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PaintedintheItalianRenaissancealmosttwothousandyearsafterbothmenlived,
RaphaelsTheSchoolofAthensisoneofthemostfamousdepictionsoftheGreekphilosophers
PlatoandAristotle.Featuredasthecentralfiguresinthefresco,itiseasyuponfirstglaceto
discernwhichmaniswhich,andnotjustbasedontheirages.Plato,thefigureontheleft,hashis
indexfingerpointedskyward,whileAristotleontherightreachesanarmoutparalleltothe
ground,palmfacingdownward.Inthesesimplegestures,Raphaelhascapturedsome
fundamentaldifferencesinthebasicbeliefsystemsofbothmen.Platopointsawayfromthe
Earth,indicatinghismorepurelyidealisticandmysticphilosophy,withanemphasisonhigh
truthsandforms(lecture10/2).Aristotleismoreearthbound,withsomeidealisticconceptions
butwithlessmysticismandmoreemphasisonscientificmethodandempirical
evidence/observation.
Oneareainwhichthesedistinctionsplayoutaboutsurroundsideasabouttheessenceof
sexandgender,andtheconsequentplaceofmenandwomeninnatureandsociety.Onthe
subjectofgenderandgenderroles,PlatoandAristotlesometimeshadquitedifferent
perceptions.Plato,inTheRepublic,assertsideasofgenderthataresomewhategalitarianin
nature,statingthatinhisidealstate,womenwouldbeabletoholdthesamepowerfulpositions
asmen.Aristotlesupportsstrictgenderroles,withthemaleassuperiortothefemale,ideasmore
conventionalincontextofpatriarchalclassicalGreeksociety.Thesecontrastscaninsome
degreebeexplainedbydifferencesbetweenPlatosandAristotlesbasicbeliefs.Buthowmuch?
Conversely,wheredotheirbeliefsystemslineup,anddotheseintersectionsleadtoafurther
divergenceorconvergenceoftheirviewsongender?Iultimatelyargueforamultifacetedanswer
tothesequestions.Iproposethatasplitbetweenmorepureandlesspureidealismcanexplain

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mostofthedifferences,butnotthewholepicture.Amorecompleteanalysisrevealsdifferences
thatarisefromsomewhatsimilarfoundations,aswellasanumberofcontradictions,
complications,andsubtletiesofreasoning.Indeed,itisasimplificationtosaythePlatoand
Aristotlesviewsongenderareentirelyseparatefromeachother,ifwelookintosomeofthe
attitudestowardsgenderimplicitintheirotherarguments.
Broadlyspeaking,theirdifferingbasicbeliefsandsubsequentviewsongenderfollowa
fairlysimpledichotomy.Platosidealisticandmysticperspectiveisclearlyevidentinsome
highlyunusualideasforhistimethatheassertsaboutthenatureofwomenandmeninbook5of
TheRepublic.Hecomestotheconclusionthatwomenandmendonothaveinherentlydifferent
natures,andthereforeinhisidealstatewomenwouldbeabletoholdthepositionofguardian.He
assertsthatsimplythedifferenceinreproductiverolesbetweenthesexesisnoreasontokeep
womenfrompositionsofpower,sincetheirroleaschildbearersdoesnotaltertheirfundamental
nature(Plato175).Andsinceitistheessenceofjusticetodoaccordingtoonesnature,as
definedearlierinthedialogue,therearewomenwhoarecapableofbeingandshouldbe
guardians.Comingfromthecontextofanextremelypatriarchalsocietywherewomenwere
almostentirelydisempowered,Platosattitudeissurprisingandrevolutionary(lecture10/2).But
itisverymuchinlinewithhisapproachtophilosophyasawhole.Platodealsinultimatetruths
andtheoreticalforms,ideasbasedinbuttranscendingthematerialworld.Helargely
eliminatestheissueofdistinguishingmenandwomenbasedonbiology;thefactthatwomenare
theoneswhohavetocarrychildrenandgivebirthisnotwhatsimportanthere.Itisthenatureof
womenthatisofconsequence.ForPlato,humannatureisatranscendentalconceptnotwholly
dependentonthephysicalworld,andassuchthesoulisnotinescapablyrelatedtothebody.

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Aristotle,ontheotherhand,ismuchmorerootedinthephysicalandmaterialworld.In
hisview,dichotomyofthebodyandsoulexists,buttheyareinseparablefromeachother,
whereasPlatowouldsaythattheimmaterialelementalwaystranscendstheexistenceofthe
materialelement.ThusAristotledoesnotbelieveinformsinthesenseofformsexisting
autonomouslyfromthephysicalrealm.InanotabledisagreementwithPlato,Aristotlesees
physicalbiologyasfundamentallyrelatedtoandinfluencingthenonmaterialworld.Heapplies
thistogenderrolesinrelationtosexualdifferentiation(Osborne34).InDeGeneratione
Animalium,Aristotleassertsthattheidentificationofmale/femalecannotexistinone,isolated
facultyalone.Thedifferenceinphysicalsexmustbegetmanyotherareasofdifferencebetween
menandwomen(Aristotle36).InEthicaNicomachea,hebringsuptheideaofthefactasthe
startingbasisforanyavenueofinvestigation.Withregardstogender,heusesthefactof
differentmale/femaleanatomyasthebasisforclaimsthatmenandwomenareinherently
differentinotherwaystoo.ThisisverydemonstrativeofAristotlesmoreempiricalapproachto
reason:hetakessomethingeasilyobservableinthematerialworldandconsidershowitaffects
immaterialthings.ThusinHistoricaAnimalium,heclaimsthatdifferencesinmental
characteristicsareordainedbynature,justasdifferentreproductiverolesare(Aristotle36).This
allowshimtomakesuchclaimsasmenbeingmoresuitedtoleadershipasnaturaland
unquestionable.Thisgoesforvariousclaimsaboutthedifferentdispositionofmenandwomen,
suchasmenbeingsympatheticandwomenbeingdevious.ItsaverydifferentideafromPlatos
Republic,wherephysicalsexwasdeemedlargelyinconsequentialtomattersofmindbecauseof
theultimateimportanceofhightruthsandforms.

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Similarly,AristotleassertsinPoliticathatyes,women(andslaves,referringtoallpeople
whoarenaturalsubjects)musthavethesamevirtuesasmen:justasjusticeandtemperanceare
necessarytorulewell,theyarerequiredinordertoobeywell(Aristotle43).However,menand
womenpossessvirtueindifferentwaysasappropriatetotheirbasicnature,whichhehas
establishedasbeingfundamentallydifferent.Virtuethenbecomesanissueofgenderedpower
dynamics.ComparethistoPlatosdialogueinMeno,whereMenoandSocratesagreethatthese
exactsamevirtues,temperanceandjustice,arethesameinwomenandmen.Anditsframed
differently,inthatthediscussantsassertthatwhilethevirtueofmenisorderoverthestateand
womenoverthehouse,thenatureofvirtuedoesnotchangebetweenthesexes(Plato,Meno17).
UnlikeAristotle,whoframesdifferentamountsofvirtueasmirroringthepowerofonemember
ofsocietyoveranother,Platoframesitintermsofdifferentspheresofinfluence.Eventhoughhe
makestheassumptionthatmenandwomensvirtuepracticallyappliestodifferentspheres,and
evenifthewomanssphereislesserthanthemans,thenatureofthevirtueitselfdoesnot
distinguishbetweensexes.HereisanotherinstanceofPlatosidealisticassumptionthatthe
abstractconceptofsomethinglikevirtuesupersedeshowthatconceptmanifestsinpractical
experience.Thispointonthenatureofvirtueisactuallyadifferenceinperspectivebetweenthe
twophilosophersthatAristotlecallsoutexplicitlyinHistoricaAnimalium(Aristotle36).
ThisisnottosaythatAristotleisfoundedsolelyinempiricism;heistosomedegreean
idealistand,ashestatesinhisEthicswhenhespeaksofwhatgoodis,henotesthatthings
relatingtothesoularemoreproperandtruethanthoserelatingtothebody(thefactthatone
cannotexistwithouttheotherdoesntchangethisfact)(Aristotle1098b).Inthisway,his
philosophycomesclosetoparallelingPlato.ButAristotletakesthissimilarideaandmovesin

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entirelydifferentdirectionthanPlato,whoconcludedthatsincethesoultranscendsthebody,
menandwomencanhavethesamenature.Aristotle,ontheotherhand,usesthehierarchyof
mindovermattertojustifyhisideasofstrictgenderrole,byrelegatingwomentotherealmof
thebodyandmentothemind.Inreproduction,hesays,themancontributesthesoulofthefetus,
whilethewomanonlyitsphysicalmatterormaterial.Furthermore,thedifferencebetweenmen
andwomencannotbeonlyanissueofphysicalmatter,sinceindividualmalesarethemselves
distinguishedbydifferentmatter,sotheremustbesomethingthattranscendsthematerialworld
thatdistinguishesthesexes(Allen47).Thusmanpossessesthesuperiormind.Obviously,this
providesaclearjustificationfortheinferiorityofwomen,ifasasextheyexistprimarilyinthe
inferiorbodilyrealmandnotthesuperiorintellectualrealm.
Aristotlemaybeamodifiedidealist,butheisstillanidealist.Sonotallthesepointsof
divergenceinattitudestowardswomenandgendercanbeattributedtopolarizingdifferencesin
PlatoandAristotlesbasicbeliefs.Forinstance,bothmakethesameunderlyingassumptionsof
teleologyandmeaningisinherentwithinreality(lecture10/2).Wheretheythinkthatsuch
meaningmaybefoundperhapsdiffers,butneitherholdstheviewsaboutmeaninglessness,
subjectiverealityandsocialconstructthatappearinmoremodernphilosophy.TotheGreeks,
whatisnaturalisproper,andthereislittleconceptofsocialconstruct.Aristotleinparticular
usesthewordnaturerepeatedlyinhiswritingstojustifyhisreasoning.Andthisbroad
fundamentalassumptionhasprofoundimplications,especiallyastheconceptofarte.AsIve
previouslymentioned,InTheRepublic,Platodecidesthatthedefinitionofjusticeisessentially
doingonesownbusinessandnotventuringintoplacesoutsideonesownnature(Plato147).
Aristotlesimilarlyconcludesthattobevirtuousistoactinaccordancewithnature(Allen45).

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Thusinregardstogender,bothmenconcludeessentiallythesamething:thatwomenshoulddo
inaccordancewiththeirnature.Clearly,PlatoandAristotlehaveverydifferentideasofwhata
womansnatureis,butinbothistheideaofwhatwomenshoulddobasedonthisconceptof
artearisingfromaninherentlyteleologicalreality.Furthermore,althoughtheydifferedin
opinionastowhetherthesoulandbodycouldbeseparatedornot,bothsawtheoverallconcept
ofthesoulasbeingtheimmaterialessenceofthehumanbeing.Andboththoughtthatthesoul
wasmadeupoffactionsthatinfluencedrationalandirrationalthought.
Naturally,bothmenconsiderthesoulsrationalparttobebetterthantheirrational.For
Aristotle,thisispartofarteandvirtue;touseonesrationalfacultyissimilartolivebyones
nature(Allen45).Therationalpartshouldthereforeruleovertheirrationalpart.Thisworksnot
onlyonanindividuallevelbutasocietalone,wherethememberswhosesoulsaregovernedby
reasonshouldhavepoweroverthosewhosesoulsaregovernedbytheirrationalpart.This
translatesintomenhavingcontroloverwomen,sincewomenssoulsareassumedtobeirrational
(Allen46).Thisreturnstotheideathatwomenaremorerootedinthebodyandmeninthemind,
sinceAristotleassumeswomentohavealessrationalandthuslessmindfulsoul.
AnditsactuallythissimilarconceptofthesoulthatgetsPlatointosometroubleand
complicateshisseeminglyegalitarianphilosophyofgender,whichstartstoblurthedistinctline
betweenhimandAristotle.InbookfourofTheRepublic,Platoidentifiesfourvirtuesfoundin
thestate:wisdom,courage,temperance,andjusticeOfthesefourvirtues,temperancein
particularpresentssomeinterestingimplicationsforthepositionofwomeninthestate.First,
becauseaccordingtoPlato,temperanceisdistinguishedfromwisdomandcourageinthatit
residesinthewholestate,notonlyinsomemembers(Plato144).Next,becauseofPlatos

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condemnationofpoetryinbooktenofTheRepublic,whichisbringsupthisideaofrationaland
irrationalpartsofthesoul.Theirrationalpart,whichgovernsdesireandemotion,isinferiorto
andmustbekeptincheckbytherationalpart,whichismeasuredandcalculating(thisishis
meaningoftemperanceontheindividuallevel).PartofthereasonwhyPlatodenouncespoetryis
thatheseesitasappealingtopassionsandpathos,andthustotheinferiorpartofthesoul.He
goesonthesaythatthepartofonethatpleasuresinpoetryisnowdeemedtobethepartofa
woman,whilethestoicpartismanly(Plato376).
TheresultisthatPlatoimpliestheassociationoftheinferiorpartofthesoulwiththe
femalegender.Returningtotheideaoftemperanceasapoliticalvirtue,wecanseehowthelink
betweentherationalgoverningtheirrationalbecomesproblematicintermsofgenderifthe
rationalsoulismanlyandtheirrationalsoulwomanly.Thisisespeciallytrueiftemperance
existsonacollective,societallevel.AndonthatStatelevel,temperanceistheagreementofthe
naturallysuperiorandinferior,astotherighttoruleofeither(Plato146).Followingsyllogistic
logic,takentogetherthisseemstosuggestthatthereisanaturalinferiorityandsuperiorityas
regardswomenandmen,respectively,andthusmenaremorefittorule.Syllogismscanbe
dangerous,butthisinstanceindicatestomethefallacyofcreatingasimpledichotomybetween
PlatoandAristotlesviews,sincePlatomakessomeveryexplicitcontradictionstohisoriginally
egalitarianclaimsaboutthenatureofmenandwomen.
Returningtobook5,SocratesandGlaucongoontoagreewitheachotherthatwhilethe
samevirtuesarefoundinmenandwomen,menhavethemingreateramount.Additionally,men
areingeneralsuperiortowomen,andwhilethesexesmaypursuethesamethingsaccordingto
theirnature,menwilldothejobbetter(Plato176).Andeventhoughtheyshouldreceivethe

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sameeducationandholdthesamepositionsasmeniftheirdispositionissuitedforit,womenare
weakerthanmenandshouldthereforehavealighterworkload(Plato178).Itseemssomewhat
illogicalthatPlatoshouldfocussomuchonwomensweaknessandinferiorityimmediatelyafter
layingoutaverylogicalreasonfortheirequality.Whatscuriousisthatheprecedesthesesexist
statementswithanappealtothebody,anargumentthatAristotlemightemploy.Platojustifies
hissharpturnaroundinopinionbysayingthatonewhohasabodythathindershimwillprobably
belessgiftedthanonewhosebodyisagoodservanttohim(Plato175).And,hespecifies,
giftedbynature.AsPlatogoesontousemankindinhisnextstatement,itislikelythatthe
referencestosimplymaninthissectionreferspecificallytothemalesex.Thisallowsthe
intrasexcaseswhereonemansbodyisinferiortoanothertoapplyanalogouslytothewhole
femalesexbeinginferiortothemalesex.HeseemsalmosttoapproachtheAristotelianviewof
thesoulandbodybeinginescapablyinterconnected.Butthereisasubtlediscrepancythatonce
againpointstoPlatoshigherlevelofidealism.ForPlato,thebodyservesthesoul,which
seemstoimplythatwomensinferioritycanbepartlyexplainedbythefactthattheysimplyhave
aninferiorinstrument,sotospeak,withwhichtowork.Thuswhileafactofphysicalbiology
wonthavebearingonawomensnatureitself,therelativeinferiorityofherbodywillmakeher
lessablethanmen,inmostbutnotallcases.Themindandbodyremainmostlydistinctentities,
whichissubtlydifferentthanAristotlesviewofthebody.
SoPlatodoesnotaconstructanunbreakablehierarchyofmenandwomen.Infact,some
ofhisexplorationofproperhierarchiesinsocietyhassomepositiveimplicationsforwomen.
HierarchalconstructionsareaclearpartofhisidealstateoutlinedinTheRepublic.Platosidea
ofaroyallieisanextremeversionofhisideasaboutjusticeandarte.Itenvisionsasociety

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wherepeoplesdifferentcompositionsofparticularmetalsjustifyranksandcastes:goldatthe
top(rulers),thensilver(helpers),thenbrassandironatthebottom(farmers,laborers,etc.).As
aforemostconcernofthissocietyispurityofrace,Platosaysthatbreedingwilloccurmainly
withintheranks(Plato124125).Thesubtle,butessentialimplicationofthisstructureisthatin
orderforeachstratumofsocietytostaypure,theremustbemembersofbothsexeswithinit.
Thus,therearegoldwomen,womencapableofperformingtherulingtasksdemandedof
peopleofhigherranks,whichdemandmoreintelligencethanthoseofthebrassranks.Italso
impliesequalitywithinthestrataifamanandwomenarebothgold,thereshouldbeno
fundamentaldifferencebetweenthem.Interestingly,theroyallieisaphysicalandbodily
metaphor,butthisisprobablytomakethelieplausibleandunderstandableforthenon
philosophicalmind,notacontradictiontoPlatosidealisticbasis.
Theroyallieassumesthatcollectivegoodissupreme,andthisbasicideaofthestate
beinghigherthantheindividualisabasictenantofAristotlesphilosophyaswell.However,the
applicationofthisideaoftenleadstoadivergenceinperspectivesbetweenthem,especiallyhow
hierarchiesworkwithinthestateandhowsocialhierarchiesinformthegoodofthestateasa
whole.LikePlato,Aristotleenvisionsaparticularsetofpowerdynamicsandhierarchiesasa
waytomaintainthegoodofthestate.Andinsomeways,Aristotlesperspectiveissimilartothe
royallie,wherebyanimbalanceinpowerinastatespeopleupholdsthewellbeingofthestateas
awhole.ButAristotlesidealismuchmoreexplicitlygenderedinnature:inAristotlesideal
state,therewouldactuallybeapoliticalinstitutioninplacerunbymenforthecontrolofwomen
(Osborne34).Individualmenwouldalsohavecontroloverindividualwomen,forobvious
reasons.ThereisastrongsenseofutilitarianisminbothPlatoandAristotlesreasoning;thatit,

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thebasicassumptionthatthestaterepresentsahighergoodandwhatisbestofthestateisbest
forthepeople.InAristotlesidealsociety,thismeansthatsomepeople(womenandslaves)
naturallygettheshortendofstick,sincecorrectproportionratherthanequalityisbetterforthe
stateasawhole(Russell174).Ofcourse,theconceptofhierarchies(thestateashigherthanthe
individual)isinformedbyeitherthemysticalorempiricalperspective.Fromthiswecanseeit
notaissueofsimpledivision,butacomplexinterplayofbasicbeliefsbuildingontopofeach
otherthatgiverisetoeachphilosophersviewpoint.
Ultimately,manyofthedifferencesbetweenPlatoandAristotleontheirviewsofwomen
andgenderdoarisefromthevaryinglevelofidealismintheirmostbasicassumptions.
However,Iarguethatonsomelevels,itisfallacioustosaythattheyhavetotallydivergentviews
ongender,duemostlytoPlatostendencytocontradicthimselfinconfusingways.Aristotlemay
bemisogynistic,butheisatleastconsistent.Nonetheless,thebasicpremisesfortheirbroadest
argumentsaretoahighdegreeaccountedforbytheirdifferentattitudestowardsidealismand
empiricismandrelationshipofthematerialandimmaterialrealms.Butitsnotquitethatsimple,
either.Lookingattheassumptionslyingjustabovethesemostbasicones,suchastheideaof
arte,thecorrectnessofwhatisnaturalandateleologicalreality,andnaturalhierarchyofthe
state/collectiveovertheindividual,theyoftentakesimilarbasicideasandrunwiththemin
differentways.Theconceptofthesoulisatthecoreofeachbeliefsystem,butsometimesleads
toagreementandsometimestodisagreementbetweenthetwo.Anditsoftenacombinationof
idealism/empiricismalongwithotherbasicassumptionsthatfactorintoeachsreasoning.While
onthesurfaceitsfairtosaythatAristotleandPlatohavesomedistinctionsintheirunderlying

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beliefsthatmanifestintheirperceptionsofwomenandgender,therearemanysmall
complexitiesandsubtletiesthatneedtobeconsideredtohaveamorecompleteunderstanding.