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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

The University of Trinidad and Tobago

Bachelors of Education
PHED 1001- Physical Education
Assignment # 1

By:
Cindy Lakhram
Student I.D. # 58328

Lecturer Mr. Micheal Dinchong

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

Table of Contents

Topic

pg.

1. Introduction 3
2. Definition of Physical Education....4
3. Diagram Elements of Physical Curriculum..6
4. Definition of Physical Activity7
5. Benefits of Physical Activity ..9
6. Diagram Showing the benefits of Physical Activities.12
7. Definition of Physical Fitness..13
8. Benefits of Physical Fitness.........................................................................14
9. Components of Physical Fitness..17
10. Overview of the Body Systems..19
11.The Structure and Functions of the Muscular System.................................21
12.The Muscular System During Physical Activities..26
13.Long term effects of regular physical activity on the muscular system..33
14. References...37

INTRODUCTION

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According to the mission statement proposed by the Ministry of Education , Trinidad and
Tobago the main goal of the education system is to educate and develop children who are able to
fulfill their full potential; healthy and growing normally; academically balanced; well-adjusted
socially and culturally; and emotionally mature and happy. Implicit in this statement we can see
that the health of our students is a critical part of our responsibility as teachers is to ensure that
our students lead a physically active lifestyle. Hence the need for physical education in the
curriculum. This is because the physical education curriculum is one of the most crucial
programs in especially in early schooling as they can promote good health, giving students a new
way to make them fit and learn their lessons at the same time. While the majority of people
would agree that Physical education programs are the primary means to promote weight loss, this
is evident with lessons on physical fitness.
Physical education can also promote team play. Working as a part of a team is always
encouraged to make the students competitive. The most common activities are gymnastics,
sports, aquatics, and dance. The aforementioned activities only give the students minimum
exposure to the matter and the students have to choose their own activities to suit their lifestyle.
It is important to develop skills and at the same time, impart proper knowledge of the concept,
techniques and strategies of sports. Therefore the following portfolio seeks to given the reader a
clear understanding of critical components of physical education.

DEFINITION OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

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"Physical education is the study, practice, and appreciation of the art and science of human
movement" (Harrison, Blakemore, and Buck, p. 15). Physical education is education. It is the
education through physical activities for the development of the total personality of the child to
its fullness and perfection in body, mind and spirit. While movement is both innate and essential
to an individual's growth and development, it is the role of physical education to provide
instructional activities that not only promote skill development and proficiency, but also enhance
an individual's overall health. Physical education not only fulfils a unique role in education, but
is also an integral part of the schooling process. It is an integral part of the total education
process and has as its aims the development of physically mentally socially & emotionally fit
citizens through the medium of physical activities that have been selected and planned to achieve
specific outcomes.
There are essentially five objectives of physical education. These include physical, mental,
social, neuromuscular, and emotional and health development. The physical objective relates to
the development of organ systems such as circulatory system, nervous system, muscular system,
digestive system. As well as the development in size, shape and efficiency of organic systems
due to effects of physical activities which are performed. The next objective is the mental
development of an individual. Various physical activities need alertness of mind, deep
concentration and calculated movements. This is achieved through participation in various
activities individual learns to draw certain conclusions.
Social skills are an important skill that is required in the modern world of work. Hence the
importance of physical education as it helps to develop social skills. Related to development of

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social traits, essential for better adjustment in life. This can be achieved during the playing of
games. Players come closer to each other inspite of different culture, place etc. Also physical
education provides the opportunity for of attaining qualities like fairplay, cooperation, sympathy,
sportsmanship and courtesy.
Another very important contribution of physical education is that it is concerned with better
relationship between nervous system and muscular system. This is because physical activities
provide ample opportunities for the better neuro-muscular system and so the learners reaction
times becomes less through participation in physical activities. Thus allowing for accuracy and
smooth function of the body. More importantly at times when students are stressed with
academics physical education exercises can help to keep off fatigue and provides a means for
relaxation through physical activities. Thus physical education can help students participating in
various physical education programmes an individual starts having control over his/her emotions.
One of the most important objectives of physical education is that Modern physical education
programmes reduce the stress, tensions up to a large extent to promote health of an individual.
Physical education provides physical activity, which studies show helps to improve academic
performance. Physical education also provides knowledge i.e. the knowledge every human being
needs to stay healthy throughout their lifetime.
So what is physical education exactly? The education aspect comes into play when teachers
combine motion with minds. For example, middle school challenges can involve running to
different locations to put together a puzzle, or to seek out objects on a map. Also, education can
focus on specific skills and coordination for example how to throw a ball in a hoop or hold a
hockey stick. Secondary students will learn the value of nutrition and pair that will circuit

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training. Theyll learn how to set goals and how to stay active in achieving those goals. Research
is the basis for each of these strategies. These examples and others are proven to work, not only
to improve the health knowledge of students, but to improve their ability to comprehend other
subjects as well.
To get a better understanding of what a typical physical education program may entail let us look
at the diagram on the following page.

Diagram 1- Showing Elements Of A Physical Education Curriculum

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PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
According to the World Health Organization physical activity is defined as any bodily movement
produced by skeletal muscles that requires energy expenditure. It is the main component in any
physical education curriculum. Physical inactivity has been identified as the fourth leading risk
factor for global mortality causing an estimated 3.2 million deaths globally. Regular moderate
intensity physical activity such as walking, cycling, or participating in sports has significant
benefits for health. For instance, it can reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, colon
and breast cancer, and depression. Moreover adequate levels of physical activity will decrease
the risk of a hip or vertebral fracture and help control weight.
Physical activity and physical education are two terms that are often mistakenly used
interchangeably. While there are inherent similarities and overlapping, theres one point that
needs to be made clearphysical education and physical activity are not synonymous. For
example, say there are two children. Both get adequate physical activityplaying at recess, at
home, and on the weekends. Only one of them has been fortunate enough to receive physical
education throughout primary and secondary school.

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Diagram 2 Showing The Relationship Between Physiclal Activity , Physical Fitness, Academic
Performance

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BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

The behaviours and traits of todays children, along with their genetics, are determinants of their
growth and development; their physical, mental, and psychosocial health; and their physical,
cognitive, and academic performance. Technological advances of modern society have
contributed to a sedentary lifestyle that has changed the phenotype of children from that of 20
years ago. Children today weigh more and have a higher body mass index (BMI) than their peers
of just a generation earlier (Ogden et al., 2012).

Behaviourally, most children fail to engage in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity

for the recommended 60 minutes or more each day, with as many as one-third reporting no
physical activity in the preceding 5 days (CDC, 2012). This lack of participation in physical
activity has contributed to a greater prevalence of pediatric obesity, a decrease in fitness (e.g.,
flexibility, muscular strength, cardiorespiratory capacity), and a greater risk for disease (Boreham
and Riddoch, 2001; Eisenmann, 2003; Malina, 2007; Steele et al., 2008).Regular physical
activity promotes growth and development and has multiple benefits for physical, mental, and
psychosocial health that undoubtedly contribute to learning.

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Additionally, it can also be noted that the relationship between physical activity and physical
fitness is complex and bidirectional. Numerous studies have shown a significant relationship
between physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness, which may mean that physical activity
improves fitness or that physically fit individuals choose to engage in physical activity more than
their less fit peers, or both. Experimental studies have shown that exercise training improves
fitness (Malina et al., 2004), although the response is variable and clearly influenced by genetics
(Bouchard, 2012), and physical activity and fitness are independently related to health and
academic performance (see the figure below).

Here are some more detailed benefits of the physical activity:

Specifically, physical activity reduces the risk for heart disease, diabetes mellitus, osteoporosis,
high blood pressure, obesity, and metabolic syndrome; improves various other aspects of health
and fitness, including aerobic capacity, muscle and bone strength, flexibility, insulin sensitivity,
and lipid profiles; and reduces stress, anxiety, and depression.
Physical activity can improve mental health by decreasing and preventing conditions such as
anxiety and depression, as well as improving mood and other aspects of well-being.
Physical activity programs are specifically designed to do so can improve psychosocial
outcomes such as self-concept, social behaviours, goal orientation, and most notably selfefficacy. These attributes in turn are important determinants of current and future participation in
physical activity.

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Sedentary behaviors such as sitting and television viewing contribute to health risks both
because of and independently of their impact on physical activity.
Health-related behaviors and disease risk factors track from childhood to adulthood, indicating
that early and ongoing opportunities for physical activity are needed for maximum health benefit.
To be effective, physical activity programming must align with the predictable developmental
changes in childrens exercise capacity and motor skills, which affect the activities in which they
can successfully engage.
Frequent bouts of physical activity throughout the day yield short-term benefits for mental and
cognitive health while also providing opportunities to practice skills and building confidence that
promotes ongoing engagement in physical activity.
Distinct types of physical activity address unique health concerns and contribute in distinct
ways to childrens health, suggesting that a varied regimen including aerobic and resistance
exercise, structured and unstructured opportunities, and both longer sessions and shorter bouts
will likely confer the greatest benefit.

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

PHYSICAL FITNESS

If we were to refer back to diagram 2 we could see that there is a relationship between physical
activity and physical fitness. So then one may wonder, what is physical fitness? When one thinks
of physical fitness the image of well buffed bodies comes to mind. But there is more to physical
fitness than this. Physical fitness can be defined as your ability to carry out tasks without undue
fatigue. The components of physical fitness are cardiorespiratory endurance, muscle strength,
muscle endurance, flexibility and body composition and why they are important. Physical fitness
is an important part of life. Physical fitness is considered as a measure of the bodys ability to
function efficiently and effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hypo
kinetic diseases, and to meet emergency situations. Physical fitness is generally achieved
through:
Physical activity and exercise,
correct nutrition,
Enough rest (good quality sleep),
Stress management and relaxation.

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

HERE ARE SOME OF THE KEY BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS.

Reduces the risk for cardiovascular disease

People who participate in regular exercise have a decreased risk of developing:

heart disease
diabetes
metabolic syndrome
colon cancer
lung cancer
breast cancer

Development of physical fitness components

Development of physical fitness components such as muscle strength and endurance,

cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, agility, speed, bone density etc and improvement of
muscle tone.

Provide better health

Regular physical exercise increases both the size and strength of the heart. It can pump more
blood with less effort and becomes more efficient. This will lower pulse and lower the blood
pressure which can increase lifespan. The circulatory system is also improved because of
increased blood volume providing more oxygen to the muscles. These effects will translate into a
reduced risk for heart disease, heart attack, and stroke.

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Builds stronger Bones, Joints and Ligaments

Physical activity results in the strengthening of our bones and muscles. It can substantially
reduce the risk or arthritis and other bone diseases. Weight bearing exercise is shown to increase
bone density and also prevent bone loss as we get older. Different kinds of strength training put
strain on your joints. This actually helps your body strengthen connective tissue in those joints.
These tissues become stronger, more flexible and less prone to injury. Increased blood supply
means better nutrition for the tissues and better removal of waste products which helps improve

the health and durability.

Maintenance of Optimal Body Weight

Physical activity increases the muscle mass, reduces fat and thus controls weight especially
amongst students who are pre-teen and teenagers. It is proven that physical fitness can control
your body weight and prevent obesity and other weight-related problems. By combining the right
physical workouts with a proper and balanced diet, you can expect weight loss, reduced body fat
and a more firm and fit body. For example Aerobic exercise burns calories during the duration of
the exercise and strength training burns calories in the 24 hour period following the training.

Boost in Energy Level

A regular exercise program, especially in the mornings, will give students energy and drive for

the rest of the day. This effect is related to the increased metabolism associated with a fitter body.
Improved Appearance and Self Confidence amongst the Students
Physical activity build muscle mass and burns excess fat. It tones body muscles helping you to
look fit and healthy. Healthy active people almost always have great skin tone and look fresh,
less fatigued.

COMPONENTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

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Physical fitness is further divided into 5 parts, popularly known as 5 Components of Physical
Fitness.
1. Body composition
2. Cardiovascular fitness
3. Flexibility
4. Muscular endurance
5. Muscle strength

BODY COMPOISTION
This refers to the ratio of fat to muscle. Minimum of fat and maximum of lean mass is a sign of a
healthy and fit body. To know ones fitness level you need to understand your body composition.
The reason is body composition directly relates to the overall fitness level. Body composition is
the component which considers the individual body type, according to the height, weight, frame
size and the ratio of the fat mass to lean muscle mass. The overall physical level of an individual
depends on his body composition. The lean mass includes muscles, bones, vital tissues and
organs.
CARDIOVASCULAR ENDURANCE
Cardiovascular endurance can be defined as the component which helps to determine if the heart
and lungs are working in coordination. It shows the ability of the body to deliver oxygen and
nutrients to tissues and to remove wastes. Cardiovascular endurance is also referred to as
cardiovascular fitness, aerobic fitness and cardiorespiratory fitness. Cardiorespiratory endurance
can be defined as the ability of the heart to pump blood rich oxygen for the functioning of your

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muscles. It helps to determine whether the heart and lungs are working in coordination. The
ability to remain fit without feeling tired or fatigue during physical exercise measures the
physical fitness of a person. Examples of exercise will include running, jogging , swimming and
aerobics.
FLEXIBILITY (A MAJOR COMPONENT)
Flexibility can be defined as the component which checks the ability of the joints in the body to
move to their full range of motion. It is one of the major components of physical fitness. The
fitness level is measured by the flexibility of your joints. If you have good flexibility in the
joints, injuries related to joints could be prevented. Flexibility, mobility and suppleness all mean
the range of limb movement around joints. In any movement there are two groups of muscles at
work, protagonist muscles which cause the movement to take place and the antagonistic muscles
which opposes the movement and determine the amount of flexibility.
MUSCULAR ENURCANCE
Muscular endurance is defined as the ability of the body to perform repeated exercises without
getting tired. If a student or person can perform more number of repetitions of a particular
strength training exercise, then it can be said that he/she has good muscular endurance. Muscular
endurance is sometimes confused with muscular strength. The ability of the muscle to perform an
action without feeling fatigue is known as muscular endurance. It is the ability of muscles,
whether in a group or separated to sustain repeated contractions against resistance for an
extended period of time. This is related to muscular strength and cardio-respiratory endurance. If
a person can perform more number of repetitions of a particular strength training exercise, then it
shows- that person has good muscular endurance.

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

MUSCULE STRENGTH
Muscle strength can be defined as the capability of the muscles to lift weight. For example,
weight training exercises done on every alternate day increases the muscle mass of the body. The
muscular strength is measured by maximum amount of strength a muscle has while lifting or
during an exertion. In short, muscular strength is the ability of the muscle to exert strength during
a workout or an activity. It is capability of the muscle to lift the weight. The common definition
is "the ability to exert a force against a resistance"
There are three classes of strength:

maximum strength - the greatest force that is possible in a single maximum contraction,
elastic strength - the ability to overcome a resistance with a fast contraction and
strength endurance - the ability to express force many times over

OVERVIEW OF THE BODY SYSTEMS

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

The human body is really the combination of complex structures that are made up of many parts,
each of these parts have a key role to play and cannot function without the others. Generally
there are four systems which plays an important role in physical activity. Namely these systems
can be classified as the skeletal system, muscular system, the respiratory system and the
cardiovascular system. The role of this system is for supporting and protecting the body and is
our framework for
movement; it also stores minerals and manufactures blood

The muscular in my opinion is the star system in physical activities as this system facilitates
movement, maintaining posture and producing heat. In the cardiovascular system, the heart
pumps blood around the body, thus enabling the blood to transport oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients and waste. Similarly in the respiratory system, oxygen is taken from the air and
supplied to the blood, and carbon dioxide is removed. Skeletal muscles cause movement when
they contract and relax.

Notably, athletic performance depends on the bodys ability to take in oxygen, transport it to the
working muscles, use it at the working muscles, and remove carbon dioxide. To create movement
for physical activity, the body uses chemical energy that is taken into the body in three forms of
food: carbohydrate, fat and protein. The body systems depends on the energy that comes from
different foods. Food, or chemical energy, is taken into the body and is transformed into
mechanical and heat energy. Water is also important for movement and performance because it
aids all cell functions, regulates temperature, and transports nutrients and waste.
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

The muscular system is simply the bodys system that allows us to move and assist in the force
for movements of body parts. Muscles facilitate not only the movements that are under our
conscious control but also movements that are responsible for activities such as breathing,
digestion of food and the movement of blood around the body. The muscular system has several
roles in the human body. It is essential for locomotion, balance and posture; absorption of shock
and heat; breathing; and digestion of food. These are just a few of the important functions the
muscular system performs. The muscular system quite important so much so that if we did not
have muscles, we would have not be able to move or breathe and our heart would not be able to
circulate blood throughout our body.
Muscles are attached to bones by way of tendons. Muscles move the body and enable it to exert
force because they move the skeleton. When a muscle contracts (shortens), it moves a bone by
pulling on the tendon that attaches the muscle to the bone. When a muscle relaxes (lengthens),
the tension placed on the tendon is released and the bone moves back to or closer to its starting
position.
MUSCLE FIBERS
Muscles consist of individual muscle cells, or muscle fibers, connected in bundles. A single
muscle is made up of many bundles of muscle fibers and is covered by layers of connective
tissue that hold the fibers together. Muscle fibers, in turn, are made up of smaller protein
structures called myofibrils. Myofibrils are made up of a series of contractile units called
sarcomeres, which are composed largely of actin and myosin molecules. Muscle cells contract
when the myosin molecules glide across the actin molecules in a ratchet like movement. Strength
training increases the size and number of myofibrils, resulting in larger individual muscle fibers.
Larger muscle fibers mean a larger and stronger muscle. The development of large muscle fibers

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is called hypertrophy inactivity causes atrophy, the reversal of this process. In some species,
muscles can increase in size through a separate process called hyperplasia, which involves an
increase in the number of muscle fibers rather than the size of muscle fibers. In humans,
hyperplasia is not thought to play a significant role in determining muscle size. Each muscle cell
has many nuclei containing genes that direct the production of enzymes and structural proteins
required for muscle contraction. Muscle fibers are classified as slow-twitch or fast-twitch fibers
according to their strength, speed of contraction, and energy source. Slow-twitch muscle fibers
are relatively fatigue resistant,but they dont contract as rapidly or strongly as fast-twitch fibers.
The principal energy system that fuels slow-twitch fibers is aerobic (oxidative). Slow-twitch
muscle fibers are typically reddish in colour.

Three types of muscles

1. THE CARDIAC MUSCLE: The cardiac muscles, are located in the heart; Cardiac
muscle tissue is involuntary muscle and found, as its name would suggest, only in the
heart. You cannot control your heart muscle; it works automatically for you. Structurally,
these muscle fibers appear striated when magnified, have more than one nuclei per cell,
and are also branched in appearance.
2. SMOOTH (INVOLUNTARY) MUSCLES- are regulated by the autonomic nervous
system; Smooth muscle is called involuntary muscle because you cannot control this type
of muscle movement. These muscles line internal organs, blood vessels, and organs such
found in the digestive and reproductive systems. Structurally, these muscle fibers appear
non-striated (not striped) when magnified, have one nucleus per cell, and are usually
short. They produce weaker contractions.

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Running Head- Physical Education PHED 1001

3. SKELETAL MUSCLES -which are attached to bones and facilitate our ability to move .
Skeletal muscle is called voluntary because you can control this type of muscle. You can
voluntarily choose to move them. These muscles attach to bones, move the skeleton, and are
found in the arms, legs, neck, or anywhere you can voluntarily move a body part. These muscles
produce strong contractions. Structurally, these muscle fibers appear (striped) when magnified,
have more than one nucleus, and may be up to 30 cm long in humans.
Skeletal-muscle cells are long and thin, and contain fibres. Each fibre is about as thick as a hair
but is many times stronger. The fibres slide over each other when the muscle contracts. The
muscle fibres are arranged in groups within the muscle, and there are two basic types of them:
slow-twitch fibres and fast-twitch fibres. Every person has both types of muscle fibre, but the
proportion of each fibre type that is present in each muscle tends to be inherited. People who are
born with a higher percentage of slow-twitch muscle fibres in their legs might well be better
suited to endurance events, whereas people who are born with a higher percentage of fast-twitch
fibres might be better suited to explosive-type events such as sprinting. Although muscle
contraction does not always result in movement, without muscle contraction, controlled
movement would not occur. Peoples ability to harmoniously use their nervous, muscular and
skeletal systems leads to their ability to perform skilful movement.

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Diagram showing the structure of the skeletal muscle

MUSCLE AND EFFICIENT MOVEMENT

Muscles aids in efficient movement, muscles are arranged in pairs, so that if one muscle moves a
body part in one direction, another can move it back. Looking at the elbow joint as an example,
the pair of muscles are the biceps and triceps. The biceps muscle is positioned at the front of the
upper arm, and the triceps muscle is positioned at the back of the upper arm. The two muscles
work as a pair, so that when the biceps is contracting to cause the elbow to flex, the triceps is
relaxing. In this example, the bicep is known as the agonist, or prime mover, and the triceps is
known as the antagonist. The Agonist is the muscle that is causing the movement. The antagonist
is the muscle that relaxes so that movement can occur. This can be shown in the picture below:

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Diagram 3 The Flexion of the bicep note the agonist (bicep) and antagonist.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM DURING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

During a physical activity such as walking the muscular system reacts differently to suit the
particular need. In order for muscles to perform their main job of moving the skeleton, they must
have the following characteristics:
1

Excitability: this refers to when the muscle will respond to a stimulus.

2.

Extensibility: in this case the muscle can change in length.

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3. Contractibility: the muscle will tighten so a force can be produced.

4. Elasticity: the muscle will return to its original length.

When an impulse is sent from the brain to the muscle, the muscle will respond to the stimulus,
causing itself to contract. The three types of contraction are isometric, isotonic and isokinetic,
outlined as follows:

Isometric contraction

In this type of contraction, the muscle develops tension but there is no change in the length of the
muscle; an example is when you are pushing against a closed door.

Isotonic contraction

In this type of contraction, the muscle develops tension and there is a change in the length of the
muscle; an example is when you are performing a biceps curl.

ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS- e.g. bicep curl

Basically, there are two types of isotonic contraction are eccentric contractions and concentric
contractions:a)Concentric contractions: These occur when the muscle shortens; an example is the upward
phase of a bicep curl.
b) Eccentric contractions: These occur when the muscle lengthens; an example is the downward
phase of a bicep curl.

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c) Isokinetic contraction-In this type of contraction, the muscle develops tension and there is a
change in the length of the muscle. The tension remains constant through the full range of
movement. For this type of contraction, you insist that the students require special equipment in
order to constantly maintain the tension through the full range of movement.
Role of the muscular system
From the above explanation we can say that if we did not have muscles, our body would not be
able to move or to perform digestion of food, breathing or many other biological functions. The
muscular system has several functions, including protection of the bodys internal organs,
facilitation of the skeletons movement, maintenance of posture and production of heat.
Muscle movement
Skeletal muscles are arranged in pairs around joints, so that one muscle moves the joint in one
direction and the other moves it back. In order for a muscle to move a joint, it must span the
joint, and that means it must be attached to the bones on both sides of the joint; for example, a
muscle that moves the elbow must be attached to the lower arm as well as to the upper arm or
shoulder.
Let us examine some more roles of the muscular system as it relates to more physical activities:

Movement terms
Flexion
Flexion means bending, or decreasing the angle at a joint. An example of this type of movement
is when you are flexing your elbow during the upward phase of a bicep curl. This is shown in the
picture below.
FLEXON

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Extension
Extension means straightening, or increasing the angle at a joint. An example of this type of
movement example is when you are straightening your knee when kicking a ball.

Adduction
Adduction means moving a body part towards the midline, or centre. An example of this type of
movement is when you are bringing your legs together in the second part of a star jump.

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Abduction
Abduction means moving a body part away from the midline. An example of this type of
movement is when you are moving your legs apart during a star jump.

Circumduction
Circumduction means moving a

joint in a circular motion, and

can occur at joints that flex, extend,

adduct

and

abduct.

Two

examples of this type of movement are the action of your arms when you are swimming freestyle
and when you are bowling during a cricket game.

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Rotation
Rotation means turning or twisting a bone along its axis. An example of this type of movement is
when a ballet dancer is performing a turn.

Dorsiflexion
Dorsiflexion means moving the toes towards the shin bone, and can occur at only one joint. An
example of this type of movement is when you are pulling your toes towards your tibia when
performing a hamstring stretch.

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Plantarflexion
Plantarflexion means moving the toes away from the shin bone, and like dorsiflexion, can occur
at only one joint. An example of this type of movement is when you are pointing your toes
towards the ground.

Posture
When you are standing, although you do not necessarily think that your muscles are working,
because they are not moving, they are moving. The postural muscles are constantly contracting
and relaxing in order to keep the body balanced. An example of this is what happens to your
head when you are nodding off to sleep while sitting!

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The postural muscles are also vitally important in sporting performance. They might work to
keep one part of the body still while another part is moving; for example, the postural muscles of
the back and stomach keep your body still and straight during a push-up. They might also
contract in order to stabilise joints and to aid absorption of force, such as when you are playing

football.

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LONG TERM EFFECTS OF REGULAR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE MUSCULAR

SYSTEM

Physical activity is essential for the maintenance for strong muscles. It is important to note that
when engaging in physical activity all of the body systems rely on each other to work together so
they can function effectively. Exercise involves a series of sustained muscle contractions, of
either long or short duration, depending on the nature of the physical activity. Effects of exercise
on muscles can be considered short-term or immediate, both during and shortly after exercise; as
well as long-term, lasting effects.
However this part of the assignment focuses on the long term effect of regular physical activity:

Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy the muscle increases in size and bulk. Hypertrophy is a result of an increase in the
volume of contractile proteins (Actin & Myosin) within the muscle cell so they can contract with

greater force. The number of muscle fibres stays the same. In general males have a greater
potential for increases in muscle bulk due to higher levels of the hormone testosterone.

Increases in tendon strength

Tendons are tough bands of fibrous connective tissue designed to withstand tension forces
along their length. Like muscles, tendons adapt to the mechanical loading of regular exercise. A
general adaptation is increased strength but different types of training will exert differing effects
on muscle tendon complexes. Ligaments and tendons will increase in flexibility and strength
with exercise. Articular cartilage also becomes thicker.

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Muscle stores & Mitochondria -Muscles increase their oxidative capacity (their ability to use
oxygen to produce energy) with regular training. This is achieved by an increase in the number
of mitochondria (an organelle where aerobic energy is produced) within the muscle cells which
will increase the supply of ATP and an increase in the quantity of enzymes involved in the
production of ATP. The ability of the muscle to store myoglobin is increased (myoglobin is like
haemoglobin and carries oxygen).

Lactic acid anaerobic training stimulates the muscles to become better able to tolerate lactic acid
and clear it away more efficiently. With endurance training the capillary network extends
allowing greater volumes of blood to supply the muscles with oxygen and nutrients. The muscles
are able to use more fate as a fuel source and become more efficient at using oxygen.

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REFERENCES

Brooks, G. A., et al. 2005. Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications, 4th
ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Brooks, N., et al. 2006. Strength training improves muscle quality and insulin sensitivity in
Hispanic older adults with type 2 diabetes. International Journal of Medical Sciences 4(1): 19
27.

Boundless. Impacts of Exercise on Muscles. Boundless Anatomy and Physiology. Boundless,

26 May. 2016. Retrieved 14 Jun. 2016 from
https://www.boundless.com/physiology/textbooks/boundless-anatomy-and-physiologytextbook/muscular-system-10/exercise-and-skeletal-muscle-tissue-99/impacts-of-exercise-onmuscles-549-769/

Burt, J., et al. 2007. A comparison of once versus twice per week training on leg press strength in
women. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 47(1): 1317.

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Cadore, E. L., et al. 2011. Effects of strength, endurance, and concurrent training on aerobic
power and dynamic neuromuscular economy in elderly men. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 25(3):758766.

Carlsohn, A., et al. 2011. How much is too much? A case report of nutritional supplement use of
a high-performance athlete. British JournalNutrition 15.

Caserotti, P., et al. 2008. Explosive heavy-resistance training in old and very old adults: Changes
in rapid muscle force, strength and power. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in
Sports 18(6): 773782.

Davis, W. J., et al. 2008. Concurrent training enhances athletes strength, muscle endurance, and
other measures. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 22(5): 14871502.

Dengel, D. R., et al. 2011. Gender differences in vascular function and insulin sensitivity in
young adults. Clinical Sciences 120(4): 153160.

Farrar, R. E., et al. 2010. Oxygen cost of kettlebell swings. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research 24(4): 10341036.

Gee, T. I., et al. 2011. Strength and conditioning practices in rowing. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research 25(3): 668682.