For a given stature, men have more alveoli and a larger

lung surface area (Farrell, 2012). Beyond puberty, an

average womans VO2max is about 75% of the average
mans. In the elite level, women were still 8-12% lower
than that of elite males (Wilmore, 2012). Because of this,
pulmonary gas exchange disturbances and hypoxemia
would be more likely in women than in men (Farrell,
2012).

Women are outperformed by men in all athletic activities

in which performance can be objectively measured.
Performance differs for around 15% for most sports and
events between males and females (Wilmore, 2012).

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Males have larger blood volume and greater hematocrit

(42%) than females (38%). Moreover, women are more
prone to iron-deficiency anemia, hampering hemoglobin
formation. Thus, males have greater oxygen-carrying
capacity than females (Porcari, 2015). Women also have
lower stroke volume and a less efficient heart. Their
higher training heart rate compensates for this (Wilmore,
2012). Females usually have 5-10% larger cardiac output
explained by the 10% lower hemoglobin concentration
they have (McArdle, 2010).

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On absolute scores, men are stronger than women, about 50% stronger in the upper body and 30% stronger in the lower body. Traditional
ratio adjustments eliminate the disparities but this may not equalize men and women on the basis of the underlying physiology. When
comparing males and females who literally do not differ in body size variables and has similar training status, trained men scored 30.6% higher
in the shoulder press and 35.4 higher in bench press (McArdle, 2010). Males also have a greater distribution of type IIx fibers than females
and show greater ability for muscle hypertrophy and strength as a result of having testosterone levels 20-30 times higher than that of women
(Porcari, 2015).

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Men tend to have denser skeleton, be more muscular, and have less body fat than women (largely because of homrones) (Porcari, 2015).
Testosterone increases bone formation and protein synthesis, leading to a larger fat-free mass (Wilmore, 2012) and higher peak bone
mass density (Plowman, 2014). It also stimulates erythropoietin production and, consequently, red blood cell production. Estrogen causes
increased fat deposition in females and stimulation breast development (Wilmore, 2012). The biological lower limit of fat is approximately
3% essential body fat for men and 12% for women (McArdle, 2010). Compared with mature males, mature females are about 13 cm
shorter, 14-18 kg lighter, 3-6 kg heavier in fat mass, and 6-10% higher in relative body fat.

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Farrell, P. (2012). ACSM's advanced exercise physiology (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Kenney, W., & Wilmore, J. (2012). Physiology of sport and exercise (5th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
McArdle, W., & Katch, F. (2010). Exercise physiology: Nutrition, energy, and human performance (7th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Plowman, S., & Smith, D. (2014). Exercise physiology for health, fitness, and performance (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health.
Porcari, J., & Bryant, C. (2015). Exercise physiology. Philadelphia: Quincy McDonald.

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