st
, ||, -6; -) to carry by
(past, through)
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to flash by, to sweep past
I (||,
-),
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to penetrate
II (, ) to
carry by (past, through)
II () to flash by,
to dash by, to sweep past
m. propagandist
f . precipice, abyss
n. education
f . cutting (in a f o r e s t)
II (, ) to ask, to
beg
II p. (fu t. ,
) to become famous,
renowned
I (||, -) to
make famous, renowned
I to trace, track, follow
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to hear, to listen
m. survey
I p. (fu t. ||, -)
to wake up
m. avenue
adv. simply
||, -, -be; - simple
m. (open) space, spaciousness
there is plenty of space
||, -, -oe; - spacious,
roomy
f. simplicity
n. space
f. (pi. ) sheet
I (||, -) to
wake up, to awake
f. request
I () 1. to flow
(through); 2. to elapse
prp. (+ gen.) opposite; against
m. opponent, adversary,
enemy
n. contradiction
II (||, -)
to contradict
I p. (fu t. , )
to stretch, to extend
189
||, -, -, - pro
fessional
/ profession
. professor
. trade union
, -, -; - trade union
(attr.)
I
(||,
-) to stroll, to walk up and down
it is cool
m. passage
II (, ) to
pass (by), to traverse
m. per cent, percentage
m. process
I p. (f u t . ||, -) to read
through
I p. (fu t. ||, -),
(||, -) to
read through
n. the past
||, -, -; - past
. the past
||, -, -; - past, last
, - good-bye, farewell
I (||, -) to take
leave
m. (gen. -a, pi. -) pond
I (||, -) to jump
m. (gen. , pi. )
jump
f straight line
adv. straight (on, ahead); directly
||, -, -be; - 1. straight; 2. frank
I (||, -) to hide (tr.)
I (||, -) to hide
(intr.)
m. pseudonym
f. bird
/ public
m. publicist
I (||, -) to frighten
m. (pi. -) pood (a m easure o f w eight,
a b o u t 16 kg)
m. (gen. -, pi. -) bubble

m. point
adv. punctually
part, let; cj. although
it is empty
||, -, -be; - empty
||, -, -; - deserted
f desert
. (gen. -, pi. -) vacant lot
part, let; cj. although
f. muddle
f (gen. pi. ) pass
m. traveller
n. trip, journey, travels,
voyage
I (||, -)
to travel
m. (gen., pi. -) way, path
m. pencil (of rays)
f . wheat
I (||, -) to burn, to blaze
f dust
, -, -; - dusty
attempt
f . (gen. pi. ) torture
/ play; piece (m us.)
f (gen. pi. ) five year
plan
||, -, -; - five-storeyed
f Friday
P P
f
w ork
I (||, -) to work
m. worker, workman
f working woman
m. (pi. -, is declined like the adj.
) w orker
, - , -; - w o rk (attr.), w o r k
in g ; d ra u g h t
n. e q u a liz a tio n
f p la in
n. e q u ilib r iu m
|| , - , - ; - in d iffe re n t
adv. u n ifo r m ly
, - , - ; - e q u a l in
righ ts
, - , - ; - e q u i
la tera l (attr.)
|| , - , - ; - e q u a l
, - , - ; - is g la d
. (-\-gen.) for
. ra d io , w ir e le s s
/ b r o a d c a st
. ra d io set
/ r a d io sta tio n , w ir e le s s
sta tio n
/ radio-electronics
I (||, -) to be
glad, to rejoice
adv. joyfully
190
||, -, -; - joyful, joyous
/ joy
. 1 . one; 2. adv. once; 3. time;
not once; ~ once more;
~ many times; 4. cj. if, once
m ix. conj. p. (f u t . pa... ) to scatter
(ru n n in g )
I (||, -) to
break ( in tra n sitiv e )
||, -, -; - broken
I () to flutter, to
wave
I p. (fu t. ),
I () to
unfold
I (||, -) to develop
(tra n sitiv e )
I (||, -) to
develop (in tra n sitiv e)
n. development
, -, -be; - developed
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
develop
I (||, -) to
talk, to speak
m. talk, conversation
I (||, -) to disperse
II p. (fu t. ,
) to defeat, to rout
I (||, -) to distribute,
to give out
I (), m ix.
conj. p. (fu t. , ) to
resound, to be heard
I (||, -) to
undress (intr.)
m. 1. part; 2. department
n. (n o pi.) meditation
I () to flow, to
overflow
is poured out
I p. (fu t. ) to flow
over
I (||, -) to distin
guish
n. difference
||, -, -; - different
. expansion
II . (fu t. ||, -) to
separate
. size, dimension
/ dimensionality
/ difference
, -, -; - various, of
a great variety, diverse
II (, ) to
carry
, - , -; - m a n y s id e d , v e rsa tile
/ d iffe re n c e
, - , - ; - m a n y c o lo u r e d
|| , - , - ; - d iffe re n t
I . (fu t. , - ) to
m a k e o u t, to d istin g u ish
I p. (fu t. , - )
to m a k e o u t, to g a in u n d e r s ta n d in g
I (p. ) to w arm u p
I p. (fu t. ; p a st
) to b reak up
I p. (fu t. ||, - ) to tear
n. ru in , d e str u c tio n
II p. (fu t. , - )
to b e ru in e d , to g o b a n k ru p t
I p. (fu t. || , - )
to w o r k o u t
|| , - , - ; - rarified (attr.)
I p. (fu t. || , - ) to cut
(in tw o )
II p. (fu t. || , - ) to
p e r m it, to a llo w

I ( || ,
- ),
II p. (fu t. || , - )
to d e str o y
m. d is c o n tin u ity
m. r e a s o n , m in d
II p. (fu t. , - ), to
in fu r ia te
m. d istr ict, r eg io n
f fra m e
II p. (pres., fu t. || , - ) to
w ound
|| , - , - ; - e a rly
adv. e a rly
adv. ea rlier, fo r m e r ly , b e fo r e
I ( ) to o p e n
u p , to b e r e v e a le d
I p. (fu t. , - ) to
rev ea l
n. tim e -ta b le , s c h e d u le
I p. (fu t. , )
to p a in t
, - , - ; - is situ a te d
II p. ( fu t. ,
) to p la c e , to arran ge
II p. (fu t.
, - ) to d istr ib u te
191
II . ( fut . ) to sp rea d

I
( ,
- ) to d istr ib u te
I ( )
to sp re a d
I ( ) to o p e n
(a flower)
. d a w n
I ( || , - ) to d is p e l
. sto ry

I . (fut. ,
),

I
( || , - ) to te ll, to relate
I ( || , - )
to e x a m in e ; to c o n s id e r
I ( || , - )
to q u e s tio n
I ( || , - ),
I p. (fut. || ,
- ) to part
n. d ista n c e
I p. (fut. ) to th a w
n. p la n t
I ( || , - ) to g r o w
f. v e rd u r e, v e g e ta tio n ,
flora
II () to break up
I () to flower, to
bloom
I p. (fut. || ,
- ) to k iss (o n e a n o th er )
II p. (fut. , - ),
I ( || , - ) to
expand,
to
e n la r g e ,
to
broaden
(transitive)
I ( ) to e x p a n d ,
to w id e n , to b r o a d e n (intransitive)
f r a tio n a liz a tio n
m. (gen. , pi. ,
) c h ild
pi. 1. c h ild r e n ; 2. y o u n g p e o p le
I (||, - ) to roar
adv. je a lo u s ly
m. a r e v o lu tio n a r y
, - , -o e; - r e v o
lu tio n a r y
f r e v o lu tio n
adv. reg u la rly
I ( ) to th in o u t
|| , - , -o e; - rare
I ( || - ) to cu t
f. r e s id e n c e
, - , -o e; - sh a rp , h arsh
adv. sh a rp ly , a b r u p tly
m. resu lt
f c a rv in g
f (pi. ) river
I, I p. (pres., fut.
|| , - ) to r ec o n str u c t
m. rail
I ( || , - ) to
rep a ir
f r e p r e ssio n
m. lo u d s p e a k e r
f. e y e la s h
f r ep u b lic
m. resta u ra n t
, - , -b e; - river (attr.)
f (gen. pi. - ) s p e e c h (fa c u lty o f)
th e q u e s tio n is
I ( || , - ) to d e c id e , to
s o lv e
I ( || , - ) to d e c id e ,
to d are
n. d e c is io n
f. r e s o lu tio n , d e te r m in a tio n
adv. d e c is iv e ly , r e s o lu te ly
II p. (fut. ||, - ) to d e c id e ,
to s o lv e
II p. (fut. ||, - ) to
d e c id e , to d are
I ( || , - ) to d raw
m. (gen. , pi. )
d r a w in g , d ia g r a m , figu re
adv. 1. e x a c tly ; sh a rp ; 2. e q u a lly
, - , -o e; - e v e n , s m o o th
m. 1. family; birth, origin; 2. gram.
gender
f. m o th e r la n d
pi. p a ren ts
II p. to b e b o rn
, - , -b e; - 1. n a t i v e ; 2. k in d r ed ,
ow n
I (||, -) to give
birth
I ( || , - ) to b e
b o rn
n. birth
, - , -o e; - p in k
/ (gen. pi. - ) ro le , part;
~ to p la y a part
m. n o v e l
m. s o n g , r o m a n c e
f d ew
, - , -o e; -
s p le n d id
f lu x u ry , s p le n d o u r
lu x u r io u s ,
192
, -, -; - tail
, -, -; - Russian, of
Russia
f . Russia
. ( p i ) 1. growth; 2. stature, height
f (gen. p i ) shirt
m. boundary, border
||, -, -; - ruby (attr.)
II (, ) to chop, to
fell, to hew
m. (gen. -, pi. -) rouble
f ore
f (pi. ) hand; arm; ~
arm in arm; to shake
hands
m. leader, instructor, head
II (, )
( + instr.) to direct, to lead
n. leadership
f manuscript
m. (gen. -, pi. -) steering wheel
m. (gen. pi. ) a Romanian
f (gen. pi. ) a
Romanian (a woman)
||, -, -; - rosy
||, -, -; - Russian
-||, -, -; -
Russian-English
||, -, -; - blond
. (gen. ', pi. )
brook, streamlet
. (gen. , pi. ) brook,
stream
/ (gen. pi. ) penholder
/fis h
. (gen. -a, pi. -) fisherman
. fisherman
, -, -; - fishing,
piscatory
. fishing
. (gen. , pi. ) market
I (||, -) to dig
. (pi. -) 1. row; 2. series, a number
||, -, -; - ordinary, common,
rank and file
adv. beside, alongside, nearly, near;
~ c prp. ( +instr.) next to
c
() prp. 1. (+gen.) from; 2. ( +instr.) with
m. (pi. -) garden
II (, ) to sit
down
m. gardener
n. horticulture, fruit growing
I (||, -) to plant
, , ; pron. myself,
yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves
n. arch, absolute rule,
autocracy
n. autocracy
f amateur art
m. aeroplane, plane
, -, -; - selfadjoint (attr.)
||, -, -; - pron. 1. with an adj.
the most; with a noun the very
m. sanatorium
pi. (gen. pi. -) sledge, sleigh
m. hospital attendant, medical
orderly
m. (gen. -a, pi. -) boot
||, -, -; - satirical
. sugar
I (||, -) to run down
I . (||, -) to run some
where and come back
m ix. conj. p. (fu t. ,
... ) to run down
I (||, -),
II p. (fu t. ,
) to become intimate
f . assembly
I (||, -) to throw
down
I () to come true
/ (gen. pi. ) wedding
II p. (fu t. , )
to fall down
f. freshness
||, -, -; - fresh
it is fresh (cool, chilly)
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to over
throw
n. overthrow
n. shimmering, sparkling
I () to sparkle
adv. 1. on top, overhead; 2. from
above, from the top
m. (n o pi.) light
I () impers. to grow light
II (, ) to shine, to
give light
II () to shine
it is light
, -, -; - fair-haired
||, -, -; - light, fair
193
. traffic lig h t
f (pi. , gen. pi. ) c a n d le
f . b e e t
n. a p p o in tm e n t, r e n d e z v o u s,
d a te ; g o o d - b y e
m. (gen. , pi. )
w h is tle ; ~ to b lo w th e w h is tle
m. (gen. , pi. ) ro ll,
sc r o ll
f . fr e e d o m
adv. 1 . fr e e ly ; 2 . flu e n tly
, - , -o e; - free
m. v a u lt
f . (gen. pi. ) c o m m u n iq u e
||, - , -; - o n e s o w n
n. 1. p r o p e r ty ; 2. c h a r a c te r istic s
II p. (fu t. , )
to d is p la c e , to r em o v e
adv. m o re th a n
, - , - ; - is c o n n e c t e d
I p. (fu t. , ),

I ( || ,
- )
(c + instr.) to tie, to b in d , to c o n n e c t
f . tie, b o n d ; c o n n e c tio n
, - , -b e; - sa in t, h o ly
, - , -o e ; - sa c r ed
II p. (fu t. , - ) to b u rn
dow n
I ( ) to th ic k e n
n. c o n d e n s a t io n , th ic k e n in g
I ( || , - ), m ix.
conj. p. (fu t. etc., see ) to
h a n d in ; to ta k e an e x a m i
n a tio n
I p. (fu t. , - ) to m o v e ;
to p u sh to g e th e r
I p. (fu t. || , - ) to
becom e
f. r eser v e, restrain
rejl. pron. s e l f
m . n orth
|| , - , -o e; - n o r th e r n , n orth
(attr.)
- , - , -o e; - n o r th
e a ste r n , n o r th -e a st (attr.)
- m. n o r th -w e s t
adv. to -d a y
, - , -; - to - d a y s
f . g rey h air
|| , - , -be; - g rey , g r iz zly
m. s e a s o n
adv. 1. n o w ; 2. at o n c e
m. secret
m. (gen. - , pi. - ) se c re ta ry
n. v illa g e , se ttle m e n t
n. (pi. ) village
, -, -oe; - village (attr.)
agriculture
, -, -oe; -
agricultural
f . (pi. ) family
n. (pi. ) seed
n. hay
m. September
adv. heartily, cordially
||, -, -oe; - cordial
||, -, -oe; - angry
n. (pi. -a, gen. pi. ) heart
II () to grow sil
very, to shine like silver
n. silver
, -, -oe; - silver (attr.)
f. middle
, -, -oe; - grey
adv. seriously
||, -, -oe; - serious, grave
f . session
f. (pi. , gen. pi. ) sister
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to sit down
f . net
n. section, cut
I (||, -) to sow
n. pressure, compression
I p. (fu t. , ) to burn
down
I (||, -) to squeeze,
to tighten
adv. from behind, behind
, -, -oe; - Siberian
f. Siberia
II (, ) to sit
f . strength, force; with
all ones strength
adv. strongly
, -, -oe; - strong
m. symbol
||, -, -oe; - sym
metrical
I () to grow blue
||, -, -; - blue
f . system
adv. systematically
||, -, -oe; - cotton (print)
(attr.)
n. radiation; ~ northern
lights, Aurora Borealis
I (||, -) to shine
I p. (fu t. , ) to say,
to tell
f. (gen. pi. ) fairy tale
194
adv. incredibly, fabulously
, -, -oe; - incredible,
fabulous
f (pi , gen. pi )
bunch
f. table-cloth
m. square, public garden
prp. (+acc.) through
... whoever with
m. storehouse, depot
I (||, -) 1. to
sum; 2. to fold; 3. to store
m. slope, incline
/ bracket
adv. how much, how many
n. accumulation, crowd
f . (no pi) grief
adv. 1. faster; 2. sooner
adv. soon
f . velocity
, -, -oe; - fast, quick
n. cattle breeding
I (||, -) to
brighten, to embellish
f. modesty
, -, -oe; - modest
||, -, -oe; - reticent,
secretive
m. sculptor
f . 1 . sculpture; 2. a work of
sculpture, statue
||, -, -oe; - sculptural
adv. dully; adj. it is dull;
~ it grows dull
adv. weakly
, -, -oe; - weak
f. glory, fame;
to do ones work splendidly
||, -, -oe; - 1. glorious,
famous; 2. good, nice
||, -, -oe; - Slav
||, -, -oe; - sweet
f. sweetness
m. shale
/ on (to) the left
adv. slightly
II (, ) to watch, to
follow
I (||, -) 1. to follow;
2. should be
n. corollary
one must; should; ~ as fol
lows (from)
||, -, -; - following
/. (pi ) tear
I . (fut. ||, -) 1. to go
(climb) down; 2. to alight
I (||, -), II p.
(fut. , ) to fly down
m. rally, meeting
/. plum
, -, -oe; - plum (attr.)
adv. too
m. (gen. -, pi -) dictionary,
vocabulary
cj. like; as if, as though
n. (pi -a) word
, -, -oe; - 1. complicated;
2. gram, complex
I p. (fut. ||, -) to break
f. service, work, employment;
to go to work
II (, ) to serve
m. chance, case, occasion, event;
in this instance; no
on occasion of, because of
adv. accidentally, by chance
||, -, -oe; - accidental, for
tuitous
I (), II p.
(fut. ) to happen, to occur
I (||, -) to listen
I (||, -) to obey
II (||, -) to hear
II () to be heard
, , , is,
are heard
adv. boldly
f. boldness, courage
||, -, -oe; - brave, bold,
courageous
I () impers. to
grow dark
adv. mortally
f death
m. laughter
I to mix
, -, -be; - funny
I (||, -) to laugh
I p. (fut. ) to grow
silent
m. review
II (, ) to look
I p. (fut. , ... )
can
||, -, -; - swarthy, dark
adv. indistinctly
n. embarrassment
195
. sense, meaning
I . (fu t. , -) to wash off
adv. on the outside, outside
adv. at first
from the beginning
m. ( p i -a) snow
||, -, -oe; - snowy, snow
(attr.)
I p. ( fu t . ||, -); p a st ,
||, -6; -) to carry (take) some
where
adv. 1 . underneath; 2. from below,
from the bottom
I (||, -) 1. to take off;
2. to photograph
adv. again, anew
II (, ) to carry
(take) somewhere
f. footnote
I p. (fu t. , ) 1. to take
off; 2. to photograph
f. dog
m. interlocutor
I (||, -) to gather; to
collect
I (||, -) 1. to
gather, to assemble; 2. to intend, to pre
pare, to be on the point of, to be going
n. (n o pi.) observance
, -, -; - sable (attr.)
m. cathedral
n. 1. meeting, assembly; 2. col
lection
I p. ( fu t. , -) to gather,
to collect
I p. (fu t. ) to gather
(together)
, -, -oe; - own, per
sonal; proper
n. event
I (||, -) to accom
plish, to make, to perform, to commit
I () to take
place, to happen
adv. completely
||, -, -oe; - perfect
n. perfection
I (||,
-) to perfect, to improve
II p. (fu t. ||, -) to
accomplish, to perform, to make
m. advice
I (||, -) to advise,
to give advice
||, -, -oe; - Soviet (attr.)

n. conference
||, -, -oe; - joint, com
bined (attr.)
I (||, -) to coincide
m. a contemporary
||, -, -oe; - contem
porary
adv. quite, entirely
m. State farm
n. accord, consent
II p. (fu t. , cor) to agree
prp. (+ d a t.) according to, in
accordance with
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to
bend
n. contents
II () to contain
n. joining, combination
II p. (fu t. ||, -),
I (||, -) to unite,
to join (transitive)
I (, -) to
unite, to join (intr.), to be united, joined
n. regret
n. constellation
I (,||, -) to create, to
set up
I () to be created,
to be built up, formed, set up
, -, -; - is created
n. creation
m ix. conj. p. (fu t. , etc., see
) to create, to build, to set up
n. creation
I () to ripen
I p. (fu t. ||, -, p a st ,
||, -6; -) 1. to go down; 2. to alight
I p. (fu t. ||, -, p a st
, ||; -; -) to
come together, to meet
m. falcon
m. soldier
||, -, -oe; - soldier (attr.)
m., - f . (gen. pi. ) solo
performer, soloist
, -, -oe; - solar, sunny
n. sun
m. (gen. , pi. )
nightingale
I (, -) to
doubt
n. doubt
196
. (gen. , pi. ) 1. sleep; 2. dream
. 1. communication; 2. report;
~ to make a report
II . (fut. ||, -) to
inform
. building, construction
adv. correspondingly,
respectively
I (||, -) to
compare
I (||, -) to
accompany
||, -, -; - adjoint (attr.)
. companion-in-arms
. competition
. (pi. -a) variety, sort
. (pi -, gen. pi. -) neighbour
||, -, -; - neighbouring,
next-door, adjoining
I . (fut. ||, -) to exile
. 1. composition, make up; 2.
personnel
II p. (fut. ,
), I (||,
-) to make up, to compose
n. condition, state
||, -, -; - well-to-do
II . (fut. ) to be
held
n. contest
f. (gen. pi. ) a hundred
m. worker, employee, fellow
worker
I (||, -) to
cooperate, to contribute
n. preservation
II p. (fut. ||, -) to
preserve
II p. (fut. ) to be
preserved, to remain
I (||, -) to pre
serve
||, -, -; - socialist
. combination
I (||, -) to compose,
to write
, -, -; - succulent
. sympathy
I (>||, -) to
sympathize
||, -, -; - union (attr.)
I (||, -), I . (fut.
||, -) to save, to rescue
thank you
II (, ) to sleep
adv. at first
adv. in front
I p. (fut. ||, -) to sing
m. specialist
f. profession, trade,
speciality
, -, -; - special
II (||, -) to hurry
I . (fut. , ) to
. (gen. , pi. ) list

I (||, -) to
/ (gen. pi. ) match
. associate, fellow-cham
pion
adv. quietly
, -, -; - quiet
. discussion, arguing
II (, -) to argue
. sport
, -, -; - sport (attr.)
. sportsman
f. ability
I (||, -) to
promote, to futher, to help
adv. on (to) the right
||, -, -; - just
. congruence
, -, -; - reference
(attr.)
I (||, -),
II . (fut. , )
to ask
I . (fut. ||, -) to hide
I . (fut. ||, -)
to hide, to find shelter
I (||, -),
II . (fut. ,
) to descend, to go down
prp. (+acc.) after, later, ago
m. companion, fellow-traveller;
satellite
adv. at once, right away
/ (pi. ) Wednesday
prp. (-\-gen.) between, among,
amidst, in the middle of
, -, -; - Central
Asia (attr.)
, -, -; - medieval
, -, -; - average,
ordinary
||, -, -; - middle, central
. means
197
. term
adv. urgently
II (, -) to
quarrel
/ loan
/ exile
II (, ) to put, to
place ( vertically )
II () theatr. to be pro
duced
f. rate
m. stadium
n. ( p i -a) herd
m. glass
I to collide with, to run into
f steel
, -, -be; - steel ( a ttr .)
II (,
) to become, to grow, to get
m. (gen. , p i ) lathe,
machine-tool
f . (railway) station
adv. assiduously, diligently,
perseveringly
endeavour
m. elder
m. (gen. -a, pi. -) old man
/ (n o p i ) old times
||, -, -oe; - ancient
f old woman
||, -, -; - elder
, -, -; - old
/ statue
I . (fu t. ||, -) 1. to become,
to grow; 2. to begin
f (gen. p i ) article
f. flock
I p. (fu t. ) to thaw, to melt
n. glass
, -, -oe; - glass (attr.)
I p. ( fut. ) impers. to
grow dark
f ( p i ) wall
f degree
f (gen. p i -) steppe
f. scholarship
I () to calm down
p i verses, poetry
n. verse
f. cost
II () to cost; fig. to pay;
? how much does it cost?
m. (gen. -a, p i -) table
n. century
f . capital
f . (is declined as an adj. o f hard
declen sio n ) dining-room; canteen
so
adv. so much, so many; ~
as much as
f. ( p i ) side;
to step aside
p i sewage
II (||, -) to stand
n. suffering
I (||, -) to suffer
f . ( p i ) country
f page
adv. strangely
I (||, -) to
wander, to travel
adv. passionately
||, -, -oe; - passionate
f. passion
adv. terribly; ~ I grew
frightened
||, -, -oe; - terrible,
dreadful
f. ( p i ) arrow
/ (gen. p i ) hand ( o f a
clock, watch, in stru m e n t)
I (||, -) to shoot
adv. impetuously
||, -, -oe; - impetuous,
rash
n. desire, striving, aspiration
, -, -oe; - severe, strict
adv. severely, strictly
n. structure, house, building
m. builder
||, -, -oe; - building
(attr.)
n. building, construction
II (||, -) to build
II () to be built
m. order, system
, -, -oe; - stately
f. ( p i ) line
f . (gen. p i ) line
f . ( p i ) jet
m. student, undergraduate
||, -, -oe; - student (attr.)
n. student body, the students
m. ( p i ) chair
/ step, stair
II (||, -) to knock, to
rattle
198
: ~ I am ashamed
/ Saturday; ~ every
Saturday
II (, ) 1. to judge, to
try; 2. to referee, to umpire
n. ( p i ) vessel, ship
||, -, -oe; - navigable
f . ( p i , gen. p i ) fate
p i (n o sing.) dusk
f . sum
n. summation
f . (gen. p i ) hand bag
m. dusk
||, -, -oe; - severe, rigorous
p i (gen. p i , no sing.) 24 hours
(day and night)
adv. drily; fig. coldly; adj. it is dry
||, -, -be; - dry
f . (n o p i ) land
n. 1. creature, being; 2. essence
||, -, -; - real
n. existence
I (||, -) to
exist
II p. (fu t. , ) to
seize
f . convergence
II (, ) 1. to go, get
down; 2. to alight
II p. (fu t. , ) to go
somewhere and come back
II (, ) to
meet, to come together, to converge
f . 1. scene; 2. stage
||, -, -oe; - happy
n. (n o p i ) happiness
m. score, count; account
m. book-keeper
I (||, -) to count; to
consider
I (||, -) to be
considered
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to sew
m. congress, conference
m ix. p. (see ) to eat, to eat
up
f . (gen. p i ) shooting
I p. (fu t. ||, -) to play
m. (pi. ) son
m. ( p i -) cheese
, - , -be; - d a m p , w e t
n. (n o p i ) raw material
adv. here (direction)
m. subject, topic
T
pron. f that
f. table
/ a little plate
m. (gen. -a, p i -) drove, herd
(o f
horses)
f . secret,
mystery
||, -, -oe; - secret
adv. so, thus, like this, this way; ~
in the same way ~ as
adv. also, too
cj. as
... so... that
, -a, -b; - pron. such is
||6, -, -be; - pron. such
m. talent
adv. finely, with talent
||, -, -oe; - talented,
gifted
adv. there
m. (gen. , p i ) dance
m. tank
|| , - , -o e ; - d a n c e (attr.)
I (||, -) to dance
f . (gen. p i ) plate
I () to thaw, to melt
I () to grow harder
II (, ) to repeat
adv. firmly
||, -, -oe; - hard; firm
||, -, -e; - pron. your, yours
n. creation
n. (n o p i ) creative art, work
pron. p i those
.. ( ) that is
m. theatre
, -, ; - theatrical
. thesis
. text
. ( p i ) textile fabrics
||, -, -; - textile
/ woman textile worker
, -, -; - television
(attr.)
. television (TV)
f. telegram, wire
||, -, -; - telegraph
(attr.)
. t e le p h o n e
, - , - ;
t e le p h o n e
(attr.)
. (gen. , p i ) calf
. ( p i ) body
199
/ nevertheless, but
/ topic, subject, theme
I () impers. to grow dark
it is dark
, - , -o e; - d a r k -h a ir e d
(n o p i )
darkness, dusk
|| , - , -o e; - dark
m. rate, speed
/ temperature; fever
m. te n n is
/ shadow
/ theory
adv. now
adv. warmly, adj. it is warm
n. (n o p i) warmth
m. motor locomotive
f (n o pi.) warmth
m. motor ship
m. term
adv. patiently, with patience
n. patience
II (, ) to suffer;
to endure
/ terrace
/ territory
I to be lost
||, -, -oe; - close; tight
/ copybook
m. technician
/ (n o pi.) technique, technics
m. technical middle school;
professional school
||, -, -oe; - technical
n. current; course; ~ during
I (, ) to flow
||, -, -oe; - warm
m. tiger
m. type
/ print shop
, -, -oe; - titanic
m. title
||, -, -oe; - quiet
adv. quiet(ly), softly; adj. it is quiet
f . (n o pi.) quiet, silence
/ cloth, fabric
to pron. n. that; ~ every now and
then, now and again, without inter
ruption
m. goods, provisions
. comrade
adv. then
adv. identically
n. identity
adv. also, too
I (||, -) to push; to
impel
. talk , g o s s ip ;
, to g iv e rise to m u c h d is c u s s io n
f. (pi. ) c r o w d
|| , - , -o e; - sto u t, fat
o n ly ; ~ ju s t, ju s t n o w ;
( ) ~ as s o o n a s; ~ , n ot
o n ly b u t
ra. v o lu m e
, - , -oe; - la n g u o r o u s
, - , -o e; - th in ; s le n d e r ; d e li
c a te, d a in ty
/ to n
I (, ) to sink, to drown
n. fu el
ra. (gen. -a , pi. - ) a x e
ra. to ru s
/ tra d e, c o m m e r c e
, - , -o e; - tra d e, c o m
m e rc ia l
adv. s o le m n ly
|| , - , -o e; - fe stiv e
n. triu m p h , s o le m n ity
, - , -; - tr iu m
p h a n t, e x u lta n t
adv. h u rried ly
ra. p e a t
f. (n o pi.) m e la n c h o ly , d e p r e s s io n
|| , - , -o e; - d reary, sa d ,
m e la n c h o ly
, , ; pron. th a t, t h o s e ;
o n e or a n o th e r
adv. im m e d ia te ly
/ (gen. p i ) fu ll sto p , p e r io d
adv. e x a c tly , p r e c is e ly sh a rp ;
cj. as
. . et c e te r a , etc.
/ (pi. ) g r a ss; h erb s
/ tr a g ed y
/ tr a d itio n
m. tra cto r
ra. tra cto r d riv er
|| , - , -o e; - tra cto r (attr.)
ra. tram car
ra. tra n sp o rt
|| , - , -o e ; - tra n sp o rt
(attr.)
/
lin e , (a ir-)r o u te
II (, ) to spend
n. d e m a n d , r eq u ire m en t
I (||, -) to demand
adv. so b e r ly
m. tra in er
200
I (||, -)
to train, to practise
f. (gen. pi -) one third
m. triangle
||, -, -oe; - threedimensional (attr.)
II () to crackle
f stand
||, -, -oe; - knitted;
/ knit
ted goods industry
m. trolley bus
m. throne
f (gen. pi. ) path
m. trophy
f (gen. pi ) tube, pipe
m. 1. (gen. , no pi.) work, labour;
2. (pi. -) work
II (, ) to
toil
adv. it is difficult
f. difficulty
||, -, -oe; - difficult
||, -, -be; - labour (attr.)
||, -, -oe; - industrious
, n. industry, diligence
pi. toiling masses, working
people
||, -, -; -
working
. toiler, worker
f. company, troupe
m. hold
f. (gen. pi. ) rag
m. tuberculosis
adv. there, thither
m. fog, mist
||, -, -oe; - misty, foggy,
hazy
f. turbine
m. tourism
m. tourist
||, -, -oe; - tourist (attr.)
m. Turkmenian
m. tournament
adv. here
/ , m. (gen. pi ) shoe,
slipper
f cloud
pron. you, (sing.) thou
f thousand
f (no pi) darkness
/ (pi , gen. pi )
prison
n. gravity, attraction
adv. hard; seriously
||, -, -oe; - heavy; painful
I (, ) to pull, to drag
pr. (-1gen.) at, by

I (||, -) to run away
II p. (fut. , )
to become convinced, to make sure
mix. conj. p. (fut. ||, -...
-) to run away
I (||, -) to
become convinced
n. conviction
I (||, -) 1. to gather
(harvest); 2. to tidy up (a room)
f. 1. harvesting; 2. tidying up;
clearing
I (||, -) to accel
erate
I (||, -) to respect
n. respect, esteem
I (||, -) to
increase
I
(),
II p. (fut. ) to
increase, to be increased, to grow in size
, -, -; - is sure
adv. confidently
f. confidence, certitude
II p. (fut. ||, -) to see
II p. (fut. , -)
to see (one another)
, -, -oe; - fascinating
I (||, -) to captivate,
to carry away
I (||, -) to take
a fancy to, to go in for
n. enthusiasm, passion (for
something)
II (, ) to take, lead
away
: ~ as much as one wants
m. (gen. , pi ) corner
m. (gen. , pi ) coal
||, -, -oe; - coal (attr.)
I (||, -) to drive away,
to deport
f threat
I () to be successful; to
manage
m. kick, blow, stroke
201
II . (fut. , -) to hit,
strike
I (||, -) to strike
(oneself) (against)
) to be successful; to manage;
he failed
adv. successfully, well
||, -, -oe; - successful
II p. (fut. ||, -) to spare;
to devote
adv. amazingly, surprisingly
||, -, -oe; - amazing,
wonderful, surprising
II p. (fut. , ) to
amaze, to surprise
II p. (fut. ,
) to wonder, to be surprised
n. surprise, amazement
adv. with amazement
I (||, -) to surprise,
to amaze
adv. comfortably; adj. it is com
fortable
, -, -oe; - comfortable, con
venient
n. pleasure; ~~
to give pleasure
I (||, -), I p.
(fut. ||, -) to depart, to leave
m. horror
adv. already
m. supper
I (||, -) to have
supper
m. Uzbek
m. (gen. , pi. ) 1. knot; 2.
junction
||, -, -oe; - narrow
||, -, -be; - junction (attr.)\ fig.
main, chief, central; ~ railway
junction
I (||, -), I p. (fut.
||, -) to learn, to find out
m. pattern
I p. (fut. ||, -; past ,
||, -6; -) to go away
m. edict, decree
m. index
I p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to point
out, to indicate
m. (gen. , pi.
) a Ukranian
f. (gen. pi. ) a
Ukranian (a woman)
||, -, -oe; - Ukranian
II p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to adorn,
to beautify
I (||, -) to
be adorned, to grow beautiful
n. adornment, ornament,
decoration
||, -, -oe; - adorned, dec
orated
n. (no pi.) strengthening
||, -, -oe; - fortified
I (||, -) to
strengthen
m. (pi. ) hive
I (||, -), II p.
(fut. , ) to fly away
f. evidence
f. street
n. improvement
I (||, -) to
smile
/ (gen. pi. ) smile
I p. (fut. ||, -)
to smile
m. (gen. -a, pi. -) mind, intellect;
to be wild about something
I (||, -) to
decrease, to reduce, to diminish (tr.)
I () to be
decreased, diminished, to grow smaller
||, -, -oe; - moderate, tem
perate
I p. (fut. ||, -) to die
I (||, -) to know (how to
do something), to be able, can
I (||, -) to die
||, -, -oe; - clever, intelligent
II p. (fut. ||, -) to
dash away
I (||, -) to wash
(somebody)
I (||, -),
I p. (fut. , -) to
wash (oneself)
I p. (fut. ||, -, past ,
||, -6; -) to take, carry away
m. university
||, -, -oe; - university
(attr.)
, -, -oe; - unique
n. destruction, devastation
202
II (, ) to take,
carry away
I p. (fut. ||, -) to fall
I to give up part of ones
accommodation
I (||, -) to swim
away, to float away
n. hope
n. rapture, ecstasy
, -, -oe; - persevering
I (||, -) to per
severe
n. control; administration,
government
I (||, -) to direct,
to govern, to manage, to run, to operate
n. exercise
m. reproach
n. simplification
||, -, -oe; - elastic, resilient
n. equation
||, -, -oe; - Ural (attr.)
m. level, standard
m. harvest
m. lesson
II p. (fut. ||, -) to master,
to learn
n. diligence, zeal
I () to intensify,
to increase
n. effort
m. amplifier
n. condition
, -, -oe; - conditional
f. service, good turn
II p. (fut. ||, -) to
hear
I p. (fut. ||, -)
to smile
I p. (fut. ||, -) to fall asleep
I p. (fut. ||, -) to improve, to per
fect
I (||, -), I p.
(fut. ||, -) to have time, to be
in time, to manage
m. success, progress
adv. successfully
I (||, -),
II p. (fut. ||, -)
to soothe, to calm, to set at ease
I (||, -) to get tired
II p. (fut. ,
) to establish, to place
II p. (fut. ) to
settle
, -, -oe; - established
I p. (fut. ||, -) to be, to
get tired
||, -, -oe; - steady, firm
I (||, -) to
arrange, to organize
I () to be
arranged, organized
I (||, -)
to turn, to rush; to aspire
II p. (fut. ||, -) to
arrange, to organize
II p. (fut. ||, -)
to settle, to establish oneself
n. arrangement, system
I p. (fut. ; past ,
-, -; -) to grow calm, to abate
f. (gen. pi. ) duck
II p. (fut. , ),
I (||, -) to tire, to
weary
II to make more exact
f loss
II p. (fut. , ) to
lose
||, -, -; - morning (attr.)
n. morning; every morning
adv. in the morning
yxo n. (pi. ) ear
II (, ) to leave, to
go away
I (||, -) to take
part
n. participation; (I)
(I p.) ~ to take part
m. participant
m. (gen. , pi. )
1. lot, plot; 2. section
m. , f (pi. )
pupil, student
m. textbook
educational institution
||, -, -oe; - educational
n. teaching, learning; ~
to place as an apprentice
m. (gen. -a, pi. -), f.
pupil; apprentice
m. (is declined as an adj.) scientist
||, -, -oe; - scientific
m. schoolmaster, teacher
f schoolteacher, schoolmis
tress
203
I (. ) to take into
account
II (, ) 1. to teach; 2. to
learn
II (, ) to study
n. institution, establishment;
office
n. gorge, canyon
adv. cosily; adj. it is cosy
||, -, -oe; - cosy
f factory
m. torch
m. fact
m. faculty
f surname
f. fantasy
m. porcelain
m. fashion, style
m. fascism
m. fascist
m. February
f. federation
f . farm
m. festival
/ figure
m. physicist
f physics
m. physiologist
||, -, -oe; - physio
logical
f. physiology
adv. physically
||, -, -oe; - physics ( a ttr .),
physical
f. (= )
physical culture
m. athlete, sportsman
m. philologist
||, -, -oe; - philo
logical
m. philosopher
m. film
m. flag
m. fleet, navy
n. ( in declinable) foyer
m. background
m. fountain
f form, uniform
m. fort
f . photograph
f. sentence, phrase
f Frenchwoman
m. Frenchman
||, -, -oe; - French
m. front
, - , -o e; - fru it (attr.)
pi. fru it, fru its
X x
m. s m o c k , o v e r a ll; d r e s s in g -g o w n
m. c h a ra cter
, - , -o e; - c h a r a c te r istic
I ( ) 1. to c a tc h (at), to
s e iz e ; 2. to su ffic e ; n o t to b e
e n o u g h , to b e sh o rt o f
m . c h e m is t
|| , - , -o e; - c h e m ic a l
f c h e m is tr y
f su rgery
adv. sh r e w d ly
m. 1. (n o pi.) b r e a d ; 2. (pi. -a ) corn
, - , -o e; - g ra in (attr.)
, - , -o e; - c o tto n (attr.)
m. (gen. ) c o tto n
, - , -o e; - c o tto n
(attr.)
pi. (n o sing.) fla k es
m. m o tio n ; sp e e d
II ( , ) to g o , to w a lk
m. (pi. ) m a ster, b o s s
f . (gen. pi. ) m istr ess,
h o s t e s s ; ~ la n d la d y
n. 1. e c o n o m y ; 2. h o u s e h o ld
m. (gen. -a , p i - ) h ill
m. (pi. -a ) c o ld
it is c o ld
, - , -o e; - c o ld
m. c h o r u s
|| , - , -o e ; - p retty , n ic e
|| , - , -; - g o o d , fine
adv. w e ll, n ic e ly , g o o d
m ix.
conj.
( ,
...
...) (- \-gen .) to w ish , to w a n t
m ix. conj. ( ) impers. to
w ant
cj. a lth o u g h , th o u g h ; ~ e v e n
n. r e p o sito r y
II ( || , - ) to k e e p
II ( ) to b e k e p t
m. (gen. , pi. ) ra n ge
|| , - , -o e; - cry sta l, cu tg la s s (attr.)
, - , -o e ; - art (attr.),
a r tistic
m. artist, p a in te r
204
||, -, -be; - lean, thin
a d j., adv. worse
pi. ink
||, -, -oe; - black-eyed
, -, -oe; - black soil
U
II () to reign
||, -, -oe; - tsarist
m. (gen. -, pi. -) tsar
I (||, -) to bloom
m. (pi. -a) colour
m. (gen. , pi. ) flower
||, -, -; - blooming
/ purposefulness
adv. wholly
virgin land
||, -, -oe; - whole, entire
/ purpose; aim
II (, ) to value
f. (n o pi.) value; pi.
valuables
||, -, -oe; - valuable
m. centre
, -, -oe; - central
||, -, -oe; - tenacious
/ chain, sequence
, -, -oe; - church (attr.),
ecclesiastic
m. shop (in a factory)
m. pair of compasses; dividers
m. face, dial
/ figure
/ feature
m. sketch, draft
m. draughtsman
II (, ) to draw
||, -, -oe; - honest
/ honour
m. Thursday
/ (gen. pi. -) quarter
, -, -oe; - Czecho
slovak
||, -, -oe; - Czech
||, -, -; - black
||, -, -; clear cut (attr.)
/ number, quantity
n. (pi. ) 1. date; 2. number;
among; including
II (, ) to clean, to
brush
||, -, -; - clean
/ reading-hall
I (||, -) to read
. 1. member; 2. article
||, -, -; - extraor
dinary, extreme
. reading
II (||, -) to honour
pron. what; ~-, ~- some
thing, anything; ~ well, what is it?;
~ ? what is there to be done?
cj. that
, cj. in order to
n. feeling
I (||, -) to feel
I () to feel, to
be left
m. cast iron
||, -, -oe; - cast-iron (attr.)
||, -, -oe; - wonderful
II () to appear, to seem
||, -, -oe; - wonderful
n. (pi. ) miracle
||,
-,
-oe;
-
miraculous
||, -, -be; - strange, alien,
foreign

m. tea
m. (pi. -) hour
m. guard, sentry
adv. often
/ frequency
/ (gen. pi. -) part; ~
military unit
pi. (n o sing.) clock, watch
/ (gen. pi. ) cup
/ thicket, heart of the wood
, , ; pron. whose
m. (pi. ) person
n. (n o pi.) mankind
cj. than; pron., instr. o f ;
... whatever
. suit-case
prp. (-face.) 1. through; via; across;
2. in (tim e )
I () grow black, look
black
(attr.)
m. (pi. -) step
/ (gen. pi. ) cap
205
. (pi. -) globe, ball
pi. ( sing.) chess
/ pit, mine
m. miner
m. Swede
||, -, -oe; - Swedish
||, -, -oe; - sewing (attr.)
/ Sweden
/ seamstress
II (||, -) to move, to
stir
II (||, -),
I . (fut. ||,
-) to move, to rustle
I (, ) to whisper
/ wool
||, -, -be; - woollen
/ neck
m. (pi. ) silk
||, -, -oe; - silken, silk (attr.)
adj., adv. wider, broader
||, -, -oe; - wide, broad
adv. widely, broadly
, -, -; - broadshouldered
I (, ) to sew
. sewing, needlework
. (pi. -) cupboard; ~
book-case
/ school
. schoolboy
, -, -; - school (attr.)
. hose
/ hat
. whisper
. (indeclinable) highway
. driver, chauffeur
. spire
. staff, headquarters
. stamp, mark
. personnel
/ blind
/ piece
. assault, storm
/ fur coat
. noise
II (, ) to make
noise, to rustle
adv. noisily; adj. it is noisy
II (, ) to joke
f. (gen. pi. ) joke, jest
II (, ) to spare
adv. generously

m. equator
m. examination; ~ to
take an examination; ~ to pass
an examination
m. 1. carriage, coach; 2. crew
/ economics
||, -, -oe; - economic
m. excursionist
/ excursion
/ expedition
I (||, -) to experiment
f. exposition
m. exhibit, sample
m. elevator
f. electrification
||, -, -oe; -
electrified
||, -, -oe; - electrical
n. electricity
m. electric locomotive
/ electronics
f. power station
f. electrical energy
f. emblem
||, -, -oe; - power
(attr.)
adv. energetically
||, -, -oe; - energetic
/ energy; power
m. enthusiasm
/ encyclopaedia
f. epoch
pron. f. this
m. (gen. -a, pi. -, gen. pi. -) storey
m. stage, stop
pron. pi. these
/ (no pi.) ethnography
, , ; pron. this, these
m. south
- m. south-east
-||, -, -oe; - south
eastern
more to the south
||, -, -oe; - south, southern
/ youth
m. youth
||, -, -oe; - youth (attr.),
youthful
||, -; -oe; - very young
206

. I
. apple
||, -, -; - apple (attr.)
II . (fut. , ) to
appear
. phenomenon
I (||, -) to be, to
appear
/ berry
, -, -; - berry (attr.)
||, -, -; - nuclear (attr.)

/ evil, pest
. (gen. -a, pi. -) tongue; language
. (pi. , gen. pi. ) egg
f pit, hole
m. January
||, -, -; - bright
adv. brightly
f. brightness
adv. clear, clearly
||, -, -; - clear
f. yacht
Index
adjective 26 et seq.
agreement with noun 27
in case 27
in gender and number 27
attributive use 26, 29
declension, with hard endings 27
with soft endings 27
with mixed endings 27
degrees of comparison 30 et seq.
predicative use 28, 29
short form 28
used as noun 111
vowel mutation 28
adverb 72 et seq.
alphabet 1 et seq.
consonants, vowels 2
pronunciation 2, 3
chemical elements 8
grammatical function 10 et seq.
noun 10 et seq.
animate and inanimate 16, 19
case: meaning and use 11
accusative 14
dative 14
genitive 14
instrumental 14
nominative 12, 14
prepositional 14
with , 20
chemical elements 8
cognates 6
declension
feminine nouns
ending -, - 16
ending - 16
ending soft consonant 16
masculine nouns
ending in hard or soft consonant
13, 16
ending - 16
ending - 16
neuter nouns
ending -o, -e 16
ending - 16
ending - 13
plural 16, 17
vowel mutation 16
gender 12
indeclinable nouns 21
positive genitive 21
peculiarities in the declension of ,
, , 21
nouns ending -, -, -
19
20
numerals 101 et seq.
cardinal 101-105
combination with nouns 104
compound numerals 104
declension 103
collective numerals 105
declension and use 105
date 107
fractions 107
ordinal 106
declension and agreement with
noun 106
time 21, 107
participle 85 et seq.
see also Verbal adjective. Verbal
adverb
preposition 22 et seq.
cases adopted by 22-25
pronoun 33 et seq.
demonstrative 36
207
208
pronoun (com.)
determinative 36
indefinite 37
interrogative 34, 36, 38
negative 33, 34
personal 33
possessive 34
reflexive 33
stress 3
verb 38 et seq.
aspect 41 et seq.
to be 39, 40
cases adopted by 58 et seq.
conditional subjunctive 40
conjugation 45
imperfective 41, 42
imperfectivization 49
indicative 43-46
perfective 41, 42
perfectivization 46, 48, 49
reflexive 54
definite motion 52
future 41
indefinite motion 52
indicative 43
negative form of verb 14, 59
of motion 52
passive 86-88
principal verb forms 54 et seq.
reflexive 54
subjunctive 53
verbal adjective 85-88
active participle: present tense 86
past tense 86
agreement with noun 85
passive participle: present tense 87
past tense 87
short form 87
verbal adverb 88
aspect 88
word formation 119 et seq.
cognates 6
roots 120
suffixes 119
Grammatical Tables
The adjective
Table 4.2.1
Table 4.4.1
The adjectival inflections 27

The adjectival degrees 31
The adverb
Table 7.2.1
The principal adverbial forms 73
The alphabet
Table 1.2.1
The Russian alphabet 2
The noun
Table 2.4.1 Formal nomenclature of the cases 14

Table 2.5.1 The inflections of the Russian noun 16
Table 2.5.2 Examples of the principal forms of inflection 17
The numerals
Table 9.2.1
(a) The inflection of 1 103
(b) The inflection of 2, 3, and 4 103
(c) The inflection of some other cardinal numbers 103
Table 9.2.2 The inflection of 200, 300 and 400 103
Table 9.2.3 Cases adopted by the numerals 104
Table 9.2.4 Inflection of 942, an example of a compound number 104
Table 9.3.1 The collective numerals 105
The participles
Table 8.2.1
Table 8.2.2
Active verbal adjectives 86

Passive verbal adjectives 87
The preposition
Table 3.2.1
Cases adopted by prepositions 24-25

209
210
The pronoun
Table
(a)
(b)
Table
Table
(a)
(b)
Table
5.2.1
Singular personal pronouns 34
Plural personal pronouns 34
5.2.2 The interrogative pronouns who and what 34
5.3.1
( your and one's own) 35
our ( your) 35
5.3.2 The demonstrative pronouns this ( that and oneself)
36
Table 5.3.3 all 36
Table 5.3.4 whose ( nobody's) 37
The verb
Table 6.2.1 to be 40
Table 6.3.1 Comparison of verbal aspects 41
Table 6.3.2 Examples of imperfective/perfective verbal pairs 42
Table 6.4.1
(a) To work 43
(b) / to work 43
Table 6.4.2 / to speak 45
Table 6.5.1
(a) Verbal prefixes 47
(b) Perfectives formed by the addition of a prefix, with an associated shift
or extension in lexical meaning 47
(c) Perfectives formed by the addition of a prefix producing no shift or
extension in lexical meaning of the verb 48
Table 6.5.2 Imperfectivization of perfective verbs 49
Table 6.5.3 Perfectivization of verbs by means of a suffix 50
Table 6.5.4 Formation of the perfective by means of dropping a suffix 49
Table 6.6.1 Comparison of definite and indefinite motion 52
Table 6.6.2 Indefinite and definite imperfective verbs of motion 52
Table 6.6.3 Effect of prefixes on imperfective verbs of motion 53
Table 6.9.1 Case of object after various verbs 59
The verbal adjective
Table 8.2.1
Table 8.2.2
Word
Table
Table
Table
Active verbal adjectives 86

Passive verbal adjectives 87
formation
10.2.1 Suffixes denoting agent or performer 120

10.2.2 Suffixes forming abstract nouns 121
10.3.1 Some productive roots 122
Russian for the Scientist and Mathematician

Clive A. Croxton
D e p a r t m e n t o f M a th e m a tic s , U n iv e r s ity o f N e w c a s tle , N e w S o u th W a le s ,
A u s tr a lia
This book is intended to enable scientists and mathematicians to produce their

own translations of Russian technical literature, which is otherwise slow and ex
pensive to translate. Other scientific Russian grammars tend to assum e a dauntingly exhaustive approach which presum es an unrealistically high degree of
linguistic commitment and familiarity. These texts generally fail to recognize the
scientist's primary objective which is the scientific content rather than the
language itself.
The present book u ses the English language as far as practicable to illustrate
grammatical points and to develop a linguistic foundation for the study of
Russian. Much scientific terminology is com m on to both Russian and English,
and this and other aspects of the language are exploited throughout the book.
Numerous exam ples are provided as are extended passages of modern scientific
literature over a whole range of scientific disciplines. In all cases translations are
given, together with detailed commentaries.
The book concludes with a very extensive Russian-English vocabulary which
makes the text totally self-contained, although dictionary skills are encouraged
throughout.
The book will be of interest to a wide range of scientists, technologists and
mathematicians who use Russian technical literature.
Contents: Preface; Glossary of Grammatical Terms; The Russian Alphabet and
Pronunciation; The Noun; The Preposition; The Adjective; The Pronoun; The
Verb; The Adverb; The Participles; The Numerals; Word Formation and Techni
cal Nomenclature; Answers to the Exercises; Russian-English Vocabulary;
Index.
The Author:
C liv e C ro x to n graduated with first class honours in physics at the University of
Leicester in 1966. Following his PhD at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge in
1969, he w as elected to a Fellowship at Jesu s College, Cambridge and took his
MA in 1971. He becam e Professor of Mathematics atthe University of Newcastle,
NSW, Australia in 1976. His theoretical research is primarily concerned with the
statistical m echanics of liquids, polymers and protein structures.
Professor Croxton is an experienced author and has previously published the
following books with Wiley: In tr o d u c to r y E ig e n p h y s ic s (1974); In tr o d u c tio n to
L iq u id S ta te P h y s ic s (1975); P ro g re s s in L iq u id P h y s ic s (1978); and S ta tis tic a l
M e c h a n ic s o f th e L iq u id S u rfa c e (1980).
JO H N WILEY & SO N S
C h ic h e s te r N e w Y o rk B r is b a n e T o ro n to S in g a p o r e
A W ile y -ln te r s c ie n c e P u b lic a tio n
ISBN 0 471 90260 8

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JOHN WILEY & SONS LIMITED

Copyright 1985 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Library o f Congress Cataloging in Publication Data:

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data:

Glossary of Grammatical T e r m s ............................................................

Chapter 1 The Russian Alphabet and Pronunciation........................

In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................

The Noun ...........................................................................

The Preposition .................................................................

Chapter 6 The Verb

Chapter 8 The P a r tic ip le s .................................................................

8.1 In tro d u c tio n .........................................................................

Chapter 9 The Numerals

9.7 Passages for tr a n s la tio n .......................................................

Answers to the Exercises

Glossary o f Grammatical Terms

a specific example of case; generally represents the

the classification of nouns and adjectives according

a specific example of case; generally indicates a

mood of the verb which orders or commands

the aspect of the verb expressing indefinite,

the direct mood of the verb

the secondary object of the verb, generally rendered

mood of the verb which expresses its action without

the pattern of modification of a noun, adjective or

a specific example of case; generally indicates the

general name for either a verbal adjective, e.g. Those

the form of the verb which expresses the subject as

The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. We list these in Table

The Russian alphabet

(iv) Those letters requiring special attention

Russian is essentially phonetic in its pronunciation. Every letter (except and

Pronounce the following:

The scientist is particularly fortunate in that much of the technical vocabulary

These, and other correspondences, will be considered in more detail in Chapter

Pronounce and translate the following:

Pronounce and translate the following:

1.6 THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

THE ENGLISH NOUN: INFLECTION

In all languages the noun is required to perform an enormous variety of

book was borrowed from the library.

These words may be assembled into two distinct meaningful sentences:

THE RUSSIAN NOUN: INFLECTION

In Russian the grammatical function of the noun is expressed explicitly, without

GENDER OF THE RUSSIAN NOUN

As we outlined above, the gender of the Russian noun is readily identified by

There are a couple of important exceptions to the above rules as follows:

CASE AND GRAMMATICAL FUNCTION

Formal nomenclature of the cases

So far this year the weather has been extremely cold.

The inflections of the Russian noun

Vowel m utations may modify these endings (see Section 2.6).

2.6 VOWEL MUTATION

Examples of the principal forms of inflection

Examples showing vowel mutation

Finally we give an exercise which provides practice in the identification of

SOME IMPORTANT IRREGULARITIES

All neuter nouns ending - follow the pattern of , name :

tSee Table 2.5.1.

See Table 2.5.1.