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Sylvie Chevallier
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Article history:
Received 22 October 2009
Received in revised form 17 March 2010
Accepted 20 March 2010
Available online 27 March 2010
Keywords:
Wheat dough
Gluten-free dough
Dietary bres
Amaranth
Freezing
Rheological properties
a b s t r a c t
Empirical and fundamental rheological measurements were made on fresh and frozen dough to study the
effects of freezing and frozen storage conditions. Frozen dough was stored at two different temperatures,
18 C and 30 C, and for 1, 7 and 28 days. Four dough formulations were tested: a standard wheat
dough, a bre-enriched wheat dough, a standard gluten-free dough and a gluten-free dough containing
amaranth our. No yeast was used in any formulation. The wheat dough is more affected by freezing and
by the rst days of storage whereas the gluten-free dough is more affected by a longer storage time. A
storage temperature of 30 C alters dough rheological properties more than a storage temperature of
18 C. The addition of dietary bres to the wheat dough increases its resistance to freezing and frozen
storage. The addition of amaranth our to gluten-free dough also increases its resistance to freezing but
decreases its resistance to storage conditions.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Bread is one of the most widely consumed food products in the
world. For people suffering from celiac disease or other intolerances to gluten consumption, gluten-free breads are now available
on the market. These products have a short shelf-life, and the loss
of freshness has a negative inuence on product quality and consumer acceptance. One of the approaches to solve this problem is
to improve the availability of fresh bread by freezing the dough.
Although no information has been found about frozen gluten-free
dough, several problems in the production of bread from frozen
wheat dough have been presented. These are mostly related to
damage of the protein network (Varriano-Marston et al., 1980),
yeast deterioration, a reduction in the water content of the surface
layer of the dough (due to sublimation) and water redistribution in
the system during freezing (Bhattacharya et al., 2003; Carr and
Tadini, 2003; Giannou and Tzia, 2007; Le Bail et al., 1999). If the
process is optimized, bread from frozen dough can have sensory
and textural properties close to those of conventional bread (Barcenas et al., 2004). In that sense, it is important to take into account
that frozen dough quality is inuenced by both the formulation
and the process parameters during dough making, freezing, storage, and thawing.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 251 785 465; fax: +33 251 785 467.
E-mail address: marie.de-lamballerie@oniris-nantes.fr (M. de Lamballerie).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2010.03.029
71
fatty acids, particularly in linoleic acid (Berghofer and Schoenlechner, 2002). These nutritional improvements modify the dough formulations and, consequently, their rheological properties (Mariotti
et al., 2009; Peressini and Sensidoni, 2009) and bread quality characteristics (Wang et al., 2002).
The aim of this work is to study the rheological properties of
wheat dough and gluten-free dough after a frozen period considering both the formulation and the storage conditions (time and
temperature).
Full cream milk powder, salt, sugar and rapeseed oil were purchased at the local market.
2.2. Sample preparation
2.2.1. Wheat dough formulations and preparation
The wheat dough, which is taken as the reference, was prepared
from the following ingredients: 1200 g of our, 696 g of water,
21.6 g of salt and 12 g of improver. No yeast was used.
The bre-enriched dough was obtained by adding 120 g of a
blend of inulin and oat bres to the reference wheat dough formulation. The quantity of water was adjusted to 724 g.
The ingredients were mixed in a mixer SP10-076 MEL (VMI,
Montaigu, France) for 2 min at slow speed (100 rpm) and 7 min
at fast speed (200 rpm). Dough was divided into 70 g pieces that
were shaped by hand and placed in mufn-like pans.
2.2.2. Gluten-free dough formulations and preparation
The gluten-free dough, which is taken as the reference, was
composed of: 160 g of corn our, 800 g of starch (corn and potato),
48 g of hydrocolloids (HPMC, guar gum, highly methylated pectin),
5 g of gluconic acid lactone, 50 g of full cream milk powder, 50 g of
sugar, 20 g of salt, 30 g of rapeseed oil and 780 g of water. No yeast
was used.
72
40
30C
temperature (C)
30
20C
20
10
2C/min
1,2C/min
-10
15min
-20
-20C
-30
2C/min
-40
-50
10min
-45C
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
time (min)
Fig. 1. Freezable water temperature programme (DSC).
modulus (G0 ), the viscous or loss modulus (G00 ) and tan d (G00 /G0 ), at a
frequency of 1 Hz. Measurements were performed in triplicate for
each sample.
2.3.4. Freezable water
In order to study the freezable water content of dough, a DSC
test using a micro calorimeter lDSC VII (Setaram Instrumentation,
Caluire, France) was performed on fresh dough. For each sample,
freezable water measurements were carried out in duplicate. The
DSC temperature programme used is presented in Fig. 1. The ice
melting enthalpy was obtained by integrating the ice melting peak
located at about 0 C on the thermogram. The quantity of freezable
water, in g/g of dough, was calculated by dividing the ice melting
enthalpy (in J/g of product) by the latent heat of ice fusion
(Lf = 333 J/g). This freezable water quantity was next calculated
as a % of total water by dividing the result by the percentage of total water in the dough and multiplying by 100.
2.4. Statistical analysis
Each formulation was analysed separately with the Statgraphics
Plus software 5.1 version (Statistical Graphics Corp, Princeton, New
Jersey, USA). The effect of freezing and frozen storage conditions on
dough rheological parameters was determined by a factorial ANOVA (two factors: time and temperature). The LSD procedure (Fisher
test) at a signicance level of 0.05 was used in order to compare
samples.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Reference formulations of wheat and gluten-free doughs
3.1.1. Impact of freezing process
The freezing of wheat dough modies its rheological properties
since ve of its parameters are signicantly different (p < 0.05) between 0 and 1 day of storage (Table 1). Compared to fresh dough,
frozenthawed wheat dough shows signicantly higher values of
adhesiveness, as reported by Yi and Kerr (2009). The rmness,
the gumminess, the cohesiveness, the springiness and the resilience of wheat dough are not, however, affected by freezing.
Regarding the fundamental rheological parameters, both the storage (G0 ) and the loss (G00 ) moduli decrease with freezing, but tan
d increases. These results, in accordance with those of Kenny
et al. (1999) and Ribotta et al. (2004), indicate a greater reduction
of the elastic modulus (G0 ) than the viscous part (G00 ) since tan
d = G00 /G0 , which could be interpreted as either a reduction in elasticity or an increase in viscosity of the wheat dough caused by
a
a
a
b
0.30 0.00
0.30 0.00
0.30 0.00
0.32 0.01
bc
c
b
a
30 2
34 5
27 3
17 3
102 8 bc
114 16 c
92 12 b
53 9 a
b
b
b
a
0.021 0.001
0.022 0.002
0.021 0.002
0.018 0.002
a
a
a
a
1.09 0.02
1.03 0.06
1.09 0.03
1.10 0.10
ab
b
a
a
8.68 0.27
9.12 0.48
8.43 0.36
8.35 0.58
0
1
7
28
Gluten-free dough with amaranth
a
a
a
a
0.56 0.02
0.52 0.08
0.59 0.02
0.52 0.09
a
a
a
a
1.40 0.03
1.29 0.17
1.45 0.10
1.34 0.21
a
a
a
a
2.51 0.11
2.49 0.09
2.47 0.18
2.58 0.13
c
b
bc
a
0
1
7
28
Reference gluten-free dough
46.25 0.06
46.06 0.17
46.08 0.14
45.63 0.34
a
a
a
a
0.30 0.01
0.29 0.01
0.28 0.01
0.29 0.01
c
ab
b
a
34 6
24 3
25 4
19 3
115 16 c
83 10 b
90 16 b
66 9 a
a
a
a
a
0.016 0.004
0.018 0.003
0.016 0.003
0.015 0.005
a
a
a
b
0.53 0.04
0.56 0.10
0.58 0.08
0.71 0.17
a
a
a
a
1.51 0.27
1.31 0.33
1.29 0.54
1.89 0.57
a
a
a
b
0.25 0.04
0.22 0.04
0.23 0.05
0.36 0.14
a
a
a
b
0.17 0.01
0.20 0.03
0.20 0.03
0.31 0.07
a
b
b
b
0.68 0.04
0.95 0.17
0.92 0.26
0.91 0.18
b
a
a
a
0
1
7
28
Fibre-enriched wheat dough
45.76 0.09
45.56 0.23
45.60 0.30
45.49 0.11
b
b
a
a
0.36 0.00
0.36 0.01
0.34 0.01
0.34 0.02
116 9 a
99 10 a
124 29 a
117 21 a
a
a
a
a
325 26
279 28
362 91
350 75
a
a
a
a
0.056 0.008
0.067 0.009
0.065 0.010
0.064 0.004
a
a
a
a
1.04 0.07
1.00 0.10
1.02 0.09
1.12 0.09
a
a
a
a
6.40 0.44
6.71 0.37
6.05 0.82
6.08 0.52
a
a
a
a
0.59 0.03
0.60 0.04
0.59 0.05
0.58 0.03
a
a
a
a
2.32 0.34
2.73 0.44
2.69 0.46
2.97 0.53
a
a
a
a
3.91 0.38
4.53 0.52
4.57 0.66
5.08 0.78
b
b
a
b
85 12
50 20
76 14
74 22
G00 (kPa)
b
a
b
b
282 58
148 74
232 49
230 86
a
a
a
a
0.065 0.009
0.076 0.012
0.065 0.009
0.069 0.005
Resa
a
a
a
a
Sprina
0.83 0.07
0.85 0.15
0.83 0.11
0.79 0.05
a
b
b
b
1.27 0.07
2.01 0.31
2.09 0.48
1.99 0.80
Adha (N s)
a
a
a
a
0.60 0.04
0.57 0.07
0.57 0.06
0.53 0.04
Coha
a
a
a
a
0.55 0.03
0.70 0.21
0.60 0.14
0.66 0.12
Guma (N)
a
a
a
a
0.91 0.02
1.25 0.34
1.07 0.33
1.27 0.29
a
c
b
d
44.34 0.17
44.96 0.55
44.58 0.32
45.61 0.13
0
1
7
28
Reference wheat dough
Moisture
contentb (%)
Frozen
storage time (days)
Formulation
Table 1
Impact of freezing process and frozen storage time on moisture content and rheological properties of four dough formulations.
43.12 0.06
42.92 0.22
42.57 0.32
42.90 0.23
Tan (d)
G0 (kPa)
Firma (N)
b
a
b
b
0.31 0.02
0.35 0.03
0.33 0.01
0.33 0.03
a
b
ab
ab
73
nou and Tzia, 2007) and that the fundamental rheological parameters remain constant for a longer storage time (Kenny et al.,
1999). These storage time effects could also be attributed to ice
crystals growing during storage (Baier-Schenk et al., 2005; Zounis
et al., 2002) and then accentuating the damage to the gluten matrix
and other constituents. Moreover, this ice crystal growth causes a
redistribution of water provoked by a modication in the waterbinding capacity of dough constituents (Selomulyo and Zhou,
2007). For example, during storage, there is water transport from
the hydrated gluten to the ice phase (Bot and de Bruijne, 2003).
On the other hand, the storage temperature has little impact on
the rheological properties of wheat dough, and affects only its fundamental rheological parameters (Table 2). Samples stored at
18 C show signicantly higher G0 and G00 values and lower tan
d values than samples stored at 30 C. In addition, G0 , G00 and
tan d values of dough stored at 18 C are closer to those of fresh
wheat dough (0 day) than dough stored at 30 C. So it appears
that a storage temperature of 30 C causes more modications
to the dough structure, and thus to the rheological properties, than
a temperature of 18 C. This result could be explained by the glass
transition temperature (Tg). According to Rsnen et al. (1998), the
glass transition for dough occurs at a temperature around 30 C.
This depends on the water content and the dough formulation, for
example Matuda et al. (2008) found a Tg between 27 and 29 C
for wheat bread dough. At this temperature, which corresponds
more to a temperature range (e.g. 5 C wide), the dough changes
from a soft, rubbery state to a glassy one where it is more stable
(reduced mobility of water). Therefore, it is usually recommended to store dough below Tg for maximal stability (Bot,
2003). However, this glassy state is not thermodynamically stable
and a small intake of energy can destabilize it. In addition, prolonged storage at a temperature close to the glassy state may expose the dough to a maximum effect of the cryoconcentration
phenomenon (maximum dehydration of the matrix because most
of the water is frozen around the Tg). So, at 30 C, the concentrated phase of the dough will be at its maximum. Small uctuations in temperature can also take place during frozen storage
resulting in a destabilization of the dough and possibly water
recrystallization (Genin and Ren, 1995). Finally, it is assumed that
in our conditions, storage at 30 C is very close or covers the temperature range of the glass transition resulting in a maximum effect of the cryoconcentration of the dough. During storage,
temperature variation may have favoured the diffusion of water toward the ice crystals, which in turn would amplify the cryoconcentration effect. This could explain why the dough stored at a
temperature of 30 C had higher values of G0 and G00 than that
stored at 18 C. At 18 C, the biopolymers contained in the
dough were still in the presence of a small fraction of non-frozen
water and were less exposed to dehydration (via cryoconcentration) than the samples stored at 30 C.
Concerning the reference gluten-free dough, more parameters
are affected by frozen storage time and present the same changes
over time. They all remain relatively constant in the rst 7 days of
storage and change afterwards: gumminess, cohesiveness and
springiness increase, while G0 and G00 decrease. Therefore, it seems
that, for gluten-free dough, unlike wheat dough, the effect of freezing storage is noticeable only after the rst week. On the other
hand, the storage temperature does not affect any rheological
properties of the reference gluten-free dough (neither empirical
nor fundamental parameters). Only the moisture content is significantly different between samples stored at 18 C and 30 C. The
former have the higher moisture content, but this value is closer to
that of fresh gluten-free dough than dough stored at 30 C. So, as
for wheat dough, storage at 30 C seems to alter the structure and
properties of gluten-free frozen dough more than storage at
18 C.
0.019 0.002 a
0.021 0.001 b
29 8 b
29 6 a
0.31 0.01 a
0.30 0.01 a
18
30
Gluten-free dough with amaranth
45.92 0.37 a
46.09 0.20 b
2.58 0.11 b
2.45 0.12 a
1.40 0.15 a
1.34 0.15 a
0.54 0.06 a
0.55 0.07 a
8.85 0.37 b
8.43 0.55 a
1.09 0.06 a
1.07 0.07 a
95 29 a
86 23 a
0.29 0.01 a
0.29 0.01 a
26 7 a
25 7 a
0.016 0.003 a
0.016 0.004 a
18
30
Reference gluten-free dough
45.71 0.18 b
45.49 0.19 a
0.82 0.16 a
0.91 0.23 a
0.21 0.05 a
0.24 0.08 a
0.25 0.06 a
0.28 0.12 a
1.39 0.49 a
1.60 0.47 a
0.59 0.09 a
0.61 0.16 a
89 24 a
88 20 a
0.35 0.02 a
0.35 0.01 a
113 22 a
115 18 a
0.063 0.008 a
0.063 0.009 a
18
30
Fibre-enriched wheat dough
42.84 0.37 a
42.92 0.19 a
4.49 0.64 a
4.56 0.79 a
2.66 0.43 a
2.69 0.54 a
0.59 0.03 a
0.59 0.04 a
6.12 0.67 a
6.51 0.45 a
1.04 0.08 a
1.05 0.11 a
330 79 a
327 54 a
0.32 0.02 a
0.34 0.03 b
79 18 b
64 22 a
G00 (kPa)
0.068 0.012 a
0.070 0.007 a
G0 (kPa)
Resa
Sprina
0.82 0.10 a
0.83 0.10 a
Adha (N s)
1.93 0.62 a
1.75 0.53 a
0.55 0.06 a
0.58 0.05 a
Coha
Guma (N)
0.64 0.14 a
0.61 0.16 a
1.19 0.34 a
1.06 0.25 a
Firma (N)
44.92 0.63 a
44.83 0.56 a
18
30
Reference wheat dough
Moisture
contentb (%)
Storage
temperature (C)
Formulation
Table 2
Impact of storage temperature on moisture content and rheological properties of four dough formulations.
253 72 b
193 80 a
Tan (d)
74
Formulation
DH of ice
meltinga
(J/g)
Freezable water
proportiona
(% of total water)
94.77 0.69
86.21 0.13
99.20 0.33
99.78 0.19
64.19 0.47
59.83 0.09
64.64 0.21
64.78 0.12
ten-free dough does not modify the freezable water content, which
varies from 64.6% to 64.8% of total water (Table 3). However, the
protein content of amaranth is so high (Berghofer and Schoenlechner, 2002) that it seems to act as a ller of the dough matrix (Mariotti et al., 2009), which therefore becomes more resistant to the
freezing process. So freezing has less impact on the rheological
properties of gluten-free dough improved by amaranth our than
on the reference gluten-free dough.
3.2.2.2. Impact of amaranth our enrichment on the storage resistance
of frozen gluten-free dough. Unlike its effect on freezing, the addition of amaranth our to gluten-free dough increases its sensitivity
to storage conditions. Indeed, storage time and temperature both
affect many dough properties (Tables 1 and 2). Amaranth addition
accelerates the decrease in G0 and G00 throughout the storage time
while tan d increases with storage time. Regarding the empirical
rheological parameters, gumminess, cohesiveness and springiness
do not change but adhesiveness and resilience signicantly decrease with storage time in amaranth-enriched gluten-free dough
while they are not affected in the reference gluten-free dough.
Adhesiveness decreases during the rst week of storage and then
remains constant until the end of the rst month. On the contrary,
resilience remains constant in the rst week and then decreases.
The moisture content also decreases after the rst week of storage.
The storage temperature, which has little impact on the frozen
reference gluten-free dough, has important consequences on the
frozen improved dough, since it signicantly affects ve parameters. The dough stored at 18 C is the rmest and the most adhesive, but it has the lowest resilience. For the fundamental
rheological parameters, the loss modulus (G00 ) is higher for gluten-free improved dough stored at 18 C than for that stored at
30 C. The moisture content is also signicantly changed by the
storage temperature. The sample stored at 18 C has a lower
moisture content.
4. Conclusion
Several conclusions can be drawn from this work. Firstly, concerning the methodology, the fundamental rather than the empirical rheological measurements (TPA) are more relevant since they
demonstrate more differences. The empirical rheological parameters, particularly resilience, springiness, cohesiveness and gumminess, are less affected. Concerning freezing and frozen storage, they
alter the quality of the dough and of the bread made with it since
frozen doughs have lower G0 and G00 and higher tan d than fresh
doughs. In addition, the freezing process and the rst days of storage have more effect on wheat dough while the gluten-free dough
is more altered by the longer storage time. With regard to the storage conditions, storage time seems to have more impact than storage temperature. Moreover, the formulation of dough plays an
important part in its properties and behaviour after freezing. The
protein-enriched gluten-free dough (improved by amaranth our
addition) is less affected by the freezing process but it becomes
more sensitive to the storage conditions. On the other hand, the bre-enriched wheat dough is much more resistant to both the
75
76
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