Generator

also called dynamo,

any machine that converts mechanical energy to electricity for transmission and
distribution over power lines to domestic, commercial, and industrial customers.
Generators also produce the electrical power required for automobiles, aircraft,
ships, and trains.

The mechanical power for an electric generator is usually obtained from a rotating
shaft and is equal to the shaft torque multiplied by the rotational, or angular,
velocity. The mechanical power may come from a number of sources: hydraulic
turbines at dams or waterfalls; wind turbines; steam turbines using steam produced
with heat from the combustion of fossil fuels or from nuclear fission; gas turbines
burning gas directly in the turbine; or gasoline and diesel engines. The construction
and the speed of the generator may vary considerably depending on the
characteristics of the mechanical prime mover.

Nearly all generators used to supply electric power networks generate alternating
current, which reverses polarity at a fixed frequency (usually 50 or 60 cycles, or
double reversals, per second). Since a number of generators are connected into a
power network, they must operate at the same frequency for simultaneous
generation. They are therefore known as synchronous generators or, in some
contexts, alternators.

Synchronous generators

Sine wave.
A major reason for selecting alternating current for power networks is that its
continual variation with time allows the use of transformers. These devices convert
electrical power at whatever voltage and current it is generated to high voltage and
low current for long-distance transmission and then transform it down to a low
voltage suitable for each individual consumer (typically 120 or 240 volts for

domestic service). The particular form of alternating current used is a sine wave,
which has the shape shown in Figure 1. This has been chosen because it is the only
repetitive shape for which two waves displaced from each other in time can be
added or subtracted and have the same shape occur as the result. The ideal is then
to have all voltages and currents of sine shape. The synchronous generator is
designed to produce this shape as accurately as is practical. This will become
apparent as the major components and characteristics of such a generator are
described below.

Rotor

Elementary synchronous generator.

Elementary synchronous generator.

An elementary synchronous generator is shown in cross section in Figure 2. The
central shaft of the rotor is coupled to the mechanical prime mover. The magnetic
field is produced by conductors, or coils, wound into slots cut in the surface of the
cylindrical iron rotor. This set of coils, connected in series, is thus known as the field
winding. The position of the field coils is such that the outwardly directed or radial
component of the magnetic field produced in the air gap to the stator is
approximately sinusoidally distributed around the periphery of the rotor. In Figure 2,
the field density in the air gap is maximum outward at the top, maximum inward at
the bottom, and zero at the two sides, approximating a sinusoidal distribution.

Stator

Elementary synchronous generator.

Elementary synchronous generator.

Sine wave.
The stator of the elementary generator in Figure 2 consists of a cylindrical ring
made of iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux. In this case, the stator
contains only one coil, the two sides being accommodated in slots in the iron and
the ends being connected together by curved conductors around the stator
periphery. The coil normally consists of a number of turns.

When the rotor is rotated, a voltage is induced in the stator coil. At any instant, the
magnitude of the voltage is proportional to the rate at which the magnetic field
encircled by the coil is changing with timei.e.,the rate at which the magnetic field
is passing the two sides of the coil. The voltage will therefore be maximum in one
direction when the rotor has turned 90 from the position shown in Figure 2 and will
be maximum in the opposite direction 180 later. The waveform of the voltage will
be approximately of the sine form shown in Figure 1.

Frequency

Elementary synchronous generator.

The rotor structure of the generator in Figure 2 has two poles, one for magnetic flux
directed outward and a corresponding one for flux directed inward. One complete
sine wave is induced in the stator coil for each revolution of the rotor. The frequency

of the electrical output, measured in hertz (cycles per second) is therefore equal to
the rotor speed in revolutions per second. To provide a supply of electricity at 60
hertz, for example, the prime mover and rotor speed must be 60 revolutions per
second, or 3,600 revolutions per minute. This is a convenient speed for many steam
and gas turbines. For very large turbines, such a speed may be excessive for
reasons of mechanical stress. In this case, the generator rotor is designed with four
poles spaced at intervals of 90. The voltage induced in a stator coil, which spans a
similar angle of 90, will consist of two complete sine waves per revolution. The
required rotor speed for a frequency of 60 hertz is then 1,800 revolutions per
minute. For lower speeds, such as are employed by most water turbines, a larger
number of pole pairs can be used. The possible values of rotor speed, in revolutions
per minute, are equal to 120 &math.f;/p, where &math.f; is the frequency and p the
number of poles.

Stator windings

A three-phase winding on the stator (see text).

The maximum value of flux density in the air gap is limited by magnetic saturation
in the stator and rotor iron, and is typically about one tesla (weber per square
metre). The effective, or root-mean-square (rms), voltage induced in one turn of a
stator coil in a 2-pole, 60-hertz generator is about 170 volts for each metre squared
of area encompassed by the turn. Large synchronous generators are usually
designed for a terminal voltage of several thousand volts. Each stator coil may
therefore contain a number of insulated turns of conductor, and each stator winding
usually consists of a number of similar coils placed in sequential slots in the stator
surface and connected in series as shown for the winding a-a in Figure 3.

Phases

A three-phase winding on the stator (see text).

Waveforms of a three-phase system.

A three-phase winding on the stator (see text).

Waveforms of a three-phase system.

A three-phase winding on the stator (see text).

The voltages induced in individual coils in the distributed winding of Figure 3 are
somewhat displaced in time from each other. As a result, the maximum winding
voltage is somewhat less than the voltage per coil multiplied by the number of coils.
The waveform is, however, still of approximately sine form. In the figure the winding
a-a spans two arcs, each of 60. In order to make use of the whole periphery of the
stator surface, two other similar windings are inserted. The voltage induced in
winding b-b will be equal in peak magnitude to that of a-a but will be delayed in
time by one-third of a cycle. The voltage in winding c-c will be delayed by an
additional third of a cycle. This is known as a three-phase system of windings. The
waveforms for the three windings, or phases, are shown in Figure 4.

The three-phase arrangement has a number of advantages. A single winding, or

phase, requires two conductors for transmission of its electrical power to a load. At
first glance, it might appear that six conductors would be required for the system in
Figure 3. If, however, the waveforms of Figure 4 are considered to be those of the
currents flowing in the three-phase windings, it will be seen that the sum of the
three currents is zero at every instant in time. Thus, as long as the three phases are
loaded equally, the terminals a, b, and c of Figure 3 can be connected together to
form a neutral point that may either be connected to ground or in some cases left

open. The power of all three phases can be transmitted on three conductors. This
connection is called a star, or wye, connection. Alternatively, since the three
winding voltages also sum to zero at every instant, the three windings can be
connected in seriesa to b, b to c, and c to ato form a delta connection. The
output can then be transmitted using only three conductors connected to the three
junction points. Other advantages of the three-phase system will become evident in
the discussion of electric motors below.

Field excitation

Elementary synchronous generator.

A source of direct current is required for the field winding, as sketched in Figure 2. In
very small synchronous generators, this current may be supplied from an external
source by fitting the generator shaft with two insulated copper (or slip) rings,
connecting the field coil ends to the rings and providing a connection to the external
source through fixed carbon brushes bearing on the rings.

The power required for the field winding is that which is dissipated as heat in the
winding resistance. In large generators, this is usually less than 1 percent of the
generator rating, but in a generator with a capacity of 1,000 megavolt-amperes this
will still be several megawatts. For most large synchronous generators, the field
current is provided by another generator, known as an exciter, mounted on the
same shaft. This may be a direct-current generator. In most modern installations, a
synchronous generator is used as the exciter. For this purpose, the field windings of
the exciter are placed on its stator and the phase windings on its rotor. A rectifier
mounted on the rotating shaft is used to convert the alternating current to direct
current. The field current of the main generator can then be adjusted by controlling
the field current of the exciter.

Generator rating

The capacity of a synchronous generator is equal to the product of the voltage per
phase, the current per phase, and the number of phases. It is normally stated in
megavolt-amperes (MVA) for large generators or kilovolt-amperes (kVA) for small
generators. Both the voltage and the current are the effective, or rms, values (equal
to the peak value divided by 2).

The voltage rating of the generator is normally stated as the operating voltage
between two of its three terminalsi.e., the phase-to-phase voltage. For a winding
connected in delta, this is equal to the phase-winding voltage. For a winding
connected in wye, it is equal to 3 times the phase-winding voltage.

The capacity rating of the machine differs from its shaft power because of two
factorsnamely, the power factor and the efficiency. The power factor is the ratio of
the real power delivered to the electrical load divided by the total voltage-current
product for all phases. The efficiency is the ratio of the electrical power output to
the mechanical power input. The difference between these two power values is the
power loss consisting of losses in the magnetic iron due to the changing flux, losses
in the resistance of the stator and rotor conductors, and losses from the windage
and bearing friction. In large synchronous generators, these losses are generally
less than 5 percent of the capacity rating. These losses must be removed from the
generator by a cooling system to maintain the temperature within the limit imposed
by the insulation of the windings.

High-speed synchronous generators

Elementary synchronous generator.

Generators driven by high-speed steam turbines are almost always constructed with
horizontal shafts. The rotor diameter is usually limited to a maximum of about one
metre because of the high centrifugal forces produced. The length of the rotor may
be several metres. The rotor shaft and the field structure are made of a solid alloy
steel forging in which slots are machined to accept the field coils, as shown in Figure

2. These coils are insulated typically with mica and glass laminate. The coils are
held in place by nonmagnetic wedges in the tops of the slots.

The stator provides a path for the continuously varying magnetic flux. The stator
core is therefore constructed of thin sheets, or laminations, of magnetic steel. The
steel, being an electrical conductor, would tend to short-circuit the voltage induced
in it if it were solid. Lamination breaks up the conducting path along the stator
length and keeps the power losses in the stator steel at an acceptable value. Slots
are punched around the inside periphery of the laminations to accommodate the
stator coils. In large generators, each stator coil normally contains only one turn.

High-speed generators are enclosed within a closed cylindrical stator housing that
extends between the bearings at the two ends. They are cooled by hydrogen gas
circulating within the housing and also frequently through ducts within the stator
conductors. Very large generators are cooled by circulating water through the stator
and rotor conductors.

The ratings of synchronous generators for large power systems extend up to about
2,000 megavolt-amperes. Smaller power systems use generators of lower rating
(e.g., 50 megavolt-amperes and up) since it is usually not desirable to have more
than 10 percent of the total required system generation in one machine.

Waterwheel generators

A two-pole cross section of a 12-pole, low-speed synchronous...

Hydraulic turbines are of various types, the choice depending largely on the height
of water fall and on the power rating. The range of speed for which hydraulic
turbines give acceptable efficiency is much lower than for steam turbines. The
rotational speed is generally in the range of 60 to 720 revolutions per minute. The
construction of low-speed synchronous generators is substantially different from
that of high-speed units. To produce power at 60 hertz, the number of rotor poles is

in the range of 10 to 120 for the above speed range. For these machines the rotor
poles are of the projecting, or salient, type. Figure 5 shows two poles of a 12-pole
generator. Each pole, made of laminated magnetic steel, is encircled by a field coil.
The pole is shaped so as to make the air-gap magnetic field distribution
approximately sinusoidal.

Large hydraulic generators may have individual ratings in excess of 200 megavoltamperes. They are mounted with a vertical shaft directly coupled to the turbine. The
combination is usually supported on a single bearing, either above or below. The
diameter is made relatively large to obtain a high peripheral velocity at low
rotational speeds. The axial length of the generator is relatively short. The windings
are frequently water-cooled. The rotor has to be designed to withstand a
considerable overspeed condition that may arise if the generator loses its electrical
load and there is a significant time delay in cutting off the water flow to the turbine.

Generators for motor vehicles

Vehicles such as automobiles, buses, and trucks require a direct-voltage supply for
ignition, lights, fans, and so forth. In modern vehicles the electric power is
generated by an alternator mechanically coupled to the engine. The alternator
normally has a rotor field coil supplied with current through slip rings. The stator is
fitted with a three-phase winding. A rectifier is used to convert the power from
alternating to direct form. A regulator is used to control the field current so that the
output voltage of the alternator-rectifier is properly matched to the battery voltage
as the speed of the engine varies.

Permanent-magnet generators

For some applications, the magnetic field of the generator may be provided by
permanent magnets. The rotor structure can consist of a ring of magnetic iron with
magnets mounted on its surface. A magnet material such as neodymium-boron-iron
or samarium-cobalt can provide a magnetic flux density in the air gap comparable
to that produced with field windings, using a radial depth of magnet of less than 10
millimetres. Other magnet materials such as ferrite can be used, but with a

considerable reduction in air-gap flux density and a corresponding increase in

generator dimensions.

Permanent-magnet generators are simple in that they require no system for the
provision of field current. They are highly reliable. They do not, however, contain
any means for controlling the output voltage. A typical example of use is with a
wind turbine where the generator output of variable voltage and frequency is
supplied to a power system through an electronic frequency converter.

Induction generators

An induction machine can operate as a generator if it is connected to an electric

supply network operating at a substantially constant voltage and frequency. If
torque is applied to the induction machine by a prime mover, it will tend to rotate
somewhat faster than its synchronous speed, which is equal to 120 &math.f;/p
revolutions per minute, where &math.f; is the supply frequency and p is the number
of poles in the machine. The rotor conductors, moving faster than the air-gap field,
will have induced currents that interact with the magnetic field to produce a torque
with which to balance that applied by the prime mover. A stator current will then
flow into the supply network delivering electrical power. The amount of power
delivered is approximately proportional to the difference between the rotor speed
and the field speed. This difference is typically of the order of 0.5 to 2 percent of
rated speed at rated load.

An induction generator cannot normally provide an independent electrical power

source because it does not contain a source of its own magnetic field. Stand-alone
induction generators can, however, operate with the aid of appropriate loading
capacitors.

Induction generators are frequently preferred over synchronous generators for small
hydroelectric sites because they are not subject to loss of synchronism following
transient changes in the power system.

Inductor alternators

An inductor alternator is a special kind of synchronous generator in which both the

field and the output winding are on the stator. In the homopolar type of machine,
the magnetic flux is produced by direct current in a stationary field coil concentric
with the shaft. In the heteropolar type, the field coils are in slots in the stator.

Voltage is generated in the output windings by pulsations in the flux in individual

stator teeth. These pulsations are produced by use of a toothed rotor, which causes
the reluctance of the air path from the rotor to each stator tooth to vary periodically
with rotation.

Inductor alternators are useful as high-frequency generators. They also are useful in
situations requiring high reliability, a feature achieved by their having no electrical
connections to the rotor.

Direct-current generators

(A) Separately excited DC generator and (B) shunt-excited DC...

(A) Separately excited DC generator and (B) shunt-excited DC...

A direct-current (DC) generator is a rotating machine that supplies an electrical
output with unidirectional voltage and current. The basic principles of operation are
the same as those for synchronous generators. Voltage is induced in coils by the
rate of change of the magnetic field through the coils as the machine rotates. This
induced voltage is inherently alternating in form since the coil flux increases and
then decreases, with a zero average value.

The field is produced by direct current in field coils or by permanent magnets on the
stator. The output, or armature, windings are placed in slots in the cylindrical iron
rotor. A simplified machine with only one rotor coil is shown in Figure 6. The rotor is
fitted with a mechanical rotating switch, or commutator, that connects the rotor coil
to the stationary output terminals through carbon brushes. This commutator
reverses the connections at the two instants in each rotation when the rate of
change of flux in the coil is zeroi.e., when the enclosed flux is maximum (positive)
or minimum (negative). The output voltage is then unidirectional but is pulsating for
the simple case of one rotor coil. In practical 2-pole machines, the rotor contains
many coils symmetrically arranged in slots around the periphery and all connected
in series. Each coil is connected to a segment on a multi-bar commutator. In this
way, the output voltage consists of the sum of the induced voltages in a number of
individual coils displaced around half the periphery. The magnitude of the output
voltage is then approximately constant, containing only a small ripple. The voltage
magnitude is proportional to the rotor speed and the magnetic flux. Control of
output voltage is normally provided by control of the direct current in the field.

For convenience in design, direct-current generators are usually constructed with

four to eight field poles, partly to shorten the end connections on the rotor coils and
partly to reduce the amount of magnetic iron needed in the stator. The number of
stationary brushes bearing on the rotating commutator is usually equal to the
number of poles but may be only two in some designs.

The field current for the generator may be obtained from an external source, such
as a battery or a rectifier, as shown in Figure 7A. In this case, the generator is
classed as separately excited. Alternatively, it may be noted that the output of the
DC generator is unidirectional and therefore may be used as a source to supply its
own field current, as shown in Figure 7B. In this case, the generator is referred to as
shunt-excited. It has the advantage of requiring no independent electrical supply.
Residual magnetic flux in the iron poles produces a small generated voltage as the
machine is brought up to speed. This causes a field current that increases the flux
and in turn the generated voltage. The voltage builds up until saturation in the iron
limits the voltage produced. The stable value of generated voltage can be adjusted
over a limited range by adjusting the value of a resistor placed in series with the
field coil.

Direct-current generators were widely used prior to the availability of economical

rectifier systems supplied by alternators. For example, they were commonly

employed for charging batteries and for electrolytic systems. In some applications,
the direct-current generator retains an advantage over the alternator-rectifier in
that it can operate as a motor as well, reversing the direction of power flow. An
alternator, by contrast, must be fitted with a more complex rectifier-inverter system
to accomplish power reversal.

Additional Reading

Overviews may be found in the following texts: Gordon R. Slemon, Electric Machines
and Drives (1992); Syed A. Nasar (ed.), Handbook of Electric Machines (1987); Syed
A. Nasar and L.E. Unnewehr, Electromechanics and Electric Machines, 2nd ed.
(1983); Vincent Del Toro, Electric Machines and Power Systems (1985); and George
McPherson and Robert D. Laramore, An Introduction to Electrical Machines and
Transformers, 2nd ed. (1990).

Gordon R. Slemon