Manufacturing notes

Compiled from various sources I cant be fucked listing

Anonymous 10.11.13

Contents
Manufacturing notes ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1
CUTTING TOOLS ................................................................................................................................................................................ 4
Inserts .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
High-Speed Alloys ........................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Cast-Cobalt Alloys ........................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Carbides ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Tungsten carbide ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Titanium carbide ..................................................................................................................................................................... 7
Coated Tools ................................................................................................................................................................................ 7
Titanium-Nitride coating ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Titanium-Carbide coating ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
Ceramic coating....................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Multiphase coating ................................................................................................................................................................. 9
Diamond coating (PVD, CVD) ................................................................................................................................................ 10
Misc coating (TiCN, TiAlN) ..................................................................................................................................................... 10
Alumina-Based Ceramics ........................................................................................................................................................... 10
Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN) .......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Silicon-Nitride-Based Ceramics .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Diamond .................................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Whisker-Reinforced Tool Materials ...................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Tool Costs and Reconditioning of Tools ..................................................................................................................................... 12
Cutting Fluids ............................................................................................................................................................................. 12
TURNING AND BORING ................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Operations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Turning .................................................................................................................................................................................. 17

Facing .................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Cutting with form tools ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Boring .................................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Drilling ................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Reaming ................................................................................................................................................................................ 20
Parting ................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Threading .............................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Knurling ................................................................................................................................................................................. 23
The Lathe ................................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Chucks (work holding device) ................................................................................................................................................ 25
Types of lathes ...................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Design considerations ................................................................................................................................................................ 29
Trouble shooting ................................................................................................................................................................... 30
MILLING .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
Methods of milling ..................................................................................................................................................................... 32
1.1 Peripheral Milling ............................................................................................................................................................ 32
1.2 Face Milling ..................................................................................................................................................................... 33
1.3 End Milling....................................................................................................................................................................... 35
1.4 Other Milling ................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Types of Machines ..................................................................................................................................................................... 37
2.1 Column and knee ............................................................................................................................................................ 37
2.2 Bed type .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38
2.3

Other ....................................................................................................................................................................... 38

Troubleshooting and procedures ............................................................................................................................................... 39

3.1 Reference Table .............................................................................................................................................................. 39
3.2 Terminology .................................................................................................................................................................... 40
3.3 Operating Guidelines....................................................................................................................................................... 40
BROACHING .................................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Broaching Specifications ............................................................................................................................................................ 47
Broaching Design Considerations............................................................................................................................................... 47

SAWING .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Types of saws ............................................................................................................................................................................. 50
Friction sawing ...................................................................................................................................................................... 50

CUTTING TOOLS
The selection of cutting-tool materials for a particular application is among the most important factors in
machining operations, as is the selection of mold and die materials for forming and shaping processes.
Consequently, the cutting-tool material must possess the following characteristics:

Hot hardness: so that the hardness, strength, and wear resistance of the tool are maintained at the
temperatures encountered in mach n ng operations. Fig 22.1 shows the hardness of various cutting-tool
materials as a function of temperature (hot hardness). The wide range in each group of materials is due
to the variety of tool compositions and treatments available for that group.
Toughness and impact strength (mechanical shock): so that impact forces on the tool encountered
repeatedly in interrupted cutting operations (such as milling, turning a splined shaft on a lathe, or due to
vibration and chatter during machining) do not chip or fracture the tool.
Thermal shock resistance: to withstand the rapid temperature cycling encountered in interrupted
cutting.
Wear resistance: so that an acceptable tool life is obtained before the tool has to be replaced.
Chemical stability and inertness: with respect to the material being machined, to avoid or minimize
any adverse reactions, adhesion, and toolchip diffusion that would contribute to tool wear.

Inserts
High-speed steel tools are shaped in one piece and ground to impact various geometric features
such tools include drill bits and milling and gear cutters. The image below shows the typical carbide
inserts with various shapes and chip-breaker features. The holes in the inserts are standardized for
interchangeability in tool holders.

The image below shows the methods of mounting inserts on tool holders: (a) clamping and (b) wing lock
pins. (c) Examples of inserts mounted with threadless lock pins, which are secured with side screws.

The image below illustrates the relative edge strength and tendency for chipping of inserts with various
shapes. Strength refers to the cutting edge indicated by the included angles.

Chip breaker features on inserts are for the purposes of (a) controlling chip flow during machining, (b)
eliminating long chips, and (c) reducing vibration and heat generated.
Stiffness of the machine tool is of major importance when using carbide tools.
Light feeds, low speeds, and chatter are detrimental because they tend to damage the tools cutting
edge.

High-Speed Alloys
High-speed steel (HSS) tools are so named because they were developed to machine at higher speeds
than was previously possible. High-speed steels are suitable especially for (a) high, positive rake-angle
tools (i.e., those with small included angles), (b) interrupted cuts, (c) machine tools with low stiffness
that are subject to vibration and chatter, and (d) complex and single-piece tools, such as drills, reamers,
taps, and gear cutters.
There are two basic types of high-speed steels: molybdenum (M-series) and tungsten (T-series).
List the major alloying elements in high-speed steels and describe their effects in cutting tools.
The major alloying elements in HSS are chromium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and molybdenum.
Chromium: improves toughness, wear resistance, and high-temperature strength.
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Vanadium: improves toughness, abrasion resistance, and hot hardness.

Tungsten and cobalt have similar effects: improved strength and hot hardness.
Molybdenum: improves wear resistance, toughness, and high-temperature strength and hardness.

Cast-Cobalt Alloys
They are not as tough as high-speed steels and are sensitive to impact forces. Consequently, they are
less suitable than high-speed steels for interrupted cutting operations. They now are used only for
special applications that involve deep, continuous roughing cuts at relatively high feeds and speeds
as much as twice the rates possible with high-speed steels. Finishing cuts are performed at a lower
feeds and depths of cut, and the surface finish produced is a priority.

Carbides
They cannot be used as effectively where high cutting speeds (hence high temperatures) are involved.
However, this condition often is necessary to improve plant productivity. Because of their high
hardness over a wide range of temperatures, high elastic modulus, high thermal conductivity, and low
thermal expansion, carbides are among the most important, versatile, and cost-effective tool and die
materials for a wide range of applications.
The two major groups of carbides used for machining are tungsten carbide and titanium carbide.

Tungsten carbide
Tungsten carbide (WC) typically consists of tungsten-carbide particles bonded together in a cobalt
matrix. The amount of cobalt prese t, ranging typically from 6 to 16%, significantly affects the
properties of tungsten-carbide tools. As the cobalt content increases, the strength, hardness, and wear
resistance of WC decrease, while its toughness increases because of the higher toughness of cobalt.
Tungsten-carbide tools generally are used for cutting steels, cast irons, and abrasive nonferrous
materials and largely have replaced HSS tools because of their better performance.

Titanium carbide
Titanium carbide (TiC) consists of a nickel-molybdenum matrix. It has higher wear resistance than
tungsten carbide but is not as tough. Titanium carbide is suitable for machining hard materials (mainly
steels and cast irons) and for cutting at speeds higher than those appropriate for tungsten carbide.

Coated Tools
Coatings have unique properties, such as

Lower friction

Higher adhesion

Higher resistance to wear and cracking

Acting as a diffusion barrier

Higher hot hardness and impact resistance

The image below shows the relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials,
indicating the year the tool materials were first introduced. Note that machining time has been reduced
by two orders of magnitude within a hundred years.

2 common coating methods:

Chemical-vapor deposition (CVD), including plasma-assisted chemical-vapor deposition.

Physical-vapor deposition (PVD).

The CVD process is the most commonly used method for carbide tools with multiphase and
ceramic coatings.

Titanium-Nitride coating
Titanium-nitride coatings have low friction coefficients, high hardness, resistance to high temperature,
and good adhesion to the substrate. Titanium-nitride coated tools (gold in color) perform well at higher
cutting speeds and feeds. Flank wear is significantly lower than that of uncoated tools and flank surfaces
can be reground after use, since regrinding the tool does not remove the coating on the rake face of the
tool. The image below shows the schematic illustration of typical wear patterns on uncoated highspeedsteel and titanium-nitride coated tools. Note that flank wear is significantly lower for the coated tool.
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Titanium-Carbide coating
Because of their chemical inertness, low thermal conductivity, resistance to high temperature, and
resistance to flank and crater wear, ceramics are suitable coating ma erials for tools. The most
commonly used ceramic coating is aluminum oxide. However, because they are very stable (not
chemically reactive), oxide coatings generally bond weakly to the substrate.

Ceramic coating
Because of their chemical inertness, low thermal conductivity, resistance to high temperature, and
resistance to flank and crater wear, ceramics are suitable coating materials for tools. The most
commonly used ceramic coating is aluminum oxide. However, because they are very stable (not
chemically reactive), oxide coatings generally bond weakly to the substrate.

Multiphase coating
The desirable properties of the coatings just described can be combined and optimized with the use of
multiphase coatings. The image below shows the Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate.
Three alternating layers of aluminum oxide are separated by very thin layers of titanium nitride. Inserts
with as many as thirteen layers of coatings have been made

Diamond coating (PVD, CVD)

Diamond-coated inserts are available commercially. Thin films are deposited on substrates with
PVD and CVD techniques. Thick films are obtained by growing a large sheet of pure diamond,
which is then laser cut to shape and brazed to a carbide insert. Multilayer nanocrystal diamond
coatings also are being developed, with interlocking layers of diamond that give strength to the
coating. Major advances have been taking place in further improving the performance of coated
tools.

Misc coating (TiCN, TiAlN)

Titanium carbonitride (TiCN) and titanium-aluminum nitride (TiAlN) are effective in cutting stainless
steels. TiCN (which is deposited with physical-vapor deposition techniques) is harder and tougher
than TiN and can be used on carbides and highspeed steel tools.
More recent developments include nanolayer coatings including carbide, boride, nitride, oxide, or some
combination and composite coatings, using a variety of materials.
Ion implantation
In this process, ions are introduced into the surface of the c tting tool, improving its surface properties.
The process does not change the dimensions of tools. Nitrogen-ion implanted carbide tools have been
used successfully on alloy steels and stainless steels. Xen n-ion implantation of tools is also under
development.

Alumina-Based Ceramics
Alumina-based ceramic tools have very high abrasion resistance and hot hardness. The image below
shows the ranges of mechanical properties for various groups of tool materials.

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Ceramic inserts are available in shapes similar to the shapes of carbide inserts. They are effective in
high-speed, uninterrupted cutting operations, such as finishing or semi-finishing by turning. Ceramic tool
shape and setup are important. Negative rake angles (large included angles) generally are preferred in
order to avoid chipping due to the poor tensile strength of ceramics.

Cermets
Cermets (from the words ceramic and metal) were first used in the early 1950s and consist of ceramic
particles in a metallic matrix. Further refinements of these tools have resulted in improved strength,
toughness, and reliability. Their performance is somewhere between that of ceramics and carbides and
has been particularly suitable for light roughing cuts and high-speed finishing cuts.

Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is the hardest material presently available. The image below
shows the insert of a polycrystalline cubic boron nitride or a diamond layer on tungsten carbide.

At elevated temperatures, cBN is chemically inert to iron and nickel (hence no wear due to diffusion). Its
resistance to oxidation is high and, thus, is particularly suitable for cutting hardened ferrous and hightemperature alloys.

Silicon-Nitride-Based Ceramics
Silicon-nitride (SiN) based ceramic tool materials consist of silicon nitride with various additions of
aluminum oxide, yttrium oxide, and titanium carbide. These tools have toughness, hot hardness,
and good thermal-shock resistance.

Diamond
As a cutting tool, it has highly desirable properties, such as low friction, high wear resistance, and the
ability to maintain a sharp cutting edge. Diamond is used when good surface finish and dimensional
accuracy are required, particularly with soft nonferrous alloys, and abrasive nonmetallic and metallic
materials (especially some aluminum-silicon alloys). Synthetic or industrial diamonds now are used
widely because natural diamond has flaws and its performance can be unpredictable, as is the case with
abrasives used in grinding wheels.
Single-crystal diamond of various carats can be used for special applications. However, they have been
replaced largely by polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tools, called compacts, which also are used as dies for
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fine wire drawing. The image below shows the inserts with polycrystalline cubic boron nitride tips (top
row), and solid-polycrystalline cBN inserts (bottom row)

Tool Costs and Reconditioning of Tools

Tool costs vary widely, depending on the tool material, size, shape, chip-breaker features, and quality.
Cutting tools can be reconditioned by sharpening them, using tool and cutter grinders in tool rooms
having special fixtures. Recycling tools is always a significant consideration, especially if they contain
expensive and strategically important materials, such as tungsten and cobalt

Cutting fluids
Cutting fluids have been used extensively in machining operations to achieve the following results:

Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and the surface finish of the workpiece.

Cool the cutting zone, thus mproving tool life and reducing the temperature and thermal
distortion of the workpiece.

Reduce forces and energy consumption.

Flush away the chips from the cutting zone, and thus prevent the chips from interfering with the
cutting process, particularly in operations such as drilling and tapping.

Protect the machined surface from environmental corrosion.

Depending on the type of machining operation, the cutting fluid needed may be a coolant, a lubricant,
or both. The effectiveness of cutting fluids depends on a number of factors, such as the type of
machining operation, tool and workpiece materials, cutting speed, and the method of application.
Water is an excellent coolant and can reduce effectively the high temperatures developed in the
cutting zone.
The need for a cutting fluid depends on the severity of the particular machining operation, which may be
defined as the level of temperatures and forces encountered, the tendency for built-up edge formation,
the ease with which chips produced can be removed from the cutting zone, and how effectively the
fluids can be applied to the proper region at the toolchip interface.
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It is not immediately clear how a cutting fluid can penetrate the important rake face of the tool and
influence the cutting process. Studies have shown that the cutting fluid gains access to the toolchip
interface by seeping from the sides of the chip by the capillary action of the interlocking network of
surface asperities in the interface.
A machining operation is being carried out with a cutting fluid that is an effective lubricant. What
will be the changes in the mechanics of the cutting operation if the fluid is shut off?
Since the cutting fluid is a good lubricant, the following chain of events will take place after the fluid
is shut off:

Friction at the toolchip interface will increase.

The shear angle will decreases, according to Eq. (21.3).

The shear strain will increase, as seen from Eq. (21.2).

The chip will become thicker.

A built-up edge is likely to form.

As a result of these changes, the following events will occur:

The shear energy in the primary zone will increase.

The frictional energy in the secondary zone will increase.

The total energy will increase.

The temperature in the cutting zone will rise, causing greater tool wear.

Surface finish will begin to deteriorate and dimensional tolerances may be difficult to
maintain because of the increased temperature and thermal expansion of the workpiece
during machining.

Types of cutting fluids

Briefly, four general types of cutting fluids commonly are used in machining operations:\
Oils (also called straight oils) - including mineral, animal, vegetable, compounded, and synthetic
oils typically are used for low-speed operations where temperature rise is not significant.
Emulsions (also called soluble oils) - are a mixture of oil and water and additives, generally are used for
high-speed operations because temperature rise is significant. The presence of water makes emulsions
very effective coolants.
Semisynthetics - are chemical emulsions containing little mineral oil, diluted in water, and with additives
that reduce the size of oil particles, making them more effective.
Synthetics - are chemicals with additives, diluted in water, and contain no oil.

Methods of cutting-fluid application

There are four basic methods of cutting- fluid applications in machining:
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Flooding - This is the most common method indicating good and poor flooding practices. Fig 22.12
shows the schematic illustration of the proper methods of applying cutting fluids (flooding) in
various machining operations: (a) turning, (b) milling, (c) thread grinding, and (d) drilling.

Mist - This type of cooling supplies fluid to inaccessible areas, similar to using an aerosol can, and
provides better visibility of the workpiece being machined (as compared to flood cooling).
High-pressure systems - With the increasing speed and power of modern, computer- controlled
machine tools, heat generation in machining h s become a significant factor. Particularly effective is the
use of high-pressure refrigerated coolant systems to increase the rate of heat removal from the cutting
zone.
Through the cutting tool system - We have pointed out the severity of various machining operations in
terms of the difficulty of supplying fluids into the cutting zone and flushing away the chips.

Near-dry (NDM) and dry machining

This trend has led to the practice of near-dry machining (NDM) with major benefits such as:

Alleviating the environmental impact of using cutting fluids, improving air quality in
manufacturing plants, and reducing health hazards.

Reducing the cost of machining operations, including the cost of maintenance, recycling, and
disposal of cutting fluids.

Further improving surface quality.

Dry machining also is a viable alternative. With major advances in cutting tools, dry machining has been
shown to be effective in various machining operations (especially turning, milling, and gear cutting) on
steels, steel alloys, and cast irons, but generally not for aluminum alloys.

14

Cryogenic machining
More recent developments in machining include the use of cryogenic gases such as nitrogen or carbon
dioxide as a coolant in machining. With small-diameter nozzles and at a temperature of 200C, liquid
nitrogen is injected into the cutting zone. Because of reduction in temperature, tool hardness is
maintained and tool life is enhanced, thus allowing higher cutting speeds. Also, the chips are more
brittle, hence machinability is increased. Furthermore, the nitrogen simply evaporates and thus has no
adverse environmental impact.

15

TURNING AND BORING

One of the most basic machining processes is turning, meaning that the part is rotated while it is being
machined. The image above shows the miscellaneous cutting operations that can be performed on a
lathe. Note that all parts are circulara property known as axisymmetric.

16

Operations
Turning
Turning is used to produce straight, conical, curved, or grooved work pieces such as shafts, spindles, or
pins.

Facing
Facing is used to produce a flat surface at the end of the part and perpendicular to its axis useful for
parts that are assembled with other components.

Cutting with form tools

Cutting with form tools is used to produce various
axisymmetric shapes for functional or aesthetic
purposes. This is useful to create a shape in one
operation, reducing machine time and therefore
reducing cost at the expense of a higher initial
investment (into the form tool).
The image to the right illustrates a form tool that
produces the grooves on a pulley circumference ( lso
shown).

Boring
Boring is used to enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity
made by a previous process or to produce circular
internal grooves. This process is typically used to
create precise finishes, with a high level concentricity.
The image to the left illustrates a boring process used
on an engine block. The cylinder requires high
precision dimensions to prevent leaking of oils when
in operation.

Explain the similarities and differences in the design guidelines for turning and for boring.
Turning and boring are quite similar operations in terms of dimensional tolerances and surface finish.
In both cases, secure clamping is necessary, which is the reason the clamped lengths are similar.
Interrupted surfaces in both cases can lead to vibration and chatter. The differences in the two
17

operations are that, in boring, the work piece size is not critical. Work pieces that are suitable for boring
can naturally be held in various fixtures, and vertical boring machines can accommodate very large parts
on the other hand, in typical turning operations very large parts can be difficult to mount.

Drilling
Drilling is used to produce a hole which may be followed by boring to improve its dimensional accuracy
and surface finish. Hole making is among the most important operations in manufacturing, and drilling
is a major and common hole-making process

The image above shows two common types of drills

(a) Chisel-point drill. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a bearing surface for the drill
against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece. Drills with four margins (doublemargin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker features also
are available.
(b) Crankshaft drill. These drills have good centering ability, and because chips tend to break up easily,
these drills are suitable for producing deep holes.

Twist drill
Two spiral grooves (flutes) run the length of the drill, and the chips produced are guided upward
through these grooves. The grooves also serve as passageways to enable the cutting fluid to reach the
cutting edges. Drills are available with a chip-breaker feature ground along the cutting edges. This
18

feature is important in drilling with automated machinery where a continuous removal of long chips
without operator assistance is essential.

Other types of drills

A step drill produces holes with two or more different diameters.

A core drill is used to make an existing hole larger.

Counterboring and countersinking drills produce depressions on the surface to accommodate

the heads of screws and bolts below the workpiece surface.

Spade drills have removable tips or bits and are used to produce large-diameter and deep holes.

Forces
The thrust force in drilling acts perpendicular to the hole axis; if this force is excessive, it can cause the
drill to bend or break. An excessive thrust force also can distort the workpiece, particularly if it does not
have sufficient stiffness (for example, thin sheet-metal structures), or it can cause the workpiece to slip
into the workholding fixture. The thrust force depends on factors such as (a) the strength of the
19

workpiece material, (b) feed, (c) rotational speed, (d) drill diameter, (e) drill geometry, and (f) cutting
fluids.

Troubleshooting

Explain why the sequence of drilling, boring, and reaming produces a hole that is more accurate
than just drilling and reaming it.
The difficulty is largely due to the fact that drilling, because of its inherent flexibility, does not
necessarily produce a hole that is accurate in its coordinate, whereas boring is an operation that is
better controlled.
What are the consequences of drilling with a drill bit that has not been properly sharpened?
Note that drilling is similar to the cutt ng operation shown, except that a circular chip is removed thus, a
drill bit that is not properly sharpened has a large nose radius, and this has the consequences of causing
the effective rake angle to increase (so that the force and energy required are increased, as is
temperature), as well as increase the likelihood of surface smearing and burnishing, instead of removing
material.

Reaming
Reaming is an operation used to (a) make an existing hole dimensionally more accurate than can be
obtained by drilling alone, and (b) improve its surface finish. The most accurate holes in work pieces
generally are produced by the following sequence of operations:
1. Centering
2. Drilling
3. Boring
4. Reaming
20

The image above shows the terminology for a helical reamer and (b) Inserted-blade adjustable reamer.
Various machine reamers (also called chucking reamers, because they are mounted in a chuck
and operated by a machine) are available in two types:

Rose reamers have cutting edges with wide margins and no relief.

Fluted reamers have small margins and relief with a rake angle of about 5.

Parting
Parting, also called cutting off, is used to cut a piece from the end of a part, generally when the piece is
finished to avoid manual sawing. Thus increasing the productivity of the manufacturing process and
reducing costs due to less manual labor.

21

Threading

Threading is used to produce external or internal threads, as seen on screws. This is usually done
automatically to keep a consistent pitch and finish.

Design Considerations
The design considerations that must be taken into account in order to produce high-quality and
economical screw threads are as follows:

Designs should allow for the termination of threads before they reach a shoulder.

Attempts should be made to eliminate shallow, blind tapped holes.

Chamfers should be specified at the ends of threaded sections to minimize finlike threads with
burrs.

Threaded sections should not be interrupted with slots, holes, or other discontinuities.

Standard threading tooling and inserts should be used as much as possible.

Thin-walled parts should have sufficient thickness and strength to resist the clamping and
cutting forces. A common rule of thumb is that the minimum engagement length of a
fastener should be 1.5 times the diameter.

Parts should be designed so that all cutting operations can be completed in one setup.

Tapping
Internal threads in work pieces can be produced by tapping. A tap is a chip-producing threading tool
with multiple cutting teeth.
22

The image above: (a) shows the terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.
Tapered taps are designed to reduce the torque required for the tapping of through holes.
Bottoming taps are for tapping blind holes to their full depth.
Collapsible taps are used in large-diameter holes; after tapping has been completed, the tap is collapsed
mechanically and is removed from the hole without rotation.
Chip removal can be a significant problem during tapping because of the small clearances involved
Tapping may be done by hand or with machines such as drilling machines, lathes, automatic screw
machines, and vertical CNC milling machines combining the correct relative rotation and the longitudinal
feed.
Tap life can be determined with the same technique used to measure drill life.
Self-reversing tapping systems also have been improved significantly and now are in use with
modern computer-controlled machine tools.

Knurling
Knurling to produce a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical surfaces, as in making knobs. This is
used to create higher friction against other parts and hands when in use. Eg, handle of a puncture.

23

The Lathe

Lathes generally are considered to be the oldest machine tools.

The maximum spindle speed of lathes typically is around 4000 rpm but only may be about 200 rpm for
large lathes.
Although simple and versatile, an engine lathe requires a skilled machinist, because all controls
are manipulated by hand.
Consequently, it is inefficient for repetitive operations and for large production runs.

Bed
The bed supports all major components of the lathe.
Beds have a large mass and are built rigidly, usually from gray or nodular cast iron.
The top portion of the bed has two ways with various cross-sections that are hardened and
machined for wear resistance and dimensional accuracy during turning.

Carriage
The carriage or carriage assembly slides along the ways and consists of an assembly of the crossslide, tool post, and apron.

Headstock
The headstock is fixed to the bed and is equipped with motors, pulleys, and V-belts that supply power
to a spindle at various rotational speeds.

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Tailstock
The tailstock, which can slide along the ways and be clamped at any position, supports the other end of
the work piece.
It is equipped with a center that may be fixed (dead center), or it may be free to rotate with the
work piece (live center).
Drills and reamers can be mounted on the tailstock quill (a hollow cylindrical part with a tapered hole)
to drill axial holes in the work piece.

Feed rod and lead screw

The feed rod is powered by a set of gears through the headstock.
The rod rotates during the lathe operation and provides movement to the carriage and the cross-slide
by means of gears, a friction clutch, and a keyway along the length of he rod.
Closing a split nut around the lead screw engages it with the carriag ; it is also used for cutting threads
accurately.

Lathe specifications
A lathe generally is specified by:

Its swing, the maximum diameter of the work piece that can be machined

The maximum distance between the headstock and tailstock centers.

The length of the bed.

A badly oxidized and uneven round bar is being turned on a lathe. Would you recommend a small or a
large depth-of-cut? Explain your reasons.
Because oxides are generally hard and abrasive (see p. 1037), consequently, light cuts will cause the tool
to wear rapidly. Thus it is highly desirable to cut right through the oxide layer on the first pass. Note that
an uneven round bar will cause significant variations in the depth of cut being taken; thus, depending on
the degree of eccentricity, it may not always be possible to do so since this can be self-excited vibration
and lead to chatter.

Chucks (work holding device)

Work holding devices are important, particularly in machine tools and machining operations, as they
must hold the work piece securely.
A chuck usually is equipped with three or four jaws.
25

Three-jaw chucks generally have a geared-scroll design that makes the jaws self-centering.
The jaws in some types of chucks can be reversed to permit clamping of the work pieces either on
the outside surfaces or on the inside surfaces of hollow work pieces, such as pipes and tubing.
Power chucks, actuated pneumatically or hydraulically, are used in automated equipment for
high production rates, including the loading of parts using industrial robots.
A collet is basically a longitudinally-split, tapered bushing.
One advantage to using a collet (rather than a three- or four-jaw chuck) is that the collet grips nearly
the entire part circumference, making it well suited particularly for parts with small cross-sections.
Face plates are used for clamping irregularly shaped workpieces. The plates are round and have
several slots and holes through which the workpiece is bolted or clamped.
Mandrels are placed inside hollow or tubular workpieces and are used o hold workpieces that require
machining on both ends or on their cylindrical surfaces.

The image above shows the various types of mandrels to hold work pieces for turning.

26

The image above shows the schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The work piece is placed in
the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced inward by pulling it with a draw bar into
the sleeve.
(c) A push-out type collet.
(d) Work holding of a work piece on a face plate.

Types of lathes

Bench Lathe
As the name suggests, these lathes are placed on a workbench or a table. They have low power, are
usually operated by hand feed, and are used to machine small workpieces. Toolroom lathes have high
precision, enabling the machining of parts to close dimensional tolerances.

Special-purposes lathes
These lathes are used for applications (such as railroad wheels, gun barrels, and rolling-mill rolls) with
workpiece sizes as large as 1.7 m in diameter by 8 m in length and capacities of 450 kW.

Tracer lathes
These lathes have special attachments that are capable of turning parts with various contours. Also
called duplicating lathes or contouring lathes, the cutting tool follows a path that duplicates the contour
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of the template, similar to a pencil following the shape of a plastic stencil. However, operations typically
performed on a tracer lathe have been replaced largely by numerical-control lathes and turning centers.

Automatic lathes
Lathes have been automated increasingly over the years; manual machine controls have been replaced
by various mechanisms that enable machining operations to follow a certain prescribed sequence. In a
fully automatic lathe, parts are fed and removed automatically, whereas in semiautomatic machines,
these functions are performed by the operator. Automatic lathes may have a horizontal or vertical
spindle and are suitable for medium- to high-volume production.

Automatic bar machines

Also called automatic screw machines, these machine tools are designed for high-production-rate
machining of screws and similar threaded parts. Single-spindle automa ic bar machines are similar to
turret lathes and are equipped with various cam-operated mechanisms. The other single-spindle
machine (called the American type) is similar to a small, automatic turret lathe.

Turret lathes
Turret lathes (either bar type or chucking type) are versatile, and the operations may be carried out
either by hand, using the turnstile (capstan wheel), or automatically. Once set up properly, these
machines do not require highly skilled operators. Vertical turret lathes also are available; they are more
suitable for short, heavy workpieces with diameters as large as 1.2 m.

The image above shows the schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Note the two
turrets: square and hexagonal (main).

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Computer controlled lathes (CNC)

The image above shows the (a) computer numerical-control (CNC) lathe. Note the two turrets on this
machine. These machines have higher power and spindle speed than other lathes in order to take
advantage of new cutting tools with enhanced properties. (b) A typical turret equipped with ten
tools, some of which are powered.

Design considerations
When turning operations are necessary, the following general design guidelines should be followed:

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Parts should be designed so that they can be fixed and clamped easily in work holding devices.

The dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified should be as wide as permissible for the
part to still function properly.

Sharp corners, tapers, steps, and major dimensional variations in the part should be avoided.

Blanks to be machined should be as close to final dimensions as possible (such as by near-netshape forming), so as to reduce production cycle time.

Parts should be designed so that cutting tools can travel across the work piece without
obstruction.

Design features should be such that commercially available standard cutting tools, inserts, and
tool holders can be used.

Work piece materials should be selected for their machinability as much as possible.

Trouble shooting

30

MILLING

Milling is the machining process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a work piece advancing
(or feeding) in a direction at an angle with the axis of the tool. It covers a wide variety of different
operations and machines, on scales from sm ll individual parts to large, heavy-duty gang milling
operations. It is one of the most commonly used processes in industry and machine shops today for
machining parts to precise sizes and shapes.

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Methods of milling
1.1 Peripheral Milling
Milling with the cutting tool spinning on a horizontal axis, the tools are supported on an Arbor

In this process (also called plain milling), the axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the work piece surface.
The cutter body, which generally is made of high-speed steel, has a number of teeth along its
circumference; each tooth acts like a single-point cutting tool.
When the cutter is longer than the width of the cut, the process is called slab milling.
Cutters for peripheral milling may have straight or helical teeth, resulting in orthogonal or oblique
cutting action, respectively.
In milling operations with horizontal- and vertical-spindle machines, which one is likely to hold
dimensional accuracy better? Why?
The answer depends on various factors such as part shape and the type of milling operations performed, tool
and cutter shape and dimensions, and tool overhang. Note, however, that in a horizontal machine the Arbor
can be supported at the end (see Fig. 24.15 on p. 738) and, consequently, it is stiffer.

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1.1.1 Conventional milling and climb milling

The advantages to conventional milling are that (a) tooth engagement is not a function of work piece
surface characteristics and (b) contamination or scale (oxide layer) on he surface does not adversely
affect tool life.
In climb milling (also called down milling), cutting starts at the surface of the work piece where the chip
is thickest.
The advantage is that the downward component of the cutting force holds the work piece in
place, particularly for slender parts.

1.2 Face Milling

In face milling (Fig 24.4), the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation perpendicular to
the work piece surface. A face mill is an endmill optimized for facing cuts, featuring a short aspect ratio
of length to diameter and a multitude of teeth, allowing high feedrates by distributing the chip load.

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Image below shows the effect of the lead angle on the undeform d chip thickness in face milling. Note
that as the lead angle increases, the chip thickness decreases, but the length of contact (i.e., chip width)
increases. The edges of the insert must be sufficiently large to accommodate the contact length
increase.

The image below shows the relative position of the cutter and insert as they first engage the work piece
in face milling. (b) Insert positions towards the end of cut. (c) Examples of exit angles of insert, showing
desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero angle) positions.

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1.3 End Milling

End milling is an important and common machining operation because of its versatility and capability
to produce various profiles and curved surfaces.
The cutter, called an end mill has either a straight shank (for small sizes) or a tapered shank (for larger
cutter sizes) and is mounted into the spindle of the milling machine.
High-speed end milling has become an important process with numerous applications, such as the
milling of large aluminum-alloy aerospace components and honeycomb structures with spindle
speeds in the range of 20,000 to 60,000 rpm.
Image below shows the ball nose end mills. These cutters are able to produce elaborate contours
and are used often in the machining of dies and molds

1.4 Other Milling

In straddle milling, two or more cutters are mounted on an arbor and are used to machine two parallel
surfaces on the work piece.
Form milling produces curved profiles using cutters that have specially shaped teeth.
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The image below shows the T-slot cutting with a milling cutter. (b) A shell mill.

In milling operations with horizontal- and vertical-spindle machines, which one is likely to
hold dimensional accuracy better? Why?
The answer depends on various factors such as part shape and the type of milling operations
performed, tool and cutter shape and dimensions, and tool overhang. Note, however, that in a
horizontal machine the Arbor can be supported at the end and, consequently, it is stiffer.
What similarities and differences are there in slitting with a milling cutter and with a saw?

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The milling machine utilizes a rotating cutter with multiple teeth to perform the slitting operation,
cutting the material across a small width. Because the cutters are rigid and the process is well
controlled, good dimensional accuracy is obtained. The blades in sawing are thinner, hence thin cuts are
possible. However, the blade has more flexibility (not only because it is thin but it is also long) and
hence control of dimensions can be difficult. It should be noted that are several types of saws and that
circular saws have been developed which produce good dimensional accuracy and thickness control

Types of Machines
2.1 Column and knee

The basic components of these machines are:

1. Work table: on which the workpiece is clamped using T-slots.

2. Saddle: supports the table and can move in the transverse direction.
3. Knee: supports the saddle and gives the table vertical movement so that the depth of cut can be
adjusted and workpieces with various heights can be accommodated.
4. Overarm: used on horizontal machines; it is adjustable to accommodate different arbor lengths.
5. Head: contains the spindle and cutter holders. In vertical machines, the head may be fixed or
can be adjusted vertically, and it can be swiveled in a vertical plane on the column for cutting
tapered surfaces.
Plain milling machines have three axes of movement, which usually are imparted manually or by
power. In universal column-and-knee milling machines, the table can be swiveled on a horizontal plane.

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2.2 Bed type

In bed-type machines, the work table is mounted directly on the bed, which replaces the knee
and can move only longitudinally

These machines are not as versatile as other types, b t they have high stiffness and typically are
used for high-production work.

The image above shows the schematic illustration of a bed-type milling machine.

2.3

Other

Milling machines are being replaced rapidly by computer numerical-control machines (CNC). These
machine tools are versatile and capable of milling, drilling, boring, and tapping with repetitive
accuracy. Illustrated below is a CNC machine

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Also available are profile milling machines, which have five axes of movement; note the three linear
and two angular movements of the machine components. Illustrated bellow is a profile milling machine.

Troubleshooting and procedures

3.1 Reference Table

39

3.2 Terminology

3.3 Operating Guidelines

40

Standard milling cutters should be used as much as possible, depending on part design features.
Costly special cutters should be avoided.

Chamfers should be specified instead of radii; it is difficult to smoothly match various

intersecting surfaces if radii are specified.

Internal cavities and pockets with sharp corners should be avoided because of the difficulty of
milling them, since cutting teeth or inserts have a finite edge radius. When possible, the corner
radius should match the milling cutter geometry.

Work pieces should be sufficiently rigid to minimize deflections that may result from clamping
and cutting forces.

ABRASIVE MACHINING AND

FINISHING OPERATIONS
One of the best methods for producing accuracy and fine finishing on parts is abrasive machining. An
abrasive is a small, hard particle having sharp edges and an irregular shape, unlike the cutting tools
described earlier. Abrasives are capable of removing small amounts of material from a surface through
a cutting process that produces tiny chips. The image below shows a variety of bonded abrasives used in
abrasive machining processes.

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The image below shows the types of work pieces and operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical
surfaces, (b) conical surfaces, (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off or
slotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding.

Because they are hard, abrasives also are used in finishing processes for heat-treated metals and alloys
and for very hard parts in applications such as finishing of ceramics and glasses, cutting off lengths of
bars, structural shapes, masonry, and concrete, removing unwanted weld beads and spatter, and
cleaning surfaces with jets of air or water containing abrasive particles.

Abrasives and Bonded Abrasives

Abrasives that are used most commonly in abrasive-machining operations are:
Conventional abrasives

Aluminum oxide

Silicon carbide

Superabrasives

Cubic boron nitride

Diamond

In addition to hardness, an important characteristic of abrasives is friability defined as the ability of

abrasive grains to fracture (break down) into smaller pieces. This is an important property and gives
abrasives their self-sharpening characteristics, which are essential in maintaining their sharpness
during use. The shape and size of the abrasive grain also affect its friability.

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Abrasive types
The abrasives commonly found in nature are emery, corundum (alumina), quartz, garnet, and diamond.
Because these natural abrasives generally contain unknown amounts of impurities and possess
nonuniform properties, their performance is inconsistent and unreliable.
Aluminum oxide - was first made in 1893 and is produced by fusing bauxite, iron filings, and coke.
Seeded gel - was first introduced in 1987 and is the purest form of unfused aluminum oxide.
Silicon carbide - was first discovered in 1891 and is made with silica sand and petroleum coke.
Cubic-boron nitride - was first developed in the 1970s.
Diamond (also known as synthetic or industrial diamond) - was first used as an abrasive in 1955

Abrasive grain size

As used in manufacturing operations, abrasives generally are very small when compared to the size of
cutting tools and inserts. Also, abrasives have sharp edges, allowing the removal of very small quantities
of material from the workpiece surface. Consequently, a very fine surface finish and dimensional
accuracy can be obtained using abrasives as tools.

Grinding wheels
The image below shows the schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel showing its
structure and wear and fracture patterns.

The image below shows the common types of grinding wheels made with conventional abrasives. Note
that each wheel has a specific grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and unsafe.

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The Grinding Process

Grinding is a chip-removal process that uses an individual abrasive grain as the cutting tool.
The image below shows the grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain: (A) chip, (B)
workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is
0.065 mm in diameter. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear
flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.

The major differences between the action of an abrasive grain and that of a single-point cutting tool can
be summarized as follows:

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The individual abrasive grains have irregular shapes and are spaced randomly along the
periphery of the wheel.

The average rake angle of the grains is highly negative, typically or even lower.

The radial positions of the grains over the peripheral surface of a wheel vary, thus not all grains
are active during grinding.

Surface speeds (that is, cutting speeds) in grinding are very high.

The image below shows the Schematic illustration of the surface-grinding process, showing various
process variables. The figure depicts conventional (up) grinding.

Grinding Operations and Machines

Design Considerations for Grinding
Ultrasonic Machining
Finishing Operations
Deburring Operations
Economics of Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations

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BROACHING

The broaching operation is similar to planing with a long multiple-tooth cutter and is used to machine
internal and external surfaces, such as holes of circular, square, or irregular section; keyways; the
teeth of internal gears; multiple spline holes; and flat surfaces. In a broach the total depth of material
removed in one stroke is the sum of the depths-of-cut of each tooth of the broach.
The usefulness of broaching lies not only in the complexity of parts which can be economically
produced, but also in the high surface quality. These parts would be relatively difficult to produce
economically and at high rates by other machining pr cesses.
Explain why broaching crankshaft bearings are an attractive alternative to other machining processes.
Broaching has certain advantages such as cap bility to remove material at high volume rates in one
setup and with good surface finish of the product. Turn broaching is the term used for broaching the
bearing surfaces of crankshafts and similar parts and is an efficient process because multiple broaches
can be used and thus production rate is high.

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Broaching Specifications
The machines for broaching are relatively simple in construction, have only linear motions, and usually
are actuated hydraulically, although some are moved by crank, screw, or rack.
Push broaches usually are shorter, generally in the range of 150 to 350 mm.
Pull broaches tend to straighten the hole, whereas pushing permits the broach to follow any
irregularity of the leader hole.
Cutting speeds for broaching may range from 1.5 m/min for high-strength alloys to as much as
15 m/min for aluminum and magnesium alloys.

Broaching Design Considerations

Broaching, as with other machining processes, requires that certain guidelines be followed in order
to obtain economical and high-quality production.
The major requirements are as follows:
1. Parts should be designed so that they can be clamped securely in broaching machines.
2. Blind holes, sharp corners, dovetail splines, and large flat surfaces should be avoided.
3. Chamfers are preferable to round corners.

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SAWING
Sawing is a common and old cutting operation dating back to around 1000 B.C., in which the cutting tool
is a blade having a series of small teeth (saw). This process can be used for all metallic and nonmetallic
materials and is capable of producing various shapes.

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Image below: (b) Types of tooth sets on saw teeth staggered to provide clearance for the saw blade
to prevent binding during sawing.

Image below: (a) shows the high-speed-steel teeth welded on a steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed to
blade teeth.

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The tooth set in a saw is important in that it provides a sufficiently wide kerf (n. A slit made by cutting
with a saw.) for the blade to move freely in the work piece without bi ding and excessive frictional
resistance, thus reducing the heat generated.

Types of saws

Hacksaws have straight blades and reciprocating motions.

Power hacksaw blades are usually 1.2 to 2.5 mm thick and up to 610 mm long.

Hand hacksaw blades are thinner and shorter than power hacksaw blades, which have as many
as 1.2 teeth per mm for sawing sheet metal and thin tubing.

Circular saws (also called cold saws when cutting metal) generally are used for high-productionrate sawing, a process called cutting off.

Band saws have continuous, long, flexible blades and, thus, have a continuous cutting action.

Blades and high-strength wire can be coated with diamond powder (diamond-edged blades and
diamond-wire saws) so that the diamond particles act as cutting teeth (abrasive cutting);
carbide particles also are used for this purpose.

Friction sawing
Friction sawing is a process in which a mild-steel blade or disk rubs against the work piece. The frictional
energy is converted into heat, which rapidly softens a narrow zone in the work piece. The action of the
blade, which can have teeth or notches for higher cutting efficiency, pulls and ejects the softened metal
from the cutting zone. The heat generated in the work piece produces a heat-affected zone on the cut
surfaces. Thus, the work piece properties along the cut edges can be affected adversely by this process.

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