Journal of the Transportation Research Board

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH RECORD

NO.

1714

Recycled and
Secondary Materials,
Soil Remediation, and
In Situ Testing
Soils, Geology, and Foundations
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CONTENTS
Foreword

Slope Stabilization with Recycled Plastic Pins

J. Erik Loehr, John J. Bowders, Jacob W. Owen, Lee Sommers, and Willie Liew

Behavior of a Sandy Silt Reinforced with Discontinuous Recycled Fiber Inclusions

J. J. Murray, J. D. Frost, and Y. Wang

Water-Quality Effects of Tire Shreds Placed Above the Water Table: Five-Year Field Study
Dana N. Humphrey and Lynn E. Katz

Field and Laboratory Evaluation of Cement Kiln Dust as a Soil Stabilizer

Gerald A. Miller and Musharraf Zaman

Utilization of Construction and Demolition Debris Under Traffic-Type Loading in Base and
Subbase Applications
Thomas Bennert, Walter J. Papp, Jr., Ali Maher, and Nenad Gucunski

Evaluation of Excess Foundry System Sands for Use as Subbase Material

Jay R. Kleven, Tuncer B. Edil, and Craig H. Benson

Engineering Properties of LoessFly Ash Mixtures for Roadbase Construction

Nayyar Zia and Patrick J. Fox

Critical Review of Coupled Flow Theories for Clay Barriers

Harold W. Olsen, Shengxiang Gui, and Ning Lu

Remediation and Transformation of Kaolin by Plasma Magmavication

Josepha D. Celes and Paul W. Mayne

In Situ Investigation of Liquefiable Gravels

Joseph P. Koester, Chris Daniel, and Michael L. Anderson

Characterizing Granular Material Coarseness and Micromechanical

Properties with a Small-Diameter Penetrometer
Jerome B. Johnson

Friction Correction Equation for the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in Subsoil Strength Testing
Moshe Livneh

Influence of Soil Suction and Environmental Factors on Drying Characteristics of Granular

Subgrade Soils
W. Virgil Ping, Ching-Chin Ling, and Robert K. H. Ho

Transportation Research Record 1714

ISSN 0361-1981
ISBN 0-309-06693-X
Subscriber Category
IIIA soils, geology, and foundations
Printed in the United States of America
Sponsorship of Transportation Research Record 1714
GROUP 2DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES
Raymond K. Moore, University of Nebraska at Lincoln (Chairman)
Soil Mechanics Section
Verne C. McGuffey, Schenectady, New York (Chairman)
Committee on Transportation Earthworks
Kevin G. Sutterer, Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology (Chairman), Michael T. Adams, Arnold Aronowitz, Ronald L.
Baus, Jon Bischoff, Thomas L. Cooling, Eugene C. Geiger, Dana N. Humphrey, William M. Isenhower, Laura Krusinski,
Zenon G. Kyfor, Victor A. Modeer, Jr., F. Barry Newman, Sastry Putcha, Subal K. Sarkar, Thomas E. Scruggs,
Mohammad R. Shakiba, John L. Walkinshaw, Kenneth D. Walsh, William E. Wolfe
Geology and Properties of Earth Materials Section
Mehmet T. Tumay, Louisiana State University (Chairman)

Committee on Soil and Rock Properties

Sibel Pamukcu, Lehigh University (Chairman), Roy H. Borden, Dario Cardoso de Lima, Umakant Dash, Andrew R. Dawson,
Don J. DeGroot, Charles H. Dowding, Eric C. Drumm, Tuncer B. Edil, David J. Elton, Kenneth L. Fishman, Robert D. Holtz,
An-Bin Huang, Hilary I. Inyang, Joseph P. Koester, Laura Krusinski, Pradeep U. Kurup, Paul W. Mayne, Kenneth L.
McManis, Victor A. Modeer, Jr., Peter G. Nicholson, Samuel G. Paikowsky, Nader S. Rad, Kaare Senneset, Sunil Sharma,
Thomas C. Sheahan, Hadi H. Shirazi, Ramzi A. Taha, Musharraf Zaman
Committee on Physicochemical Phenomena in Soils
Mohammed A. Gabr, North Carolina State University (Chairman), Akram N. Alshawabkeh, David A. Bates, Gokhan Baykal,
Craig H. Benson, Barry C. Berkovitz, Roy H. Borden, John J. Bowders, Jr., Dave Ta-Teh Chang, Steven A. Grant, Karen S.
Henry, Brian Kamnikar, Richard P. Long, Horace Moo-Young, Tommy E. Myers, Harold W. Olsen, David W. Ostendorf,
Krishna R. Reddy, John J. Sansalone, Charles D. Shackelford, Mohammad R. Shakiba, Gregory A. Smith, Ramzi A. Taha,
Julia E. Turney, Mumtaz A. Usmen, Albert T. Yeung
Transportation Research Board Staff
G.P. Jayaprakash, Engineer of Soils, Geology, and Foundations
Robert Summersgill, Administrative Assistant
Sponsorship is indicated by a footnote at the end of each paper. The organizational units, officers, and members are as of
December 31, 1999.

FOREWORD
The papers contained in this volume were among those presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research
Board in January 2000. Nearly 1,600 papers were submitted by authors; more than 1,000 were presented at the meeting; and
approximately 600 were accepted for publication in the 2000 Transportation Research Record series. The published papers will
also be issued on CD-ROM, which will be available for purchase in late 2000. It should be noted that the preprint CD-ROM distributed at the 2000 meeting contains unedited, draft versions of presented papers, whereas the papers published in the 2000
Records include author revisions made in response to review comments.
Starting with the 1999 volumes, the title of the Record series has included Journal of the Transportation Research Board to
reflect more accurately the nature of this publication series and the peer-review process conducted in the acceptance of papers
for publication. Each paper published in this volume was peer reviewed by the sponsoring committee acknowledged at the end
of the text; members of the sponsoring committees for the papers in this volume are identified on page ii. Additional information about the Transportation Research Record series and the peer-review process can be found on the inside front cover. The
Transportation Research Board appreciates the interest shown by authors in offering their papers and looks forward to future
submissions.

Slope Stabilization with Recycled

Plastic Pins
J. Erik Loehr, John J. Bowders, Jacob W. Owen,
Lee Sommers, and Willie Liew
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Missouri-Columbia, E2509 Engineering Building East,
Columbia, MO 65211-2200.

FULL
TEXT

A scheme to stabilize minor slope instabilities is currently being developed. The scheme uses a
distributed network of pins fabricated from recycled plastics and other waste materials to provide
positive reinforcement of a soil mass. Although the application is similar to stabilization of slopes with
soil nails or micropiles, significant modifications to conventional design and construction are necessary
to account for the reduced strength and increased ductility and creep exhibited by plastic materials
compared with concrete and steel. Using recycled plastics has the advantage of providing reinforcing
members with low susceptibility to degradation and provides a market for materials that otherwise
might be buried in a landfill. An extensive investigation is under way to evaluate the potential for using
recycled plastic pins (RPPs) to stabilize minor slope failures. This evaluation includes quantification of
appropriate material and engineering properties of RPPs, evaluation of RPP resistance to degradation
in various environments, development and evaluation of suitable mechanisms for installing RPPs,
evaluation of RPP resistance to driving stresses, development of a design procedure that accounts for
the reduced structural capacity of RPPs compared with steel or concrete members, and installation and
monitoring of several full-scale field demonstration sites. The ongoing evaluation program that is
described focuses on laboratory tests to determine fundamental engineering and material properties,
field driving trials to evaluate potential driving mechanisms, and preliminary development of a suitable
procedure for designing RPP stabilization schemes.

Behavior of a Sandy Silt Reinforced with

Discontinuous Recycled Fiber Inclusions
J. J. Murray, J. D. Frost, and Y. Wang
J. J. Murray, QORE Property Sciences, Duluth, GA 30097. J. D. Frost, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia
Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332. Y. Wang, School of Textile and Fiber Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, GA 30332.

FULL
TEXT

Laboratory compaction and triaxial compression tests were performed to assess the compaction
characteristics and load deformation response of a sandy silt reinforced with randomly oriented
recycled carpet fibers. Discrete, randomly distributed fiber inclusions significantly increase the peak
shear strength, reduce the postpeak strength loss, increase the axial strain to failure, and, in some cases,
change the stress-strain behavior from strain softening to strain hardening for a sandy silt. Fiber
inclusions also impede the compaction process, causing a reduction in the maximum dry density of
reinforced specimens with increasing fiber content. The strength losses associated with in-service
saturation are significantly reduced with fiber reinforcement. It is suggested that large volumes of
recycled waste fibers can be used as a value-added product to enhance the shear strength and load
deformation response of soils.

Water-Quality Effects of Tire Shreds

Placed Above the Water Table
Five-Year Field Study
Dana N. Humphrey and Lynn E. Katz
D. N. Humphrey, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maine, 5711 Boardman Hall,
Orono, ME 04469-5711. L. E. Katz, Civil Engineering Department, University of Texas at Austin, Room EJC 8.614,
Austin, TX 78712-1076.

FULL
TEXT

A field trial was constructed beneath a secondary state highway in North Yarmouth, Maine, to
investigate the water-quality effects of tire shred fills placed above the groundwater table. Samples were
collected in three 3-m2 geomembrane-lined basins located beneath the shoulder of the road. Two of the
basins are overlaid by 0.61 m of tire shreds with a 75-mm maximum size topped by 0.72 to 1.37 m of
granular soil. The third basin serves as a control and is overlaid by only 0.72 m of granular soil.
Quarterly samples for inorganic constituents were taken from January 1994 through June 1999. In
addition, samples were taken for volatile and semivolatile organic compounds on three dates. Filtered
and unfiltered samples were analyzed for the following substances, which have a primary drinking
water standard: barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, and selenium. There was no evidence that the
presence of tire shreds altered the concentrations of these substances from their naturally occurring
background levels. In addition, there was no evidence that tire shreds increased the levels of aluminum,
zinc, chloride, and sulfate, which have secondary (aesthetic) drinking water standards. In a few
samples, iron levels exceed their secondary standard. Manganese levels consistently exceeded their
secondary standard; however, this is an aesthetic-based standard. Three sets of samples were tested for
organics. Negligible levels of organics were found.

Field and Laboratory Evaluation of

Cement Kiln Dust as a Soil Stabilizer
Gerald A. Miller and Musharraf Zaman
University of Oklahoma School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science, 202 West Boyd Street, Room 334,
Norman, OK 73019.

FULL
TEXT

A field and laboratory study was conducted to evaluate cement kiln dust (CKD) as a soil stabilizer. The
performance of CKD from three different cement manufacturers was compared with that of quicklime.
Fieldwork involved construction of test sections along a rural highway in Oklahoma. Observations were
made to compare construction requirements for CKD and lime. Treated soil samples were collected
from the field to prepare specimens for unconfined compression testing in the laboratory. In situ testing
included dynamic cone penetration testing in the stabilized subbase and falling weight deflectometer
testing after completion of the pavement. Chemical testing was conducted to determine the chemical
makeup of each dust, and soil-CKD mixtures were tested for pH response. Chemical tests on the CKD
and CKD-soil mixtures revealed aspects of the CKD composition that can be correlated with the degree
of stabilization. Regarding strength improvements, results showed that CKD from one cement plant
performed significantly better than lime and CKD from other plants. The laboratory and field test data
showed that, overall, CKD was more effective than quicklime for stabilizing soil. Additional laboratory
tests showed that the influence of CKD and lime on the plasticity index of soils was similar and that both
additives imparted some resistance to freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycles. Observations indicate that
treatment with CKD can be cost-effective and that it requires less construction time than treatment
with quicklime.

Utilization of Construction and Demolition

Debris Under Traffic-Type Loading in
Base and Subbase Applications
Thomas Bennert, Walter J. Papp, Jr., Ali Maher, and Nenad Gucunski
T. Bennert, A. Maher, and N. Gucunski, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University,
623 Bowser Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854-8014. W. J. Papp, Jr., Mueser Rutledge Consulting Engineers,
708 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017-4144.

FULL
TEXT

As construction and remediation take place throughout New Jersey, the amount of construction and
demolition debris increases, while the availability of landfill space decreases. A viable solution for
disposing of these materials is to incorporate them into base and subbase applications. An extensive
laboratory program was conducted on two types of construction and demolition debris: recycled
concrete aggregate (RCA) and recycled asphalt pavement aggregate (RAP). These two materials were
compared with dense-graded aggregate base coarse (DGABC), which currently is being used in roadway
base applications in New Jersey. Both RCA and RAP were mixed at various percentages with the
DGABC to evaluate whether an optimum mix blend could be formulated. The materials were evaluated
under a traffic-type loading scheme that included resilient modulus and permanent deformation via
cyclic triaxial testing. Laboratory tests indicated that the RAP, RCA, and DGABC blended materials all
obtained higher resilient modulus values than the currently used DGABC. The permanent deformation
results indicated that the RCA mixed samples obtained the lowest amount of permanent deformation
when the material was cyclically loaded to 100,000 cycles. In contrast, the permanent deformation
testing on RAP mixed samples resulted in the highest amount of permanent deformation at the same
number of cycles. Existing models currently used for quarried base and subbase materials were used to
predict the permanent deformation in the recycled materials. Laboratory test results indicated that these
models could be used for predicting permanent deformation in unbound recycled materials.

Evaluation of Excess Foundry System

Sands for Use as Subbase Material
Jay R. Kleven, Tuncer B. Edil, and Craig H. Benson
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1415 Engineering Drive,
Madison, WI 53706.

FULL
TEXT

Earthwork associated with highway construction provides an opportunity for high-volume reuse of
excess system sands (ESS) discarded by the foundry industry. California bearing ratio (CBR),
unconfined compressive strength, and resilient modulus tests were conducted on 13 ESS, one base sand,
and two reference materials. Tests were conducted on specimens prepared dry of optimum, wet of
optimum, and at optimum water content with standard and modified Proctor compaction effort. Results
of these tests were used to identify characteristic engineering properties of ESS, appropriate compaction
conditions for ESS when used as subbase, and empirical equations that can be used to predict the
engineering properties of ESS based on index properties. Results of the tests indicate that ESS classify
as SP, SM, or SP-SM (A-2-4 or A-3 in AASHTO) and should be compacted dry or at optimum water
content and, if possible, with higher compactive effort. The CBR of the ESS ranged from 4 to 40 and
averaged 20 when compacted with standard effort at optimum water content. Swell during the soaking
portion of the CBR tests was small for all ESS. ESS compacted at optimum water content with standard
effort had unconfined compressive strengths ranging from 71 to 190 kPa. Resilient moduli of the ESS
were similar to that of a reference subbase material but smaller than a reference base material. A power
function model in terms of bulk stress described resilient moduli of the ESS well.

Engineering Properties of LoessFly Ash

Mixtures for Roadbase Construction
Nayyar Zia and Patrick J. Fox
N. Zia, Indiana Department of Transportation, Materials and Tests Division, 120 South Shortridge Road, Indianapolis,
IN 46219. P. J. Fox, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095.

FULL
TEXT

Southwest Indiana has large deposits of wind-blown loess. Similar deposits are found in other states,
including Illinois, Kentucky, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, and Nebraska. These soils consist of uniform
silt with a plasticity index ranging from 0 to 10. This material is suitable for road construction if it is
compacted dry of optimum. However, the material is difficult to work after it becomes wet, which
commonly results in construction delays. Indiana also has large stockpiles of Class C fly ash from coalburning power plants. The ash has cementitious properties after hydration (because of the high calcium
content) and can be mixed with native soil to produce a weakly cemented soil. Significant interest exists
at the Indiana Department of Transportation about the possibility of using Class C fly ash to improve
the engineering properties of Indiana loess soils. The results of a laboratory testing program on the
properties of loessfly ash mixtures are presented. Various percentages of fly ash were mixed with loess
soil and specimens were permitted to cure for 3 h to 28 days. Pure loess also was tested for comparison.
Changes in Atterberg limits, moisture-density relationships, swell potential, and unconfined
compression strength are presented. Based on this testing program, a simple method was developed to
determine the optimum fly ash content for construction of a workable loess roadbed to avoid delays in
construction due to wet conditions. The data presented will be useful for evaluating the stabilization of
loess soils with Class C fly ash in Indiana and other states with significant loess soil deposits.

Critical Review of Coupled Flow

Theories for Clay Barriers
Harold W. Olsen, Shengxiang Gui, and Ning Lu
H. W. Olsen and N. Lu, Division of Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401.
S. Gui, Department of Computer Science, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82071.

FULL
TEXT

Coupled flow theories and systems, introduced from the 1960s to the 1990s, are critically reviewed
in relation to their applicability for investigating the coupled migrations of groundwater and dissolved
species through clay barriers. Most of these theories and systems are based on irreversible
thermodynamics. Katchalsky and Curran developed theories for noncharged and electrolyte solutes in
discontinuous systems consisting of a membrane separating solutions of a single solute dissolved in water.
Olsen developed an experimental system to investigate the applicability of the force-flux relationships in
Katchalsky and Currans electrolyte theory for soil. Greenberg et al. and Yeung and Mitchell derived
theories for continuous systems with noncharged and electrolyte solutes that are based on most of the
thermodynamic concepts and assumptions in Katchalsky and Currans theories. Alshawabkeh and
Acar developed a theory based on the kinetics of ion diffusion, electrodiffusion, and advection; a
phenomenological relationship for advection in response to hydraulic and electric gradients; and the
mechanisms by which electric charge is transferred between carbon electrodes and solutions. This review
shows that the abilities of these theories to analyze the migration of groundwater and dissolved species
through clay barriers are limited. A more general coupled flow theory is needed that takes into account
multiconstituent pore fluids, ion exchange, and all the coupling mechanisms involved. This model should
be developed from irreversible thermodynamics and should consider the simultaneous fluxes of liquid,
solutes, and electric charge in response to hydraulic, solute concentration, and electric potential
gradients.

Remediation and Transformation of

Kaolin by Plasma Magmavication
Josepha D. Celes and Paul W. Mayne
J. D. Celes, Hart Crowser Inc., 1910 Fairview Avenue East, Seattle, WA 98102-3699. P. W. Mayne, School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0355.

FULL
TEXT

In situ plasma magmavication is a powerful and expedient technique for melting soil that subsequently
cools to form a glassy igneous rock. A nontransferred arc plasma torch provides temperatures exceeding
4000C that can be positioned within boreholes as a means of ground improvement or for environmental
restoration of contaminated soils. The process is similar to in situ vitrification by embedded graphite
electrodes, yet the nontransferred arc is a considerably more efficient process. The artificial rock can be
left in place or, alternatively, may be exhumed and stored. The effectiveness of plasma remediation on
uncontaminated and contaminated kaolin was investigated through a preliminary series of laboratory
chamber tests with small dosages of chemical, biological, and nuclear surrogates. It is believed that the
process pyrolizes organic contaminants, while locking the inorganic contaminants within the glass
matrix. Measurements in compressive strength, stiffness, porosity, and mass density verified the
transformation of soil to rock with improved material characteristics.

In Situ Investigation of Liquefiable Gravels

Joseph P. Koester, Chris Daniel, and Michael L. Anderson
J. P. Koester, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, CEWES-GG-H, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.
C. Daniel, In-Situ Testing Group, Civil Engineering Department, University of British Columbia, 2324 Main Mall,
Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4. M. L. Anderson, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District, CEPOA-EN-ES-SG,
P.O. Box 898, Anchorage, AK 99506-0898.

FULL
TEXT

A series of dynamic in situ penetration tests was performed in deep alluvial gravel deposits at Seward,
Alaska, that were shaken and apparently liquefied by the March 27, 1964, Alaska earthquake. Both a
U.S. standard penetration test split spoon and a larger-diameter drive sampler were used, and dynamic
cone penetrometers of two sizes were also driven into the gravels near the mouth of the Resurrection
River that had exhibited settlement and lateral spreading as a result of earthquake shaking. Two safety
hammers were used [nominally 623 N (140 lb) and 1334 N (300 lb)], and the energy delivered with
various hammer and penetrometer combinations was measured throughout all tests. Limited
measurements of hammer velocity were also made by a radar system developed for that purpose to
allow for kinetic energy determination. Soils recovered in the split spoon samplers were sent to the U.S.
Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station Soils Research Facility in Vicksburg, Mississippi, where
they were evaluated for classification (gradation and index properties). The sampling and testing
procedures used at the Seward site, as well as preliminary analysis of the various penetration test
results, are summarized. Comparisons are made with penetration resistance measurements made by the
Alaska Highway Department immediately after the 1964 earthquake. Results of this investigation will
be adapted to guide future practice for in situ determination of liquefaction resistance in coarse
alluvial soils.

Characterizing Granular Material

Coarseness and Micromechanical
Properties with a Small-Diameter
Penetrometer
Jerome B. Johnson
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, P. O. Box 35170, Ft. Wainwright, AK 99703-0175.

FULL
TEXT

A micromechanical theory and data from a penetrometer with a small base area were used to
characterize the average microstructural and micromechanical properties of snow, a granular material
composed of ice. The micromechanical theory also was used to describe penetration in soil and
successfully explains the dependence of penetration resistance for granular materials on penetrometer
base area. Material coarseness (microstructural element dimension), elastic modulus, and compressive
strength were determined by interpreting penetration resistance measurements by the micromechanical
theory. Predictions of the macroscale (continuum) mechanical properties for the snow were made by the
micromechanical measurements and theory. The average microstructural dimensions for snow were
3.6 mm (coarse grained) and 1.45 mm (fine grained). Micromechanical strength and modulus of
elasticity of snow depend on internal structure and bonding at grain boundaries; grain size by itself
was not a good indicator of the mechanical properties for snow. The accuracy of determining
micromechanical and microstructural properties for individual microstructural elements decreases as
the ratio of the penetrometer base area to the microstructural element cross-sectional area increases.
Average micro- and macroscale structural and mechanical properties of a granular material can be
determined by interpreting penetration resistance data with a micromechanical penetration theory. The
resolution of measurement of material properties increases as the size of the penetrometer tip decreases.

Friction Correction Equation for the

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer in
Subsoil Strength Testing
Moshe Livneh
TechnionIsrael Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel.

FULL
TEXT

Extensive experience gained with the dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) in Israel has led to some
modifications in both the testing apparatus and the testing procedure. One such modification is
introduction of a theoretical corrective equation when the penetration is not performed vertically in
order to isolate the skin friction that develops along the penetrating rod, which significantly affects DCP
values. For this purpose, the torque moment is measured at various penetration depths by the same
technique applied for the well-known Vane test. This corrective equation is then modified in light of the
results obtained for validating in situ DCP tests.

Influence of Soil Suction and Environmental

Factors on Drying Characteristics of
Granular Subgrade Soils
W. Virgil Ping, Ching-Chin Ling, and Robert K. H. Ho
W. V. Ping and C.-C. Ling, Department of Civil Engineering, Florida A&M UniversityFlorida State University College of
Engineering, Tallahassee, FL 32310-6046. R. K. H. Ho, State Materials Office, Florida Department of Transportation,
Gainesville, FL 32609.

FULL
TEXT

According to contractors in Florida, construction problems have emerged because pavement soils hold
excessive water and are difficult to dry and compact. Recent research on the effects of soil suction and
environmental conditions on drying rate characteristics of six types of troublesome granular soils is
presented. Two types of tests were conducted for the study: soil suction tests using the thermocouple
psychrometer method and drying rate tests using an environmental chamber. The experimental results
showed that both the soil suction and relative humidity had direct effects on the soil-drying rate. The
drying rate decreased with an increase in soil suction for each soil type and also decreased with an
increase in the percentage of fines. The influence of relative humidity on the soil-drying rate was much
more significant than the effect of the temperature. The rate of water evaporation was extremely low for
the soils with a higher percentage of fines when the relative humidity was high. The A-2-4 soils with
greater than 20 percent of fines may have such a low drying rate in an environment with high relative
humidity that they are difficult to handle during construction.