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GEOMETRY
P.
Abbott
March
194.8
1977
Copyright
1970 edition
Hodder and Stoughton Limited
PREFACE
The primary object of this book is to provide an introduction to the fundamental principles of Geometry suitable
for a private student, whether he be one who is desirous of
beginning the study of the. subject or one who, after a compulsory gap in his education, wishes to refresh his memory
of previous studies.
The general plan of the book, modified in accordance
with its special purpose, follows, in the main, recommendations made some years ago by the Teaching Committee of
the Mathematical Association, of which committee the
writer was at the time the Hon. Secretary. Accordingly
there is a first part which is intended to lead the student to
a realization of basic geometric truths by appealing to
common sense reasoning and intuition. The usual proofs,
when introduced are considerably modified, the formal
proofs in logical sequence being postponed to Part II.
The use of geometry in our everyday life is constantly
indicated so that the student does not feel that the subject
merely one of academic interest.
Very little " practical geometry," involving drawing and
measurements, is employed, as it is thought to be hardly
suitable to the kind of student for whom the book is written.
When, however, the theorems enunciated are suitable for
the purpose, a considerable number of numerical exercises
are included, their main purpose being to impress the
theorems on the memory. Also such elementary mensuration as arises naturally from the geometry is introduced
and the student thus acquires a knowledge of the ordinary
rules for the calculation of areas and volumes.
No previous knowledge of Mathematics, beyond ordinary
Arithmetic, is required by a student who proposes to use
is
PREFACE
the book. It is desirable, however, from every point of
view that the student who possesses but little knowledge of
algebra should begin his study of that subject concurrently.
At a later stage, Trigonometry should be started when the
student will begin to find himself weaving together threads
from all three subjects and realising their interdependence.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PARA.
Introduction.
What
is
Geometry ?
PART
NOTE ON THE
1970
PRACTICAL
EDITION
to this decision, and it is certainly true that it is more convenient to handle centimetres when making constructions.
Secondly, we have completely ignored the use of the radian,
a unit of angular measure. Its advantages are not apparent
in the earlier stages of mathematics and there are not many
protractors available marked in radians, and as with the
centimetre, it is more convenient in practice.
If the student does come across radians before being
introduced to them, he can convert them to degrees by
multiplying by 360/2*.
xv
CHAPTER
LINES, POINTS AND
I
SOLIDS,
1-8.
Geometric
surfaces
SURFACES
.......
figures.
Solids,
CHAPTER
lines,
plane
points,
19
ANGLES
9-20.
CHAPTER
26
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
21-25.
The
circle.
Construction No.
Exercise
SIMPLE
.36
1.
CHAPTER
26-30.
GEOMETRY OF PLANES
Planes.
... ...
45
CONTENTS
viii
CHAPTER
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PARA
PAGI
31-37.
...
Exercise
65-73.
terior
figures.
Kinds
Congruent
congruency
74-87.
of
triangles.
Properties of parallelograms.
Ex-
Exercise
Altitude.
Conditions of
Exercise
Measurement
Rectangles, parallelograms,
of area.
triangles, trapezium.
Exercise
Angles
Properties of parallel
Conditions of parallelism .
.
Construction No.
To draw a
67
99-103.
2.
...
116
Exercise 10.
14
POLYGONS
8
104-109.
ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
Sum
of angles of a triangle.
angles .
.
.
.77
circles.
.122
Exercise 11.
5.
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
9
110-119.
s ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
Relations between sides and angles
Exercise
107
4.
CHAPTER
62-64.
Exercise
13
CHAPTER
58-61.
THEOREM OF PYTHAGORAS
Exercise
9.
CHAPTER
lines.
formed by transversals.
straight lines.
12
50-57.
94
8.
CHAPTER
55
3.
CHAPTER
II
PARALLELOGRAMS
laterals.
Triangles.
85
7.
CHAPTER
triangles.
Exercise
50
QUADRILATERALS.
Perimeter.
angles.
Medians.
TRIANGLES
Rectilineal
Nos. 3-8.
2.
CHAPTER
38-49.
10
FUNDAMENTAL CONSTRUCTIONS
DIRECTION
6.
.81
Construction of
by
plotting
cycloid.
15
LOCI
loci from given conditions.
points;
Loci
hyperbola;
parabola;
Intersection of loci
Exercise 12.
128
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
16
THE CIRCLE
22
SYMMETRY
PAGE
PARA.
xi
PARA.
120-125.
Arcs, sectors
142
156-160.
Exercise 13.
CHAPTER
THE CIRCLE
126-131.
metry.
(contd.)
CHAPTER
151
Centre of a
1 .
CHAPTER
THE CIRCLE
161-164.
Parallel planes
18
CHAPTER
165-175.
Regular prisms
of cylinder
19
TANGENTS
CHAPTER
RATIO IN GEOMETRY.
.......
5.
fixed ratios
volume
193
25
201
sines, cosines.
.
.169
CHAPTER
line.
186-193.
26
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
21
Exercise 18.
Exercise 21.
Exercise 17.
152-155.
of prisms
PYRAMIDS
176-184.
Division of a straight
CHAPTER
Volumes
CHAPTER
20
'
161
SIMILAR FIGURES
ratios of sides;
Cylinder; area of
cross sections.
Exercise 20.
Construction No.
24
PRISMS
156
circles.
Similar triangles;
23
190
CHAPTER
Exercise 16.
145-151.
186
(contd.)
Inscribed quadrilaterals
CIRCLE.
Axis of sym-
surface of cylinder.
Tangents to
SOLID GEOMETRY
circle.
Exercise 15.
137-144.
in curves
Exercise 19.
Angles in segments.
in geometrical figures.
Symmetry
17
Exercise 14.
132-136.
Symmetry
179
by
rotation.
The
CONTENTS
PART
CONTENTS
II
Section.
Introduction.
Section.
1.
Subject
220
222
Theorems.
Angles at a point.
1, 2,
Congruent
4,
15.
225
Exercise 24.
56-64
Appendix A.
Parallels.
6-9
228
Exercise 25.
4.
10-12
13_17
(Congruent and
238
18-21
244
22-28
249
isosceles)
Exercise 27.
6.
Inequalities.
Exercise 28.
7.
Parallelograms.
(intercepts
on
Exercise 29.
8.
Areas of parallelograms.
Construction No.
29-32
258
263
33-34
265
35-36
269
37-39
272
40-47
276
16.
Exercise 30.
9.
Right-angled triangles.
Exercise 31.
10.
Extensions of
11.
Chords of
Theorem
of Pythagoras.
Exercise 32.
circles.
Exercise 33.
12.
Angle properties of
circles.
Exercise 34.
13.
Tangents to a
circle.
48-51
Appendix B.
Answers
Triangles
303
322
826
328
234
Exercise 26.
5.
braical identities
3.
Theorems.
Ratio in Geometry.
Exercise 37.
16.
Exercise 23.
2.
Subject.
PAGB
285
291
295
330
ABBREVIATIONS
The
following
abbreviations
are
INTRODUCTION
used
occasionally
WHAT
Sign.
=
>
<
II
||
is
equal
is
greater than.
is less
is
to.
than.
parallel to.
Z
A
triangle,
sq.
square.
gram
parallelogram,
rect.
rt.
angle.
rectangle,
right.
therefore.
IS
GEOMETRY?
It was,
xiv
XV
INTRODUCTION
xvi
INTRODUCTION
>
m
3.
Euclid's Sequence.
As
m
4.
The
Practical Aspects of
Geometry.
centuries,
necessary
since
it
is
essential
in
aU draughtsmanship
xvii
Some
figures.
have
5.
two parts:
I.
and study
PART
CHAPTER
SOLIDS, LINES
AND POINTS
Oblong or
Circle
Rectangle
2.
Solids.
Many
20
SOLIDS, LINES
3.
we note
more
detail the
box represented
in Fig. 2,
(1)
The box
is
which we
bounded or enclosed by
six faces
or
call surfaces.
Two
ABCD
is
FBCG
AB
is
BF
and BC.
Definitions.
2.
BCGF
ADHE
ABFE
in
sides,
4.
DCGH.
21
Examining
AB
Fig.
AND POINTS
moment on
and accurately
defined.
22
Among
meaning.
SOLIDS, LINES
(b)
and
surfaces.
In the same category as these, are many other words
outside geometry in everyday use, such as colour, sweet,
noise and shape, which we cannot define by the use of
at 0.
CD.
5.
It is
on a piece
all
of us to
mark a
position
is visible,
to
mark
a particular position, in theory a point has no size or magnitude. Sometimes, for various reasons, we make a small
id)
3.
the cross.
is shown the position of a point
The intersection of two straight
In Fig. 3
(a)
CD,
at 0.
as
marked by
AB and
lines,
of
two straight
The meeting
of
two
The
intersection of
lines,
straight lines,
AB
and OC,
OA and OB,
line
two curved
lines,
AB
differentiation in the
and a curved
and
above
line.
Straight Line.
was stated
in 3 that when two faces of the solid intersected a straight line was formed.
were thus using
the term " straight line " before defining.it. No confusion
or misunderstanding is caused thereby, because everybody
knows what is meant by a
straight line, though no satisfactory definition of it has been
formulated.
However, it is
necessary to investigate further
the term as it is used in geom-
We
etry.
many
may
Fig.
The meeting
23
at 0.
It
Points.
meet.
(c)
AND POINTS
be imagined.
Suppose a point to move along the surface of the paper,
or in space.
It will mark out a line, which may be straight,
curved or irregular, according to the manner in which it is
moving.
In Fig. 4 let A and B be two points on the surface of the
paper. Imagine a point at A to move to the position B.
There is an innumerable number of paths which it may take,
such as those indicated by ACB and ADB. These vary
in length, but we know intuitively that the most direct
way will be along the straight line AB, which joins the
points.
Just as, if we wish to cross a field from one side
24
SOLIDS, LINES
will
now be
One
(1)
can be drawn
to
pass through
two points.
(2)
(3)
Two
Two
wise, they
7.
must meet
in
point.
surfaces.
As stated
23
If it is
surface, as for
Plane Surfaces.
Some
as follows:
Surface.
Area of a Surface.
magnitude of a given
AND POINTS
"
is
another geometric
line
ANGLES
10.
27
Adjacent Angles.
When
AO
CHAPTER
ANGLES
9.
When two
straight lines
said to
form an
Definition.
angle.
vertex,
one
definition is possible.
It is incorrect to say that the angle is
the space between two intersecting lines we have seen that two
straight lines cannot enclose a
space.
:
Fig.
Arms
5.
of
an
Angle.
The
straight
LAOB
or
AOB.
26
Fig.
7.
When two
AB
CD, which
BOD
12.
and
AOD,
Right Angles.
28
13.
ANGLES
LDOC
is less
It is called
and
is
an
called an
obtuse angle.
Hence the
An
An
14.
definitions:
'
There
is
and
AOB t
Con-
acute angle.
29
15.
and
Fig.
9.
all
reflex, will
past twelve.
It will be noted, however, that the direction of the rotation
is opposite to that indicated in Fig. 9.
This movement is
from left to right, whereas the minute hand moves right to
left.
When
hands
ANGLES
16.
We
3i
(see
14
(d)).
Angles of Unlimited
Size.
The student
will
probably
'
point
on the
line,
direction.
Fig. 12.
Fig
.y\
)
13.
straight line.
and
ANGLES
32
rotation as indicated
by the dotted
curve.
Theorem.
In the position
AOD
one
(1)
/y
A"*"Sr
h-
Fig. 14.
10)
i.e.,
angles
The
angles
are adjacent angles
( 17).
AOB, BOC
angles made when OB meets AC.
stated
more concisely as
follows :
If
the
What
is
given
and
i.e.,
the hypothesis
it is
others.
We
side of
Geometric Theorems.
line,
(2)
The
proof.
When
Converse Theorems.
CO and
form
it
angles.
>.
right angles.
meets another
angles on
line
all
18.
one straight
If
33
Q
Fig. 15.
BOA two
is
right
ANGLES
34
AO
We
are in
and A are
follows:
Theorem.
two
Opposite Angles.
20. Vertically
When two
Theorem.
The theorem
straight lines
AB
CD
if
only, say
COB, AOD.
(1)
and
(2)
+ LAOC = 2 right
AAOD + LAOC = 2 right
LCOB
Zs.
Zs.
The
35
two pairs
sufficient
If
other
the two adjacent angles together equal to two
There
in 11,
LCOB
+ ZAOC = LAOD +
ZAOC.
Fig. 16.
AOC
Proof by Rotation.
method
AOB
LCOB
LAOD.
of
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
meant, but,
name
37
the
whole figure. Thus
the area of a circle, as suggested above, is the area of that part of
the plane which is enclosed by the circumference.
CHAPTER
Arc of a
The
it is
for the
Circle.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
21.
strictly,
is
Circle.
an
arc.
Chapter
16.)
Concentric Circles.
Circles which have the
called concentric.
same
the
path
pencil,
of the
is
called
"
Fig. 18.
In Fig.
OC, three
18,
Fig. 19.
circle
may now
be defined as follows:
Measurement of Angles.
The conception of the formation
22.
of a straight line
16) leads to
measuring them.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
38
39
15,
It
and so on.
was seen in
complete rotation,
.'.
a right angle
A straight angle,
contains 180.
is
one-fourth of a
of 360.
= 90.
corresponding to
half
rotation,
Fig. 20 shows a circle, centre O, in which the circumference is divided into 360 equal parts. The arcs are
comparatively very small, and so are the corresponding
angles which, for each arc of one degree, are formed by
joining the ends of the arc to O. Any particular angle
made with OA can be constructed by joining the appropriate
point to O.
is an angle of 45, and
For example,
is
120.
The LAOC, the straight angle, represents 180.
is perpendicular to AOC, and thus
The straight line
the angles of 90 and 270 are formed.
LAOE
LAOF
BOD
For a proof
Theorem
46.
Fig. 20.
by
BD
quadrant,
etc.
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
(I)
An
LBOC
and
called
much
Supplementary angles.
23. Protractors.
is
41
24.
LBOA.
30 = 150.
150 = 30.
(See scales
on protractor, Fig.
21).
Fig. 22.
The Theorem
of
Fig. 23.
follows i
If a straight line meets another straight line,
the adjacent
angles are supplementary.
Fig. 21.
A circular protractor.
(2)
These
Complementary
When
the
angles.
sum
Example.
The complement
and
25.
Practical
of 30
is
60
is
90
90
30 = 60
- 60 = 30!
Problem.
42
Construction
Exercise
I.
To construct an
Let
LAOB,
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
which we require to
BOR,
(4) POR,
and ROB.
(1)
Method of Construction.
2.
circle,
AB.
"h30
Take a
1.
43
{a)
(2)
(5)
AOQ,
POB,
(3)
ROQ,
(6)
ROA
of a right angle.
3.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 24.
Fig. 27.
CD
in E.
Join EP.
AOB
;.
AOB.
4.
In Fig. 26
Find LCOD.
if
the
What
LAOD =
is its
25 and
supplement ?
LBOC
= 31
'
On the
Fig. 28.
44
CHAPTER
2 o'clock
11.
SIMPLE
GEOMETRY OF PLANES
of a clock
Every time that you turn over a page of this book you
are rotating a plane surface, or, more briefly, a plane:
this may be observed more closely by rotating the front
page of the cover. It will be noticed that the rotation
takes place about the straight line which is the intersection
of the rotating plane and the plane of the first page.
It was
pointed out in 3 that the intersection of two plane surfaces
is a straight line.
27.
Angle between
Two
Planes.
and 6
(1)
12 o'clock
line.
Let BCDA
in two.
straight
BEFA
f
-
RPQ
at right angles to
AB.
45
If
you
fold again,
PR
will
46
coincide with
PQ.
SIMPLE
Now
AF
AD
GEOMETRY OF PLANES
47
it.
AD
AF
read
off.
28. Vertical
If
ways
plumb
line.
suspend in
it
(Fig. 31).
Let a
Fig. 32.
number
At
48
SIMPLE
it
Meets.
A
Fig. 33.
taming the right angle, lies along the plane and the plane
of the set square is perpendicular to the plane AB.
Thus
PQ
is
lines,
PQ
in 0,
is perpendicular to the plane
the foot of this perpendicular.
straight line
line,
OQ
is
OP
Definition.
The angle between a straight line and a plane
is the angle between the straight line and its projection on the
plane.
Consequently, the projection of a straight line
on a
OP
49
GEOMETRY OF PLANES
to the
plane.
DIRECTION
51
CHAPTER
DIRECTION
31.
Meaning of Direction,
direction "
is
difficult
one to
define,
but
its
when we speak
of walking
'*
in the direction of
London
".
32.
Fig. 34.
We
PQ
fixed
will begin
with a simple
the Earth's
189 and
South
axis
(see
5
./
-p
1G
35
The*''"*
the opposite direction from the North.
Fig. 182).
is
East and
directions are at right angles to these.
These four directions are termed the cardinal points.
They are indicated in Fig. 35 and all others between them
are related to these. Thus a direction half-way between
N. and E., and thus making angles of 45 with each,
is called North-east,
and so for others as shown in
Fig. 35.
West
52
DIRECTION
33.
thus
6 East of North indicates a point
between N. and
E., and 6 from the North.
mariners' compass.
Two
object
a
diameters at right angles to one
dial of
Uj
N
'
bv
3
35. Bearing.
When
compass card or
'
Compass.
53
by reference
to
BAN ^
is
40 East of North.
Angle of Elevation.
s
Fig. 36.
J4
The angle
AOB
is
aeroplane.
The determination
CHAPTER
is a problem
which requires Trigonometry for
TRIANGLES
its solution.
38.
B
FlG
38-
Rectilineal Figures.
The
least
a space
is
all
number
of straight lines
It was stated in
three.
is
W S.W.
What
Fig. 39.
If
this?
,
.,
,
turning
ship sailing N.N.E. changes its course by
6
direction
of
the
then
through an angle of 67. What is
its course ?
makes an angle of
7 If the direction of an aeroplane
57 20' with the horizontal plane, what angle does it make
with the vertical plane ?
the same vertical
8 Two straight lines, AB and AD, he
25 with the horizontal, and
of
angle
an
makes
AB
nlane
makes 32 with the vertical. What is the angle between
is
m
.
AD
AB
and
AD?
When
figure
formed
triangle in Fig. 39
(a).
Perimeter
= AB + BC + CA.
The
Triangle.
Vertex.
Each
B and C in Fig. 39
A,
TRIANGLES
56
When anyone
Base
BC
Fig. 41
If
formed
*~"
c
u
'
>
all.
Note.
exterior angles.
When BC
all
the
called
may
speak of
LACD
isosceles,
When all
(b)
is
equilateral, as Fig.
42(6).
(c) When all the sides are unequal, the
triangle is called a scalene triangle (Fig.
42
produced to D, as above, we
is
(a)
(c).
(2)
Exterior Angles.
40.
57
CO
C )).
Fig. 42.
and
(1)
(h)
a)
Fig. 43.
From A draw
(Fig. 41 (a)).
AD
perpendicular to BC.
AD
When one
is
If
the triangle
is
when
triangle,
and
58
TRIANGLES
AABC
be concurrent (Part
II,
Theorem
55).
59
We shall proceed
to discover what is the minimum knowledge about the sides and angles which is necessary to
construct a particular triangle. It will be found that if any
one of three different sets of equal angles or sides is known
the triangle can be constructed. These sets are A, B and C
below.
BF
Note.
The
and carry
F1 ^-
Fig. 44.
out, step
45.
and
CE
44.
45), it
Fig.
46.
is
Thus the
side opposite to
i.e.,
BCis represented by
AC by 6and
that opposite to
i.e.,
that opposite to
This notation makes easier the identification of
c.
corresponding sides and angles.
a,
C by
Construction.
(3)
Congruent triangles
from Fixed Data.
The method of constructing a triangle varies according
angles.
to the facts which are known about the sides and
45. Construction of Triangles
Draw
(2)
From
AC
cm
long.
Thus the points B and C are fixed points, and they must
be vertices of the required triangle. Join BC. This .must
be the third side of the triangle, and ABC must be the
triangle required.
6o
TRIANGLES
Thus, BC and the angles ACB and ABC are fixed, and
there can be only one triangle which has the sides and
angle of the given dimensions.
The student should cut out the A he has constructed
and place it over that in. Fig. 46. If the reasoning has
been correct and the drawing accurate, the two As should
exactly coincide.
It is evident that if aU the students who read this book
were to construct As with sides and angle as above, all the
As would be of exactly the same size and shape i.e., they
will coincide and their areas must be the same.
Triangles which are equal in every respect and coincide
in this way are said to be congruent.
Definition.
all respects
6i
116)
are
Conclusion.
B.
Example.
4 cm, and 3
all
three sides.
Construction.
(1)
Draw
(2)
With
C.
circle.
(3)
With
Fig. 48.
of a
circle.
side.
cm
long
Construction.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Draw
At
At
a straight fine
AB.
A draw AX making 45
B BY 30
62
The two
straight lines
AX
and
BY
TRIANGLES
only, C.
is
46.
Join
(5)
CB and
AD.
63
This
it
will
do in two
CB'.
Thus two
ACB
A.
Two
B.
Three
C.
Two
i.e., a, b, c.
e.g.,
A, B,
c.
It should be
given
may
Fig. 49.
and 2-4 cm
its
sides
to the
4 cm
smaller
side 30.
CP
(1)
= h.
a =
If
AACP.
Construction.
(1)
Draw a straight
line
49).
(2) At a point A draw a straight line making an
angle of 30 with AD.
(3) From this line cut off AC 4 cm long.
(4) With C as centre and radius 2-4 cm draw an arc
h there
There
is
is
thus no ambiguity.
The
viz.,
triangle is
right angled.
b there will be one solution, and the
(2) If a
triangle will be isosceles, the other side, equal to CA
AB produced.
a
b there will be one solution as is obvious.
It will be seen therefore that for ambiguity a must be
less than b and greater than h.
meeting
(3)
If
>
64
TRIANGLES
Summarising..
a,
;'.e.,
side
48.
65
c.
Corresponding
Sides
and
Angles
of
Congruent
Triangles.
enunciated,
Fig. 50.
Exercise
If AB and DE are sides which are known to be equal,
then the angles which are opposite to them are called
corresponding angles and are equal.
Summarising:
If
BC
CA
= FD,
Similarly
when
/-ABC
angles are
sum.
/.DEF.
known to be
A
49.
Triangles.
The three sets of conditions that triangles may be congruent, which were deduced in 45, may be set out in the
form of Geometric Theorems as follows:
*= 88,
= 52.
== 40, C
b = 3*95
= 6-15 cm,
cm, c = 4-85
cm
them.
66
5. Construct by three different methods triangles congruent with that in Fig. 51. Cut them out and test by
superimposing them on one another.
CHAPTER
Meaning of
Parallel.
Fig. 51.
6. In the As ABC, DEF certain angles and sides are
equal as given below. Determine whether or not they
are congruent.
If they are congruent, state which of the
conditions A, B, C of 49 is satisfied.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
=
=
=
=
LD =
LA
LA
LB
LB
LD, b = e,c=f.
LD, c =/, a = d.
LE, b = e,c=f.
LE, LA = LD, c =/.
LE, LA = LC, b = e.
In a AABC, AB
Construct the triangle
7.
= 25,
Railway
8.
Two
straight lines
7-6
cm.
AB,
= AD
The
CD
What
AB
CD
straight lines
and
bisect each other
perpendicularly at 0. What reasons can you give for stating
that the straight lines AC, CB, BD,
are all equal?
10. The As ACB,
are congruent and are placed on
opposite sides of the common side AB. Join
cutting
at 0.
Using Theorem
show that OC
OD.
9.
DA
ADB
AB
provide
We
in a
another
CD
example of
parallel
8-7 cm,
lines
drawn
straight lines.
know that they
same distance apart, and no matter
solutions.
point of intersection 0.
saying that CB
?
will
never meet.
If
the
produced in
either direction.
51. Distance
between
Two
68
how
and
can be measured.
Let AB, CD be two
it
straight
parallel
LACB=
LA'C'B'
69
We
parallel lines
lines
(Fig. 52).
Let
be any point on
AB.
PQ
is the perpendicular
to CD.
PQ is defined as the distance between the two parallel
straight lines. Two facts may be deduced from this:
Let
drawn from
PQ
PS
is
(1)
PR,
CD.
(2)
If
the least of
.
all
line
either direction
but
draughtsmen
for
52.
we know
not meet.
The angle
ACB
represents
Or we
straight line BC to PQ.
at an angle represented by
AC
may say
BCP
Corresponding Angles.
Take a
fines.
to
PQi.e.,
inclined at
60toPQ.
Similarly
PQ, and
is
inclination of C'B' to
LACB.
Also
meet if produced.
deduced that
never
(a)
Straight
lines
another straight
line
may now
It
reasonably
be
If
lines
Transversal.
straight
lines is called a transversal.
line
A'B'C
They
48).
are also corresponding angles
when the parallel straight
lines BC.B'C are cut by the
transversal PQ they represent the equal angles of inclination of
the parallel
straight lines to the trans(see
versal.
53. The
reached
FlG 64
-
conclusions
above may now be
generalised.
In
Fig.
54,
If
AB
be parallel to
Then /.PRB
Conversely,
equal.
(2)
Then AB and
two
parallel
two
are cut
by the
p,
Let
(1)
AB
and
CD
be
parallel.
Fig- 55.
equal.
I.e.,
But
/.
The
LPRB = LRSD,
LPRB = /LARS (vertically opp.
ZARS = ZRSD.
(2)
Let
Now
are
/.
But
CD
may
similarly be
ZARS == ZRSD.
LARS = LPRB (vertically opp.
LPRB = LRSD.
shown
Zs).
Note.
Zs).
are parallel.
These conclusions may be expressed generally as geometrical theorems as follows :
CD
PQ.
Conversely,
ZS PRB, RSD
AB,
I.e.,
CD.
the corresponding
LRSD.
If
If
Theorem D.
71
AB
is
parallel to
CD.
(Theor. 53)
theorems as follows
72
Theorem
E.
If
two
by another straight
line
equal.
Conversely
(2).
73
Let
LRSD =
/.ARS.
alternate angles.
right angles.
56.
I.
If
Summary
of above Results.
Three properties of parallel straight lines.
two paraUel straight lines are cut by a transversal,
then:
Fig. 56.
Similarly
ARS, RSC
side.
(1)
Let
AB
and
Then /.ARS
Add LBRS
Then LARS
But /.ARS
/.
LBRS
CD
be parallel.
/.RSD
II.
(alternate angles).
to each.
if
one
lines.
tions is satisfied
18)
Dv
Ev
Fv
74
(2)
57. Construction 2.
To draw through
to a given straight
parallel
The conditions of
construction.
NoteThe
follows, step
student
by
E1
is
54)
of
two
straight line
73
line.
PQ
it
which
may
is
be concluded that
perpendicular to one of
is also perpendicular to
the other.
step.
AB.
_v
Fig. 58.
Exercise 4
1.
are cut
Fig. 57.
Method of construction.
From
At
25).
Then
PY
is
it
1,
can be
The
and
straight lines
PY,
LYPQ = LPQA.
AB
Fig. 60.
State
But these
PY
(1)
E
AB
(2)
(3)
When PY
is
line
sum
is
:
can be
2.
Which
Which
Which
is
In Fig. 60
If
UPXB
the figure.
AB
CD
and
are parallel straight lines cut
and Y.
at
60, find in degrees all the other angles in
by a transversal
76
CYP =
(4)
PXA,
QYD,
BXY,
PXB.
(2)
(5)
(3)
DYX,
CHAPTER
Fig. 61.
ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
58. On several occasions in the previous work the
attention of the student has been called to the sum of the
three angles of particular triangles. He also has continually
before him the triangles represented by the two set squares
which he uses and the sum of their angles. It is probable,
therefore, that he has come to the conclusion that the sum
of the angles of a triangle is always equal to two right
angles or 180.
A simple experiment will help to confirm this. Draw
any triangle and cut it out. Then tear off the angles and
fit them together, as is indicated in Fig. 65.
Fig, 63.
parallel.
that
produce to R.)
7. Draw a straight line AB.
Take points C, D, E on it,
and through them draw parallel
straight lines making corresponding
P
M*
B
~7
angles of 30 with AB.
8.
45 and
35.
Find the
Two
Fl <>- 64.
POQ.
angle
9.
LOQC =
0<f
C
parallel
straight lines
transversal PQ at
and F.
bisected by the straight lines
straight lines are parallel.
Fig. 65.
We
77
78
59.
ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE
Theorem.
triangle
is
Fig. 66 represents
any
ABC.
triangle
It is required to
prove that
To obtain
(1)
Produce one
(2)
From C draw CE
side, e.g.,
BC
to D.
to
parallel
BA
Proof.
AC is a transversal.
BAC are equal ( 56 E).
AB and CE are parallel and BC is a transversal.
Corresponding angles ECD, ABC are equal
are parallels
and
.'.
sum
was shown
in step
(3)
LACD = LBAC +
(Construction 2).
AB and CE
An
is
It
Construction.
(2)
Theorem.
angles.
necessary.
(1)
are as follows:
equal to the
/.ABC
79
56 D).
LABC.
is
it
equal to
must be
61. Corollaries.
Fig. 66.
(3)
.".
by addition
LBAC
arise.
LACD.
In a
greatest angle.
(4)
LBAC
I.e.,
LACB to each
LABC + LACB = LACD + LACB
Adding
two
right angles
right angles.
is
equal to
18).
two
(4)
point
to
80
^Exercise 5
Find the third angle of a triangle in which two
1.
of the
In the triangle
2.
87, 35.
90, 46.
(b)
(d)
ABC,
the angle
CHAPTER
105, 22.
34, 34.
ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
is
and C are
equal.
Find them.
In the A ABC, BC is produced to D, and the exterior
40, what is the
angle so formed, ACD, is 112. If LA
3.
angle
B?
62. Relations
Take two
them
place
that
ADC
Since Ls ADB,
are right angles,
are in the same straight line.
(1)
DC
BD
and
ABC
7.
angle.
is
From B a
=
P
angle.
11.
The
ways to
side
BC
and E.
of the triangle
If
LABD =
ABC
124 and
ABC
BC
Prove that
LACD + LBAE
is
and
produced both
LACE =
130,
respectively.
FlG
(2)
which
(3)
67.
FlG 68
_
constitute a
new A
in
in all cases
Can
We
ABC be
a triangle in which
Z.ABC
AB = AC
(Fig. 68).
ZACB.
BC
Si
82
Thus the
AABC
ISOSCELES TRIANGLES
In
(1)
(2)
(3)
AB = AC
two
(given).
= ACAD
triangles,
By Theorem A,
two
AD
sides
is
As.
49.
.".
triangles
Fi g- 69-
ZABD = ZACD.
Thus the theorem
ABC
is
all
cases since
BD =
Since
DC and /.ADB
1. e., these angles are right angles,
In an
3.
bisects
the
(1)
If
isosceles
and
(Fig. 69).
AABC
be produced to
if
ACB
= AC,
(3)
/.
Draw
AD
ACD
LABD = LACD (given).
/.BAD = ACAD (construction).
Side
As ABD,
In particular
are equal.
"
(2)
Theorem.
is,
triangle are
two
We
Construction.
Proof.
In the
it.
63.
If
/.ADC.
it
Fig. 70.
Theorem.
Corollaries.
1.
2.
/.ECB.
/.BAD
in the
are equal.
.".
LDBC =
.-.
As ABD, ACD.
BAC.
As ABD,
AD is common
ACD
AB
to both.
AC.
are
also
84
#Exercise 6
In the isosceles triangles, in which the angle of the
vertex is (a) 45, (b) 110, (c) 90, find the remaining
1.
angles.
isosceles triangle
of the equal angles is (a) 50, (b) 32, (c) 45.
AC, find the angles of the
3. In the triangle ABC,
triangle when
2.
when each
(1)
AB =
IB
48,
(2)
LA =
80, (3)
LC
= 70.
is
triangle
8.
ACB
APQ is isosceles.
angles of an
triangle ABC
are bisected and the bisectors meet at 0.
The equal
and ABC
Prove that
ABC
isosceles
AOBC is isosceles.
viz.,
AB =
AB
is
an
produced to D.
ABAC =
ABC
DA
CHAPTER
DA
= DC
ABAC
10
66. Construction
(a)
No.
To construct
3.
an equilateral triangle on a
given base.
At a point on a straight
to construct an angle of 60.
(>)
line
(a)
it is
Method of construction.
(1) With A as centre and AB
as radius, construct an arc of a circle.
(2) With B as centre and AB as radius, construct
85
86
an arc
of a circle large
described in C.
(3)
By
is
AC
and
BC
.*.
(&)
ABC
The
triangle
.'.
/.
being
all
equilateral
PX, FY.
As OPX, OPY:
is
In
2, 62).
OX = OY
PX = PY
(3)
OP
(construction).
(construction).
is common to both As.
As OPX,
In particular
4.
OP
I.e.,
Let
AOB
(Fig. 72)
(2)
(1)
.'.
To
AOB.
Join
therefore
Proof.
equal.
structed.
67.
Join OP.
(4)
are
Then OP
equiangular (Corollary
87
i.e.
(2)
With
ABC
Proof.
bisect.
OPY
are congruent
LPOX = LPOY.
49, B).
AOB.
68.
Any
Theorem.
angle
Let
point on the
equidistant,
is
Q be any
bisector of an
OP
of the angle
AOB
(Fig. 72).
Draw QE and QF
Then QE, QF
Proof.
(3)
.".
OQ
In particular QE
QF.
is equidistant from the two arms.
Similarly any other point on OP can be
equidistant from OA and OB.
Fig. 72.
Method of construction.
(1) From the two arms of the angle OA, OB cut
OX and OY equal to one another.
the
As OEQ, OFQ
LEOQ = LFOQ (halves of LA0B\.
LQEO = LQFO (right /Ls).
In
(1)
(2)
49, C).
off
shown to be
Note.
Students may have noticed that use was made of the
bisector of an angle in Theorem of 62, before the method of obtaining
88
proved how it
angle does exist even though we had not previously
was to be drawn. The proof of the theorem does not m any way
depend on the method of drawing an accurate bisector.
69. Construction
No.
5.
To
Let
AB
(Fig. 73)
it is
required
to bisect.
bisector
89
of
any
straight line.
which
is
similar
A and B
as in
the
if
69 and consequently
71. Construction
To draw
Let
AB
No.
CA
= CB.
joined to
to be congruent,
6.
straight line
Fig. 73.
OP and
(Fig. 74)
it.
a point on
it,
is
Method of construction.
and B in turn, and a radius
[1) With centres A
greater than \AB, draw arcs of circles interescting at
P and Q.
(2)
Then
Join
is
PQ
cutting
AB
at 0.
Proof.
In
(1)
(2)
(3)
.-.
AP = PB
(construction).
AQ = QB (construction).
PQ is common to both As.
In particular
LAPQ = LBPQ.
49, B).
at which it is required to
perpendicular to AB.
draw a
go
Method of construction.
(1 )
(2)
Proof.
In
is
COQ:
CP = CQ (equal radii).
(2) OP = OQ (construction).
(3) OC is common.
As COP, COQ are congruent ( 49,
particular LCOP = /.COQ.
As COP,
Then
(1)
/.
In
.'.
by
.*.
OC
is
As
at,
perpendicular to PQ.
in Construction No. 3,
ABQR
.'.
is
is
bisected
.-.
.'.
it.
OB
.*.
Is
To draw
by OB
No.
8.
straight
perpendicular to a
given straight line from
a given point without
it.
AB
AB
is
required
and
out
it.
It is
draw from
is
equilateral.
60.
a point withrequired to
P a straight line
perpendicular to AB.
60.
(construction).
= 30
LOBA = 60 + 30
= 90.
line
line,
Z.OBQ
perpendicular to
73. Construction
Let
radius, describe
QR are equal.
equilateral and
from
Fig. 75.
ABPQ is
A.PBQ
LQBR =
Since this
7.
at P.
Join Off.
.-.
If
To draw
AB
perpendicular to AB.
is
a point
OB
Proof.
B).
the point
is near one end of AB, so that the two circles
cannot conveniently be described, the method of construction No. 7,
which follows, can be employed.
Note.
circle cutting
Join OC.
Then OC
With centre
(1)
91
Construction.
AB
at B.
92
With
(1)
circle cutting
Join Pi?.
(3)
Then, PR
perpendicular to AB.
Join PC,
Proof.
As PCD,
We
is
PCD
No. 5
.".
PDQ
PQ
are congruent,
is
and
perpendicular to
AB.
^Exercise 7
Note.
In
should be used.
1.
2.
of 221.
4.
point.
From
triangle.
this point
93
Method of Construction.
QUADRILATERALS
95
CHAPTER
II
A'B'CD
in Fig. 78.
sides of A'B'CD are parallel, but its angles
are not right angles. The lengths of the sides, however,
QUADRILATERALS
The opposite
As defined in 38, a quadrilateral is a plane rectibounded by four straight lines. There are
thus four angular points, as A, B, C, D in Fig. 77.
74.
lineal figure
Thus
in Fig. 77,
Fig. 77.
BD
ABCD
called a parallelogram.
The
also has its sides parallel and is
is
points
and C can
is a diagonal, and as
also be joined, every quadrilateral
has two diagonals.
Each diagonal divides the quadriConselateral into two triangles.
quently, it follows from Theorem of
59 that the sum of the angles of
any quadrilateral is equal to four right
/
C
Fig. 78.
angles.
quadrilateral of Fig. 77 is
of the quadrilaterals which
irregular in
we shall consider are regular quadrilaterals.
a special
it would still be changed to a parallelojust as with the square its sides are all equal.
therefore a special form of a parallelogram, the
rectangle,
gram.
It
definition,
If
The
shape, but most
from the
is
on rotating,
But
rhombus.
75. Rectangles.
fundamental
geometrical
knowledge
which
everybody
Parallelogram,
Rectangle,
of
Rhombus.
Square,
rj
(a)
Parallelogram.
96
QUADRILATERALS
(b)
rectangle is a quadrilateral in which
both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and
one of its angles is a right angle (Fig. b).
Rectangle.
(6)
equal.
square
equal (Fig.
'
c).
Square.
(c)
7(d) A
is
Rhombus.
Fig. 79.
is
none of
its
angles
a right angle.
is
We
can
now
Theorem.
Notes on the
definitions.
The
rhombus
definition proper.
rhombus
a quadrilateral with
both pairs of opposite sides parallel, two
adjacent sides equal but none of its angles
(d)
is
the
Theorem
(2)
It
ABCD
(Fig. 80) is
a parallelogram and
BD
is
diagonals.
[a]
We
require to
prove^
of 78.
may
square and
Fig. 80.
f(3)
I
(4)
^LABC= =
?c'
LADC.
LBAD = ABCD.
one of
its
98
By definition
Proof.
AB
is
AD
and
BD
The diagonal
is
is
QUADRILATERALS
to DC
parallel to BC.
parallel
In Fig. 81,
straight lines.
the As
In
(1)
(2)
(3)
.'.
Proof.
As ABD,
CBD
Also from
(1)
Zs,
Zs,
56).
(2)
49, C).
.'.
AB = DC
AD = BC.
and
(2)
In As
OC,
COD
AOB,
As AOB,
COD
and
BD
its
= OD.
56).
56).
49, C).
AO = OC
BO
Note.
Zs,
Zs,
are congruent
In particular
by addition
BO
AB = CD ( 78).
LOAB = LOCD (alternate
LOBA = LODC (alternate
(1)
56).
(3)
are congruent
AC
diagonals intersect at 0.
We require to prove that the diagonals are bisected at
0, i.e.,
a parallelogram;
is
AO =
ABD, CBD
In particular
ABCD
OD.
and rhombus,
i.e.,
Similarly,
it
LDAB = LBCD.
that
CBD
As ABD,
are congruent, each of them
half of the area of the parallelogram, i.e., the
diagonal BD bisects the parallelogram.
Similarly, it may be shown that the diagonal
if
drawn would bisect the parallelogram.
(b)
Since the
must be
AC
Corollaries.
Cor.
all
is
77).
Cor. 2.
If two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are
equal, all the sides are equal (see definitions of square and
rhombus,
79.
77).
Theorem.
The
diagonals
of
The diagonals of
ABCD
in Fig. 82
diagonals.
We
a
parallelogram
81-
Fig. 82.
a square.
80.
a right angle,
the angles are right angles (see definition of a rectangle.
I.
F10
is
a square and
require to prove
(1)
(2)
(3)
is
the intersection of
The diagonals
The angles at
The diagonals
are equal.
are right
s.
bisect opposite angles.
IOO
QUADRILATERALS
Proof.
In
(1)
ADC, BCD
the As
(1)
AD = BC
(2)
DC
(78).
common
is
to each A.
(right angles, 78, Cor.
AADC = LBCD
(3)
.*.
ioi
The Trapezium.
The trapezium is
82.
In
the diagonals are equal.
(2) In the As AOD, COD
ABCD
DC
1).
but
ABCD is
49, A).
83.
AB
The following
is
i.e.,
(1)
(2)
(3)
As AOD,
.*.
AO =OC (79).
AD = DC (sides of a square).
OD is common.
In particular
(49, B).
;.
right angles.
(3)
/.
i.e.,
.*.
Since
LADO = LCDO,
LADC is bisected.
diagonals bisect opposite angles.
The
Parallelograms.
Rectangles.
Square.
Rhombus.
Fig. 83.
Fig. 84.
Theorem.
quadrilateral, in
is
a parallelo-
gram.
ABCD
are equal
Then
ABCD
is
a parallelogram.
it is
In As ABC, ADC
= CD (given).
AB
(1)
(2) AC is common.
(3) ABAC = LACD (alternate Zs).
As ABC, ADC are congruent ( 49, A).
Proof.
.*.
CD
In particular Z.ACB
LDAC.
But these are .alternate angles when the straight lines
and BC are cut by the transversal AC.
:. AD is parallel to BC.
( 56, E,.)
AD
Since
.'.
QUADRILATERALS
102
AB is parallel to
by the
ABCD
Note.
is
DC.
which
Theorem.
85.
definition of a parallelogram.
a parallelogram.
join
Theorem.
straight line
In Fig. 85.
the mid point of the side AB.
The
i.e.,
construction
CR
AQ QC.
meet
PQ
parallel to
produced in R.
.'.
PRCB is a
RC = PB
= AP
In As APQ,
(1)
(2)
(3)
i.e.,
CRQ
Zs).
Zs).
is
bisected at Q.
AB
:
AQ = QC (given).
APQ, QRC are con-
C).
AP = RC
PQ = QR
PQ = \PRAP = PB (given).
But
AP = RC (proved above).
LAPQ = LQRC (alternate
LPAQ = LQCR (alternate
BC.
As APQ, QR.C
/.
.*.
As are congruent ( 49, C).
In particular AQ
QC.
AC
In
In particular
PB=RC.
And
:.
.".
PQ
As
.\
parallel.
78)
(given).
AABC.
parallel to
produced at R.
gruent (49,
and
is
to
drawn
(3)
the
parallelogram (Def.).
sides of the
(alternate Zs).
is
From C draw CR
two
LPAQ = LQCR
(1)
(alternate Zs).
= LQRC
(2) LAPQ
AB to
is
Proof.
i.e., is
PQ is parallel to BC.
We require to prove
Q is
P and
We require to prove
(1) PQ is parallel
(2) PQ = iBC.
to meet
P is
.*.
103
86.
since
PQ
PQ
= *bc.
The
= %PR.
following theorem
applications.
is
useful in
its
practical
QUADRILATERALS
Theorem.
If
EF
PQ
are equal,
i.e.,
They
are
AC = CE,
87.
Construction No.
To
i5
9.
number
of equal parts.
This construction problem
the preceding theorem.
is
P.
G
F
r1
0.'
Fig. 87.
it
is
i.e.,
required
BD
to
RS
Construction.
Draw AG
parallel to
BD,
CH parallel to DF.
AGDB and CHFD are parallelograms
and
Proof.
are equal,
Suppose it is desired
is any straight line.
In Fig. 88,
to divide into (say) three equal parts, i.e., to trisect it.
AB
(Def.).
BD^AG
DF = CH.
and
In As
ACG, CEH
(1)
(2)
(3)
AC = CE (given).
LACG = LCEH (corresponding angles).
LCAG = LECH (corresponding angles).
;.
Fig. 88.
DF.
BD
DF.
Note. This theorem is known as " the theorem of equal intercepts ".
It is the basis of the diagonal scale.
Method of construction.
Draw
a straight line
AP
From
X and Y
draw the
straight lines
Ar
to ZB.
The
AB is trisected at C and D.
two transversals AB and AP cut
straight line
Proof.
The
DB
are equal,
the three
i.e.,
are equal.
the intercepts on AB, viz., AC,
AB is trisected at C and D.
I06
# Exercise
ABCD
(Fig. 80)
CHAPTER
= 70.
ADBC = 42 and ABDC = 30.
/-ADC
2.
3.
and
cm
4-8 cm.
is
60.
5.
BC
Construct a parallelogram
ABCD
when
form of parallelogram
is it ?
AB =
What
4 cm,
particular
8.
Draw a
straight line 8
equal parts.
ment.
9.
If
ABCD
12
Measurement of Area.
The first essential for all measurement
89.
is
This
is
AD = BC
a trapezium in
which
AB
is
/.BCD.
parallel to
CD.
paper.
paper
108
each part being thus 0-1 cm. Each division is the side of
a square such as is indicated in the small square at A.
Consequently, in the bottom row, corresponding to the
side AB, there are 10 of these
Throughout the
small squares.
f
whole square ABCD there are 10
such rows, since each side of the
square is also divided into 10
Altogether then
equal parts.
there are 10 X 10, i.e., 100 small
squares such as that at A.
Every small square is therefore
0-01 of a square centimetre. Thus
B
3 rows contain (10 X 3) of these
,
Fig. 89.
and
30
their
= 0-3
total
cm 2
area
is
0-01
70 small
Similarly 7 rows would contain (10 X 7)
squares, and the area of the rectangle represented by these
07 cm 2
7 rows would be 70 X 0-01
91.
Area of
ALKH =
109
3 X 4
12,
The total number of sq. cm in
12 cm 2
the area of AHKL
If the rectangle were 6 cm by 5 cm, then there would
be 6 cm 2 in each row and 5 rows.
/.
i.e.,
.*.
Total area
= 6x5
= 30 cm
2
.
Let b
the rectangle.
-= (a
b) sq. units.
a Rectangle.
centimetres,
ABCD
centimetre.
Each
For example adj acent sides of the rectangle A EFG, Fig. 90,
AE and AG, are 3-5 and 1-5 cm respectively.
These lengths expressed in millimetres are 35 and 15
mm respectively, and each very small square with a side
viz.,
Area of
A EFG
divided into
is
10 equal divisions, each
a millimetre.
The sides of the rectare 4 cm
angle
and 3 cm.
Corresponding to each
Fig. 90.
centimetre in the side
2
there are 4 cm in the row
there is a sq. cm above it, i.e.,
each centimetre along AH.
of squares constructed above
there are 3 such rows.
rectangle
In the whole
metre
AHKL
AH
ALKH
= (35 x 15) mm
= 525 mm
centi-
= 5-25
cm2
Area of a Square.
Regarding a square as a rectangle with adjacent sides
equal, the above formula for its area can be modified
92.
accordingly.
Thus if b = a.
Then area of square
= a 2 sq. units.
no
Area of a Parallelogram.
93.
produced at Q.
o
/
/
/
q
DCPQ
is
a rectangle and
sides.
As BCP,
In
(1)
(2
(3)
.*.
BA
DQ
DC
angles).
Fig. 92.
such as
the area of
ABCD
= area
of ABEF.
AADQ,
i.e.,
XY
per-
pendicular to BQ.
If CD be regarded
Proof.
as the base of the parallelois the
gram, then CP or
corresponding altitude or
height of the parallelogram.
It is the distance between the
As BCP,
is
quadrilateral
.'.
ADQ
DQ
in
parallelogram
BE
Fig. 93.
height.
.-.
area of parallelogram
base
height.
F
.
The base need not be the same base; but the bases must
be equal.
Hence we
arrive at
have equal
Parallelograms which
parallels,
same
i.e., they
the
bases and lie between
in
area.
equal
are
have the same height,
Theorem.
112
Area of a Triangle.
Every triangle can be regarded as half of a certain
parallelogram which can be readily constructed. This is
illustrated in Fig. 94.
Each of the three types of triangles,
96.
FAEDF
DA
"3
97.
theorems
will
of the proofs.
Area of
ABCD
is
Trapezium.
a trapezium
(Fig. 95) in
which
AD
is parallel
and
BF to
to DC.
From
and B draw perpendiculars
opposite side, produced in
the case of DA
Join BD.
The trapezium is divided
by
into two As ABD,
DE
the
acute angled (a), obtuse angled (b) and right angled (c) is
half of the parallelogram ABCD, the construction of which
is obvious.
In the case of the right-angled triangle (c) the
parallelogram assumes the form of a rectangle. In (a) and
(b)
represents the altitude or height of the triangle and
therefore also of the corresponding parallelogram.
In each case the parallelogram is equal to the rectangle
AH
BF
and CE.
/.
If
and
Then
area of
,\
or
Area
BD
DBC.
base
J(base
height.
height).
b = length of base
h = altitude
A = area.
A = ibh.
area of trapezium
= \ah + \bh
= |h(a + b)
= |(height x sum of parallel sides)
= height x average of parallel
sides.
ii4
^Exercise 9
Note.
to
lines.
60, 90
and place
coinciding, thus
forming a rectangle. Measure the sides of the rectangle
and find its area. Hence find the area of one of the set
squares.
2. Fig. 96 represents a square tile of side 10 cm.
Fig. 98.
ABCD
of an aqueduct of dimensions as indicated.
of the section.
are the mid points of the sides of the square. Find the
area of the part which is shaded.
4-5 cm.
3. Find the area of a rectangle 5-8 cm by
4. Find the areas of the following triangles:
(a)
(b)
(c)
mm
m
and
5 Construct a triangle with sides 2, 2-5 and 3 cm
three ways
find its area. Check the result by doing it in
and finding the average of your results.
side 7 cm and
6. Construct an equilateral triangle of
find its area.
The
PYTHAGORAS
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
rectangle
(these are shaded)
BLME
13
(A)
in Geometry
triangle and known
is that connected with a right-angled
It is as follows:
as the " Theorem of Pythagoras ".
of the
Theorem. The area of the square on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the
sum of the areas of the squares on the other two
sides.
In Fig. 99
ABC
is
a right-angled
A and BC
is its
hypo-
If
Then
(B)
up
AC
to
BC
and ED.
n6
BLME =
To prove AABE
(2)
(3)
:,
AABE = AHBC.
(1)
square
Square on BC
on AB + square on AC.
There are several interest-
and
on AB.
BE
square on AC.
= square
line ( 18).
BLME
PYTHAGORAS
One
CDML =
rectangle
To
To prove
on AB.
and afterwards
the rectangle
CHAPTER
== square
117
ABHK.
AHBC.
AB HB (sides of a square).
BE = BC (sides of a square).
/-ABE = AHBC (since each L equals
L + LABC).
As ABE,
HBC
are congruent.
rectangle
BLME
49 A).
= square ABHK
AD
and BG
In a similar manner by joining
proved that the
square ACGE
rectangle CLMD
a right
(1)
may
it
be
(2)
By
addition of
(1)
is
The
00.
is
It
also true.
103.
as follows
Theorem.
is
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
n8
If
in a
In Fig.
on one side
PYTHAGORAS
ABC is an equilateral
of an
119
equilateral
A.
equal to the
sides,
will
The Theorem
101.
algebraical
in
=a +b
c = Va + b
a = c - b
a = Vc b
6 = Vc a
c2
also
and
similarly
AD,
Let
= length
CD
Then
In the right-angled
.'.
To
BC,
is
the height or
of each side.
= ^
to
results
two.
From these
Fig. 102.
altitude.
whence
Fig. 101.
Fig. 100.
= AD + DC
AD = AC - DC
A ADC, AC 3
3
.-0"
it is
.-.
4_
AD = ^a.
of the sides.
Let a
Let x
Then
101).
AADC
.'.
I.e.,
V2
It
may be noted
CBD, CDB
VB
n-a
a
s
Is
or
2: \/3
I.
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES.
120
121
From
PYTHAGORAS
AD
V3
How
reach?
:.
Area
= ^a
2
.
Exercise
1.
Which
pair.
10
of the
angled ?
-
2.
1-2, 1-6, 2.
(b)
4, 5, 6.
(c)
1,2-4,2-6.
(d)
5, 7, 9.
projection.
sides are:
{a)
m,
(6)
12 m.
3.
4.
The diagonals
(a)
m,
(b)
of equilateral
As whose
sides are:
12 m.
and 5-2 m.
of a rhombus are 4-6
of the sides.
due
due east and then 18
travels 15
far is he from his starting point in a straight
A man
north.
How
km
km
line?
is
(a)
side?
9. Find the altitude of an isosceles triangle in which
each of the equal sides is 10 cm, and the base is 5 cm.
10. (a) Find the area of an equilateral triangle of side 5
POLYGONS
106.
123
With
CHAPTER
14
polygon
than four
is
a plane
in Fig. 103.
POLYGONS
104.
shown
are
rectilineal figure
circle.
If it is
required to
bounded by more
straight lines.
Triangles
it will
regular polygon
is
one in which
and
all
a convex quadrilateral,
greater than two right angles, i.e.,
convex polygon,
which no angle
is
like
is
it
Fig. 103.
one in
has no
convex polygons.
Draw
sides; or
(2) Draw the bisectors of two or more of the angles
of the polygon.
In either case the intersection of the lines so obtained
In the examples
is the centre of the required circle.
of Fig. 103 all the lines thus drawn are bisectors of the
angles.
Each of these straight lines is a radius of the
circle.
No. of
Name.
Sides.
Pentagon
Hexagon
Heptagon
Octagon
Decagon
8
10
all
Inscribed Circles.
POLYGONS
124
.\
LAOB
Third method.
LABC =
^=
in the
right Zs.
Zs
be produced
order.
as
as
Let
= the
number
there are
of
= 54.
i.e.,
4) right
Zs.
= 8 right
exterior
each angular
point the sum of the interior
is
2 right
Zs.
right Zs.
4 right Zs.
hexagon == (12
At
angles.
same
Then
72.
right
.'.
sum
=^X^
= 135.
each angle
.".
sides.
.'.
if
.'.
method.
/.
=8 x y
= 120.
=
Zs
In general,
in various ways.
Consider the pentagon in Fig. 103 (b).
The five isosceles As with sides of the pentagon as bases
and vertices at O are clearly congruent, and the angles at
centre are equal. Their sum is four right angles. This is
evidently true for all regular polygons.
For the pentagon each angle at the centre
\ of 4
right Zs.
= g right
The angle of
Fig. 104.
First
each angle
.*.
125
sum
for
of
all
= 2n
=
the angles
right Zs.
but sum of interior angles
(2n
right
(see
Zs
4)
Fig. 105.
above).
/. sum of exterior angles
4 right Zs.
When there are n sides and thus n exterior angles
,
Zs.
exterior angles
= 4rt.
Zs
360
many
/.
POLYGONS
126
180
109.
Construction No.
180
127
120.
Q Exercise
10.
BC, to
find the
II
To construct a
line.
Let
AB
(Fig.
106)
be the
Method
of construction.
AB indefinitely to P.
construct an angle which, by calculation, is one of
the exterior angles of the polygon ( 108, Third Method).
It was there shown that
Produce
At
Each
.*.
at
Along
exterior angle
= 360
n
B construct an angle
PQ mark
Then BC
is
off
BC
PBQ
360
equal to
= AB.
a side of the
polygon and
(c)
angles.
used.
(b)
(a)
6.
The sum
to the
sum
polygon?
How
LOCI
lie
on the straight
equal
CHAPTER
15
LOCI
1
10.
Meaning of
a Locus.
in
length to
line
it.
PQ
129
which
The points
is
parallel to
AB
and
from AB.
We
definition
(see also 6)
the fine. Take any point C on AB and draw CK, perpendicular to AB and one centimetre in length. Then the
at the end of the fine satisfies the condition of
point
being one centimetre from AB. Similarly, taking other
and E and drawing perpendiculars
points on AB, such as
DL, EM, each one centimetre in length, we obtain the points
L and M, which also satisfy the condition.
It is clear, from previous work, that all such points must
111.
What
128
12.
in
One
Plane.
130
LOCI
In Fig. 72
OP
is
I3i
5.
Locus
distant
from
of
Points
EquiFixed Points.
Two
Therefore, join AB
the perpendicular bisector of AB, viz., PQ.
Then, as in the theorem of 68, any point on
distant from A and B.
.'.
PQ is the required locus.
1
14.
Two
PQ is
D
Ellipse
Fig. 109.
equi-
Intersecting
it
taut, so that
string taut,
the point at
will travel along a curve.
Since the length
of the string is constant, and the distance between
and
and QX must be constant.
Q is constant, the sum of
Thus, the point moves round a curve so that the sum of
its distances from P and
is constant.
The resulting curve is an ellipse, which may therefore be
defined as:
PX
LOCI
132
PQ
AB
as
Then
Bisect
at 0.
PC
= OB = CD.
I.e.,
its
.".
of the ellipse.
and Q are called the foci.
116.
r 33
Is
P is
equal to
similar
point can be
-X
-77
B
-
The
/-
p-
parabola.
as in Fig. 110.
f-
r
~
Fig. 110.
OP.
Thus a number
sides of
is called a parabola.
X
-
OP
The more
Algebraical.
*34
Let OX,
OY be two straight
LOCI
each
other.
135
OX
and
OY
(Fig.
112),
we proceed
= 2,y = 4.
It will
<i
"
1
-7
ll
j|JM
TTTT1TT1
j|4|jjj
:
nTnffl
'^{fUttti
Fig. ill.
such that
This
is
= ax
ffl+t+ iiiiiin
11111
|::ffl:::::::X
1
o
1
a.
Let a
x2
1+
J|]j||| illlllllliir-ttF-m-ri
Parabola
1.
0-5
1-5
2-5
0-25
2-25
6-25
Fig. 112.
that all points on it, besides those plotted, will satisfy the
condition y
x2
This can be checked by taking points
on it, finding the corresponding values of x &ndy and seeing
if they do satisfy the condition.
Further, it will be clear
that there are no points on the plane, not lying on the curve,
which satisfy the condition y =, xz
For convenience, different units are employed for x
and y.
The curve is thus the locus of the points, which are such
LOCI
136
OX
is
17.
i 37
The
may
The Hyperbola.
= x-
OX
1
1
3
4
Hijperbola
Fig. 113.
When
The Cycloid.
This curve
is
mark
will
curve
is
LOCI
138
.*.
139
if
OA
above
(
I
If
AC
be
drawn then
ABC
is
triangle
and
the circle
Cycloid
Fig. 114.
circle starting
19.
Intersection of Loci.
When two
two
Example
is
I.
and
any two
points,
Then PQ
PQ
and B
(113).
Let
of
C be a
third point,
bisector
SC.
Then RS is the locus of points equidistant from B and C.
be the intersection of PQ and RS.
Let
lies on PQ it must be equidistant from A and B.
Since
lies on RS it must be equidistant from B and
Also since
C.
.'.
distant
i.e.,
OA
sets of conditions
=0B = OC.
and
is
equi-
Fig. 115.
drawn as
PQ
RS
AC
140
LOCI
The
locus of
all
Exercise
1.
The centre
12
loci:
m
m
which rolls
wheel of radius 1
in a vertical plane over a smooth horizontal surface.
which rolls
(b) The centre of a wheel of radius 1
round a wheel of radius 2 m.
(c) A runner who runs round a circular track, always
from the inner edge of the track.
keeping 1
(a)
of a
A number
2.
same
side of
it
vertices?
On
3.
triangles are
vertices ?
vertices.
What
does
it
appear
is
of
Fig. 116.
ABC
45,
B).
D?
If
7. AB is a straight line and P is a point without it.
P moves so that the perpendicular from it to AB is always
one-half of
XY
its
distance from A,
what
is
the locus of
P?
is
?
is the locus described by
of unlimited length
straight lines PQ and
Show how to find points
at an angle of 45.
intersect at
which are one centimetre from each of the straight lines.
Show how to find a point
is an angle of 60.
10.
lies
9.
on XY, what
XY
Two
POQ
which
is
OP
THE CIRCLE.
amount
CHAPTER
16
In
arc.
is
they subtend
at
121. Sector.
That part of a
two
radii
sector.
AOB
is
a sector.
In a
circle of
LAOB
AB
is
143
an
of rotation,
is described by A, and
the corresponding angle through
which AB turns.
The angle AOB is said to stand
on the arc AB, while the arc AB is
said to subtend the angle AOB at
the centre of the circle. Both arc
and angle are described by the same
amount
of rotation.
Theorems.
Equal arcs in a circle subtend equal angles at
the centre.
Equal
previous theorem.)
(2) (The converse of the
equal
upon
stand
angles at the centre of a circle
(1)
arcs.
When,
as stated above
and
142
Quadrants
Sector
Fig. 118.
Fig. 119.
Chord.
The
straight line
on
/tv
(1)
v
tl
The value ofr the
errors of measurement,
If
its side
ratio
-=
is
-j-.
= circumference
= diameter.
Then
143
circumference
,,
f
allowing for
diameter
found to be the same in ail cases.
^-
'
and
circle.
THE CIRCLE.
144
is
a constant
number,
d
(2) This constant number will probably be found by
the above experiment to lie between 3-1 and 3-2.
If this constant ratio can be determined accurately we
have a rule by which the length of any circumference can
be found when the diameter is known.
The problem of finding the ratio exactly has exercised
mathematicians for many centuries. The Egyptians arrived
at fairly good approximations and the Greeks at more
exact ones. Modern mathematics has, however, found a
method by which it can be calculated to any required degree
of accuracy.
Its value to 7 places of decimals is
3*1415927
This is universally denoted by the Greek
letter n (pronounced " pie ").
.
Thus
it
= 3-1415927.
less
accurate value
^ = 3-1428
it is
to 7 places.
= 3-1416.
is
3$,
i.e.,
ty.
Since
The value
otherwise stated.
figures.
it is
will
be
C
d
= length of circumference.
%= n
= length of diameter.
length of radius.
r
Then
i 46
THE CIRCLE.
C = ird
or
147
= 2r
or since
= 2irr.
123.
AB
AB
Fig. 121.
Let a
r
Then
length of arc.
radius of circle.
angle subtended at the centre
by AB in degrees.
as stated above:
3605
360
For example,
circle of radius
if
2irr.
Fig. 122.
of
2 cm:
x 2* x 2
_ 4 X 31416
S8B
4rc
2-51
cm approx.
Let
Then
and
area of
area of
area of
OP = h.
AOAB = \AB X h
hOBC = \BC x h,
AOCD = \CD X h.
148
the polygon.
Taking the
As corresponding
to other sides of
125.
Area of a Sector of a
Circle.
As
sum
of these areas
arc.
+CD
.)
|(perimeter of polygon)
xh
x h
.".
rf
(A)
Area of sector
(1)
The sum Of
approximately equal
sides
the
of the
The sum of
to the
the
Area
of
This formula
may
also
trr*.
diameter.
If
d diameter
d=*2r.
^q
# Exercise
1.
In a
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
polygon becomes
149
2.
circle of
5-cm
irra-
13
the circumference;
the arc of a quadrant;
an arc subtending an angle of 60;
an arc subtending an angle of 45 (n
circle of radius
an equilateral
triangle.
3-1416).
cm
What
is
CHAPTER
17
126.
If
It
which
may
lies
in Fig. 123.
Theorem.
The
Segment
perpendicular
Fig. 123.
bisector of
PQ
being the
It
perpendicular bisector of
of all points equidistant from A
113).
151
AB.
and
152
.*.
128.
= OB since
OA
But
To
must
is
circle.
In the
circle
and
the centre.
on PQ.
lie
153
(B)
in
distant
ABC
(Fig. 125)
AB
is
a chord of known
length.
In the circle
chords.
ABC
(Fig.
126),
AB
and
DE
are equal
Fig. 126.
Fig. 125.
Fig. 124.
From
To
find
OP perpendicular to AB.
the distance of the chord AB from O.
draw
the centre
of OP
The length
is
Required to prove:
and OQ, are equal.
From
OP2
.".
is isosceles.
perpendicular
In
OP
AOPB,
OP2
(62
+ PB = OB (Pythagoras).
OP = OB - PB
.-.
Whence OP can be
AB
cor. 3).
(A)
found.
Let
Let
OP
128
h2
+ =r
I
same
letters as in 128).
Then
or from (B) in
+ PB = OB
(using the
.
centre,
(A) in 128
AOAB
= length of chord.
= length of PB.
h = OP.
r = radius of circle.
21
from 0.
is
Theorem. Chords of a circle which are equifrom the centre are equal.
distant
Substituting in (A)
h*
+ = r*
h =r -P
l*
(B)
130.
From
theorem
is
readily deduced.
154
Theorem.
is
In the
than AB.
circle
ABC
(Fig.
the centre.
Required
to
As
Proof.
prove :
or
OP and
is
.Yin equation
+ PB =OB*
= r*
h? +
'
(A)
h be increased,
and DE,
:.
QD > PB
oq<op,
131.
will diminish,
and
II.
ABCD
the centre.
which
is
common
to both,
viz.,
must be
AB
is
Construction No.
To
through
Exercise 14
chords.
XA =
AB
since
CD
AB passes
(B)
all
Fig. 128.
(B), if
centre.
vice versa.
.". for the chords
viz.,
OQ, intersecting at 0.
OP> OQ.
Fig. 127.
DE
greater
1*
In this result
Draw
before,
OP*
DE
in a circle
155
Construction.
it is
required to find
AB
AX
AB
XY
ANGLES
Proof.
In
CHAPTER
ANGLES
132.
Angle
in a
IN
157
1st case.
AOAP,
OA
:.
loap
OP.
LOPA.
SEGMENTS
Segment.
is
ACB
Theorem.
Fig. 131.
arc of a circle
LBOQ =
LAOQ + LBOQ =
:.
ZAOB =
i.e.,
2nd case
(Fig.
(LOPA
twice
ZAPB.
Subtracting
LOPB),
131).
as above:
= twice
= twice
Z.AOB = twice
LQOB
LQOA
and
LOPB.
twice
twice
is also called
subtends at the centre is twice that subtended at any point on the remaining part of
the circumference.
AOBP.
obtuse.
SEGMENTS
18
IN
LQPB,
LQPA.
Z.APB.
centre,
Q,
it
is
and
adding,
reflex
Z.AOB
twice
ZAPB.
158
ANGLES
in
in this case,
equal to
two
AOB,
IN
Fig. 134,
SEGMENTS
is
isg
a "straight" angle,
i.e.,
right angles.
Join OC.
= OC
= OC.
OA
OB
Then
also
LOAC = LOCA
LOBC = LOCB.
LOAC + LOBC = LACB.
:.
But
since the
sum
;.
:.
two
right
angles.
Z.ACB must be
a right angle.
-This
136. Quadrilateral
inscribed
in
Theorem
a circle.
is
easily
The
following
proved by the
of 133.
Fig. 133.
Fig. 134.
mentary.
double any angle in the segment, because any angle was
taken in the proof, it follows that all the angles in the
segment must be equal. This striking and important fact
may be embodied in a theorem, as follows
Theorem.
Angles
in
In Fig. 135,
135.
special case of this theorem
following theorem.
is
contained in the
Fig. 135.
Theorem.
The angle
in
a semi-circle
is
a right
angle.
Then
and
Proof.
LA + LC = 2 right Zs
LB + LD = 2 right Ls.
Join O to B and D.
all
and
reflex
LBOD(x) = 2LBCD,
LBOD(y)1= 2 LBAD.
133)
(133)
circle.
i6o
LBOD +
but LBOD(x)
LBCD + LBAD),
= 4 right angles.
LBCD + LBAD = two right angles.
.'.
Similarly
by
LBOD =
reflex
+ reflex
to
joining
A and C
LB + LD =
# Exercise
cm
1. In a circle of 6
contains an angle of 40.
2.
twice
LBOD(y)
it
may
19
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
2 right angles.
137.
15
Meaning of
a Tangent.
AB.
OP
is
On
circle
LAOB =
90,
LAOC
= 120.
circle,
The
centre 0.
of the
triangle.
4.
CHAPTER
be shown
On
a straight line
AB, 6 cm
ABB
DE
drawn
and E.
Prove that B, C, D,
lie
on a
circle.
AD
and BC
are parallel chords of a circle
OD.
intersect at 0. Prove that OC
in a
is a cyclic quadrilateral, i.e., it is inscribed
9.
105,
LBPC
If
P.
at
intersect
diagonals
its
8.
AB
and
CD
ABCD
circle,
and
LBAC =
40 and
LADB =
30.
Find LBCD.
Fig. 136.
TAT 1
161
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
139.
Theorem. The tangents at the extremities
of a chord of a circle are equal.
162
straight line
OP which
has throughout been perpendicular to AB, is now perpendicular to AT, the tangent.
These conclusions can be embodied, in the following
(1)
tangent
is
In Fig. 138
PQ
is
a chord of the
circle,
163
centre 0.
38.
The above
method
of solving the
following construction.
Construction No.
Fig. 138.
At
12.
a tangent to the
P and Q to 0.
P and Q draw perpendiculars to
Join
OQT:
common hypotenuse;
(2)
.*.
OT
OP
is
= OQ.
In particular
also
and
101)
TP = TQ
LOTP = LOTQ
LTOP = LTOQ.
(2)
straight line
Fig. 137.
which joins
to the circle.
centre.
Join OP.
At P draw
is
chord
XY
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
j64
Construction No.
To draw
out the
From
cases.
the circles
{a),
Of external
165
13.
a tangent to a circle
circle.
ABC
(centre 0),
Fig. 140.
(2)
Two
OPT,
(6)
Construction.
Circles which
Two
(b),
one
circle
common
AB
tangent,
produced, must
the
pass through
contact,
of
point
since a tangent is
perpendicular to the
radius at the point
Fig. 139.
HI,
Join P to 0.
Bisect OP at Q.
On OP as diameter construct a circle OAPB, centre Q
cutting the given circle at A and B.
Join PA, PB. These are the required tangents, there
being two solutions to the problem.
Since OAP, OBP are semicircles,
Proof.
OBP are right angles ( 135).
OAP,
/.s
,V
.'.
PA and PB are tangents to the circle, ABC.
Of
of contact.
142.
Construction No.
4.
To inscribe a circle
in a triangle.
An
inscribed circle of
triangle, as of any
rectilineal figure is a ci rde
to which the sides are
tangential,
i.e.,
it
touches
all
sides.
If
PQR
be the inscribed
circle of
the
AABC
(Fig. 141)
166
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
Draw
167
AOC.
Join BC.
the diameter
ZACB
Then
is
an angle
in
ACB,
corresponding to Z.BAQ.
Required
Note.
prove
angle which
What
.'.
to
LBAQ = LACB.
(1)
is
segment.
may
is
C
Angles made by a tangent with a chord at the point
143.
of contact.
is
a tangent to the
circle
ABD
Fig. 143.
/-BAQ
Proof.
also
(since
angle).
LBCA
LABC,
Subtracting
The
AB
(2)
LBDA
ment
.".
to
it is
Now
and
But
LBAC
a right angle
right angle
being the angle in a semi-circle,
is
a right
ZBAQ =
=*=
+ LBAC m a
.-.
BDA.
link
-f
zlBCA.
LPAB.
ZBDA.
Z.BDA.
i68
Exercise 16
1.
Show how
to
PQ.
to
How
which is
many such tangents can be drawn?
circle
SIMILAR FIGURES.
cm
In a
circle of radius 3
CHAPTER
20
parallel
RATIO IN GEOMETRY
When the conditions under which triangles are congruent were examined (47) it was pointed out that
triangles with all three corresponding angles equal were
not necessarily congruent. For this to be the case at least
one pair of corresponding sides must also be equal.
In Fig. 144 are three triangles with corresponding angles
in length.
Fig. 144.
equal.
The
same shape.
scales.
lines.
cm and
cm
inscribed circle.
Fig. 145.
FE,
HG
parallel to
AB
and intersecting
thus forming As
OP
Again,
as shown,
are equal.
Similarly, the angles at A, C, E,
.-.
OGH
the similar As
G
.
"
are equal.
have corresponding
angles equal.
/. they are similar triangles.
Triangles which thus have corresponding angles equal
are said to be equiangular to one another.
Hence, the definition of similar triangles may be stated
thus: Triangles which are equiangular to each other are
Also,
OQ
it
_4
rI
GEOMETRY
0G_4
OE~'Z'
OH _OG
OF~OE
by drawing straight
may be shown that:
EF
fines
EK, CL,
AM
parallel to
_ OF _ 3
AB~OB~\
GH _ 0_H _ 4
and
EF~0F~3'
IN
OGH, OEF.
OF ~3
in
Off
being
GH
The parallel
cut by the transversal OQ the corresponding angles at B,
D, F,
RATIO
SIMILAR FIGURES.
i 7o
Similar conclusions
Ratios of Lengths.
may
GH
_
ob~\
OF
.
i.e.,
Fig. 146.
anQ
OE _ 3
OA~r
OF _ OE
OB ~ OA'
in
all
Hence,
it
is
AB_BC_AC
DE ~ EF ~ DF'
DEF in
Fig. 144,
SIMILAR FIGURES.
i 72
RATIO
IN
GEOMETRY
173
is
angle,.
(1)
Draw any
angle as
POQ
(Fig. 147).
n
tzaPOQ=
'
AB = CD = EF,et C
UF
m m
identified
of angles
be consulted.
The term tangent as used above must not be confused
Note.
circle as defined in
Chapter
19.
Fig. 147.
(2)
OGH
are similar,
and
For example,
V
AB_CD_EF = GH
0B~~OD~ OF
OH'
No
matter
Hence, for all such cases it is true to say that the ratio
perpendi cular drawn from ofie arm
distance intercepted on the other a rm
constant for the angle
POQ.
and cosine.
Clearly
AB _ CD _ EF _ GH _ side
POQ
sine
how many
OH
Is
The
Two
opposite
hypotenuse
'
on,
Thus
POQ
= AB = CD = EF
m m m
*
etc.
hypotenuse
Thus
side adjacent
_ OF _ OH _
_ OD ~~
~
OB
UA
~~
OC
OE ~ OG
is called
hypotenuse
SIMILAR FIGURES.
174
Thus
cos
POQ
it is
used above,
is
same number
triangles, viz.:
(a) All
(b)
GEOMETRY
175
if (a) is
similar.
150.
Construction No.
To
IN
= qj=qq, etc.
RATIO
ratio of
similar
15.
2.
Fig. 148.
Both are
Example
size.
Fig. 149.
AB
176
SIMILAR FIGURES.
The solution of the problem depends directly upon Construction No. 9, 87.
into (3
5 equal parts as follows.
First, divide
2)
at any convenient angle.
From A draw
Along
mark off with dividers 5 equal distances.
Join CB. From the points of division on AC draw straight
lines parallel to CB to meet AB.
Then
is divided into 5 equal parts.
Let
be the straight line joining the 3rd points from
AB
AP
From
the
mth point
on AC and AB.
Let x be the length
AB.
AE = 3x
Then
and
EB = 2x.
Then the
ratio of
AB
is
In practice
it is
AB
it
necessary to draw
on AC,
viz.,
Corollary.
177
D, draw
= n
EB
Since ACB is a
triangle
it
may
be concluded
See Theorem in
84, for
a special case;
The areas of
3:2.
Note.
=
^
DC
the ratio of
151.
AE _3*_3
EB~ 2x~ 2'
of division
DE parallel to CB.
AP
AB
DE
RATIO IN GEOMETRY
CB
and
DE
only.
times.
generalised thus.
{Fig. 150) in
line
radius.
Thus,
if
Then
ratio of areas
= \ ==
of the
Fig. 150.
AP
Drawing
Theorem
it
(m
+ n)
equal
64).
178
#Exercise
1.
AB
In a
and
BC and cutting
is drawn
and Q. AB =5 cm and AC = 8 cm.
AP PB = 2 3. Find the lengths of
QC. If PO - 6 cm, find BC.
AABC, PQ
4<2,
PQ
ABC
AB
Prove
PQR
CD
^=
{Hint.Join
DB.)
4 Divide a straight line 8 cm long in the ratio 4 3.
If the perimeter of
5. Trisect a line which is 10 cm long.
an equilateral triangle is 10 cm, construct the triangle.
6. The perimeter of a triangle is 14 cm and its sides are in
the ratio of 3 4 5. Construct the triangle.
7. Two As ABC, DEF are similar and the altitudes from
A and D are 3 cm and 4 cm respectively. If the area of the
:
smaller triangle
is
22-5
cm2
triangle.
Find
of one square is twice that of another.
the ratio of their sides.
9. Equilateral triangles are described on the side and
diagonal of a square. Find the ratio of their areas.
From three points on
10. Construct an angle of 50.
8.
The area
21
04, OB, 0C
AD
CHAPTER
AC
in
Also, the ratio of
4P, PB,
17
parallel to
152.
Extensions of the
may
be omitted by beginners)
Theorem of Pythagoras.
known
as the
ABC
151
is a
right-angled
triangle,
C
being the right angle.
Denoting the sides in
the usual way by a, b,
Pythagoras,
2
c
(1)
Q
Fig. 151.
c,
then,
by the Theorem of
b\
Obtuse-angled triangles.
AABC
it is
seen that
A = AC.
BC
is
common
Denoting
to each, but
A tB by c v
v.
then
c*
>
A tB
1
(a 2
179
b*).
Let
(a 2
i8o
c,
exceeds
)-
Cl
=a +
2
b2
+X
Acute-angled Triangles.
/.
2
Algebra
(a
represent the
<\a +
2
in
c2
AACD
Thus,
we
(see
X =
1
(I),
above.
.
(A)
that
2ap.
Acute-angled triangle.
AABC
In the acute-angled
it is less.
181
comparing with
find,
).
b2
(b)
).
amount by which
+ p) = + 2ap + p
2
= a2 + Zap + (p* + h2
=p +A
Substituting this value for p 2 + h2 in the result
Then
c 2 = a + lap + 6
But
by
.*.
(I)
On
Let
But
Appendix).
Then
(2)
amount by which
represent the
+&
Then
a2 +
Comparing I and II it is evident that if the values of
Xt and X2 can be found, the relations between the sides of
the
obtuse-angled
and
AD
(Fig. 153),
is
the per-
be definitely established.
In
obtaining
these
values, use will be made
of
pendicular from
algebra.
The Obtuse-angled
(3)
Triangle.
To
an obtuse-angled
triangle
is
drawn
Then
is
simplify the
separately,
method
as
in
is
the projection of
AC
on
BC
Then
produced
AD h and CD = p.
BD = (a + p).
=(a + p) +
2
2
.
and
DC
is
the projection of
AC
letters as before,
= altitude or height
= projection of AC, DC.
Then
BD = a p.
From AABD,
h? = c (a p)".
101)
From AACD,
h? = b p
101)
c - (a -p) = b -p
/.
and
c = (a p) + b
p
h
i.e.
(see
30).
Let
BC
on
AD perpendicular to BC produced.
a vertex.
Then
on BC.
Using the same
Let
Fig. 152.
From A draw
Fig. 153.
From Algebra
(a
.".
- p) 2 = a 2ap + p
2
c2
AABD,
and
(see
Appendix).
Substituting
c2
= (a 2ap + p + b p
= a + b - 2ap
2
(BJ
182
from
Xa =
results (A)
=a +
c2
153.
and
ca
(B).
2ap
=a +
(A)
and
62
2ap
(A)
C2
.
-r^
AC
whence
in Calculations,
t.e.
p
y
= cos ACB,
= b cos C.
Thus
c2
p can be
becomes
a2
b2
2ab cos C
(B)
b cos C,
- 2ab cos C
b2
a2
b2
(A)
and acute-angled
2abcosC,
Example.
The
AC
AB
Fig. 153,
by
b cos C.
formula (B)
154.
in
a*
(B)
term 2ap.
CD
Thus
2ap.
(1)
183
(II),
Summarising the
(2)
we
i84
155.
Area of a Triangle.
:.
be seen that
ACB.
b sin
Area
J (base X height)
But, again, h is not always known. If, however, two
sides and the included angle are given the value of h can
be found in terms of the sine of the angle, viz.
= b sin C.
Area
= \a
A=
or
Example:
Find
the
Jab
b sin C,
sin C.
area
of the triangle
52 (sin 52
and C
ABC
when
jPExercise 18
1. Write down a formula, similar to that in 153, for
finding the third side of a triangle when the following are
known
{b) a, c, LB.
LA.
the
area of a triangle similar
2. Write down a formula for
to that of 155 when the elements of the triangle which
(a)
b, c,
c,
when
ABC,
find
when
= sin ACB.
t
o
In an obtuse-angled triangle
4.
it will
185
BC
*= 11
cm and
sin
= 0-9397.
SYMMETRY
line
such as
CD
opposite sides.
(4)
CHAPTER
SYMMETRY
156.
An
IN
GEOMETRY
187
ellipse is symmetrical, as
shown
in Fig. 109
GEOMETRY
IN
What
is called
most forms
An Axis of Symmetry.
has been stated above that there was symmetry about
certain straight lines, e.g., the circle about any diameter.
The straight line about which a figure is symmetrical is
called an axis of symmetry.
A test which may be applied to many geometrical figures
as to their symmetry is that, if they are folded about
an
158.
Symmetry
Fig. 155.
in Fig. 155.
circle is divided
(1)
parts which are similar.
It
and which
familiar to those
who have studied the algebraical treatment of graphs.
The following experiment in folding will be found
is
useful.
Draw
OY (Fig. 112), that is, for positive values of x. Then fold the
paper exactly along OY. Now prick through a number of
points on the curve. On opening out the paper a series of
points appears on the other side of OY which are corresponding points to those made on the curve.
The curve drawn
i88
SYMMETRY
from
the axis of
and
at the
same distance
IN
4PExer&'5e 19
Which
What
symmetry.
(a)
square.
(b)
rectangie.-
(c)
two intersecting
(d)
a sector of 3 circle.
triangle with angles
45, 45, 90.
circles.
(e)
159.
Isosceles Triangle.
(g)
The
about AC.
Cut out the triangle and then
The triangle A BD
open it out
.
made up
will appear,
of the
ACD are
&ABD is sym-
As ACB,
identical, the
metrical about
Consequently,
(1)
(2)
(3)
{4)
AC
as an axis of
symmetry
157
(2)).
5 62).
160.
it
possible for
an
drawings,
architect or engineer, when preparing working
the axis of symto draw half of the figure only, on one side of
is frequently
metry. The other half, being identical with it,
which is
in
half
the
shown
being
details
all
the
unnecessary,
drawn.
GEOMETRY
(/)
trapezium.
triangle with angles
s
30 , 60, 90
(h)
a regular Pentagon.
which
PARALLEL PLANES
CHAPTER
23
PARALLEL PLANES
163.
it will
by straight
lines
which are
191
parallel.
The planes
Let
and
(Fig. 158)
These
or surfaces
Another example nearer to hand is that of the two outside surfaces of the cover of this book, when it is closed and
laid on the table.
These are everywhere the same distance
apart and will not meet if extended in any direction. They
are parallel planes.
Parallel planes may thus be defined in the same way as
parallel straight lines.
Definition. Planes which do not meet when extended in
any direction are called -parallel planes.
horizontal planes are parallel (see 28), but this is
not necessarily true for vertical planes. The corner of a
room marks the intersection
of two vertical planes which
meet; but the two opposite
walls are generally parallel
vertical planes.
Fig. 158.
All
162.
Planes
same
to
line
is
allel.
In Fig. 157
and
represent two plane surfaces or
planes.
perpendicular to both planes ( 29).
igo
Required
AB
and
to
which intersects
in
AB and
prove
CD
are parallel.
which the
straight
Fig. 157.
Proof:
If AB and CD are not parallel they will meet if produced. Then the planes which contain them must meet if
extended. But this is impossible, since they are parallel.
.".
AB
and
CD
plane Z.
,\
AB and CD
are parallel.
lie
in the
same
192
164.
planes,
and
In Fig. 159
is a straight
ABC
CHAPTER
and C
PRISMS
respectively.
P and Q.
24
165.
Geometrical Solids.
volume."
The
may be termed
166.
cross-section of a Solid.
Required
to
prove
LABP =
/.ACQ
irregular in outline.
Proof:
ACQ is
in
BP and CQ respectively.
BP and CQ are paraUel
They
are cut
by the
X and Y
163).
transversal
is
will
be a rectangle.
ABC.
167.
Prisms.
solid.
in 2 is a common
Fig. 160 represents a solid of
this type.
193
194
PRISMS
195
shown
in Fig.
162.
is a triangle.
An example is
Similarly, there may be hexagonal
169.
When
circle
the
and
PQ
a normal
as
is
called a
is
as a base.
Its
Such a section
normal section.
same as that
which was not
of the
same
size
Consequently,
a square
If all
when
it
Fig. 162.
is
a square prism.
six faces are squares
it is
Note.
The student may construct an oblique prism by squeezing
the two opposite faces of the cover of a match box, as described
in 76.
Fig. 163.
called a
plane
cylinder
made
end
DFE
all
normal
surface.
is
196
170.
PRISMS
a Prism.
197
is
the
sum
The
metre; (notice that each face has an area of 1
).
As before
practical unit is the cubic centimetre (cm 3).
there are many alternatives available, and, in addi( 89)
tion, there is the litre (I), really a unit of capacity, which is
3 (cf. the are).
equal to 100 cm 3 or 0-001
2
173.
Volume of
In Fig. 165,
a Prism.
ABCD
represents a rectangle 4
cm by
3 cm.
a Cylinder.
The
=
=
Area of ends.
Area
.".
of
each end
= tw2
= 2-nr
2
.
Fig. 165.
-7Xr*
Area of curved
Fig. 164.
whose adjacent
.'.
.".
surface.
and
h.
2tttK.
area of curved surface
total area of surface of cylinder
a cubic
2-rrr
is
2-rrr/l
2irr(r -f h).
or
It
=
=
198
volume of prism
= (area of base)
PRISMS
height.
Volume of a
175.
199
Cylinder.
ABCD
Let
be a lateral side of a right prism which is
inscribed in the cylinder.
When the number of sides of the polygon which is the
base of the prism is large, the straight
will be very nearly equal to an
line
arc of the circle, and the volumes of the
prism and cylinder will be nearly equal.
If the number of sides of the polygon
inscribed in PQ be greatly increased, and
consequently the number of lateral faces
of the prism similarly increased, the
volume of the prism will be approximately equal to that of the cylinder.
When the number of sides be inA Q
creased without limit, we may conclude
Fig. 167.
AB
that
Volume of cylinder = volume of prism.
Using the volume law for Prisms ( 174)
.".
Volume of cylinder
area of base x height,
prism law of volume holds for a cylinder.
Fig. 166
Prism
Law
Then
of Volume.
7tr
Let
the
Let
174.
I.e.,
base
/.
volume of cylinder
= Trr 2 h.
Volume of prism
area of base
height.
section
2.
= area of crdss-section
height
is
40
cm 2
A rectangular
cm X
prism
is
made
of
7 cm.
Find its weight in
metal weighs 4-18 g.
Volume of prism
Exercise 20
metal and
if a
grams
11
cm x
cm3
of the
is
aoo
3.
long,
and
its cross-section is
2-5
cm2
What
is
3-8
volume?
order to make a
is its
s
4. 1
of lead is hammered out in
square sheet, 0-2
thick. What is the area of the square?
5. It is required to make 1 000 cylindrical drums, 3-5
high and 3
in diameter.
What is the total amount of
tin required, if 10 per cent is wasted in the cutting?
(Take
71
= 3-14.)
What volume
of
jam
will
mm
What
CHAPTER
25
PYRAMIDS
176.
Construction of a Pyramid.
In Fig. 168,
ABCD
mm
is
Fig. 168.
base,
and four
common
Fig. 169.
triangles
PDA
with a
vertex P.
201
PYRAMIDS
202
177.
Regular Pyramids.
pyramid
and
178.
The Cone.
equilateral triangle
Pyramid.
(called the base)
203
solid,
cone
Fig. 172.
B
Fig. 170.
A, and
PA
PA
and
PC
until
coincides with
with PC.
of the cone
Fig. 171.
AP is also known.
'.
OP
= VAP* OA
3
.
2o4
Geometry
We
of the cone
of a Pyramid.
PD
DA
following theorems
Theorem
may now
The
(I).
triangles.
Zs POB, POC
= OC
= po + oc
po +
PB = PC
pb = pc
:.
.'.
:.
i.e.,
and the
is
PB = PC (proved above)
BQ = QC (construction)
(3) PQ is common.
As PQB, PQC are congruent.
particular LPQB = A.PQC.
(1)
(2)
.'.
In
.'.
PQ
is
perpendicular to BC.
(Compare
Definition
62.)
-angle
(
between the
lateral
face
30).
The
(2)
the
sum
(1)
the area
lateral faces.
Q be
be proved
edges of a regular
slant
i.e.,
Let
Then PQ
relations
The
PYRAMIDS
OB
ob 2
2
APBC is
isosceles.
(1)
Area of the
base.
The base
is
a regular
In each of these
asPQ in Fig.
2
,
recti-
Considering the
Area of
APBC,
= \BC X PQ
= | base edge
slant height.
206
In the same
sum
.".
way
may
PYRAMIDS
.'.
181.
To
QR
surrounding circle.
Let a perpendicular be drawn from P to the middle of
RQ.
The length
as in 180,
Total area of lateral faces of pyramid equals
limit
(1) the perimeter of the base of pyramid
the circumference of the base of the cone
=
= slant height.
h = height.
= vV + h
Then
Area of curved surface of cone = |(27tr
=
/
is
equal to
I)
-rrrl
.'.
PQR
If
Let
curved surface.
\QR x
Cone.
207
(2) the perpendicular from P to QR is indistinguishable from the slant height of the cone.
(3) the lateral surface of the pyramid is equal to the
curved surface of the cone.
be found.
total surface of
cone
= trr +
= Trr(r +
2
== Tzr(r
182.
Volume
Fig.
CH,
-rrrl
I)
Vr*
+h
i
).
of a Pyramid.
DE
2o8
volume of pyramid
(area of base)
By
Volume
of a Cone.
in 181
for
volume of cone
= volume of a cylinder with equal base and height.
Fig. 176 represents a cone, PABC, and a cylinder,
EABCD, on the same base and having the same height
being the centre of the base.
OP,
ABCDE may
of the cone.
Thus, the
vol. of
scribing cylinder.
a cone
is
radius of base
= height of cone.
Volume of circumscribing cylinder = Tzr%.
Volume of cone = fnr h.
f
Let
.'.
184.
DE
is
a section
-r*
IT
height.
209
PYRAMIDS
Fig. 176.
EFGH
between the
removed.
,
,
The top part of a funnel is an example of a frustum
bucket,
everyday life. Among many other examples are a
lamp-shades.
a flower-pot and many
,
no
# Exercise
21
the cone.
5.
AB =
(2)
OQ
pyramid
of Fig. 173
when
OP = 5-1 m.
OP = 10-8 cm.
conical tent
each of
whom must
6.
of the
3-2 m,
11-7 cm,
height of
of the base?
pyramid
Egypt
450
high and has a square
base of side approximately 746 m. Find (1) the slant
edge, (2) the slant height, (3) the volume.
8. Each of the sides of the base of a regular hexagonal
pyramid is 2
long, and the height of the pyramid is
7.
in
is
lateral surface.
10. In a cone
m
m
CHAPTER
26
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
185.
The Cylinder.
If the
complete rotation.
Treating this more generally, in Fig. 178,
OPAB represents a rectangle with one side
OP fixed. This rectangle rotates round OP
Fig. 178.
as an axis of rotation.
and
all
186.
stand
it
it
2I.J
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
212
the hypotenuse,
is
the generating
line.
AO
as
as
C and D
213
AB rotates
it
started
C and D
A'B'
and D' respectively
will be at
and every point on AB will have
in the position
marked out a
semicircle.
AB
PQ
AB
The Sphere.
The two diameters AB,
188.
187.
AB
length.
APBQ
(Fig. 181)
PQ of the circle
being the centre.
are perpendicular to one another,
as
Let this circle rotate completely in space round
an axis of rotation.
will rotate to the position of Q, and
In a half rotation
and C will
any point C to C. Continuing the rotation
return to their, original positions and the completely
enclosed solid, known as a ball or sphere, will have been
Now, suppose
AOQ
continues to intersect it at
and the angle
constant for any position of AB. Any points on
remains
AB such
214
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
CGHF
a small
215
circle
NHAS
circle.
It
may
Any
Great
section of a sphere
circles.
is
section
a circle.
passes through the
centre of a sphere is called
a great circle.
Thus, in Fig. 181 PDQ
and ADB are great circles.
which
The
is
sphere.
CEC
189.
rotating completely
It is not an exact
sphere, being slightly flattened at the ends of its axis of
These ends are termed the North and South
rotation.
Poles {see 32).
Fig. 182 represents the earth as a sphere, centre 0, NOS
being the axis of rotation.
.*.
represents the North Pole and S the South Pole.
represents a great circle, perpendicular
The circle
and S. It is known as
and halfway between
to
the equator.
and OS represent the north and south directions
represent the east and
(see 32) and OE and
from
,
EABW
NS
ON
west directions.
OW
190.
The
is
NGBS, and
NGB
Latitude.
The quadrant arc
NOB, at the centre of the sphere.
this can be divided into 90 degrees.
(1)
angle,
subtends a right
As
stated in
22,
Corresponding to
each degree on
it
circle
2l6
BOG
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
BG
diameter
poles
of 122
Let
Then
= radius of sphere.
area of surface
(2)
GKH
is
and
192. Surface
NHAS
191.
217
is
Volume
4rrr 2 .
of a sphere.
Volume of sphere
= f-rrr 3
The
The three solids are shown in Fig. 183, the sphere being
inscribed in the cylinder, i.e., the bases of the cylinder
and
cone, and the curved surface of the cylinder touch
the
sphere. They are therefore tangential to the sphere.
_
Let r
= radius of sphere.
of cylinder
and cone
2i8
SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
and that the earth
Of cylinder
Of sphere
(1)
(2)
= 2nr
2r
= 4nr*.
= <Lkt\
mm
< 2r -->
Fig. 183.
Volumes.
Of cylinder = nr2 x 2r
Of sphere
Of cone
= tw2 x 2r
of volumes = 2 f
(1)
(2)
(3)
.',
ratio
3
.
3
.
=6:4:2
= 3:2:1.
= sum of volumes
What
2-nr3 .
= frtr
= fnr
of
Exercise 22
is
INTRODUCTION
The student
PART
II
FORMAL GEOMETRY
INTRODUCTION
As was
stated on p. xvii, Part II of this book is designed to provide a short course in formal or abstract
geometry. The theorems which comprise it are arranged
so that their sequence provides a logical chain in which
all geometrical facts which are employed in a proof have previously been proved to be true. In Part I, when theorems were
proved, appeal was frequently made to intuitive reasoning
or to conclusions which emerge from the considerable body
of geometric knowledge which is the common heritage of
modern
civilisation.
included.
220
after studying
to test his mastery of it by
memory. It is also advised
solve the exercises, or " riders
end of each section.
221
Th.
10).
ANGLES AT A POINT
223
Theorem 2
SECTION
ANGLES AT A POINT
(Converse of Theorem
Theorem
one
straight line
it is
two
right angles.
1)
lines
on opposite sides of
If
angles
straight lines are
two
in
it
line.
A
Fig. 185.
Given.
CD
lines
AC
and
CB
at C, so
that
LACD + LBCD =
Given.
OC
line
AB
at 0.
= a right
\
t.e.,
LAOC + ZBOC =
L.
two
LBOD,
To
AC
Construction.
and CB are
Produce
CD
AC
but
Since
same
straight line.
to any point E.
CE and CB must
coincide,
222
in the
line AE at C,
LACD + LDCE = two right Zs (Th. 1)
but
LACD + LDCB = two right Zs {given).
LACD + LDCE = LACD + LDCB.
:.
Subtracting the LACD from each side.
LDCE = LDCB.
/.
Proof.
.'.
right Zs.
prove.
224
Theorem
If
two
straight
lines
SECTION 2
intersect,
the vertically
Theorem 4
Two
Given.
To
and
The
straight lines
AB,
CD
intersect at 0.
LAOD = LBOC
prove.
Fig. 187.
LAOC = LBOD.
Since AO meets CD at 0,
Proof.
LAOC + LAOD = 2 right Ls (Th. 1)
:.
and since CO meets AB at 0,
LAOC + LBOC = 2 right Zs (TA. 1)
:.
LAOC + LAOD = LAOC + LBOC.
/.
From
it
may
As
prove.
(1)
(2)
AB
lies
be proved that
Z.BOD.
Since
And
AOD
BOD
AO
LDOE.
4. The line
toY. Prove
along
the
ADEF so
that
D.
DE.
(given)
AABC to
A falls on
AB = DE
Since
Exercise 23
BOD,
two
are congruent.
AB
lies
AC
:.
1.
are
AB = DE
AC = DF
LBAC = LEDF.
Apply the
The point
Proof.
away LAOC.
ZAOC =
DEF
ABC,
included
To
ZAOD= ZBOC
:.
Similarly
Given.
AOB,
XO
is
produced
must
AC
since
.".
lie
along DF.
= DF,
the point
falls
on
F.
sides of ADEF.
226
Theorem
one
If
angle so formed
is
2-
0A
0B
,
+w al^e
(2)
AABC, BC
%^ q
produced to D.
is
prove.
Ext.
interior opposite Ls
Construction.
Join FC.
Proof.
In
(constr.)
As are congruent
(Th. 4)
(2)
(3)
In particular
But
:.
To prove
ext.
But
/.
LACD
is
(constr.)
(Th. 3)
LEAB = LECF.
LACD > LECF.
LACD > Z.BAC.
LACD > LABC.
If A C be produced to
be proved that
angles
AE = EC
BE = EF
LAEB = LFEC
(1)
.
As ABE, FCE
G and BC
bisected,
it
5)
>
prove
In
4.
Given.
al"e
between them
To
3.
Fig. 188.
227
Exercise 24
can similarly
3)
PARALLELS
SECTION
is a triangle.
of its sides
is produced to C,
exterior angle of the A.
LRSC >
/.
in
Theorem 6
cuts two other
If a straight line
straight lines so
that the alternate angles are equal, then the two
straight lines are parallel.
Fig. 189.
If
must meet.
228
But we
Theorem
6 which follows
is known as
Reductio ad absurdum ". This form of proof assumes
that the theorem to be proved is untrue.
When this leads to a
conclusion which is either geometrically absurd or contrary to the
data, it follows that the assumption cannot be true. Consequently
the truth of the theorem is established.
XS
One
either direction.
and
so that they
meet in X.
Then XRS
PARALLELS
produced in
229
(Def.).
.'.
will
interior
/.XRS
LBRS
LRSC
is
an
(Th. 5}
LXRS = LRSC.
hypothesis, viz.,
and
lines
is
AB
and
CD
contrary to the
LRSC.
it
direction,
by
definition
AB
and
CD
are parallel.
23
PARALLELS
Theorem 7
Ifastraight line cuts two other straight lines so
that
(I) two corresponding angles are
equal;
(2) the sum of two interior angles on the
same side of the transversal is equal to two
Playfair's Axiom.
cannot both be parallel
is
is
Two
two
lines
which
intersect
Theorem
to the
8.
right angles
the
straight
231
Theorem 8
(Converse of Theorems 6
If
two
and
7)
right angles.
P
Fig. 190.
PQ
or.
To
Zs PRB, RSD
+ /.RSD =
(1)
corr.
(2)
/.BRS
prove.
Proofs.
/.prb
/-ARS
AB
.*.
(2)
but
/BRS
is
is
=
=
AB
(Th. 3.)
is
common
to
/ARS =
But these are alternate
and
Given.
a transversal.
To
CD
+ ABRS =
+
+
is
each case.
LARS.
/RSD,
angles.
parallel
/.ARS
/_RSD
/-ARS
AB
AB
are equal:
2 right Zs.
AB is parallel to CD in
(1)
.'.
Since
to
prove.
(Th. 6.J
rt.
Zs
(Th. 1)
parallel to
AARS =
alt.
LARS
it is
/.RSD.
draw a
LERS =
given that
secting straight
both parallel to
PQ
ERF
.\
(Th. 6}
two
corr.
(3)
But
CD
are
Zi?SZ).
angles,
alt.
(1)
(2)
CD
CD.
232
But
cannor be
tme^
011
ZARS
*'*>
(2)
^^
=
Z ^ R5 + Z5^5 =
SmCe
and
2 rt
Zs
-ARS
:.
CD
PQ is
and
are
two
233
25
perpendicular to
AB.
and a
Prove that
it
is
CD.
are two parallels and PQ cuts them at
and A.RSC are bisected by i?L and SM
also perpendicular to
3)
= Z.RSD
'
AB
transversal
*>
.-.
# Exercise
^ RSD
1.
(Th
and
3)
DOt e 1 Ual to
iS
ZRSD.
AARS = LPRB
Since
PARALLELS
axiom
C^-
AB
2.
CD
Z#S
and
and
S.
respectively.
J)
(proved above)
AC
that
In
4.
Theorem 9
another.
same
RL
is parallel
to
SM.
straight lines
is parallel to
parallel to
Prove
Two
3.
AABC,
BC
cuts y4B
line
that
LAPQ = Z^0P.
5. ABC, DEF are two congruent As, with AB = DE,
BC = EF, etc. P and () are the mid-points of AC and
Z>F.
Prove BP =
6. The sides
.4C of the AABC are bisected at D and
From
sides
Fig. 192.
Proof.
Since
CD
is
parallel to
CW
Ls> xh.
XY,
XY
AB is paraUel to XY
"
Because
to
angles,
AB is parallel to CD
(Th. 7)
8)
SECTION 4
ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE AND POLYGON
Theorem
The sum of the angles of
two right angles.
10
a triangle
equal to
is
Theorem
The sum of
233
sides.
Fig. 193.
ABC
Given.
To
is
Sum
prove.
Construction.
any
triangle.
Zs
2 right Zs.
Produce one of its sides, say
BC
parallel to
BA.
of its
From C draw CE
AB is
Proof.
CE, and
ABAC = LACE
/.
Also
parallel to
AB
paraUel to
is
{alt.
CE and BC
AC
Fig. 194.
to
Construction.
8)
Adding
Then
Proof.
are sides,
sum
FOr
Partf~
It may be
= 2 right Zs (Th. 1)
A = 2 right Zs.
important theorem
with an asterisk,
it is
proved that
is
equal to the
see
60 of
marked idovo
above
inln
As
= 2n
as there
Zs. (Th.
10.)
right Zs.
int.
= 4 right Zs.
+ 4 right Zs = 2n
Zs
right Zs.
of regular polygons
105, Part I) this result
may be expressed algebraically as follows (
Let x"
each of the equal angles of a regular polygon of n
sides"
Then nx
360
180 or as shown in 108, Part I.
234
E + 4 right Zs
(2)
of angles of the
sides.
A, B, C, D,
An
Let
/.
.".
be a polygon of n
of angles at
Join
cuts them.
.-.
ABCDE
To prove. Sum
= In right Zs.
cuts them.
Ls, Th.
Let
Given.
236
Theorem
237
Exercise 26
12
LA
ABC
LDAC =
AD
LABC.
3.
In a
AABC,
bisector of the
The
BX
CY
to
AB.
6.
Given.
sides
its
(in this
exterior angles
To
prove.
= 4 right
Zs.
Proof.
Z + int. Z =
the ext.
.'.
sum
of int.
Zs
for
-f-
all
sum
2 right
Zs
(Th. 1}
the n vertices
of ext.
Zs
= 2n right
Zs.
But
sum
of int.
/.
Zs
sum
Zs = 2n right Zs
Zs = 4 right Zs.
+ 4 right
of ext.
(Th. 11)
SECTION 5
TRIANGLES (CONGRUENT AND ISOSCELES)
Theorem
Theorem
Two
14
13
two
if
two
If
angles and a
side of
239
Fig. 196.
Given.
(1)
is
2 right Ls,
LBAC = LEDF.
A DEF so that BC
Then B coincides with E and C
Remaining
(2)
A ABC
Let the
lies
be placed on the
along EF.
Given.
To
Proof.
(1)
:.
(2)
LABC = LDEF,
BA
ED, and
^4
(3)
must he on
ED
or
ED
produced.
CA
will lie
along
lie
on
must
lie
FD
or
at D.
B falls on E, C on F and A on
AABC coincides with A DEF.
Since
:.
As ABD, ACD
produced
:.
D,
as in
line
which bisects
at D.
ACD
AB = AC
AD is common to both
LBAD = LCAD
Corollary.
produced.
.'.
As ABD,
{given)
As
(constr.)
are congruent
ZABC =
In particular
LACB = LDFE,
Also, since
:.
;.
In
= AC.
LABC == LACB.
Let AD be the straight
Construction.
the
AABC, AB
In the
prove.
with F.
Since
Fig. 198.
Fig. 197.
(Th. 4)
ZACB.
If
equal.
;'.e
For further
Part
I.
Theorem
Theorem
15
two
241
16
Fig. 199.
Given.
ABC
is
prove.
AB = AC.
Construction.
To
bl
m D.
Proof.
(1)
(2)
(3)
.'.
As ABD,
In
ACD
= LACD
Z&4D = LCAD
Z.ABD
v4D
is
Fig. 200
LACD.
ABAC, meeting
ACD
AB
Proof.
Let
in the As.
along EF.
Since BC
(given)
(constr.)
are congruent
= AC.
(Th. 13)
ADEF
to
= EF, C
so that
falls
on E, and
Similarly,
.*.
As EGD, FGD
In
Similarly,
Adding
i.e.,
ED = EG.
FD = FG.
are Isosceles.
LEGD =
(77. 131
AFGD = LFDG (Th. 13)
LEGD + LFGD = AEDG + LFDG,
LEDF = LEGE.
AEGD,
BC
F.
.-.
AABC
Apply
a side of each A.
As ABD,
In particular
and
242
But
:.
(2)
.-.
(given)
(given)
In As ABC, DEF
(Th. 4)
(1)
Theorem
ZDEF
.-.
(proved)
;.
(given)
DG.
;.
AB = DE
AC = DF
ABAC = LEDF
(3)
DE =
ADEG is isosceles.
LDEF = LDGF.
LDGF = ZABC.
But
In As ABC, DEF
(1)
AB = DE
But
243
(2)
17
(3)
Two
ZABC.
AC = DF
LACB = ZjOFE
LABC = LDEF
(given)
(gwm)
(proved)
;.
hypotenuse
(Th. 13)
Exercise 27
line which joins the vertex of
isosceles triangle to the mid-point of the base, (1) bisects
the vertical angle, (2) is perpendicular to the base.
Prove that
2. Two isosceles As have a common base.
the straight line which joins their vertices, produced, if
necessary, (1) bisects both vertical angles and (2) bisects
1.
an
Fig. 201.
Given.
As ABC,
AC =
hypotenuse
AC = DF.
As ABC, DEF are congruent.
prove.
Construction.
Produce EF to G making FG
and
To
.'.
In
Since
EFG
= BC.
AF
is
(3)
line,
and
LDFE
is
AC, CF.
AC = DF
BC = FG
Z^CB = LDFG
BE
ADEF which is thus formed
equilateral.
In any AABC, equilateral As ABD, ACE are constructed on the sides AB and AC. Prove that
CD.
on BD, the bisector of an angle
7. From any point
Prove
ABC, a straight line is drawn parallel to BA or
that the triangle formed in each case is isosceles.
on AD, the bisector of an angle BAC,
8. From a point
perpendiculars OE and OF are drawn to
and A C respectively.
Prove that OE
OF.
6.
a right Z.
As ABC, DGF
(2)
a straight
is
LDFG
(1)
is
DEF
Join DG.
Proof.
right L.
AB =
DEF
(given)
(constr.)
(right
As)
BE =
BC
AB
INEQUALITIES
Theorem
SECTION
If
two
19
INEQUALITIES
Theorem
245
18
it.
Fig. 203.
In
Given.
Fig. 202.
Given.
To
In the
prove.
Construction.
AABC, AC
Proof.
In
In
Proof.
If
equal to
AB
AD (constr.)
AABD = AADB.
AADB > int. ABCD.
AABD > ABCD.
therefore is
it
must
either be
AC=AB.
But
this is
greater than
AACB.
AC is not
(Th. 5.)
(2)
.'.
equal to
AB.
AC < AB.
Then AABC < AACB.
If
this is contrary to
AC
is
what
is
(Th. 18.)
given.
AB nor less
AC > AB.
neither equal to
.-.
244
AB
Then
But
If
(1)
AABD, AB
:.
prove.
BD.
ABDC ext.
Much more
To
> AB.
> AACB.
AC > AB.
AABC, AABC
than
it.
INEQUALITIES
Theorem 20
Of
Theorem
Any two
247
21
Fig. 204.
Fig. 205.
Given.
To
is
prove.
Proof.
In
But
But
in the
opposite to it
t.e.,
< OQ.
AOPQ, ext. LOPB > int. LOQP.
LOPQ = LOPB (right Ls\
LOPQ > LOQP.
:.
OP
AOPQ
Given.
ABC
is
AB + AC > BC.
BA to any point E.
From AE cut off AD = AC.
Produce
Construction.
Join DC.
Proof.
In
AACD,
;.
> OP,
< OQ.
triangle.
(Th. 19).
OQ
OP
any
Any two
To prove.
But
;.
AD = AC
{constr.)
LACD = LADC.
LBCD > ACD,
LBCD > LBDC,
{Th. 14)
But
since
.'.
;.
Similarly
sides can be
.
proved greater
248
SECTION 7
PARALLELOGRAMS
^Exercise 28
1.
point
D is taken
inside a triangle
ABC, and
ioined
less
and
C.
Prove
Definition.
.4 parallelogram
opposite sides are parallel.
than OC.
is
quadrilateral
whose
Theorem 22
3.
it
LAOC.
6.
that
point
OB
> OC.
is
AABC
such
is
ABCD
LBAD < LBCD.
Prove
AD > CD.
Fig. 206.
AB <
ABCD is
Given.
To
prove.
sides
AC
equal,
AD = BC.
Opposite Ls equal,
LBAD = LBCD.
i.e.,
(2)
(3)
a parallelogram and
Opposite
(1)
The diagonal
AC
is
i.e.,
a diagonal.
AB = DC,
LADC = LABC,
gram.
In
Proof.
(1)
(2)
(3)
As ABC,
ADC
AC is
ADC
=
ZADC =
In particular
is
Similarly,
one
it
(alt.
Ls,
CD, Th.
{alt.
Ls,
BC, Th.
common to both As.
As ABC,
Each
= LDCA
LACB = LDAC
LBAC
AB
AD
AB
DC,
half of
the parallelogram,
is parallel
to
(Th. 13)
BC.
ZABC.
may be shown
to
8)
are congruent
AD =
is parallel
8)
BD,
that
in area.
LBAD =
LBCD, and
249
PARALLELOGRAMS
25 o
Theorem 23
The
Theorem 24
parallelogram
diagonals of a
25i
bisect
each
and
(Converse of Theorems 22
other.
quadrilateral
a parallelogram
is
23)
if
(I) its
or
(2) its
or
one another.
A
Fig. 207.
To
AC
and
AO =0C,B0 = 0D.
In As AOD, COB
LOAD = LOCB (alt. Ls, Th. 8)
LODA = LOBC (alt. Is, Th. 8)
BD
are
its
prove.
Proof.
(1)
(2)
Fig. 208.
AD = BC
(3)
.*.
In particular
As AOD,
Part
(Th. 22)
COB are
AO =
BO
Given.
(1)
To
is parallel to CD,
Construction.
Joint
congruent.
OC,
OD.
(2)
AB = DC
AD = SC
(3)
BD is common.
(1)
/.
As ABD,
Part
(2).
To prove.
AO
AB
ABCD
Given
is
fete)
are congruent
is
is
BC.
(given)
(Th. 16)
alternate angles.
.".
and
BCD
to
LADB = LDBC.
In particular
.*.
is parallel
BD.
As ABD, BCD
In
Proof.
AD
parallel to
parallel
BC.
to CD.
a parallelogram
= LABC
LDAB = ABCD.
Z.ADC
ABCD is a parallelogram.
(Def.j
PARALLELOGRAMS
252
Proof.
Theorem 25
LA + LB + LC + ZD = 4 right
LA = ZC and Z5 = ZD.
But
Substituting,
/.
I.e.,
AD
may
it
Zs.
Zs.
is
=2
Zs
to
parallel
be proved that
ABCD
.'.
AB,
cut by
of interior
.-.
Similarly
+ 2 Z5 = 4 right
LA + LB = 2 right
2 Z.4
/.
Ls.
is
right Zs.
BC
AB
(Th. 7)
is
parallel to
a parallelogram
DC,
(Def.)
Fig. 210.
AB
Given.
They
To
is
Fig. 209.
Part
To
Giwew.
(3).
i.e.,
ABCD
prove.
Proo/.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Diagonals ^4C,
= OC, BO = OD.
AO
prove.
is
COD
AO=OC.
BO = OD.
Z40S = ZCOD
As AOB,
.*.
In particular
:.
Similarly
it
alt.
COD
AC
In
and
(Th. 3)
are congruent.
alt.
(Th. 4J
LODC.
AB is parallel to DC.
ABCD
is
BD.
BD.
Join BC.
As ABC,
AB = CD
BCD
(given)
BC is common.
(alt. Ls, Th. 8)
(3) LABC = LBCD
As ABC, BCD are congruent. (Th.
particular
AC = BD
LACB = LDBC.
AC is parallel to BD. (Th. 7J
:.
.*,
(Th. 7)
that
AD is parallel to BC.
.'.
is
(2)
LABO =
may be shown
In
(1)
a parallelogram.
As AOB,
In
Proof.
BD
are joined
Construction.
at 0,
253
a parallelogram.
(Def.)
4)
254
PARALLELOGRAMS
Theorem 26
Theorem 27
straight line
255
points of
third side
it.
Fig. 212.
Fig. 211.
Given.
PQ
is
To
From
drawn
BC, meeting
parallel to
AC
prove.
is
bisected at Q,
AQ =
From
Construction.
produced at R.
AC
A ABC,
in Q.
To
PR
parallel to
AB
:.
In
(2)
(3)
.-.
AB
(constr.)
a parallelogram
is
RC = PB
= AP
to meet
AC
As APQ, QRC
LPAQ = LQCR
LAPQ = LQRC
(2)
AQ=QC
(3)
of
AB, AC,
sides of
(alt.
(alt.
As,
Ls,
AB is parallel to CR)
AB is parallel to CR)
(given)
In particular
But
AP==~-
:.
[given]
(proved)
AQ = QC
mid points
PQ is parallel to BC.
PQ = \BC.
Through C draw CR parallel to BP to meet
In
(1)
(def.)
is
are the
Construction.
produced at R.
In particular
i.e.,
(given)
QRC
AP = RC.
L APQ = LQRC
As APQ,
(1)
BC
PQ
Proof.
to
is parallel to
(1)
(2)
QC.
C draw CR,
is parallel
CR
PRCB
prove.
i.e.,
PQ
Proof.
Given. P and
the AABC.
As APQ,
PB
;.
and
PB
:.
is
PB.
= RC,
parallel to
RC.
parallel
(Th. 25)
PQ = QR.
But
bisected at Q.
.*.
(Th. 13)
PQ
is
:.
PQ
- *PR
= *BC.
parallel
to
BC and
equal to half of
It.
PARALLELOGRAMS
a56
Theorem 28
Exercise 29
1.
ABCD
diculars
AP,
G
F
s
and
...
AG = BD, CH = DF.
CH
another
;. they are parallel to one
In
As ACG, CEH
(1)
2
(3)
.-.
As ACG, CEH
In particular
But
and
constr.\
(Th. 9)
AG = CH.
AG = BD,
(given)
(corr.
.
(AG
/.s,
Th.
are congruent.
and
BD
CH =
8)
is parallel-to
DF.
DF.
CH, Th.
(Th. 13)
CD
or
CD
perpenproduced.
AP = BQ.
E and F are the mid points of AB and AC, two sides
of the AABC. P is any point on BC. AP cuts EF at Q.
Prove that AQ = PQ.
and CD
3. E and F are the mid points of the sides AB
from
AC = CE
LACG = LCEH
LCAG = LECH
the
From A and B
to meet
parallelogram
and
ABCD.
Through
its
Prove
that
diagonals intersect
AG parallel to BD.
CH parallel to DF.
Quads. AGDB, CHFD are parallelograms
AG
of
drawn
AD
Draw
Draw
(given
Since
are
AB, CD,
Proof.
BQ
2.
Fig. 213.
Construction.
a parallelogram.
Prove
respectively
Given.
is
AECF is a parallelogram.
4. ABCD is a parallelogram
iM
/ H
257
8)
parallel to
AB,
bisects
AC.
AREAS
ABE, CDF
SECTION
figures
i.e.,
AREAS
239
it,
the remaining
must be equal
parallelogram
EBCF
rect.
ABCD.
The area
of a parallelogram is measured
Corollary (I).
by the product of the measures of the lengths of its base and
its
altitude.
Corollary
Theorem 29
Corollary
equal to that of a
alti-
Fig. 214.
To
Area of parallelogram
prove.
EBCF =
area of rect.
ABCD.
Proof.
(1)
(2)
(3)
In
As ABE, DCF
LAEB = LDFC
LBAE = /-CDF
AB DC
{corr.
{corr.
Ls, BE,
Is, AB,
CF parallel)
DC parallel)
ABCF,
if
the equal
As
(3).
in area.
AREAS
26o
Theorem
Theorem 30
equal to one half of the
same base and between
the
on
area of a rectangle
the same altitude.
having
or,
the same parallels,
The area of
a triangle
is
fd
Area
Proof.
and
\
of
\ area of rectangle.
ABCF is
a parallelogram and
"
AC
is
prove.
Since
As ABC,
DEF have
on equal bases.
(Th. 22)
/. their altitudes
(Th. 29)
Since
AG
and
.'.
i.e.,
are equal
AG = DH.
i.e.,
\ (base X altitude).
or
on the same base, or on equal
Triangles
2.
Corollary
are equal in area.
altitude
same
bases and having the
area have the
Corollary 3. If triangles with the same
equal.
are
altitudes
their
bases,
or equal
Area
Proof.
same
it,
AD is parallel to PQ.
Draw AG, DH perpendicular to PQ.
Construction.
a diagonal.
But paraUelogr'am^BCF
/.
side of
To
AF parallel to BC.
{given)
Since FC is parallel to AB
AF is parallel to BC {constr.)
From A draw
Construction.
bases, in the
31
Fig. 215.
To
261
AG
and
/.
DH are
AD
and
PQ
are parallel
(Th. 25)
262
If
AREAS
Theorem 32
on the
Given.
parallels,
rilateral.
DC
is
half that of
the parallelo-
263
ABCD is a quad-
It is required to construct
a triangle equal in area to it.
Join AC.
Construction.
Join PC.
PCB is the required triangle.
AACD = PAC
Proof.
To each add
;.
Fig. 217.
in area
AACB.
A PCB =
quad.
Parallelogram
Given.
AB
DE.
To prove. Area
gram ABCD.
Construction.
Proof.
AB
/.
area of
But
.'.
of
AABE =
ABCD.
same base
the
to
one.
i$
number
of sides.
D
half the area of parallelo-
Join AC.
and
DE
are parallels.
AACB =
AACB =
AABE
area of
AAEB
J parallelogram ABCD.
=I
parallelogram
(Th. 22)
ABCD.
Fig. 219.
PBCD.
process, at the next stage this quadrireduced to the equivalent triangle, PDQ.
264
Exercise 30
ABCD
on the
Through a point
drawn parallel to AB and
being on AD and F on AB. Prove
is a parallelogram.
1
are
diagonal AC, EOG and
BC,
SECTION 9
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
FOE
respectively,
3.TC3.
Theorem
Show
'
is
(Theorem of Pythagoras)
99).
ABCD
produced
AADY in
area.
33
\.
_,,
Join
AE
and CH.
265
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLES
66
Proof.
Step
Zs BAC and
1.
KA
.'.
Theorem 34
Zs.
Similarly
Step
LHBA = ZC
2.
Add Z4.BC
Sfe^> 3.
(rg& Zs)
HBC
(2)
right angle.
= LHBC
AB = HB
BE = BC
/-ABE
(3)
line.
LHBC = Z^B5.
As ABE,
In
(1)
to each.
/.
267
f>
(proved above)
(sides of square)
(sides of square)
:.
area of sq.
ABHK =
twice area of
AHBC
(Th. 32)
(Th. 32)
Step
5.
But
BEML
by joining
rect.
Step
Given.
LCDM
and
sq.
is
a triangle in which
= PQ* + QR
= AC, and QR = BC
= AC + BC
AB = AC + BC
PR = AB
PR = AB.
PR?
= sq. ABHK.
AD
ABC
AB 2 = AC 2 + CB\
To prove. LACB is a right angle.
Construction.
Construct a APQR such
LPQR is a right angle, QR = BC.
Since LPQR is a right angle
Proof.
AHBC = AABE.
:. rect.
Similarly
that
Fig. 221.
BG
it
PQ
PR2
Since
may
be shown
ACGF.
6.
but
and
In
that
PQ
(Th. 33)
(given)
As ABC, PQR:
rect.
(1)
(2)
(3)
,\
PR
PQ
QR
= AB
=
= BC
(cowsfr.)
(constr.)
As ABC, PQR
In particular
But
(^>rotraZ)
are congruent
LACB
(Th. 16)
ZP@i?.
(constr.)
angle.
= AC,
SECTION
268
9 Exercise
Note.
the perpendicular
student
1.
2.
ABC
is
drawn from
3.
ABC
is
ABCD
the squares
= AC - BC
AS 2
Prove that BQ*
is a rhombus prove that
2
.
AC 2 + BD 2 = 4AB 2
PQRS are two squares. Show how
.
5.
ABCD
and
Any
is
to
AP2 + BC 2 = BP2 + AC 2
ABC.
AD
is
OA 2
= p.
the projection
(30)
units of
length, represent the sides
of the triangle
( 44)
Let
Prove
To
+ OC = OB + 0D\
2
is
of^CuponBC
a, b, c, in
prove.
AB2 = AC 2
+ BC + 2BC CD
= a + b + 2ap.
BD = BC + CD = a + p.
c2
or
that
AD
On
Any point
Then p
on BC.
8.
is
In
AQPC, CRSB
Theorem 35
Before
are algebraical.
On AC and CB
4. If
AD
AB2 - BD 2 = AC 2 - DC2
Prove that
10
Proof.
Since
ABD is
a right-angled triangle
AB 2 = BD 2 + AD 2
Substituting
By algebra (a
-
(Th. 33)
= (a + p) + h
+ p) = a + 2a^> + p (See also Appendix A)
c = a + 2ap + p + h
AC = CD + AD
(Th. 33)
b =p + h
c = a + 2ap + b*
c = a + b + 2ap.
c2
But
or
Substituting
or
AB 2
= AC + BC + 2BC
2
26.9
CD.
270
From
Theorem 36
any
271
p) = (p a)
= a2 + p 2ap (See Appen^
!*
c 2 = a 2ap + p + h
algebra (a
;.
in
(1)
and
But from
is
(2)
AADC
(Th. 33)
+h =b
c = a + b 2ap
or in geometric form AB = AC + BC 2 BC CD.
p2
on substitution
9 Exercise
32
ABC
is
Fig. 223.
and
(2)
produced in
BC
(2).
is
the projection of
=.a
+ b - 2ap.
2
in (1)
AABD.
AB = BD* + AD*.
c = (a - PY + h
c = (p - a) + h
(Tk. 33J
(2)
AC
or
on BC,
AB = AC. CD
BD.
triangle
and BE,
CF
AC.
'
are alti-
In the parallelogram
AC 2 +
BC
.'.
BC
(1)
Proof.
4.
(denoted by h) perpendicular to
(denoted by p)
produced.
or
= 2AB
an acute-angled
Prove that
is
CD
To prove.
AF AB = AE
In Fig. 223
In
tudes.
AD
Draw
or
ABC
(2))
(1)
Then
3.
which
isosceles triangle in
BC 2
In any
(1)
an
is
(2)
above.)
AD
CHORDS OF CIRCLES
SECTION
II
Theorem 38
CHORDS OF CIRCLES
Theorem 37
(1)
circle
The
straight line
a djameter)
Conversely
(2)
273
is
The
straight line
ot
To prove.
AB.
OD is perpendicular to
Join OA, OB.
As OAD, OBD:
Given. A,
straight line.
Construction.
Proof.
(2)
OA = OB
AD = DB
(3)
OD is
(1)
As OAD,
.-.
In particular
OD
,\
Converse
(2)
To
In
is
Draw
(Th. 16)
Proof.
(1)
OA
= OB
(2)
OD
is
(3)
(radii)
common.
In particular
As
and QD.
OBD
AD = DB.
Since
Proof.
is the perpendicular bisector of BC, all
points equidistant from
and C lie on it. (Proof as in 70.)
Similarly all points equidistant from
and
lie on the
perpendicular bisector QD.
is a point, and the only point in which these perpendicular bisectors intersect.
I.e.,
is a point, and the only point which is equidistant
from A,
and C.
.'.
is the centre of a circle, radius OB, which will pass
through the points A,
and C. Also there is no other
circle which passes through these points.
DB.
Zs ODA, ODB
/.
Since A, B, C are not in the same straight line, the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC are not parallel and
therefore must meet.
As OAD, OBD:
In
PE
OD is perpendicular to
AB is bisected at D, i.e., AD =
same
perpendicular to AB.
AB.
prove.
PE
circle
in the
Construction.
i.e.,
One
(given)
Given.
To prove.
and C.
(radii)
common.
(Th. 17)
chord passes
Corollary. The perpendicular bisector of a
through the centre of the circle.
272
CHORDS OF CIRCLES
274
Converse
Theorem 39
To
prove.
Proof.
(1)
Conversely
(2)
equidistant
(2) Chords which are
equal.
are
circle
of a
OP
Given.
(2)
(3)
In
OE = 0A
OP = OQ
LOQE = A.OPA
As OAP,
{radii)
{given)
{right
OEQ
Ls)
are congruent.
= AP.
ED = 2EQ and ,45 =
AB = ED.
.-.
But
= OQ.
AB = DE.
As OAP, OEQ:
;.
275
.*
{Th. 17)
EQ
24 P.
.-.
^Exercise 33
Fig. 226.
DE
(I)
To
prove.
OP
Construction.
Proof.
and
.-.
= OQ.
Join OA, OE.
EQ
AB = DE
(1)
(2)
,
(3)
As OAP,
OEQ
OP
OE = OA
EQ = AP
LOQE = LOPA
In particular
,
(g0
As OAP, OEQ:
In
i.e
{Th. 37)
{radii)
(proved)
(right
are congruent
As)
(Th. 17)
OQ,
SECTION
12
LBOQ =
Adding
(I)
and
:.
Case
LOPB
twice
twice
{LOPA
ZAPB.
2.
With the same reasoning
subtracting I from II.
ZAOB =
:.
Case
As
3.
LAOB =
LBOQ - LAOQ =
of the arc.
twice
twice
LOPB -
twice
ZAPB.
Reflex
in
(II)
LOPB).
as
above,
twice
but
LOPA.
LAPQ.
LBPQ.
twice ZAPB.
twice
twice
ZAOB =
Theorem
Angles
before.
LAOQ =
LBOQ =
Adding
(II).
LAOQ + LBOQ =
Theorem 40
277
AOPB,
Similarly from
41
Given.
(1)
(2)
(3)
When centre
When centre
When LAOB
lies
lies
is
obtuse.
Construction.
ference at Q.
it
in
(2).
two angles
To
1.
But
In
AOAP.OA =0P;
ext.
;.
LOAP = LOPA.
Also
'
Proof.
(I)
/.
ACB, ADB.
LACB = LADB.
-prove.
Construction.
Proof.
Case
is
(Th. 40)
(Th. 40\
278
This
Theorem 42
279
two
a straight line subtends equal angles at
points
two
these
then
it,
of
side
same
points on the
If
line lie
A, B, P and
.*.
lie
on the circumference of
a circle.
on
a circle.
Theorem 43
The angle
in
a semi-circle
is
a right angle.
Fig. 229.
Given.
AB
is
To
i.e.,
prove.
Fig. 230.
the circle
/_BAP.
which passes through A,B
AQ
produced
BAP,
(Fig.
prove.
andP
(1 h.
LACB is
229
(2))
at
some
a right angle.
:.
Also
LOAC
segment.
(Th. 41)
(given)
Note. See
the centre
Join OC.
Proof.
is
in the semi-circle.
.'.
B
ARB are in the same
LAPB = LARB
LAPB = LAQB
LARB = LAQB.
.\
.-.
But
To
any angle
:.
Because A, P. R,
and Ls APB,
ACB
Construction.
Join BR.
Proof.
and
.
Draw
Given.
LACB.
I,
135.
Zs.
Ls.
28o
281
Theorem 45
Theorem 44
angles of a quadrilateral
equal to two right angles,
inscribed in a circle is
supplementary.
i.e., the opposite angles are
If
the
lateral
sum
of a pair of opposite angles of a quadriequal to two right angles, i.e., the angles
is
cyclic.
is
Fig. 232.
Fig. 231.
ABCD
is a cyclic quadrilateral,
Given.
scribed in the circle ABCD, centre 0.
i.e.,
it
is
in-
Proof.
BAD,
If this
is
quadrilateral
B.A.D
.-.
Similarly
by joining OA, OC
it
Ls.
Ls.
may be proved
ZABC + Z.ADC =
is
at
2 right Ls.
a cyclic quadrilateral.
But
LBCP=
that
some point P.
.'.
i.e.,
(Th. 38).
DC produced
.".
ABCD is cyclic.
circle
cut DC, or
Join BP.
ABPD
The
three points
But
angle.
ABCD
To prove.
Given.
posite Zs,
(Th. 45)
(given)
LBPD,
ABCP is
"1
e circle cuts
oo^'
? J?
229
(2) and the proof
is
DC
produced, the
fig.
will
be as in Fig.
282
Theorem 46
equal circles, or in the same circle,
subtend equal angles
In
if
two
Theorem 47
arcs
the centre,
(2) at the circumferences,
(I) at
or
283
J*
G
Given.
and
(2)
To
AGB,
Fig. 233.
circles of
equal radii
APBG, CQDH,
prove.
CHD
The
arcs
are equal.
on
CFD
CQD
at the centre
at the circumference.
which these angles stand, viz.,
APB
Proof.
AE
LAEB =
.',
'
'
i. e
the arc
AGB
(2)
When
AGB =
arc
APB, CQD
are
Two
equal circles
APBG, CQDH,
centres
first
LAEB = LCFD.
AGB =
arc
CHD.
so
.".
circumferences coincide.
falls on D, and EB coincides with FD.,
coincides with
LCFD.
ZAEB = Z.CFD.
Ls APB, CQD equal.
:.
.-.
and
circumference.
arc
,\
by the
Given.
F, in which
.'.
CHD.
given equal.
Fig. 234.
centres
F having
(1)
or
Two
(2)
To prove
Now
and
But
LAPB = | LAEB
LCQD = \LCFD
LAEB = LCFD
Z.APB = ZCQD.
(Th. 40)
{Th. 40)
(proved above)
i.e.,
LAEB
284
Exercise 34
Prove that any parallelogram which
1.
is
inscribed in a
a rectangle.
without a circle two straight lines
point
OCD are drawn cutting the circumference in A, B,
circle is
From a
2.
OAB,
C, D.
Prove
LOAD = LOCB.
A AABC
3.
circle, is
LBOD = ABAC.
AD
In a
A ABC,
AB
PQ
6.
Two
circles
intersect
at
and B.
From B two
Definition.
SECTION 13
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
A tangent to a circle is a straight
line which
Theorem 48
The
(2)
>
tangent to a circle
is
perpendicular to the
radius
contact.
AD
As
^4BZ),
AEC
are equiangular.
Fig. 235.
Given
(1)
The straight
To prove.
is
fine
PQ
PQ
.'.
LOBA
is less
:.OB>OA
.'.
Sim
lies
outside the
lies
OB
(Th. 18)
d h may
7
^A
v
except
JT in
circle.
outside the
circle.
285
PQ
V
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
286
.'.
PQ
Theorem 49
PQ
.*.
is
Common
(Def.)
Converse:
To
Definition.
Given.
(2)
prove.
Proof.
If
pendicular to
.".
LOAB
OB
.".
.*.
is
a right angle.
than a right angle.
than OA.
a radius.
141.
is
But
I,
is less
is less
But OA
circles
it.
Then Z.OBA
.-.
two
tangent
per-
287
OA
PQ
circle again.
is
a tangent
(given)
Given.
Two
circles,
centres
To prove.
and
touch at P.
as in Fig. 236
(a)
or internal
(b).
A,
Proof.
/.
.'.
i.e.,
Zs QPA, QPB
AP and PB
(Th. 48)
(Th. 2)
line.
288
TANGENTS TO A CIRCLE
Theorem 50
If
two tangents
Theorem
external point.
(1)
(2)
at the centre
289
51
of the circle.
(3) They
line joining
make
Fig. 238.
Given.
Fig. 237.
Given.
From a
tangents TA,
and B.
TB
Proof.
In
(1)
(2)
(3)
.-.
OB
OT
=OA
is
(2)
(3)
(1)
(Z)
= TB.
ZAOT - Z.BOT.
Z.ATO = Z.BTO.
at
A- AB
is
the diameter
Join CB,
O)
Proof.
It is
AOC,
being the
on arc
BD, DA.
LACB =
LABB =
in
AB
segment ABC
in
segment ABD.
/LBAQ
/LACB.
LBAP = LADB.
17)
(1)
TA
ABC
circle
'
In particular
a tangent to the
centre.
(radii)
common
LOAT
(1)
is
Construction.
OT are joined.
TB
TA
(1)
(2) LAOT = LBOT (angles subtended
(3) LATO = LBTO.
AsTAO.TBO:
OA, OB,
To prove.
PQ
any chord.
To prove.
.'.
but
43 j
(Th in
(Th
'
TANGENT CONSTRUCTIONS
2go
Z.BAQ
(2)
angle
in
alternate segment
is a cyclic quadrilateral.
2 right Ls
Z-ACB
2 right /Ls.
4-
ADBC
=
LADB +
LBAQ =
LPAB
^AB + LBAQ = LADB +
'
alcn
als0
'
ABC.
Construction No. 17
(Th. 44)
.
fc
LPAB = LADB
'
"
/.PAB
A __
ADB.
Fig. 239.
To draw an
Construction.
circle in T.
From
draw PS
parallel t6
OT, meeting
the circumference at S.
Join ST.
To
prove.
Proof.
i.e.,
but
:.
Also
:.
But
:.
ST
is
common
OQ = 0T PS
OQ + PS = OT
OQ + QT= OT
PS = QT
PS is parallel to QT.
PQTS is a parallelogram
Thus
LPQT is
Ls QTS
a right L.
and PST are right Ls.
291
(Th. 25)
circles.
TANGENT CONSTRUCTIONS
2 92
ST
I.e.,
is
293
Construction No. 19
their extremities.
ST
is
(Th. 48)
circle,
Construction No. 18
To construct an
two circles.
interior
common
tangent to
Fig. 241.
Given.
AB
is
the given
angle.
At
Construction.
Fig. 240.
Given.
Two
Required.
circles,
centres
To draw an
LBAC
construct the
equal to P.
and P.
two
of
AHB
is
the segment
required.
circles.
Construction.
From P draw PS
parallel to
OQ.
Join ST.
ST
is
is
Since
lies
OB
/.
the circle
circle.
Since
LOAC
is
a right angle,
AC
is
a tangent to the
circle.
LCAB =
The proof
Proof.
but
.".
the segment
AHB
(Th. 51)
294
SECTION
^Exercise 35
four sides of a quadrilateral ABCD are tangential
CD BC AD.
Prove that AB
2. The four sides of a parallelogram are tangential to a
Prove that all the four sides are equal.
circle.
3. Show how to draw two tangents to a circle so that they
may contain a given angle.
From
4. A chord AC of a circle ABC is produced to P.
1.
The
to a circle.
a tangent
PB
is
drawn.
Prove
14
TRIANGLE
LPCB
LABP.
I.
Theorem 52
The perpendicular bisectors of the three sides
of a triangle are concurrent (see Part I, 119).
Two
circles,
AP
Prove that
8.
CD
= AC + BD.
AC
is
BD
is
From
a point
TP and TQ
Prove that
LBAD = LOAD.
Fig. 242.
Given.
the sides
Let
To
F be
the
Proof.
In
(3)
of
AB.
As BDO,
As BDO,
(given)
but
:.
are congruent.
OC.
As AEO, CEO,
=OA
= OB
OA = OB.
OC
OC
that
(given)
CDO
OB
In particular
AB.
CDO:
OD is common.
LODB = LODC
;.
Join OF.
perpendicular to
BD = DC
(1)
(2)
mid point
OF is
prove.
295
it
may
(proved)
be proved
In
(2)
(3)
.'.
As
= OB {proved]
OF is common.
AF = BF
(constr.)
are congruent.
.'.
Theorem 53
The bisectors of the three angles of a triangle
are concurrent.
AOFA = ZOFB.
OF
is
297
OA
In particular
.*.
2.
As AOF, BOF:
(1)
in
CONCURRENCIES
2 g6
perpendicular to AB.,
O.
Mote.
Since OA
OB OC, O is the centre of the circumscribing
ABC (see also Part I, 49).
circle of the
D
Fig. 243.
Given.
of
ACB
OB and OC
Z.s
ABC,
AABC.
Join OA.
To
OA
prove.
Construction.
Draw OD,
CA and AB, respectively.
Proof.
(1)
(2)
(3)
LOCD = LOCE
LODC = LOEC
OC
Similarly,
BAC.
OF
perpendicular to BC,
As ODC, OEC:
In
is
(given)
(constr.)
common.
As ODC,
In particular
OEC are
OD = OE.
congruent.
OD = OF.
OD = OE
But
OE
In
OE,
(proved),
OF.
As AOE, AOF:
= OF
(1)
OE
(2)
AO is common.
LAEO = AAFO
(3)
(proved)
As
(right
are congruent.
Ls
by constr.}
ZOAE =
In particular
.*.
The
OA
is
Z.OAF.
the bisector of
ZBAC.
The escribed
To
CONCURRENCIES
298
circles.
299
AB
and E.
BE
angle.
The
hls>
Fig. 244.
Vv
300
CONCURRENCIES
Medians
3.
Altitudes
4.
Theorem 54
301
Theorem 55
vertices of a
triangle to the opposite sides are concurrent.
H
Fig. 245.
Given.
and
are the
of the AABC.
The straight lines AE,
Join
To
CG and
produce
mid points
BC,
AC
BF intersect at G.
to meet AB at D.
it
AD = DB.
H making GH = CG.
prove.
Produce
Construction.
of the sides
CD
to
AH, BH.
AACH, FG joins
i.e.,
Join
In the
Proof.
sides AC, HC.
GB
Similarly
AH
parallel to
is parallel to
(Th. 21)
AH.
from the ABCH, it may be shown
AG is parallel to BH.
.'.
Given.
that
(1)
Similarly
The point G
It is
(2)
GD = \CG.
GD = JCD.
:.
Similarly EG = \AE and FG =
CD
Quadrilateral
.-.
Notes.
AE, BF,
are concurrent.
Construction.
Through the vertices A, B,
straight lines parallel to the opposite sides CB,
respectively, to form the AGHK.
Proof.
AGBH is a parallelogram.
AD = DB (Th. 23)
In
FG is
i.e.,
Fig. 246.
ABCK is
and
:.
Since
CB and KG
GACB is a parallelogram
AG = CB
C draw
AC,
(Constr.}
(Th. 22)
a parallelogram
KA = CB
KA AG.
are parallel
and
AE
is
perpendicular
to CB.
Then
.'.
\BF.
AE
is
AB
302
AE, BF and CD
and
I.e.,
BF
CD
Similarly
GH
and
AGHK.
AE, BF and
CD
GEOMETRY
IN
(Th. 52)
RATIO
15
Exercise 36
2.
SECTION
KH respectively.
AGBH
in Fig. 245.]
sides.
3. Prove that any two medians of a triangle are greater
than the third.
4. The sides AB, AC of a triangle ABC are produced.
Show that the bisectors of the exterior angles at B and C
and the interior angle at A are concurrent.
5. Prove that the perimeter of any triangle is greater
than the sum of the medians.
>
'
(0
<.
>
->-<----
(2)
Fig. 247.
AC _5
BC
~ 3"
if
in Fig.
247
(2)
33
3o 4
RATIO
If
line
AB is said to be divided
m=
m+
P
'
IN
GEOMETRY
35
numbers
(2)
Fig. 248.
may
number such
V2, although
as
is
aV^ units
V2
what
I).
is
v*2
Thus
:
I.
the ratio
Fig. 249.
Fig. 249,
306
produced to
length of
and
BP
BP is V2 units.
Thus
BP BA = V2
at B in the ratio V2
:
AP
RATIO IN GEOMETRY
also
(2)
or
is divided
1.
The exactitude
secured depends on the accuracy of the instruments used
and the skill of the draughtsman.
Straight lines which represent other irrational numbers
may similarly be obtained by the use of right-angled triangles
and the application of the Theorem of Pythagoras to them.
For example, in Fig. 249 the length of CP is V3 inches.
But, it is not possible to obtain a straight line the length
of which is exactly tt units.
Proportional. If each of two straight lines is divided in
Similarly,
(3)
...
and
(4)
may
These
+b=c+d
^g
AABC, AB and AC
AB = AC
AD AE'
Mean proportional.
If a, b, c are
them can
b~c
=6
b = v'
ac
or
Then b
,
c
Similarly,
or
are divided
AE + EC
AB_AC
DB ~ EC
if
and E.
= AE
=
DB ~ EC
AD + DB
(2)
AD _ AE
+d
JD
Fig. 250.
From
~^=
(1),
or
proportionally at
AD _ AE
DB ~ EC
Then by
,
Given
and by
in Fig. 250,
|+1=| + 1
For example
307
is
called
RATIO IN GEOMETRY
38
Theorem 56
If
a straight line
triangle, the
is
drawn
PA
parallel
to one side of a
CA
309
PC_
QC
PA
QB'
and
Corollary.
Q.
Theorem 57
(Converse of Theorem 56)
(3)
(2)
(1)
ff
AB
To
Let
is
PC = QC
QB'
PA
P divide CA
in the ratio
PC
mm,
_m
PA~
ue ->
Fig. 252.
Let
Let
parallel to
n equal parts.
Each of the parts
QC
into
AB.
QB
Given.
To
prove.
In
A ABC,
PQ
Construction.
is
in
QC
is
Draw PR
QB~
r,
Proof.
'
qBC.
parallel to
PA
{Th.2S.)
*
=<
-pg
parallel to
into
QB.
same
prove.
Proof.
ratio,
Fig. 251.
ABC
AC
two
PB^QC
=
BC.
QA
q%
&ven),
(1)
Th 56 Cor-)
-
'
3io
Since PR is
parallel to
Comparing
(1)
and
RATIO
BC.
and from
Join PQ.
Proof.
~ RC
(1)
QC=RC.
:.
(2)
(3)
PR is
PQ
.'.
(2).
QC
But
jn
From
Construction.
AC _ AC
.'.
GEOMETRY
IN
is
BC
As APQ, DEF:
AP = DE
AQ
Ad
(constr.)
Z.D
/.
(constr.)
{constr.)
=DB
fewew)
.'.
parallel to
parallel to BC.
In
But
;.
LAPQ = LDEF.
AdBC = ZDi?
LAPQ = LABC.
(given)
BC
(Th. 7)
PQ
:.
is
parallel
to
Theorem 58
If
two
triangles
AP = DE
But
I,
145-147).
Similarly
it
may
AQ = DF
AB _
AC
and
DE
DF*
be proved that
AC
_BC
DF ~
.'.
To prove.
The
equiangular having
sides of the
As are
AB _BC _CA
EF'
are
all
Fig. 253.
the ratios
LA = LD,
proportional,
i.e.,
(/owed)
equal.
similar.
RATIO
3 i2
In
Theorem 59
GEOMETRY
313
PE = DE.
PF = DF.
EF is common.
(1)
(2)
(3)
IN
As DEF, PEF:
If
LDEF = LPEF
LDFE = ZPF.
LPEF = LABC
In particular
But
:.
Similarly,
and remaining
= ZABC.
ZPf = LACB
LDFE = Z^C5
LEDF = Z.5^C.
(Th. 13)
(constr:
ZDEF
Theorem 60
If
Given.
In
As ABC, DEF,
two
one triangle
prove.
Given.
In As
:.
Similarly,
PE~ DE'
PE = DE.
PF = DF.
ABC, DEF,
LBAC = LEDF
To prove.
and
^=.
As ABC,
RATIO
314
AP
cut off
and
respectively to
Construction.
DE
and
DF.
AQ
equal
Join PQ.
Proof.
(1)
(2)
(3)
In
(constr.)
(given)
(Th. 4)
IAPQ = LDEF
LAQP = LDFE.
AB _AC (given)
DE ~ DF
In particular
Since
and
DE =AP
DF = AQ.
AB _AC
AP ~ AQ'
also
'
Fig. 256.
(constr.)
Given.
(constr.)
CD is
To
and
But
and
,
is
parallel
LAPQ =
LAQP =
LAPQ =
LAQP =
LABC =
LACB =
to
BC
(Th. 57}
L.CAD
LACB.
LDEF
LDFE
LDEF
ABC
As ACB,
Similarly
it
may
Ls)
be proved that
are equiangular and similar.
DCB
As ACB,
LDFE.
(right
common.
{proved)
(proved)
is
AB.
are similar.
LACB = LADC
.'.
the three As
are similar.
equiangular.
As CAD, CDB,
In As ACB, ADC,
LABC
prove.
Proof.
PQ
Theorem
if a perpendicular is
right angle to the hypotenuse, the
similar to the
and
61
triangles
(constr.)
3i5
a right-angled triangle,
AP DE
AQ = DF
LPAQ = LEDF
GEOMETRY
Theorem
In
As APQ, DEF:
IN
this
Theorem with
As ACD,
BCD
AD_CD^
.".
Corollary
tional
2.
The
" CD ~ DB'
AD DB = CD 2
perpendicular CD
.
base.
is
mean propor-
RATIO IN GEOMETRY
3i6
Theorem 62
BA
The
(b)
Given.
In
The proof
Proo/.
Then
EC
in
FB BA
FC = AC'
prove.
drawing
BD
Fig.
AC ~ DC
'
same method as in
and proving AE = AC.
follows the
parallel to
AF
ABAF,
FB _AB^
FC
and
(a)
To
AD
Given.
A ABC, and
meets
bisects
BC at
EC
is
/.
Also
C draw CE
parallel to
parallel to
AD, and BE
LBAD = LBEC
EC is parallel to AD and AC
But
"
{alt.
= AC.
BD
Ls)
[given]
AD is parallel to EC.
BA
As)
cuts them.
LBEC = LACE.
AE
AD
cuts them.
(corr.
LDAC = LACE
LBAD = LDAC
:.
Since
BAC
of the
{a)).
DC ^ AG-
From
Construction.
BA produced in E.
Proof.
an internal angle
D (Fig. 257
BD BA
prove.
since
to
meet
~ AE'
AE = AC,
FB
Fig. 257.
317
AE = AC.
and
FC
AB
_
- AC*
(a)
by
RATIO
3i8
IN
GEOMETRY
319
Theorem 63
of a circle intersect, within or
without the circle, the rectangle contained by the
segments of one is equal to the rectangle contained
by the segments of the other.
If
Theorem 64
two chords
Fig. 269.
As ABC,
Given.
OA .OB = rect. OC OD
Construction.
Join BC, AD.
In As AOD, COB:
Proof.
Rect.
(in
OA
rect.
both cases)
ADEF ~ EF5
Draw AP perpendicular
Proof.
rect.
.".
DEQ
AABP = LDEQ
(given)
LAPB = LDQE
(right As)
(3) LBAP = LEDQ
(VI. 10)
As ABP, DEQ are equiangular and similar.
.
"
but
AP_AB^
DQ~ DE'
AB _BC
= 00
Wft
DE ~ EF
AP
BC
OC OD = OT
As ABP,
'
:.
OT2
to BC and DO
perpendicular to EF.
These are the altitudes corresponding to
the sides BC, EF.
(1)
" 0C~0B'
OA OB = rect. OC OD.
"
(2)
_0D
In
i.e.,
i.e.,
Construction.
(2).
AABC _ BC %
Area of
Area of
To prove.
To prove.
'
EF'
.,
RATIO
320
_
T
Now
'
AABC
ADEF
Area of
Areaof
jBC
AP
(Th
r
Cor
Th -^'
~ ^EFTdQ
a triangle
respectively.
6. .4.BC is
and C
EF
DQ-
But
Area of
Area of
'
AABC _BC
ADEF ~ 'EF
8.
AB
is
a chord of a
Area of
Area of
37
a quadrilateral in which AB
Prove
intersect at P.
is
parallel to
The diagonals
AP_BP
AC ~ BU
Three straight lines OP, OQ, OR are cut by two
straight lines in A, B, C and D, E, F, respectively.
2.
that
AB
BC
parallel
Prove
DE
EF'
From A draw
A.
,42),
perpendicular to BC.
DC
5.
BC
In the
in
I>.
AABC
~ AC
a straight line
On AD any
point
BC ~ AC
FB_FC
that
is
FE _ AF
BC ~
# Exercise
is
Prove
'
is
drawn from
taken.
AAOB _ BD
AAOC ~~ DC
Prove that
is
ABCD
and B.E,
321
BC
x EF
- EFV
1.
GEOMETRY
_BC
CD.
IN
Prove
to
meet
If
CA'
circle;
is
AABT _ATi
AOAB ~ OA 2
'
SECTION
CONSTRUCTIONS
16
323
Constructions
Construction No. 21
Construction No. 20
To
Fig. 261.
divide
is a straight line which it is required to
Given.
internally and (2) externally in the ratio of the lines
and Q of lengths a and b.
of
From A draw a straight line
Construction.
AB
Fig. 260.
(1)
Given,
a, b, c are the measures of the lengths of three
straight lines P, Q, R.
Required.
To
whose length,
find a line
a
b
x, is
such that
AX
indefinite length
cut
_c
~x
OX mark OA =
OY mark OC =
a units and
AB =
& units.
c units.
From B draw
Proof.
CD
BD parallel to AC.
will represent
Since
AC
equal to P,
(1)
(2)
parallel.
E
Proof.
the
is
parallel to
(1)
a
.".
=c
the length of
CD
is
1c
off
CD= b
CA mark
off
LD
DB
In each figure
AABD.
to meet
and externally
=b
EC
is
AE EB AC CD
:
AC CD =
But
.*.
AE
EB
AB
in Fig. 261
=a
at ,
(2).
each case.
in
te -
mark
CX
from
x units.
and BD are
AX
a units in length.
i.e.,
UDitS.
From C draw CE
Join AC.
Then
AC
units.
off
From
b.
b.
(Th. 56)
BD
of
CONSTRUCTIONS
324
AB.BC= BD*
t = % and x* =
and
Construction No. 22
or
To
Corollary.
To
BD
Given.
and
and Q are
straight lines
b units.
To
Required.
that
= rb
x
Construction.
Along
it
On AC
mark
Draw
off
Rect.
draw a
is
ab.
draw a chord
BD
Proof.
AB =
as diameter
Through
xz
or
centre 0.
perpendicular to
circle,
DE
BD~ BC
= BE.
But
.
'
AC.
AB BC = rect. BD BE
_ BE
t.e.,
x units such
AB _ BD
BD~ BC
(Th. 63j
ab.
of the problem:
whose adjacent
Fig. 262.
325
sides are
AB
and BC.
APPENDIX A
(3).
- b) 2
APPENDIX A
c)
xa
xb
ab
angle.
is
as follows-
is
undivided and
the other is divided into any number of parts, then the rectangle contained by the two straight lines is equal to the sum
of the rectangles contained by the undivided line and the farts
line.
of whole
units of area.
Area of parts
a2
(a.+ b)
Area
figure
(a 2
=
62
+ b)
+ ab +
b2
2ab
(a
a*
ab
ab
b*
ab) units.
Geometrical
equivalent.
If
2ab
ab
+ +
(2).
(a-b)'
xc
of the divided
(a-b)
The
x(a
GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF
ALGEBRAICAL IDENTITIES
(I).
327
2
<~ia+b)>
Fig. 264.
Fig. 265.
Examination
sents
APPENDIX
SECTIONS OF A CONE
AND CYLINDER
329
ellipse,
circle,
APPENDIX B
made by
(I) Ellipse.
Oblique sections of both cylinder and cone
produce the curve known as the ellipse. Examples of
these are shown in Fig. 266 (a) and (b).
Fig. 266.
view
in the bases of the cone and cylinder not only in Fig. 266,
but in all drawings in which they appear in this book.
In the case of the cylinder, whatever the angle made by the
plane of the section with the central axis the curve is always
a circle or an ellipse. But in the cone the curve may be a
328
Parabola
Hyperbola
Fig. 267.
Fig. 268.
is
shown
in Fig. 113.
ANSWERS
Exercise 5
ANSWERS
Exercise
1.
Acute,
(1)
(2)
obtuse,
(3)
(p.
acute,
3.
4.
5.
6.
Each angle
7.
10.
11.
A =
(1)
(1)
(4)
obtuse,
(6)
obtuse,
(6)
is
(6)
the complement of
Z.POB
-= 110
40;
120; (2) 270; (3) 720
60; 180; 25
(p. 54)
3.
W. by
4.
W.S.W.
6.
Due
32 40'
8.
112J
33 (or 97)
6.
7.
N.
8.
As
As
29 or 151
AOD, COB are congruent (Theor. A).
in
(Theor. A).
10.
No.
2.
(a)
3.
(a)
(&)
(5)
yes (C)
AD
CB
AD = CB; also As AOC, AOD are congruent
AC
^OD are congruent (Theor. A). .\ CO = OD
Corresponding angles:
10.
(c)
55 45
(c)
(p. 84)
45
90
A = 84, C = 48
B and C each equals
B = 70, A = 40
One
50
9.
(p. 75)
PXB, XYD;
BXY XYC
XYC
QYD
PXA = 60; BXY - 60; DYX - 120; QYD - 60;
PXB = 120
4. ABC = 55; BAC = 85; ACB = 40
6. ACD = 68; ABD = 68; Ci>S = 112; CAB = 112.
6. /-ABC corresponding /-DQR = corresponding Z.DEF
Exercise 8
(a)
8.
2-8
cm
2.
50 cm*
33
(6)
(p. 106)
72, 72, 108, 108
5.
4.
(6)
32-495
9.
12-96
1.
Yes;
2.
(a)
2
;
6.
8.
10.
Exercise 10
(b)
no;
V2m;
(c)
yes;
12 V2
(6)
(a")
(a)
128$!
(&)
8.
0-1
m;
0-17
6.
8.
9;
(&)
140
135;
144
(p.
8.
6.
7.
9.
14.
(c)
120)
(a)
2-6
(p.
144
(approx.);
^m;
23-43 km
8-54
9-68 cm
cm
Exercise
1.
114)
26-1 cm
(c) 87-78 cm'
21-2 cm"
4-8 cm
no
m
m
3-47
6. 77-5
8. 6 cm
10. (a) 10-82 cm'; (&) 10
11. 10-9
(approx.)
4.
Rectangle
(p.
a.
6.
3.
80
115
fourth.
1.
.'.
,
Alternate angles AXY, XYD;
Interior angles BXY, XYD; AXY,
60:
XYD,
QYC
AXY,
2. Following angles are
Following angles are 120: PXA, BXY, XYC,
8.
35,
.'.
As ^40C,
7.
9.
#Exercise 6
67^,
8,
^Exercise 4
1.
(a)
72
30, 60, 90
35, 55, 35
Exercise 9
1.
80)
(p.
44, (i) 112
3
6
E.
cm;
(c)
60, 50, 70
56, 60, 74
(c)
90
9.
10.
(&)
Exercise 2
jko
2 48
45
63,
36, 72, 72
5. 40, 40, 100
6. 60 50, 80
2.
7.
(&)
4.
45"
4-6
2.
70, 70
1.
1.
(a)
8.
(a)
58,
1.
43)
adjacent2.
33i
m
127)
2.
(c)
6.
18
m*
(6)
evTm
332
Exercise 12
1.
ANSWERS
Exercise 17
(p. 141)
(6)
(c)
The circumference
(a)
1.
of
circle,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
2.
3.
4.
31-416 cm,
8-378 cm
(1) 3-1416 in;
(1) 2-618 cm;
(a)
15-5 cm
7. 10-6 cm
9. 17-9 cm 2
10. (a) 5-71 cm 8 ;
2
11. 1-43
13
7-854 cm,
(b)
(2)
0-785 sq. in
(2)
9-59
cm;
5.
(3)
6.
8.
(fc)
1-71
cm
km
(p.
7.
40
cm
cm2
9.
10-9
3-93
11-3
Sine
1-5
3.
24
7.
cm
cm
circle concentric
# Exercise
1-15
9.
95
cm
45
(d)
10-14
cm"
5.
7.
17
circle
=
=
a'
(a)
(b)
b*
(a)
Area
Area
8. c
V3
V2
Z>
a2
=
=
+
+
e2
c
j&e sin
\ac sin
26c cos
2ac cos
V3
and
of radius 4
3. 45, 60,
cos C
0-0069
19 cm (approx.)
= 4 cm
4.
6.
19
72-4
8.
cm2
(approx.)
cm
1.
(/)
(g)
No
(d)
(e)
3.
19 (p. 189)
(a)
75
(6)
(p. 168)
18 (p. 184)
A
B
12
cm
4 cm
4. 2V7~cm
5. A concentric circle of radius
5 cm
6. 80
9. A concentric circle.
10. A straight loe perpendicular to the given straight line at the
given point
11. Two straight lines at right angles to one another and bisecting
the given angles
Two.
Tangent
Cosine
V2
V3
Exercise
1.
(c)
1.
1-19
cm
15 (p. 160)
Exercise 16
BC =
V2:l
#Exercise
2.
4-8 cm,
cm
cm
cm or
4.
QC
2
3-927
(p. 155)
10
cm,
V3~
60"
(d)
98-9689 cm;
2.
(p. 178)
== 3-2
30
(b)
1.
AQ
11.
2.
#Exercise 14
3 cm,
8.
m
m
(c)
PB
10.
149)
5-236 cm,
(c)
2 cm,
15
track
2.
AP =
333
is isosceles
Yes; straight lines drawn from an angular point perpendicular to the opposite side
Three axes; the straight lines bisecting the angles
Yes; the two diagonals
(h)
3.
4.
334
Exercise
1.
3.
72 m>
950 cm"
0-052
3 000 1 approx.
31p approx.
49 cm 8 approx.
1.
144 m;
(a)
15-6
3.
4.
(a)
205-95
2-5
m*
Exercise 21
184-4 m
mm
690 m,
(2)
(2)
(6)
190-9
32-4
cm
680 m,
(3)
4-39 m; 36-7 m
a
10. (1) 33-5
(2) 34-2 ra
8.
11.
38
cm 8
3.
5.
7.
8.
9.
mm
8
54 000*3
476
(approx.)
P.
Abbott
mm
28 cm
210)
Exercise
1.
(p.
ALGEBRA
(6)
6. (1) 17-4 m;
6. 7-98
(1)
2.
7.
199)
2 897 g approx.
6 000m
6. 24-73 m; 415 kg approx.
8. 61 mm
10. 0-16
approx.
km' approx.
6.
9.
(p.
2.
4.
7.
11.
20
22
2.
4
6.
common
(p.
218)
/2112
4-7
5-9 kg
base, and different heights.
5
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