FromImmigrationPoliciesto

DetentionCenters:
TheProfitabilityandDismissalofImmigrantWomen

StefanyAlicea

Thewideexpanseofdesertwasblindingitscaramelcolorwhitenedbythesunbeating
downontoit.Thereareroads.Thisiswhatmymothertoldme.She,likemanywomen,crossed
theborderillegallyforabetterlifeforherkids.Ontheotherhand,shewaspartofthefortunate
fewwhodidnotgetcaught.Somewomenwhoendupinthegraspoftheborderpolicecanbe
foundindetentioncenters.Amajorityofthesewomencomeseekingasylum,butareoftenheld
inprisonlikedetentioncentersthattoooftenviolatehumanrightsandinternationallaws
(Elhaddad).Thesedetentioncentersdonotofferadequateandgenderspecifichealthcarefor
womenandfailtoofferwomenprogramsthatcouldalleviatethephysical,emotionalandmental
abusetheyfacedintheirhomecountry.Fromthe350detentioncentersinourcountry,only8or
2%areownedbyImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement.Theleftover98%ofdetentioncenters
areownedbyprivateprisoncompanies,whogetpaidanestimated$122200anight/per
individualbyexploitingsuchavulnerablepopulation,privateprisoncompaniesaccruebillions
intaxpayermoney(Crabapple).Abedquotaforthesedetentioncenters,setbycongressand
enforcedbyU.S.ImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement(ICE),keepsthempackedwitha
majorityofwomenfromCentralandSouthAmerica,whoarecontinuouslycreatingprofitfor
privateprisoncompanies(Ortega,Elhaddad,Rabin).Whilethewomenindetentioncentersare
notonlyfromCentralandSouthAmerica,itisimportanttonotethattheydomakeupa
significantportionofthepopulation(Lee,Rabin).
Thesewereputintothesedetentioncentersduetoabiasedimmigrationpoliciesthathave
historicallytargetedbrownindividuals.Withoutacarefortheirsafety,theseindividualsare
oftensentbacktotheplacestheyfledand,moreoftenthannot,alsofaceemotionalandmental
abusewhiledetained(Ortega,Rabin).TheimmigrationpolicyintheUnitedStateshasprofited

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offofdiscriminationandalackofcareforpoorindividualsorpeopleofcolor(thinkslavery,
Mexicanworkerstrade,Chinesecampsetc).Theoverarchingproblemhereistheimmigration
system:itfavorseducatedandrichimmigrantsoverthosewhowouldbenefitmorefrom
Americasresourcesandfailstoprotectpeoplewhoseekrefuge.However,thisisaproblemthat
needslongtermcommitment.Thiscanbedonebybeginningtolookathowimmigrationhas
affectedbothwomenandmen.

Atthepresenttime,theproblemthatrequirespriorityarethehumanrightsviolationsthat

happentothewomenindetentioncenters.Furthermore,theinadequate,andoftenlackof,
healthcareforwomenneedstobeaddressed.CongresscouldeasilyplaceapolicythathasICE
enforceaprogramthatvaluestheconfidentialrelationshipsbetweenthepatientandprovider,
andfocusmostimportantlyontheneedsofthewomenwhichwouldaffirmtheirrightsas
humanbeings.

HistoryofImmigration(1920searly1990s)
Thefaceofimmigration,fordecades,hasbeenpoorindividualsand/orpeopleofcolor.
Americawasonceproudlycalledthehomeofimmigrants,recentlyoptingforanewer
descriptor:ameltingpotofculturesandpeople.Thisname,however,easilyerasestheyearsof
antiimmigrantandracistpropagandafromwhichAmericaprofited.EdwinAckerman,a
politicalsociologistatBerkeley,believesthatthisstartedwhenthe1924Act,whichwas[a
policy]primarilyconcernedwithrace[whichset]inaplaceaquotasystemthatfavoredmigrants
fromnorthernEurope,wasenacted,shiftingtheculturearoundimmigration(45).Thiswasone

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ofthefirstlawsthatinstitutionalizedimplicitbias,asitfavoredNorthernEuropeanimmigrants,
whichwereprimarilywhite,overothernationalities.
Thisisnottosaythatwhitenesswasashieldfromdiscriminationsocioeconomicstatus
wasalsotakenintoconsideration,asthestrugglesoftheIrishandItalianEasternEuropeans
wereseenaslessdesirablethanWesternEuropeans,simplybecauseoftheirnationalities,which
explainthesmallerquotasforEasternEuropeancountriesresultinginrestrictionintotheU.S.
fromcertaincountriesinEurope.OnlyafterprotestfromtheItalians,andotherEasternEuropean
countriesthe1924Actwaschanged.
Furthermore,in1965theImmigrationAct,alawsimilartothe1924Actwasenacted
prohibit[ing]thedistributionofvisasusingunequalnationalquotasthatfavouredEuropeans,
substitutingquotasforfamilyties(Ackermanp10).Thiscreatedmoreequalopportunitiesfor
peoplefromdifferentcountries,distributingquotasmoreequally.AlthoughtheImmigrationAct
of1965wasmorefairthanthe1924Act,itstillfavoredthosewhowantedtobereunitedwith
theirfamiliesthismeansthataEuropeancitizen,wantingtogetcitizenshipfortheirparents,
wouldbechosenoveranimmigrantfromadevelopingcountrywhosefamilyhadnthadthe
advantageofmigratingtoAmericaearlier(Ackerman).
Moreover,prominentpoliticalfigureswerehavingconcernsaboutAmericas
immigrationpolicies.PresidentJohnF.Kennedyfounditfoolishthatalawhadunfairly
discriminatedagainstpotentialworkersbecauseoftheircountryoforigin(Ludden).A
sociologistatRiceUniversity,StephenKlineberg,statesthatduringmanyofthedebatesleading
uptotheenactmentoftheImmigrationActof1965,congresswouldbringupAmericasneed
forBritishdoctors...[and]Germanengineers,neverreallycomingtotheconclusionthat

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thereweregoingtobeAfricandoctors,Indianengineers,Chinesecomputerprogrammerswho'd
beable,forthefirsttimeinthe20thcentury,toimmigratetoAmerica(Ludden,P9).However,
thedecisiontoenactthispolicy,waslargelybecauseoftheeffortsandsupportofEastern
Europeans,whichgoestoshowthatmanydevelopingcountrieswerentevenpresentforthis
conversation.
Nevertheless,duringthistimeperiodTheBraceroProgram,animportantprogramthat
hadcreatedaconstantflowofpeoplebetweenMexicoandAmericafor22years,wascomingto
aclose.TheremovalofTheBraceroProgramsignificantlyreducedthenumberofwaysfor
Mexicanstoenterthecountrylegally.Sincetherewasnothingtomakeupforthedifference
betweenthepreviousnumberofMexicanmigrantstoenterAmerica,itisonlyfairtoassumethat
therewouldbealargernumberofMexicanworkersenteringthecountryillegally(Ludden,
Ackerman).ThislawmadeitmoredifficultforMexicanindividualstoenterthecountry,as
varioustieswerebeingbroken,resultinginanincreaseinillegalimmigration,forwhichtheU.S.
governmentneverplanned(Ludden).
From19291939theU.S.governmentimplementedapolicyofMexicanRepatriation,
whichreferstoaforcedmigration[of...]onemillionpeopleofMexicandescent(Lyon19).
Notably,60%ofthosedrivenoutwereU.S.citizens(Lyon19).TheU.S.hadopeneditsdoor
forMexicanindividuals,welcomedthemtojobsandopportunities,onlytoextractthemfrom
theirnewlivesbecausetheU.S.felttheywerenotneeded.Thisisamoreblatantformof
discrimination,butithasnotstoppedonlybecomingmoresubtleastheyearshavepassed.
Culturally,thereisanegativeconnotationtoimmigrant,whichpromptsupcaricaturesofthe
Mexican,Chinese,JapaneseandIrishworker.Asfigure1portrays,communitiesthathavebeen

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historicallyoppressedfortheirchoiceofmigration,viewthemselvesascheaplabor,withlittle
rights.Themanonthetopcaresisdancingbecauseoftheprofitthatwouldbemadefromthe
cheapimmigrantlabor.Inhistory,therearemanyexamplesofwhereundocumentedimmigrants
weretakenadvantageof,fromChineseimmigrantstoJapaneseimmigrantsincampstothe
presentpopulationofundocumentedLatinximmigrantsworkingintheagriculturalindustry.

Figure1Source:MikeLane,cagle
cartoonscirca.2009

Thefactthatincertaindemographics
thereisalargeundocumentedimmigrant
population,portraystheresultsoftheimmigrationsystem.Forexample,itcriticalthatwe
questionwhythereissuchalargeLatinxandSouthAsianundocumentedimmigrantpopulation.
Ofcourse,thismaybearesultofthestateofthesecountries,asmanyhavehighpopulationsof
peoplelivingunderthepovertyline(WorldBank).Furthermore,inpoliciessuchasPreference
Visa,largecountrieswithhighemigrationrateshavethesamecapassmallercountrieswith
loweremigrationrates.DavidFitzgeraldandDavidCookMartin,fromUniversityofCalifornia
andGrinnellCollege,foundthatFilipinosiblingsofadultU.S.citizensarecurrentlywaiting24
yearsandMexicansarewaiting16years,comparedto12yearsfornationalsofothercountries
(FitzGerald1)similarinformationwasfoundwithmarriedindividuals.Theseunfairwaiting
periodswereaproductofapolicyofseeminglyequalcountrycaps[thatwereplaced]in

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ordertolimitlegalimmigrationfromMexicoandcountriesinAsia.(FitzGerald2).Some
conservativeswouldconsidercallingtheimmigrationsystem,oranyotherAmericaninstitution,
racistseemslikeanoverreaction.However,Americasimmigrationsystemsandprimarypolicies
reflecttheirlackofcareforimmigrants.Thepoliciesoutrightdiscriminateagainstcertaingroups
ofpeopleandthathasaneffectonthefutureoftheinstitution.Therearenospecificpoliciesfor
women,astheyfitunderthewideumbrellatermsof:asylumseeker,refugee,andundocumented
immigrant.Sinceopportunitiestocomeintothiscountryarescarce,people,specificallybrown
individuals,areforcedtocomehereillegally,riskingnotonlytheirlives,butthoseoftheir
families.Thepoliciesinplacemustbelookedovercarefully,withconstantinputfromthepeople
whoitaffects,inorderforthemtobecomemoreequitable.

PresentImmigrationPolicies
ImmigrationPoliciesareahottopicinAmericanpolitics,rangingfromgovernorsand
representativesgivingunfalteringideasonhowtofixtheimmigrationpoliciestoother
politiciansandgovernmentleaderssympathizingandbeingmoreacceptingofundocumented
immigrants.However,onethingremainstrue:immigrationpoliciesarecomplicated.According
totheAmericanImmigrationCouncilin
HowtheUnitedStatesImmigrationSystemWorks:A
FactSheet
"therearedifferentmethodstoobtainingcitizenshipandtheImmigrationand
NaturalizationAct(INA),thebodyoflawgoverningcurrentimmigrationpolicy,providesforan
annualworldwidelimitof675,000permanentimmigrants,withcertainexceptionsforclose
familymembers(1).MoreoverthereisalimitonhowmanyimmigrantstheU.S.will
naturalized,buttherealsoacountryceiling,whichstatesnogroupofpermanentimmigrants
(familybasedandemploymentbased)fromasinglecountrycanexceed7%ofthetotalamount

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ofpeopleimmigratingtotheUnitedStatesinasingleyear(10).Thismeansthatlargecountries
orcountriesthatarehavelargenumberoffleeingimmigrants,thisisanumbrellatermasthe
legalprocesstoapplytobeanasylumseekerorrefugeearedifferent,likeMexicoandthe
Philippines,etc,arecapped,whichiswhythewaitingperiodforcitizenshipislongerforthese
countriesthanothercountrieslikeFrance.AssociatesociologistandcodirectoroftheCenterfor
comparativeimmigrationstudiesatUniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego,DavidScottFitzgerald
statesthatMexicanmarriedadultchildrenofU.S.citizensarewaiting21yearsandFilipinos
arewaiting20years,comparedto10yearsforothernationals[forcitizenship].(1).
Thisinformationmaybeusedtoexplainthelargenumbersofundocumentedimmigrants
fromAsiaandLatinAmerica.Sincethewaitingtimeandcostforcitizenshipissolarge,many
familieschoosetoenterthecountryillegally.MostcountriesinCentralandSouthAmerica,and
manypartsofAsia,arefullofpeoplewholiveonorunderthepovertyrate(WorldBank).The
longwaitingperiodforattainingcitizenshipoutsideoftheU.S.andthecostareagreatdeterrent
forthosewhocannotaffordtowait.Sinceaconsiderablenumberofundocumentedimmigrants
comefromsouthoftheborder,itislogicaltomaketheconnectionbetweenthesetwofacts.
Pathstocitizenshiprangefromemploymentbasedimmigration,whichfocusesonthe
skillsofanindividual,tofamilybasedimmigration,whichrequiresalistofrequirements,to
refugeeandasylumseekingimmigration,whichwillbediscussedingreaterdetail.Assimpleas
thefirsttwowaystoacquirecitizenshipsound,theyrecomplicatedandtimeconsumingforall
individualsinvolved.Familybasedimmigrationisimportant,buthardtoobtainandtopetition
forsomeone,childrenmustbe21topetitionfortheirparents(HowtheUnitedStates
ImmigrationSystemWorks4).Similarly,theindividualmustprovearelationshipwiththe

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person,andbeeconomicallystabletobefinanciallyresponsiblefortheirfamilymember(s)
uponarrivalintheUnitedStates(HowtheUnitedStatesImmigrationSystemWorks11).Each
year,thereareapproximatelymorethan480,000familybasedvisasgivenout,and675,000
permanentimmigrantsestablished(HowtheUnitedStatesImmigrationSystemWorks1).
Ontheotherhand,thepoliciesforrefugeesaredifferent.Afterarefugeehasproventhat
theirhomecountry,sometimesdoneinatransitioncountry,isunsafeforthem,whetheritbe
becauseoftheirrace,membershipinasocialgroup,politicalopinion,religion,ornational
origintheyreabletofullybegintheapplicationprocess,wheretheyfileforcitizenshipand
wait(16).Fromthenon,theyreevaluatedonthedegreeofdangerintheircountries,whetherthe
refugeehasanyfamilyintheUS,andwhetherornottheyfitinagroupdecidedbythePresident
thathedeemshasspecialconcerns.(HowtheUnitedStatesImmigrationSystemWorks:A
FactSheet.).Inaddition,theacceptanceofrefugeesisinfluencedbyrecentevents.Forexample,
soonaftertheterroristattacksofSeptember11,2001,thenumberofrefugeesadmittedintothe
UnitedStatesfelldrasticallythankstomoreextensivesecuritychecks,morerefugeesarebeing
acceptedeachyear,withacapof70,000individualsworldwideatthepresent(16).Thismeans
thatevenifarefugeehasproventhattheircountryisdangerousandhaswaitedanextensive
amountoftimetobeaccepted,therearemanyobstaclesintheirwayofbeinggivencitizenship
status.Formanypeople,theamountofmoneyandtimeinvestedinapplyingforcitizenship
statusfromtheirowncountryisunfeasible.TheyoftenforgoimmigratingintotheU.S.through
legalmeans,astheyevaluatethecostandtimeofthelegalmethodbeingtoohighwhen
comparedtothedangertheycouldfacewhenimmigratingillegally.

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Ontheotherhand,anasylumseekeristypicallyinthecountryinwhichtheyretryingto
obtaincitizenship.AsylumseekersaredefinedasPersonsalreadyintheUnitedStateswho
werepersecutedorfearpersecutionupontheirreturnmayapplyforasylumwithintheUnited
Statesorataportofentryatthetimetheyseekadmission,andtheymustapplywithintheyear
theyarrivetotheU.S.(17).Unlikeotherpolicies,theU.S.hasnotplacedarestrictiononhow
manyasylumseekerstowhichtheycangrantcitizenship.Manywomenindetentioncenters
comeintotheU.S.seekingasylum.However,duetolackofaccesstoalawyer,language
barriers,andfinancialdifficulties,theyreunableornotgiventheopportunitytoapplyfor
citizenshipstatusthroughthisroute.
Thisisjustanoverviewonthepoliciesandlawsfordifferentindividualsseeking
permanentortemporarycitizenshipstatus.Formanypeople,andespeciallywomen,indetention
centers,thesearenotevenoptions.Witheconomic,language,andtimebarriers,thesewomenare
notevenawareoftheoptionstheyhave.Fiftyeightpercentofdetaineesaresenttocourtwithout
legalrepresentation,oftenintheirprisonwearandshackles,andthemajorityenduplosingtheir
cases(Crabapple).Theselawshavebeenchangedpreviouslyandwillcontinuetochange,
especiallywithmoretheincreaseinimmigration.

TheNewFaceofIllegalImmigration
Today,thewordimmigrantseemstohaveanegativeconnotationoftenpresentedas
caricaturesofminorityworkersandpoorfamilies(Lopez).However,itwasntuntilthe1930s
whenpeoplestartingshiftingtheperceptionofthosewhowereseenasillegalandaliens,for
notenteringthecountrythroughanestablishedprocess,startedtobecomedefinedasproblems,

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orproblemscausers(Ackerman).Beforethis,peoplewerenotpinningproblemsonthosewho
enteredthecountryillegally,eventhoughtherewashostilitybetweencommunities.Presently,
forexample.peoplewithpoliticalstatustendtotalkaboutillegalimmigrationasaproblemthat
affectstheeconomy,andthereforethewholecountry.Howeverthiswasnotascommonbefore
the1930s.
Duringthe1960s,differentorganizationswerelobbyingformoresupportorfunds,which
theydidbyplacingaharshstanceonillegalimmigration.Similarly,unionsandgroupslikethe
UnitedWorkersmovement,ledbyCesarChavez,wantedtodifferentiatethemselvesfromthose
whowereundocumented,andindoingsoequatedtheirillegalitywithproblemsthatwere
beingcausedinthecountry(Ackerman).Therejectionfromthesegroups,specificallytheUnited
WorkersMovement,madeiteasierforpeopleinhigherpowertocontinuetouseimmigrants
illegalityasareasontopushtheiragendas,allwhilepaintingtheseundocumentedmigrantsas
problemsforthefirsttimeinAmerica'shistory.
Itwasntuntilthe1930swhenpeoplestartingshiftingthetopicofimmigration,and
focusingonhowimmigrantsenteredthecountry,ratherthanfromwheremigratingfrom.Those
whowereseenasillegalandaliensfornotenteringthecountrythroughanestablished
process,startedtobecomedefinedasproblems,orproblemscausers(Ackerman).Beforethis,
peoplewerenotpinningproblemsonthosewhoenteredthecountryillegal,eventhoughthere
washostilitybetweenimmigrantswhocameherelegallyandillegally.Moreover,the
ConservativeAmericanLegionisquotedassayingManyseriousproblemsconfrontthis
nation[]problemscausedbyalienswhoareundesirableforvariousreasonsandwhoarehereon
accountofvarioustechnicalflawsinourlawsrelativetodeportations(Ackerman,6).This

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conclusionthatundocumentedimmigrantswerethesourceoftroublecontinuedtoshiftthe
discourseandultimatelycreatestereotypesthatarestillbroughtupinthepresentday.Tofinda
presentdayexampleweneednotlookfurtherthanthepresidentialrace.DonaldTrumphas
broughttolighthowmanyAmericansfeelaboutimmigration,butmostimportantly,illegal
immigration.Trumpfeedsofthenegativecaricaturesandstereotypesthatplagueundocumented
immigrants.Thepopularityofhisrhetoricshowsthattheyarestillbeingviewedandperceivedin
anegativeway(Lopez).
Furthermore,in1965,theImmigrationAct,theclosingoftheBraceroProgram,andthe
inconsiderationforthehighratesofpotentialmigrantsledtoanincreaseinillegalimmigration.
Agoodanalogywouldbethefollowing:ifmigrantswererepresentedaswater,andeach
program/policythatallowedthemtocomeintothecountrylegallywererepresentedasanopen
pathforthewatertorunthrough,andstricterimmigrationpoliciesweresimilartoabadlybuilt
dam,thenitwouldpossibletopredictthatsomeofthewaterwouldstillpassthrough.Thisisnot
tosaythatthedamisntworking,becausenomatterhowbadlybuiltitwouldstillstopsome
water,butthedamdeniestheforcethatthewateriscominginandthuswillalwaysletsome
waterpassthrough.Furthermore,afterthe1965ImmigrationActwaspassedandtheBracero
programwasclosed,itresembledabaddam,asmanyimmigrantswereusedtocomingintothe
countryandworking.Withthesetwoprogramsinplace,theaccessforlegalmigration
decreased,butmanypeoplewerestillmigratingtotheU.S..Forundocumentedimmigrants,
comingtotheU.S.wastheonlywaytobuiltabetterfuture.Theneedtocomeheretrumpsthe
dangersconsequencesofcomingillegally.Thisisnottosaythatthepersonwhoenteredthis
countryunlawfullyisillegal,butratherthattherearelegalandillegalformsofentryintothe

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U.S.andtheironlyoptiontocomeherewasthroughthenonlegalmethod.Asexplained,attimes
theimmigrationpolicieshavefavoredacceptinglargegroupsofimmigrantsfromonecountry
forlabor,butrefusetoacknowledgetherepercussionsofthatrelationship.Furthermore,the
processofnaturalizationtakesmoretimeforpeoplewhocomefromcountrieswithahigh
numberofemigrantsitisimportanttonotethatmanyundocumentedimmigrantscomefrom
poorcountriesorarefleeingunsafeconditionintheircountries.Theprocessofnaturalizationis
expensiveandlengthy,andforfamiliesthatdon'thavethetimeormoneytowaitoutthe
naturalizingprocess,itisntevenanoption("HowtheUnitedStatesImmigrationSystemWorks:
AFactSheet.").
Employerswerewarnednottohireundocumentedimmigrants,whichwasanimportant
byproduct[that]emergedout[of[thismassiveeffortagainsthiringpractices[ofundocumented
immigrants]andinfavouroflegalworkersmoregenerally[,solidifying]theideathat
illegalitywasacentralproblem(Ackerman16).CezarChavezandtheUnitedFarmWorkers,
agreedwiththisidea,mostlytohelpkeepthefocusongettingrightsfordocumentedimmigrants
(Ackerman).Hence,theincreaseinbrownmigrationmadeiteasiertomakethemthefaceof
illegalimmigration.Latinoscontinuetobeseenasthefaceofimmigration,whichcouldbe
becausein2013,46percentofimmigrants(19millionpeople)reportedhavingHispanicor
Latinoorigins(Zong).Thisdirectlytranslatesintothepeopleindetentioncentersasa
significantamountofdetaineesarefromLatinAmerica.Fordecades,undocumentedimmigrants
havebeenseenasaproblem,ofhurtingtheeconomyandjustcostingthecountrymoney.
However,thereasontheU.S.haspaid$2billion(Lee),toprivateprisoncompaniesthatrun98%
ofdetentioncenters,isattributedtothebedmandatequotathatkeeps34,000peopledetainedon

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anygivenday.Themoneythatgoestotheseprivateprisoncompanies,asmanypeoplewould
guess,isnotgoingtoimprovetheconditionsofthosedetained.Instead,UnitarianUniversalist
ServiceCommittee,whichincludedmentalandbehavioralexperts,foundwheninterviewing26
peopleafterbeingdetainedthatdetentioncenterscausedPTSD,PostTraumaticStressDisorder,
anxiety,anddepressiononnearlyhalfofthoseinterview.Thislackofcareforthepeople
detainedisalsoseennowwiththewaymanyfamiliesindetentioncentersarenotgivenadequate
contactwiththeirfamiliesandlegaladvice(Elhaddad).Detentioncentersaredefinedas:an
institution

where

people

are

detained

whensuspected

of

crime,

awaiting

trial

or
sentencing,found

to

be

an

illegal

immigrant

or

youthful

offender,

orfor

political

reasons
(Dictionary.com).Forthispaper,detentioncentersaresimplyinstitutionsinwhich
undocumentedimmigrantsareplacedastheyawaittheirtrial.
ThecombinationoftheclosingoftheBraceroProgram,fewopportunitiesforlegalentry
intothecountry,andtherejectionfromgroupsintheUnitedStates,isolatedundocumented
brownimmigrants,makingiteasyforthemtobecomethefaceofillegalimmigration.Before
1960however,KevinR.Johnson,LawprofessorattheUniversityofCalifornia,explainedthat
thelawbarredmostnonwhiteimmigrantsfromnaturalizingtobecomecitizens,herebyforever
relegatingnoncitizensofcolortoalienstatusandeffectivelydefiningthemaspermanent
outsidersinU.S.society(266267).Bynotallowingundocumentedimmigrantstherightto
becomecitizens,theundocumentedimmigrantsareeffectivelycastedoutofsociety.This
dehumanizingeffectisextendedwhenthetermsalienorillegalimmigrantareused,which
toooftenrefertopeopleofcolor,butmostspecificallypeoplefromCentralandSouthAmerica,
[isusedto]serveasadevicethatintellectuallylegitimizesthemistreatmentofnoncitizensand

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helpstomaskhumansuffering(Johnson273).Johnsonarguesthatbycreatingtheperception
thattheillegalimmigrantoralienisdifferentfromus,itseasiertojustifythattheAliens
haveneitherdignitynorrights.Bydistinguishingbetweenaliensandpersons,societyisableto
reconcilethedisparatelegalandsocialtreatmentafforded[by]thetwogroups.Tofurther
rationalizethedifferentialmistreatment,aliensmaybe"racialized,"eveniftheyare,atleastby
appearance,"white"(273).Thelabelingandotheringofundocumentedimmigrantshasbeenthe
normformanydecadesofAmericashistory.
WhenAmericansocietystartedtoregardimmigrantsofcolorasproblemcausers,job
thieves,andillegal/alien,immigrantswerestrippedoftheirhumanityandthecruelpolicies
againstthemweremoreeasilyjustified.Outofthisculturedetentioncenters,whicharguably
haveworseconditionsthanprisons,wereborn.Undocumentedimmigrantsareforcedtostayin
thesedetentioncenterswherethereisalackofmedicalcareandgeneralnegligenceofthe
undocumentedimmigrantssituation(whetheritbeeconomic,languageoremotional).
Furthermore,thewomeninthesedetentioncentershavetodealwithgenderbasedoppressionin
whichmanyareforcedtorelivetheirsexual,emotional,andphysicalabusewhenexplaining
theirsituations.Itisalsotruethatmanypregnantorcurrentmotherssufferfromalackofaccess
toadequatehealthcarewhiledetained(Elhaddid,Rabin).Thelabelingofillegal/alienisone
wayAmericajustifiestheviolenceandmistreatmentthatisaimedatundocumentedimmigrant
womenindetentioncenters.

PresentDayDetentionCenters
Women,frommostlypooranddevelopingcountries,arethefastestgrowingpopulation
indetentioncenters.Thesewomenareplacedindetentioncentersonlytowaittoheariftheyare

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goingtobedeportedorwillbegrantedresidency.Mostofthedetaineesarefleeingfromsome
typeofviolence(HumanRightsWatch,Rabin).Ininterviewswithseveralwomen,Human
RightsWatchfoundthatmany[womeninterviewed]reportedsomeformofsexualor
genderbasedviolenceinoneormorestagesofthemigratoryprocess.Forsome,violence
createdtheimpetusforleavingtheircountryoforigin(57).Mostwomenindetentioncenters
immigratedtoAmericalookingforasylum.Thecostandtimeofapplyingforcitizenshipstatus
havingbeenabarrier.
Moreover,whenanundocumentedimmigrantiscaught,itisuptotheImmigrationand
CustomsEnforcement(ICE)todecidewhetherthenoncitizenincustodyshouldbedetained,
released,orplacedintothealternativetodetentionprogram(Elhaddad,p44).ICEhasagoalto
deportorremove400,000undocumentedindividualseachyear,in2014asof2014,
however,only27%or86,923individualsremovedwerepreviouslyconvictedofacrime(FY
2015ICEImmigrationRemovals).Importantly,ICEsfundingisdependantonmeetingits
annualextractionquotaanditsdailyquotaforindividualsindetentioncenters,whichmeansit
maynotcaremuchabouttheindividualsinvolvedbutmeetingquotas.
Inthepresentday,ithasbecomemorecommonforundocumentedimmigrantstobe
placedindetentioncenters.Infact,inthe1890sitwasunheardofdetainingundocumented
immigrants,butnowtheaveragedailypopulationofdetainedimmigrantshasgrownfrom
approximately5,000in1994,to19,000in2001,andtoover33,000bytheendof2010(History
ofImmigration).Thisgrowingtrendhashelpedtotransformthispartofthepenalsystemintoa
business.Privateprisonshavebeenprofitingoffthissystemsincetheearly1980s,whenthe
ImmigrationandNaturalizationService[INS]signedacontractallowingtheprivatizationof

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detentioncenters(Gavett).Ithasbeenreported,bytheNationalImmigrationJusticecenterthat
thefederalgovernmentpaysprivatedetentioncentersbetween$80and$120perdetaineeper
day,thoughcostsareinthe$30range(Gavett).Privateprisonshavebeenprofitingfrom
detainedimmigrantsandasylumseekers.Therangeofcostis$30,$50extraforeveryindividual
foreverydaytheyaredetained.Intheory,thiswouldmeanthattheconditionswouldbegood,
sincethereissomuchprofit,privateprisonswouldallocatesomeofthatmoneytowards
healthcareandaccesstolegalcounsel,butinrealitydetentioncentersareworsethanprisons
(
Moulton).
Sanitarynapkins,forwomen,arerationedandhealthcareisscarce,evenwhenthe
U.S.isoverpayingforeachpersondetained(Lee).Notonlyareprivateprisonstakingadvantage
oftheinfluxofimmigrants,theyareusingthemoneyinwaysthatdonotimprovethedetention
centers.
Thiswouldn'tbemuchofaproblemifthedetentioncenterswerehumane,andICEwas
decidingthefatesoftheseindividualsthroughcarefulandthoroughconsiderationofitsplans
unfortunately,theCongresshasmandatedaquotaforthesedetentioncenters,requiringthemto
have34,000noncitizensintheirdetentioncentersatalltimes.Withthisruleinplace,ICEis
forcedtokeepthenoncitizensinjaillikedetentioncenters,wheretheyaretreatedascriminal
prisoners(Elhaddad,p4748).Whileprivateprisoncompaniesprofitoffthedetainees,alackof
properhealthcareandattorneyaccessmakescertainthatthepeopledetainedinthedetention
centersgetdeportedandcontinuethecycle.
Detentioncentersoftenholdwholefamilieswhofledfromdirecircumstancesintheir
countries,includingwomenwiththeirsmallchildren..Manyofthesepeoplehavenot
committedanycrimesotherthanenteringthecountryillegally.Notonlyaretheconditionsthat

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theyareheldinunjustbutalsounconstitutional:TheUnitedStatesConstitutionguarantees
equalprotectionofthelawanddueprocessrightsfornoncitizens(Elhaddad,p52).Thismeans
thatthesepeople,whoareheldinthedetentioncenters,havealltherightsAmericansdo,simply
becausetheyareinAmerica.However,thisinstitutionalviolence,whichhasbeenfeltbythese
undocumentedimmigrants,cannotbelessenedbecauseofthesocietaldehumanizationof
illegal/alienimmigrants.However,thespecificneedsofwomenareoftenoverlooked,as
femalespecificmedicalcareisnotgiven.Theimmigrationpoliciesareingrainedwithnocare
forundocumentedimmigrantsandespeciallyundocumentedimmigrantwomen,resultingin
criminalizationanddehumanizationtothepointwhereICEisnotrequiredtoprovidethemwith
adequatehealthcare,legalaccessorevencreateasafespaceforthesehumans(Elhaddad,
Moulton).
Mostdetentioncentersarelocatedinborderstates,likeArizonaandTexas,becauseits
easiertotransportundocumentedimmigrantsaftertheyhavebeencaughtcrossingtheborder
illegally.

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Figure2:DetentionFacilityLocator.N.d.U.S.ImmigrationandCustomsEnforcement,n.p.

Accesstolawyers
Itisimperativetounderstandthatmostofthepeopledetainedindetentioncentersdonot
comefromprivilegedlives.Manyarepoor,uneducated,andindangerforexample,most
womenindetentioncentershavefledfromhorriblecircumstancesintheirhomecountry,from
whichtheyfelttheywereinseriousdanger(HumanRightsWatch,Rabin).Ifthewomenare
luckyenoughtohavefamilyinAmerica,theresahighchancetheyrenotwelloff,leavingthese
womenespeciallyvulnerable.Notably,applyingforafamilybasedcitizenshiprequiresfamilies
tobeeconomicallystabletohelpafamilymembergaincitizenstatus.Unfortunately,many
women,oranyonedetained,donotevengettothispoint.Notbeingabletounderstandorspeak
English,theydonotknowwhatrightstheyhaveandcantfullycommunicatewiththestaff
becausemanyworkersinthesedetentioncentersdonotmakeanefforttolearntheimmigrant's
nativelanguage(HumanRightsWatch).
Furthermore,legalrepresentationisonlyoneproblemwomenindetentioncentershave
toface.Thesewomenarefarfromtheirfamiliesandvulnerable,unabletocommunicateas
phonecallsareexpensiveandtheyarentabletocalltheirfamiliesformoney.Theinabilityto
haveaccesstophonecallsandotherbasicmeansofcommunicationhinderstheirabilitytofind
effectivecounseltotakeontheircases,especiallywhenlawyersmustnavigatedifferentstate
lawsandpossiblyargueincourtsindifferentjurisdictions(Elhaddad,p48).Inshort,sincemany
undocumentedimmigrantsindetentioncenterscomefrompoorcountriesandfamilies,they

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oftendonothaveenoughmoneytopayforlegalrepresentationandcommunicationwiththeir
familiesfurtherlimitstheiraccesstolawyers.
Evenwhenthesewomenarefortunateenoughtohaveaccesstoalawyer,thesedetention
centersmakeithardforlawyerstomeetwiththeirclients.Formanycases,accesstoalawyer
maymeanthedifferencebetweenbeingdeportedbacktotheircountry,orbeingabletostaywith
theirfamilies.Gettingthroughtheprocess,however,cantakemonthstoyears.Furthermore,ICE
doesnotrequirethatdetaineeshaveaccesstofreelawyers,whichresultsin58%of
undocumentedimmigrantsrepresentingthemselvesincourt(Crabapple).Consequently,the
majorityenduplosingtheircases.(Crabapple,Gavett).Eventhoughtheoptionoflegalcouncil
isarightguaranteedtoeveryonelivinginAmerica,thehistoricaldehumanizationofimmigrants
restrictsthisrightformany.Furthermore,whenwelookatthisproblemfromafeministlense,
weseehowharmfulitisforwomenimmigrants.Mostofthetime,thesewomenarefleeingfrom
abusivehomesandcountries(Elhaddad).Notonlyaretheyfacingviolence,whetheritbesexual,
mentalorphysical,whentheymakethetracktotheU.S.,butalsowhentheydoarriveandare
senttodetentioncenters.

Healthcareaccessindetentioncentersforwomen
Oneofthebiggestconcernsforthewomenheldindetentioncentersishealthcareaccess.
Healthcareisnotonlyhardtofind,butgenderspecifichealthcarecanbetrulynonexistentin
detentioncenters(Rabin,Ortega,Elhaddad).Servicesthatarespecifictowomenarenotoffered,
eventhoughTheStandardMinimumRulesfortheTreatmentofPrisonersstatethatwomens
institutionsshouldmakearrangementsforthetreatmentofpregnantandpostnatalprisoners

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(National,p4).Whatthisdoesiscreateanunsafeenvironment,fornotonlythewomen,buttheir
childrenaswell.Indetentioncenters,womenmakeupover10%ofthepopulation,makingit
outrageousthattheirneedsarenoteventakenintoconsideration.Ofcourse,sincetheyaresucha
smallportionofthedetainedpopulationitiseasierfortheirneedstobeoverlookedfromhealth
careservicestotheirmentalhealthservices.Furthermore,NinaRabin,inherResearchpaper:
UnseenPrisoners
,concludesthatImmigrationdetentionisthefastestgrowingformof
incarcerationintheUnitedStates(p1),whichmeansthathealthcareaccessneedtobecomeatop
priorityforthesedetentioncenters.
TheimmigrantwomenwhodocomeintotheUnitedStates,historicallycometoseek
asylum(National,p5).Thesewomenhaveexperiencedhorrificcircumstancesfromtheirfamily
members,spouses,andevenauthorities.ManycomeinneedingtreatmentforPostTramatic
StressDisorder,depressionandanxiety.Onewoman,survivedsexualabusebyherfatherand
wassoterrifiedtoreturntohercountrythatsheendureddetentionintheUnitedStates
(National,p6).Theyneedpropermentalhealthcareandgenderspecifichealthcare.
AmberD.Moulton,leaderofUUSCsemergentresearchprogram,whichfocuseson
criticalhumanitarianissues,afterconductingastudyontheeffectofdetention,recommended
thatdetentioncentersbeclosed,astheyworsenedorincreasedawoman'slikelihoodtodevelop
mentaldisorders.Fromthe26individualssheinterviewedwhohadbeendetainedmorethanhalf
showedsignsofdepressionandanxietyandalmosthalfshowedsignsofPostTraumaticStress
Disorder.Although26individualsisnotanaccuraterepresentationofalldetainees,thisstudy
paintsagoodpictureoftheeffectsoftheinadequatedetentionofthesewomen.Ofcourse,many
wouldarguethatifthesedetentioncentersaretoocostly,violatehumanrights,andarent

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deterringpeoplefromimmigratingillegallytotheUS,thentheyshouldbeshutdown.This
makessense,butitisalongtermsolutionforfixingtheproblemdetentioncenterscause,
however,ashorttermsolutionwouldbetoprovideimprovetheconditionsofdetentioncenter.
Currently,thementalhealthprogramsindetentioncentersarefarfromadequate,asAlan
Shapiro,seniormedicaldirectorforCommunityPediatricProgramsattheMontefioreMedical
CenterfoundthatthementalhealthprogramattheBerksfacilitydidnotuseanyformal,
evidencebasedvalidatedtoolsforscreeningormonitoringthechildrenormothers.(Moulton
6).Mentalhealthcarewouldhelptoalleviatethetraumatheyfacedintheirhomecountriesand
whattheyfacedwhilebeingdetained.Animportantpointthatisoftenmissedisthesewomenare
notcriminalsforwantingbetterlivesforthemselvesandtheirchildren,andtheydontdeserve
theinhumanetreatmenttheyreceive.

Counterargument
Whilethispaperhasfocusedontheexperiencesofwomenindetentioncenters,itshould
benotedthatsuchcentersaremadeupprimarilyofmen,withapproximately10%womenin
detentioncentersatalltimes.Furthermore,thisnumbermightgetlower,asmanywomenwith
childrenordependablefamiliesarebeingletoffwithananklebracelet,ratherthanbeing
detainedinadetentioncenter.However,theethicsofforcingimmigrantwomentowearankle
bracelets,whiletheywaittobedeported,isabetteralternative.Inthesescenarioswomenare
abletostaywiththeirchildren.
Itisalsotruethathavingbetterhealthcareforwomen,especiallythosewhoseekasylum,
wouldntsolvesomeofthedifferentobstaclesintheirwaytocitizenship,whichiswhattheyall

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seek.Itisacommonfact,thatmanyofthosewhoaredeportedsouthoftheborder,arestilllikely
totrytomigrateintotheU.S.again.Bydeportingwomen,ICEiscreatingacyclewheretheyre
reprimandedforfleeinganunsafecountryorwantingbetteropportunities.ICEsdeportation
goalisahugepartofdetentioncenters.Asof2015,ICEhasperformed235,413removal,much
lessthantheir400,000+goal(FY2015ICEImmigrationRemovals).Formostofthesewomen,
healthcareisnttheirtopprioritywhentheyreabouttobedeported.ICEhasasimilarmindset,
astheirgoalistoremoveindividualsorderedremovedfromthecountry,only[addressing]
theirhealthcareissuestomakesuretheyaremedicallyabletotravelandmedicallyableto
returntotheircountry(HumanRightsWatch,4)
Furthermore,thehistoryofimmigrationhasproventhatpoliciesandlawsseemtofollow
thetrendofthecultureatthepresenttime.Withrecenteventscreatinganevenmorehostile
environmentforimmigrants,especiallymuslimrefugees,thepossibilityforchangingor
improvingtheimmigrationpoliciesorevendetentioncenters,seemslesslikely.From
presidentialcandidateDonaldTrumpspopularislamophobicrhetorictohisracistviewson
Mexicans,wecanseefromhishugeandpassionategroupofsupportersthattherearesome
Americansthatarenotterriblywelcomingofimmigrants(Lopez).Similarly,withthenew
governmentbudgetinplantocutdownspendingintheHouseCommitteeandSenate,startingin
2016,advocatingformoremoneyforwomenshealthcareindetentioncenterswillnotbethe
priority(Shapiro).
Lastly,thelackofwomenshealthcareindetentioncentersisjustthestartofthe
problem.Thebudgetcutsandunsympatheticviewonimmigrantsmeansthat,althoughthisis
somethingthatshouldntevenbehappening,thisproblemwillbeoverlooked.Someprocedures

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havehelped,withlesswomenbeingdetainedandgivenananklebracelet,allowingthemtostay
withtheirfamiliesICEhasbeenfocusingondeportingconvictedcriminalsinsteadofa
noncriminalimmigrationviolatororundocumentedimmigrant.Althoughthesearentthe
idealactionsthatshouldbetakentoimproveourimmigrationpolicies,itisastart.

Response
Whileitisthecasethatwomenonlymakeup10%ofthepeopleindetentioncenterson
anygivenday,thismeansthatoutofthe34,000individuals3,400arewomen.Nomatterthe
number,thespecificproblemswomenface,suchasgenderspecifichealthcare,areimportantas
theywillaffectthousandsmorewomenwhowillbedetainedinthefuture.Moreover,ankle
braceletsintheirownrightbringupethicalissues,whichdoesntclassifythemasasolutionto
theproblemwomenfaceindetentioncenters.Onestudyfound,Anklemonitoringshackles
exacerbatefeelingsofhumiliationandanxiety(Moulton8).Anklebraceletstreatthesewomen
ashardcriminalswhoaretryingtoescape,whentheyareasylumseekerscomingtothiscountry
astheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugeesstatesthatenteringacountrytoseek
asylumisnotacriminalactandthatpenaltiessuchasdetentionshouldnotbeimposedbyU.N.
membernations(Moulton2).Inreality.thisisanotheroneofthehumanrightviolationsthat
occursindetentioncenters,theyarearunbyprivateprisoncompaniesandoperatelikeprisons.
AsmentionedpreviouslyinCurrentImmigrationPolicies,thereisnolimitonhowmany
asylumseekersandrefugeestheU.S.canacceptayear,yetonlyasmallnumber,70,000
individuals,aregrantedasylumstatus.Furthermore,anklebraceletsdonotguaranteethatwomen
arenotdetainedevenforshortperiodsoftime.Accordingtoastudyontheeffectsofdetention

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onwomenandchildrenbytheUnitarianUniversalistServiceCommittee,morethanhalfofthe
26participantsshowedsignsofdepressionandanxiety,anditisverylikelythatthesenumbers
holdforotherdetainees(Moulton).
Furthermore,havingimmigrationpoliciesthataremoresympatheticofasylumseekers
wouldsolvemanyproblems,butitisalongtermcommitment.Ithastakendecadesfor
Americasimmigrationpoliciestostripawaysomeofthexenophobicandracistlaws,anditwill
takelongerforittobecomemoreinclusive.ThisisnottobepessimisticastheU.S.couldgrant
citizenshipstatustothousandsmoreasylumseekers,butitsimplydoesnot(
HowtheUnited
StatesImmigrationSystemWorks:AFactSheet
).Moreover,ICEwillcontinuetodeport
individualswhodonothaveacriminalrecordorevenforminormisdemeanours.Inmid
January,ICEroundupsincreasedtalkaboutimmigrationpoliciesShawnNeudaur,anICE
spokesmanstated,Mr.Macario[anundocumentedimmigrantwhowaschargedwitha1995
misdemeanordrunkendrivingconviction]isapriorityasdefinedbytheexecutiveactionissued
onNov.20,2014,inthatheisanalienconvictedofasignificantmisdemeanor,(Sacchetti).
Inevitably,undocumentedimmigrantswillbedeportedforminorcrimes.Deportationofthese
individualswillnotchangetheproblemsthatwomenfaceindetentioncenters.
ICEshealthcareserviceswouldimprovegreatlyifithadmorefunding,andanemphasis
ontreatingandprotectingthedetainees.Thiscouldbedonebydeprivatizingdetentioncenters
andhavingthemmeetfederalstandardsthatallotherprisonshavetomeet.Deprivatizing
prisonscouldsavemoney,sinceitwouldbegovtrun,therewouldbeagreateremphasison
adequatelivingstandardsandproperhealthcare.Prisonsshouldnotbeabusiness,theyshouldbe
servicesthathelprehabilitatethosewhoitdetains.

Alicea24

Conclusion
Detainingsomanyindividualsindetentioncentersisnotfeasible.Thebedmandate
quoteshouldbeliftedasitonlyincreasesthenumberoffamiliesbrokenupbyimmigration
policies.Additionally,thesequotasoperatetocontinuouslyputwomeninsituationswhere
theyreforcedtoabandontheirchildrenandfacefurthermentalandphysicaltrauma.At
detentioncenters,womenaredeniedbasicgenderspecifichealthcare,suchasmammograms
andpreandpostnatalcare.Thecontinualhealthcareviolationsindetentionscouldbereduced
inmultipleways,includingthroughtheabolishment,thebedmandatequota,theprovisionof
genderspecificprotections,andtheremovalofapolicythatdetainsinnocentwomenand
families.Thesepolicychangesarejustthebeginningofsolvingthelackofhealthcarecoverage,
andthereshouldbemorepoliciesinplacetoprotectdetaineesindetentioncenters.
Thereisnoquestionastowhetherthisisaproblemornottherearerealpeoplewhoare
sufferingandbringingattentiontothis,anddemandingCongresstoamenditspoliciesregarding
womenindetentioncentersiscrucial.Thisisnottosaythatmenshealthcareisnotimportantor
lacking,butthatwomenshouldreceivetheadequatehealthcarethattheyneed.Giventhat
womenaresuchasmallpercentageindetentioncenters,theirspecificneedsareoften
overlooked.Thisbeingsaid,itwouldbemoreaffordabletoprovidethemwithadequatehealth
carethantocontinuewiththecurrentsystem.Aspreviouslystated,theU.S.overpaysprivate
prisoncompaniesforeachdetaineeandtheirtimespentindetentioncenterstheannualbill
totalingabout$2billion(Lee,Gavett).However,theconditionsinthesedetentioncentershave
beenproventoviolatehumanrights(Moulton,Elhaddad).HumanRightsWatchurgesICEto
setupapolicyinplacetoreprimandphysicianswhoviolatetheirpatientsrightsortrust.They

Alicea25

suggestthatdetentioncentersberequiredtoincorporateintotheICEmedicalstandardthe
AmericanPublicHealthAssociationsstandardsonwomenshealthcareincorrectional
institutionsandtherecommendationsoftheNationalCommissiononCorrectionalHealthCares
policystatementonwomenshealthcare(5).Therearewaystostopthisfromcontinuing.
Theinhumanewaysinwhichthesewomenaretreatedareunacceptable.TheU.S.,which
isseenasaleaderinthejusttreatmentofitspeople,cannotcontinuetocausetraumatothese
womenandviolatehumanrights.Detentioncentersarenotworking,theyrecostingthe
U.S.billions,andareonlycausingmoreharmandsufferingtoundocumentedimmigrantsaswell
ascitizens.Improvingthegenderspecificmental,emotionalandphysical,andoverallhealth
careindetentioncentersisashorttermsolutionasmanyorganizations,fromHumanRights
WatchtoUnitarianUniversalistServiceCommittee,havepointedout,detentionsystemsarenot
workingandshouldbechangedtoasysteminwhichdetentioncenterstakeintoaccountthe
peopledetained.Understandingtheeffectsthatthebiasedimmigrationlawshavehadonpeople
ofcolor,andespeciallywomen,givesaclearerpictureontodaysfaceofimmigration.

Alicea26

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