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Elva Tang
Dr. Lynda Haas
WR 39C
23 May 2016
Avian Extinction
American naturalist Roger Tory Peterson once said: Birds are indicators of the
environment. If they are in trouble, we know well soon be in trouble. This is true because birds
are found in almost every habitat on Earth. So, the fact that their numbers have been dropping in
recent years is a blatant sign that profound changes are occurring on our planet in response to
human activities (The Extinction Crisis). Not only is saving the habitats of these valuable
species for the sake of avoiding an apocalyptic end on Earth important, but the ethics behind why
we should, is noteworthy. Studies in recent years have produced evidence for birds to have
rational intelligence surpassing even that of primates (Emery). So, based on the human tendency
to base the value of species off intelligence, is it right to place the importance of the loss of birds
under that of other more well known intelligent species like primates and cetaceans? However,
based off of Richard Ryders argument of speciesism, suffering is really the important criterion
for mortality, not intelligence (Ryder). This paper will provide a brief overview of the studies of
avian intelligence thus far, present the issue of habitat destruction among birds and how that can
lead to their extinction, and discuss possible solutions to this problem.
Ornithologythe study of birds, dates back thousands of years to Aristotles
classification of birds. However, the study of bird intelligence itself is rather young. In 1702,
Ferdinand Johann Adam Von Pernau published one of the first essays on bird behavior, and it

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was not until 200 years later in 1910 where James Porter published Intelligence and Imitation in
Birds; a Criterion of Imitation, in which he explores the very basics of how birds imitate, but in
which still heavily reflects the views of animals of his time periodranking much lower than
human (Porter 69). Porter, like many scientists for hundreds of years attribute birds with
immense amount of instinct rather than true rational intelligence like that of primates and
cetaceans more popularly studied, thus birds have been dubbed to have the notorious bird brain
(Herrick). However, according to Nathan Emery, senior lecturer at the Queen Mary University of
London, and very influential and prolific researcher on bird intelligence these recent years, states
that recent studies dating back only about 20 years popularized by Peter Marlers Social
Cognition indicates that birds may have rational intelligence surpassing even that of primates
(Emery).
The saying bird brain refers to the assumed low intelligence of birds as well as the tiny
size compared to primate brains. It was once thought that brain size correlates with intelligence,
but now we know that brain size also correlates with body size, thus larger brain mass can be
concentrated in areas like the brain stem where there is no cognitive thinking. So, brain size is
not a good measure of intelligence. According to a study by Rehkamper, Frahm, and Ziles, it
would be more accurate to compare certain parts of the brain between species, using the brain
stem as a control (Rehkamper, et al.). For birds, the hippocampus is a prominent area of the brain
that is related to their ability to store food, according to a study in 1989 by Sherry, Vaccarino,
Buckenham, and Herz (Buckenham et al.). As for the small brain size, flight is the main limiting
factor. This means that birds compensate for this by increasing the number of neurons,

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suggesting that the bird brain is actually very efficient and is functionally analogous to the
primate neocortex (Emery).
Contrary to past belief that the bird brain originated from the basal ganglia, which allows
the brain incapable of any flexible or intelligent behavior, a study in 2005 by Jarvis and
Consortium shows that not only are large parts of the bird brain actually derived from the
pallium, mammalian brains are derived from the pallium as well (Jarvis et al.). In recent years,
there has been evidence for potential convergence in neural systems in bird and mammal brains
[which is the] [] avian prefrontal cortex (Emery). In mammals, this prefrontal cortex is
responsible for organization, planning, and flexibility of behavior (Dalley, et al.).
There have been many studies on birds to be able to complete the classic string pulling
task, where birds are able to pull the correct string with the food attached. However, only
trained ravens and keas are able to immediately solve novel problems related to string pulling,
which indicates possibly a form of rapid problem-solving (Emery). More recently in 2011, Alice
Auersperg, Auguste von Bayern, Gyula Gajdon, Ludwig Huber, and Alex Kacelnik published a
study titled Flexibility in Problem Solving and Tool Use of Kea and New Caledonian Crows in
a Multi Access Box Paradigm. This study compares the difference in tool use between keas and
crows through a new approach based on the Multi Access Box. They found that the keas were
faster at finding multiple solutions to the tasks presented than the crows, and that they preferred
using the ball tool over the stick. The crows on the other hand, more experienced with using
sticks in their daily lives, were more efficient with the stick, but were much more hesitant to
explore new methods (Auersperg et al.). This study shows the complexity of studying the

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problem solving abilities of birds, and calls for the need to experiment with a much greater
variety of techniques.
A famous experiment by Koelher was done in the 1950s that showed that birds have an
amazing competency for not only quantifying things, but also counting. The raven and grey
parrot in this experiment learned rapidly to eat the correct amount of food by choosing the
correct box with the numerically labeled amount of items (Thorpe). In an even more impressive
observation, Koelher noticed a jackjaw who took items from three boxes, flew away, then came
back and bowed in front of each box the number it initially took from it (Thorpe). These studies
however, have not been replicated to the same degree since, but these evidence does indicate a
possible understanding of a numerical concept in birds (Emery).
Recently, Sarah Jelbert, Alex Taylor, Lucy Cheke, Nicola Clayton, and Russel Gray
published a study titled Using the Aesops Fable Paradigm to Investigate Casual Understanding
of Water Displacement by New Caledonian Crows. In this study, crows preferred to drop
sinking objects (rather than floating) into a tube filled with water (rather than sand) that had a
high water level (rather than a low level). This level of casual understanding of water
displacement is even able to rival the intelligence of 5-7 year old human children (Cheke, et al.).
This study also mentions a previous study by Emery and Christopher Bird that also uses the
Aesops Fable Paradigm, but focuses on rooks that naturally dropped stones, but never in water,
to receive a floating worm. Emery and Bird also obtained similar results as this study, with the
birds preference for heavy stones dropped in water (Cheke, et al.).
Food catching birds need to have very proficient ways of remembering where they store
food, the type of food, and even the social context of how the food was caught. Two possible

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explanations for this are remembering snapshots of every catch location, and the use of visual
cues of the catch site (Emery). The latter, more flexible method, in the example of Clarkes
nutcrackers, uses multiple landmarks, and finds the half way point between two landmarks. They
are also able to flexibly alter the calculation according to different situations (Balda).
Finally, tool use is a trait in many corvids that in recent years have brought them much
attention to the research field because previously, tool use was thought to be a uniquely primate
ability. Although there are many instances of birds appearing to be using tools, it is important to
note that many times, the extent of tool use in birds does not meet the extensive requirements of
primates (Emery). A very impressive example of tool use is with the New Caledonian Crow,
Betty, who after failing to lift a bucket with the straight wire, bent the wire into a proper hook in
order to lift the bucket (Chappell). However, only three of ten wires were considered proper,
and a proper wire was not required to lift the bucket all of the time. So, although there is striking
evidence of tool use in avians, especially in crows, more studies are needed.
Through the relatively short history of the study of avian intelligence, substantial
information has been gathered to imply an impressive mental capacity, compared to what was
previously believed about them. Birds, especially corvids, have impressive abilities in problem
solving, counting, food catching, tool use, and the possibility of a convergent evolution with
primates serves to give them a new light of research. However, it is true that much more research
needs to be done. Through this compilation of evidence for the complexity of the bird brain, it
is important to address whether our current exploitations of the habitats of these creatures that
possess a unique view of life comparable to that of primates is ethical. We are currently wiping
away the existence of 1 in 8 of all birds across the world (Mitchell).

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There have been 6 major extinctions in recorded history; but the 6th--the one we are
currently in, is different from the past 5. This one is caused by humans--from our use of fossil
fuels causing global warming, our cutting down of forests causing habitat destruction, and our
displacement of animals causing exotic species to disrupt the balance and flow of natural
ecosystems (The Extinction Crisis). Scientists estimate that currently, we are losing species
1,000-10,000 times higher than the natural extinction rate (How Many Species Are We Losing?).
This loss of biodiversity will have detrimental effects to life on Earth, as diversity ensures
ecosystem resilience (The Extinction Crisis). Without it, habitats will be sure to collapse, having
devastating effects for the sustainability of life around the world.
Avians--birds, are present in almost all habitats on Earth. So, the fact that their numbers
are dropping are blatant indicators that profound changes are occurring on our planet in
response to human activities (The Extinction Crisis). In fact, over the past 5 millennia, humans
have caused 500 different bird species to go extinct, and that number is only projected to increase
at higher rates in the 21st century (Duke University). Figure 1 shows an analysis of the number
of recorded bird species that have gone extinct since 1500, showing that there has been only an
upward trend in recent years.

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Figure 1. Number of bird species extinctions per 25 years, by continents and islands,

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totals include bird species classified as Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered and
Critically Endangered (Threatened Birds of the World 2008).
Habitat destruction and degradation is the leading cause for this rapidly increasing
extinction in birds. According to the American Bird Conservatory, 85% of globally threatened
birds in Latin America [...] have been impacted by large-scale logging and agricultural
operations (Habitat Loss).

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Works Cited
Auesperg, Alice M. I., Auguste M. P. von Bayern, Gyula K. Gajdon, Ludwig Huber, and Alex
Kacelnik. "Flexibility in Problem Solving and Tool Use of Kea and New Caledonian
Crows in a Multi Access Box Paradigm". PLoS ONE 6.6 (2011). Web. 20 Apr 2016.
Balda R.P, Good S., Kamil A.C. Patterns of movement and orientation during caching and
recovery by Clark's nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana). Anim. Behav. 57(1999):1327
1335.Print. 8 May 2016.
Buckenham K., Herz R., S. Sherry D.F, Vaccarino A.L. The hippocampal complex of foodstoring birds. Brain Behav. Evol. 34(1989):308317. Print. 8 May 2016.
Cheke, Lucy G., Nicola S. Clayton, Russell D. Gray, Sarah A. Jelbert, Alex H. Taylor. Using the
Aesops Fable Paradigm to Investigate Casual Understanding of Water Displacement by
New Caledonian Crows. PLoS ONE 9.3 (2014). Web. 8 May 2016.
Clayton, Nicola, Amanda Seed, and Nathan Emery. "Intelligence in Corvids and Apes: A Case of
Convergent Evolution?". Ethology 115.5 (2009): 401-420. Web. 20 Apr 2016.
Chappell J., Kacelnik A.,Weir A. A. S. Shaping of hooks in New Caledonian crows. Science.
297.981(2002): Web. 8 May 2016.
Consortium A.B.N, Jarvis E.D. Avian brains and a new understanding of vertebrate brain
evolution. Neurosci. 6 (2005):151159. Web. 8 May 2016.

Dalley J.W, Cardinal R.N, Robbins T.W. Prefrontal executive and cognitive functions in
rodents: neural and neurochemical substrates. Neurosci. Behav. Physiol. 28(2004)771
784. Web. 8 May 2016.

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Duke University. Bird Going Extinct Faster Due to Human Activities. Science Daily. (2006).
Web. 14 May 2016.
Emery, Nathan J. Cognitive Ornithology: The Evolution of Avian Intelligence.Philosophica
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 361.1465 (2006): 2343. PMC.
Web. 20 Apr 2016.
Emery, Nathan. Dr Nathan Emery Senior Lecturer. Queen Mary University
of London. Web. 8 May 2016.
Frahm H.D, Rehkamper G, Zilles Z. Quantitiative development of brain and brain structures
in birds (Galliformes and Passeriformes) compared to that in mammals (insectivores
and primates) Brain Behav. Evol. 37 (1991) 125143. Print. 8 May 2016.
Porter, James P. "Intelligence and Imitation in Birds; A Criterion of Imitation". The American
Journal of Psychology 21.1 (1910): 1-71. Print. 20 Apr 2016.
Habitat Loss. American Bird Conservancy. N.d. Web. 23 May 2016.
Herrick C.J. Henry Holt. Neurological foundations of animal behaviour. N.p. (1924). Print.
8 May 2016.
How Many Species Are We Losing?. WWF Global. (n.d) Web. 14 May 2016.
Koehler O. The ability of birds to count. Bull. Anim. Behav. 9(1950):4145. Print. 8 May
2016.
Mitchell, Alanna. The 1,300 Bird Species Facing Extinction Signals Threats to Human
Health. National Geographic. (2014). Web. 23 May 2016.

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Ryder, Richard. What is Speciesism? Online video clip. Youtube. 25 October 2012. Web. 9
May 2016.
The Extinction Crisis. Center for Biological Diversity. (N.d.). Web. 14 May 2016.
Threatened birds of the world 2008. BirdLife International (2008) CD-ROM. 14 May 2016.