MHCT - Ejemplos Clase 8

EXAMPLE

1.1

The wof an industrial furnace is constructed from 0.15-m-thick fireclay brick

having a thermal conductivity of l.7 W/m K. Measurements made during steadystate operation reveal ternperatures of 1400 and 1150 K at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively. What is the rate of heat loss through a wall that is 0.5 m by
1.2 mona side?
SOLUTION

Steady-state conditions with prescribed wall thickness, area. thermal

conductivity, and surface temperatures.
Known:

Fi11d:

Wall heat loss.

Schematic:

T1

1400 K

1.7 W/mK

T2 = 1150 K

-+---+--+ q;.

L.x

L=0.!5m

Assumptious:
l. Steady-state conditions,
2. One-dimensional conduction through the watt.
3. Constant thermal conductivity.
Since heat transfer through the wall is by conduction, the heat flux
may be determined from Fourier's law. Using Equation 1.2, we have

Anulysls:

q; = k tlz = 1.7 W/m K X J.:= 2833 W/m

EXAM.PLE

1. 2

An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at
25C. The outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and
ernissivity are 200C and 0.8, respectively. What are the surface emissive power
and irradiation? If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from
the surface to the air is 15 W /m2 K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface
per unit length of pipe?
SOLUTION

Uninsulated pipe of prescribed diameter, emissivity, and surface tem

perature in a room with fixed wall and air temperatures.

T101rn:

Fiml:
1. Surface emissive power and irradiation.
2. Pipe heat loss per unit length, q'.

Scl1n11al ic:

Air
T

= 25C

h = 15 W/m2K
T = 200C
t=0.8

e
Tsu, = 25C

L__

tss11mptio11s:
l. Steadystate conditions.
2. Radiation exchange between the pipe and the room is between a small surface
and a much larger enclosure.
3. The surface emissivity and absorptivity are equal.

Analysis:
l. The surface emissive power may be evaluated from Equation 1.5, while the ir
radiation corresponds to G =uT. Hence

E= suTs4

= 0.8(5.67

G = uTsr

108 W/m2 K4) (473 K)4

5.67 X 10s W/m2 K4 (298 K)4

= 2270 W/m2

= 447 W/rn2

2. Heat loss from the pipe is by convection to the room air and by radiation ex
change with the walls. Hence, q = qconv + qrad and from Equation l. l O, with

= nDL,

= h( nDL)(Ts - Too) + et; 7TDL)cr(T;-

Tsr)

The heat loss per unit length of pipe is then

q' =

f=

15 W/m2 K(n X 0.07 m)(200 25)C

+ 0.8(1r X 0.07 m) 5.67

q' = 577 W/m + 421 W/m

X 10-B W/m2

K4 (4734

2984) K4

998 W/m

<J

Comments:
l. Note that temperature may be expressed in units of C or K when evaluating
the temperature difference for a convection ( or conduction) heat transfer rate.
However, temperature must be expressed in kelvins (K) when evaluating a ra
diation transfer rate.
2. The net rate of radiation heat transfer from the pipe may be expressed as

q;ad = 1rD (E - aG)

qct = 1r

0.07 m (2270 0.8 X 447) W/m2 = 421 W/m

3. In this situation the radiation and convection heat transfer rates are comparable
because T, is Jarge compared to Tsur and the coefficient associated with free con
vection is small. For more moderate values of Ts and the larger values of h asso
ciated with forced convection, the effect of radiation may often be neglected.
The radiation heat transfer coefficient may be computed from Equation 1.9, and
for the conditions of this problem its value is h,. = 11 W/m2 K .
4. This example is provided as a tutorial session in the lnteractive Heat Transfer
(IHT) software accompanying your text.

1.6

EXAMPLE

Humans are able to control their heat production rate and heat Joss rate to maintain
a nearly constant core temperature of Te = 37C under a wide range of environmen
tal conditions. This process is called thermoregulation. From the perspective of cal
culating heat transfer between a human body and its surroundings, we focus on a
layer of skin and far, with its outer surface exposed to the environment and its inner
surface at a temperature slightly less than the core temperature, T; = 35C = 308 K.
Considera person with a skin/fat Iayer of thickness l = 3 mm and effective thermal
conductivity k = 0.3 W/m K. The person has a surface area A = 1.8 m2 and is
dressed in a bathing suit. The emissivity of the skin is e = 0.95.

l. When the person is in still air at T"" = 297 K, what is the skin surface tempera
ture and rate of heat loss to the environment? Convection heat transfer to the air
is characterized by a free convection cocfficient of h = 2 W /m2 K.
2. When the persoo is in water at T'X> = 297 K, what is the skin surface tempera
ture and heat loss rate? Heat transfer to the water is characterized by a convec
tion coefficient of h = 200 W /m2 K.

SOLUTION

K11own: Inner surface temperature of a skin/fat layer of known thickness, ther

mal conductivity, emissivity, and surface area. Ambient conditions.

Fiud:

Skin surface temperature and heat loss rate for the person in air and the
in
water.
person

Sch ematici
11 = 308 K

Skinlfat

11

1
1

11

q"

con<!

= 0.3 W/mK

s
E=

0.95

___...q;

Tsu, = 297 K

______.,. 1

1
1.. Cfonv
11
11

l+-L=3 mm J

: iii

Alr or water

t: = 297 K
h = 2 Wlm2K (Airl
h = 200 W/m2K (Water)

Assumptionst
l. Steadystate conditions.
2. Onedimensional heat transfer by conduction through the sk.in/fat layer.
3. Thermal conductivity is uniform.
4. Radiation exchange between the skin surface and the surroundings is between a
small surface anda large enclosure at the air temperature.

S. Liquid water is opaque to thermal radiation.

6. Bathing suit has no effect on heat loss from body.

7. Solar radiation is negligible.

8. Body is completely immersed in water in part 2.

,1,wlysis:
1. The skin surface temperature may be obtained by performing an energy balance
at the skin surface. From Equation l .12,

t; - Eour = O
It follows rhar, on a unit area basis,
ll

JI

11

qcond qconv qrad

or, rearranging and substituting from Equations l.2, l.3a, and 1.7,

T,-T,
= h(T, - Tx,)
L

su(T, - T,u,)

The only unknown is T., but we cannot solve for it explicitly because of the fourth
power dependence of the radiation term. Therefore, we muse solve the equation iter
atively, which can be done by hand or by using IHT or sorne other equation solver.
To expedite a hand solution, we write the radiation heat flux in terms of the radia
tion heat transfer coefficient, using Equations 1.8 and 1.9:
k

Solving for T., with

T, - T,

Tsur =

= h(Ts - T"') + h,(Ts - T..u,)

T-, we have

kT
+ (h + h,)Ta.
. y

r,

L + (h + h,)

We estmate h, using Equacion 1.9 with a guessed value of T5 = 305 K and T"' =
297 K, to yield h, = 5.9 W/m2 K. Then, substituting nurnerical values into the
above equation, we find
0.3 W/m. K; 3os K + (2 + 5.9) W/m2 K X 297 K
3 X 10 m
T.=
0.3 W/m. K + (2 + 5.9) W/m2. K
3 X 103 m

= 307.2 K

With this new value of T, we can recalculate h, and T,. which are unchanged. Thus
the skin temperature is 307.2 K == 34C.
<l

The rate of heat loss can be found by evaluating the conduction through the skin/fat
layer:

qs

= kA T;

T.t

= 0.3 W/m

1.8 m2

X (

30S J0.2) K =
146 W
3 X 10 m

<J

2. Since liquid water is opaque to thermal radiation, heat loss from the skin sur
face is by convection only. Using the previous expression with h, = O, we find

T, =

0.3 W/m. K X 308 K

m
3 X
0.3 W/m. K
3 X 103 rn

wJ

+ 200 W/m2. K X 297 K

+

200W/m2. K

= 300.7 K

<J

and
3 8
30 .?)
qs = kA T, Ts = 0.3 W/m K X 1.8 m2 X ( 0 K = 1320 W
3 X 10 m

<l

Comments:
l. When using energy balances involving radiation exchange, the temperatures
appearing in the radiation terrns rnust be expressed in kelvins, and it is good
practice to use kelvins in all terms to avoid confusion.
2. In part 1, heat losses due to convection and radiation are 37 W and 109 W, re
spectively. Thus, it would not have been reasonable to neglect radiation. Care
must be taken to include radiation when the heat transfer coefficient is small (as
it often is for natural convection to a gas), even if the problern staternent does
not give any indication of its importance.
3. A typicaJ rate of metabolic heat generation is 100 W. lf the person stayed in the
water too long the core body temperature would begin to fati. The large heat
loss in water is due to the higher heat transfer coefficient, which in turn is due
to the much larger thermal conductivity of water compared to air.
4. The skin temperature of 34C in part 1 is comfortable, but the skin ternperature
of 28C in part 2 is uncomfortably cold.
S. By entering the energy balance and appropriate input pararneters in the JHT
Workspace, a model of the system may be developed for calculating T5 and qs
or any other systern parameter. With this rnodel, parameter sensitivity studies
may be performed to explore, for exarnple, the effect of changing h on T5
Wherever possible, it is good practice to validare your model against a known
solution, which in chis case is shown in the foregoing analysis.

EXAMPLE

3.1

In Example 1.6, we calculated the heat loss rate from a human body in air and water
environments. Now we consider the same conditions except that the surroundings
(air or water) are at l OC. To reduce the heat loss rate, the person wears special
sporting gear (snow suit and wet suit) made from a nanostructured silica aerogel in
sulation with an extremely low thermal conductivity of 0.014 W/m K. The emis
sivity of the outer surface of the snow and wet suits is 0.95. What thickness of aero
gel insulation is needed to reduce the heat loss rate to 100 W (a typical metabolic
heat generation rate) in air and water? What are the resulting skin temperatures?

SOLUTION

l(n.own: Inner surface temperature of a skin/fat [ayer of known thickness, ther

mal conductivity, and surface area. Thermal conductivity and emissivity of snow
and wet suits. Ambient conditions.

Find:

Insulation thickness needed to reduce heat loss rate to l 00 W and corre

sponding skin temperature.

Schematic:

T = 35C

E=

T,
Skinlfat

0.95

k51 = 0.3 W/mK -

= lOC

+kins = 0.014 W/mK

T

+-

Tw,

lnsulalion

L51 = 3 mm -+!-- Lns -1

ttt

= lOC

h = 2 W/m2K (Atrl

h = 200 W/m2K (Water)

Air or
water

Assumptionsi

J. Steadystate conditions.
2. Onedimensional heat transfer by conduction through the skin/fat and insula
tion layers.
3. Contact resistance is negligible.
4. Thermal conductivities are uniform.
5. Radiation exchange betwcen the skin surface and the surroundings is between a
small surface and a large enclosure at the air temperarure.
6. Liquid water is opaque to thermal radiation.
7. Solar radiation is negligible.
8. Body is completely immersed in water in part 2.

Analvsis: The thermal circuit can be constructed by recognizing that resistance

to heat flow is associated with conduction through the skin/fat and insulation layers
and convection and radiation at the outer surface. Accordingly, the circuit and the
resistances are of the following form (with h, = O for water):

L,ns

t;

k;nsA

q-T,

hA

The total thermal resistance needed to achieve the desired heat loss rate is found
from Equation 3.19,

T;-Too (35 10) K

q =
IOO W = 0.25 K/W

R,0c =

The total thennal resistance between the inside of the skin/fat Iayer and the cold sur
roundings includes conduction resistances for the sk.in/fat and insulation layers and
an effective resistance associated with convection and radiation, which act in parallel.
Hence,
R 101 _ L sf
k,rA

L ins
kn,A

+(

1/hA

l/h

_ 1.

(L

sf

k5f

L ins
kins

+ h;

This equation can be sol ved for the insulation thickness.

Air
The radiation heat transfer coefficient is approximated as having the same value as
in Example 1.6: h, = 5.9 W/m2 K.

[
_

0.014 W/m K 1.8 m 2

=

0.0044 rn

]
103
1
0.25 K/W - O3 XW/ mK
2
.3
m
(2 + 5.9) W/m K

= 4.4 mm

<J

Water

= 0.014 W/m K
=

0.0061.m

,
1.8 rrr

6.1 mm

3 X 103 m
1
0.25 K/W- O 3 W/

.
m K
200 W/m 2 K

<)

These required thicknesses of insularion material can easily be incorporated into the
snow and wet suits.

The sk.in temperature can be calculated by considering conduction through the

sk.in/fat layer:

or solving for

T.,

T,

T; - qlsr
ksrA

= 35C

100 W X 3 X 10-3 m, = 34.4C

0.3 W/m K X 1.8 m-

<J

The skin temperature is the same in both cases because the heat loss rate and
skin/fat properties are the same.
Comrnents:
l. The nanostructured silica aerogel is an extremely porous material that is only
around 5% solid. Its thermal conductivity is less than the therrnal conductivity
of the gas that fills its pores. As explaned in Secrion 2.2, the reason for

ths seemingly irnpossible result is that the pore size is only around 20 nm,
which reduces the mean free path of the gas and hence decreases its therrnal
conductivity.
2. By reducing the heat loss rate to 100 W, a person could remain in the cold envi
ronments indefinitely without becorning chilled. The skin ternperature of
34.4C would feel comfortable.
3. In the water case, the therrnal resistance of the insulation dominares and ali

other resistances can be neglected.

4. The convection heat transfer coefficient associated with the air depends on the
wind conditions, and can vary over a broad range. As it changes, so will the

outer surface temperature of the insulation layer. Since the radiation heat trans
fer coefficienL depends on this temperature, it will also vary. Wc can perform a
more complete analysis which takes this into account. The radiation heat trans
fer coefficient is given by Equation 1.9:
(l)

Here Tl.o is the ouier surface temperature of the insulation layer, which can be
calculated frorn

(2)
Since this depends on the insulation thickness, we also need the previous equa
tion for L;0s:

(3)
With ali other values known, these three equations can be solved for the re
quired insulation thickness. Using all the values from above, these equations
have been solved for values of h in the range O < h 100 W/m2 K. and the
results are represented graphically.

.5

...J

__,____.,_

10

20

30

40

50

60

h (W/m2K)

70

80

90

100

lncreasing h reduces the corresponding convection resistance, which then re

quires additional insulation to maintain the heat transfer rate at 100 W. Once
rhe heat transfer coefficient exceeds approximately 60 W/m2 K, the convec
tion resistance is negligible and further increases in h have little effect on the
required insulation thickness.
The o u ter surface temperature and radiation heat transfer coefficient can
also be calculated. As h increases from O to 100 W/m2 K, T,.o decreases from
294 to 284 K, while h, decreases from 5.2 to 4.9 W/m2 K. The initial estimare
of h, = 5.9 W/m2 K was not highly accurate. Using this more complete model
of the radiation heat transfer, with h = 2 W/m2 K, the radiation heat transfer
coefficient is 5.1 W/m2 K and the required insulation thickness is 4.2 mm,
close to che value calculated in the first part of the problem.
5. This example is provided as a readyrosolve model in /HT under Examples in
the menu bar. lt could also be solved using the thermal resistance network
builder, Mode/s/Resistance Networks. As an exercise, enter Equations I through
3 from Comment 4 into the IHT workspace and solve for the required insulation
thickness when the air convection heat transfer coefficicnt is 20 W/m2 K. All
other conditions remain the same as in the problem statement. [Answer, 5.6 mm]

EXAMPLE

3.5

The possible existence of an optimum insulation thickness for radial systems is sug
gested by the presence of competing effects associated with an increase in this
thickness. In particular, although the conduction resistance increases with the addi
tion of insulation, the convection resistance decreases due to increasing outer sur
face area. Hence there may existan insulation thickness that minimizes heat loss by
maximizing the total resistance to heat transfer. Resolve this issue by considering
the following system.

l. A thinwalled copper tube of radius r, is used to transport a lowtemperature

refrigerant and is at a temperature T that is less than that of the ambient air at T,,.,
around the tube. Is there an optimum thickness associated with application of in
sulation to the tube?
2. Confirm the above result by computing the total thermal resistance per unit
length of tube for a 10mmdiameter tube having the following insulation thick
nesses: O, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mm. The insulation is composed of cellular glass,
and the outer surface convection coefficient is 5 W/m2 K.
SOLUTION

Radius r, and temperature T; of a thinwalled copper tube to be insulated

from the ambient air.

l(noum:

Fi,ul:
l. Whether there exists an optimum insulation thick.ness that minimizes the heat
transfer rate.
2. Thermal resistance associated with using cellular glass insulation of varying
thickness.

Se hemate:

T..

h = 5 W/m2K

r,

ttt
Air

Assumptions:
l. Steadystate conditions.
2. OnedimensionaJ heat transfer in the radial (cylindrical) direction.
3. Negligible tube wall thermal resistance.
4. Constant properties for insulation.
5. Neg1igible radiation exchange between insulation outer surface and surroundings.

Properties:

Table A.3. cellular glass (285 K, assumed): k = 0.055 W/m K.

Analysis:
l. The resistance to heat transfer between the refrigerant and the air is dominated
by conduction in the insulation and convection in the air. The thermal circuit is
therefore
q-

T;

T..

ln(r/r,)

2nrh

where the conduction and convection resistances per unit lengc.h follow from
Equations 3.28 and 3.9, respectively. The total thermal resistance per unit
Jength of tube is then

,
In (rlr)
1
R tol = 21rk +-21rrh
where che rate of heat transfer per unit length of tube is
q

Ta, - T,
R;OI

An optimum insulation thickness would be associated with the value of r that

minimized q' or maximized R;0,. Such a value could be obtained from the re
quirement that

dR;o,
dr

Hence

=O

J
1
=O
2
27Tkr

21rr h

or
k

r=-

To determine whether the foregoiog result maximizes or minimizes the total

resistance, the second derivative must be evaluated. Hence

d2R;o,
1
1
=+
dr'

27Tkr2

7Tr3h

or, at r = klh,

Since this result is always positive, ir follows that r :::: klh is the insulation
radius for which the total resistance is a mnimum, not a maximum. Hence an
optimum insulation thickness does n.ot exist.
From the above result it ma.kes more sense to think in terms of a critica/ insulation radius

which maxirnizes heat transfer, that is, below which q' increases with increas
ing r and above which q' decreases with increasing r.

2. With h

5 W/m2 K and k

cr

= 0.055 W/m K, che critica) radius is

= 0.055W/m K = O.Ol l m
5W/m2K

Hence rcr > r, and heat transfer will increase with the addition of insulation up
to a thickness of
rcr

r, = (0.011 0.005) m

= 0.006 m

The thermal resistances corresponding to the prescribed insulation thicknesses

may be calculated and are plotted as follows:
a.---,--,--,--,

10

20

30

40

50

r- r, (mm)

Commemsi
l. The effect of the critica} radius is revealed by the fact that, even for 20 mm of insu
lation, the total resistance is oot as large as the value forno insulation.
2. If r; < 'ero as it is in this case, the total resistance decreases and the heat rate
therefore increases with the addition of insulation. This trend continues until
the outer radius of the insulation corresponds to the critica! radius. The lrend is
desirable for electrical current flow through a wire, since the addition of electri
cal insulation would aid in transferring heat dissipated in the wire to the sur
roundings. Conversely, if r > r.; any addition of insulation would increase the
total resistance and therefore decrease the heat loss. This behavior would be de
sirable for steam flow through a pipe, where insulation is added to reduce heat
loss to the surroundings.
3. For radial systems, the problem of reducing the total resistance through the ap
plication of insulation exists only for small diameter wires or tubes and for
small convection coefficients, such that 'cr > r,. For a typical insulation (k =
0.03 W/m K) and free convection in air (h = 10 W/m2 K), 'cr = (klh) =
0.003 m. Such a small value tells us that, normally, r; > rcr and we need not be
concerned with the effects of a critica( radius.
4. The existence of a critica! radius requires that the heat transfer area change in
the direction of transfer, as for radial conduction in a cylinder (ora sphere). In a
plane wall the area perpendicular to the direction of heat flow is constant and
there is no critica! insulation thickness (the total resistance always increases
with increasing insulation thickness).