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BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1 Definitions
1.2 Generating agents
1.3 Types of soils and characteristics
1.4 Structure of clay minerals
1.5 Structure of soils
1.1 DEFINITIONS
Soil
Soils are formed with sediments and other solid particles that can be
separated in single particles with the force of your hand when
saturated regardless of whether or not they have content of organic
matter (Karl Terzaghi).
Sediments are produced by mechanical break down or chemical
decomposition of rocks.
Soil Mechanics.
People use the land to live on, and build all sort of structures:
houses, roads, bridges, etcetera. It is the task of the geotechnical
engineer to predict the behavior of the soil as a result of these
human activities.
The problems that arise are, for instance, the settlement of a
road or a railway under the influence of its own weight and the
traffic load, the margin of safety of an earth retaining structure
(a dike, a quay wall or a sheet pile wall), the earth pressure
acting upon a tunnel or a sluice, or the allowable loads and the
settlements of the foundation of a building.
For all these problems soil mechanics provides the basic
knowledge.
Soil mechanics is the science of equilibrium and motion of soil bodies. Here
soil is understood to be the weathered material in the upper layers of the
earths crust.
The non-weathered material in this crust is denoted as rock, and its
mechanics is the discipline of rock mechanics.
In general the difference between soil and rock is roughly that in soils it is
possible to dig a trench with simple tools such as a shovel or even by hand.
In rock this is impossible, it must first be splintered with heavy equipment
such as a chisel, a hammer or a mechanical drilling device.
The natural weathering process on a mass of rock produced by rain, ice
wind, gravity and temperature gradually reduce the rock in smaller
particles. This process starts by the fracturing of rock bodies during the
freezing and thawing of the water inside the fissures in the rock.
sn
t
Dsn
Soil grain
Adsorbed water
Gas (Air)
Capillary
water
Saturated soil
TRADITIONAL THREE
PHASES DIAGRAM FOR
SATURATED SOIL
Volume
Weigth
Va
air
Vw
water
Wa0
Vv
Vm
Vs
soil
solids
Ww
Ws
Wm
Horizons of Soil.
A Horizon or vertical washing area: is the most
superficial and it has roots and vegetation. Its
color is usually dark due to the abundance of
decomposed organic matter or humus,
determining the passage of water that drag
downward fragments of fine size and soluble
compounds. Highly leached materials (Lixiviation
or eluviation zone).
B Horizon or precipitation area: it lacks of
organic material, so its color is lighter, In the B
horizon materials drawn from above are
deposited, mainly clay materials, oxides and
metal hydroxides, carbonates, etc. (eIuviation
zone).
C Horizon or parent rock: is made up to top of in
situ rocky material. Soil rests on horizon C, more
or less fragmented by mechanical and chemical
action, but it still recognizes it's original
characteristics.
Transported Soils
There is a number of transport agents in nature, the
main ones are:
Glaciers
Wind
Rivers
Floodings
Seas
Gravity
Moraine deposits
A moraine
Fluvioglacial soil
Alluvial Soil
Alluvial soil deposit in Quertaro
River deposits (fluvial): Coarse particles are graved dawn stream during
flooding and deposited when a decrease in the water velocity occurs. Fine
particles remain in suspension to be deposited in quieter waters. Thus, river
deposits are segregated according to size.
The coarse stones that are created close to the mountains are
transported downstream by gravity water flow.
The stones are gradually reduced in size, so that the material becomes
finer: gravel, sand and eventually silt.
The material is deposited by flooding or flowing rivers. The coarsest
material at high velocities, but the finer material only at very small
velocities. This means that gravel will be found in the upper reaches of
a river bed, and finer material such as sand and silt in the lower
reaches (Arnold Verruijt, Delft University of Technology, 2001).
Lacustrine deposits: Fine and very fine sediments like silts and clays are
deposited when running water comes to rest, like in lakes or deltas
Lacustrine material
Organic material
Marine soil
=
Block equivalent
Oxygen
Silicon
Octahedral unit,
about 5.05 A high
Oxygen
Aluminum
G or B
Block equivalent
G= Gibbsite (Al)
B= Brucite (Mg)
Octahedron
According to the mineral structure of clay, some of the most common clay
minerals are the following
Kaolinite: Its structure is very stable in the presence of water.
Montmorillonite: Its structure is very unstable in the presence of
water. When the water content increases it swells.
Illite: Its behavior
montomorillonite
is
intermediate
between
kaolinite
and
7 A
Si
Si
Al
Al
9.6 A
Si
Kaolinite,
schema of the
basic unit
Schema of the
Montmorillonite
Si
Al
Si
10 A
K, Potassium
Oxygen
> 9.6
Silicon
Aluminium
Cationes de cambio n H2O
Oxgeno
Hidroxilo, OH
Al, Fe, Mg
Si, a veces Al
Clay particles
agua
capilar
Capillary
water
Negative electrical forces on the
surface of the mineral particles
attract water molecules and ions.
These forces decrease as the water
molecules and ions are farther
away from the surface of the grain.
agua
Adsorbed
adsorbida
water
Repulsion
Dispersive clay
Attraction
Distance
Floculated clay
II I -
Solid particle
Solid water layer (I)
Viscosity
- +
-
particle I
II
III
The electromagnetic forces reduce as the molecules of water move away from the
surface of the clay particle
The most common soil cations, (including their chemical symbol and charge)
are: calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++), potassium (K+), ammonium (NH4+),
hydrogen (H+), sodium (Na+), aluminum (Al+++), iron (Fe++), zinc (Zn++) and
copper (Cu++). Notice that some cations have more than one positive charge.
The capacity of the soil to hold on these cations is called the cation exchange
capacity (CEC).
The quantity of positively charged ions (cations) that a clay mineral or similar
material can accommodate on its negatively charged surface is expressed as
milliion equivalent per 100 g, or more commonly as milliequivalent (meq) per
100 g or cmol/kg.
(10 cmolc/kg = 10 meq/100 g).
Clays are aluminosilicates in which some of the aluminum and silica ions
have been replaced by elements with different charge. For example,
aluminum (Al3+) may be replaced by iron (Fe2+) or magnesium (Mg2+), leading
to a net negative charge.
The CEC of the soil will depend on the pH of the soil. A neutral soil (pH ~7)
will have a higher CEC than a soil with for example pH 5. Or in other words,
the CEC of a soil with pH-dependent charge will increase with an increase in
pH.
This principle applies to increasing pH by the presence of lime for the
stabilization of expansive clays.
Clay
Kaolinite
3-15
Halloysite
10-40
Illite
10-40
Vermiculite
100-150
Montmorillonite
80-150
Electron microscope.
Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA): consists of simultaneously heating a
test sample and a thermally inert substance at constant rate (usually about
10C/min) to over 1000C and contiunuously measuring differences in
temperature between the sample and the inert material.
Chemical Analysis
Thermogravimetric Analysis
Frequency
Al
Mg
Si
Difraction angle
DT
Exothermic
Reaction
A
DT
Endothermic
Reaction
1000C
4.75 76.2
0.075 4.75
0.005 0.075
0.002 - 0.005
< 0.002
Granular
Particles
Flat/Needle
Particles
Voids (Vv)
Bulky particle (Vs)
emax , emin
Vv
en
Vs
emax en
emax emin
Dispersed
structure
Clay Structure
(particles equal or smaller than 0.002 mm in size).
a) Honeycomb structure: particles deposit due
to gravity forces. During this process they are
attracted and attached to others
Composite structure
Typical Kaolinite
21.75%
CaO
66.52
MgO
5.36
Na2O
0.72
K2O
0.06
Non soluble
material
2.13
Sample
1
SiO
54.13%
55.76%
AL2O3
19.58
19.93
Fe2O3
6.74
6.71
CaO
4.34
3.63
K2O
1.36
1.13
MgO
0.47
0.40
Organic material
1.73
1.63
49.96
me/100g
48.86
me/100g
Ph
8.2
7.7
Magnesium
8.48
8.53
Calcium
33.95
35.67
Sodium
1.79
1.79
Potassium
3.94
3.66
Interchangeable cations
(meq/100g)
2m
MONTMORILLONITE
20 m
Needle particles
A bundle of NaturalNano
halloysite nanotubes
compared to the width
of a human hair
Strength
Sr
Remolded
Sa
Remolded
Aged strength
Remolded Strength
Time
Sa/Sr = Thixotropic Strength Ratio
Insensitive
Slightly sensitive clays
Medium sensitive
clays
Very sensitive clays
Slightly quick clays
Medium quick clays
Very quick clays
Extra quick clays
~ 1.0
1-2
2-4
4-8
8-16
16-32
32-64
>64
CAUSES OF SENSITYVITY
At least six differente phenomena may
contribuite to the develpment of sensitivity:
1. Metastable fabric;
2. Cementation;
3. Weathering;
4. Thixotropic hardening;
5. Leaching, ion exchange;
6. Formation or addition of dispersing
agents.
Honeycomb structure
Apparatus
Apparatus for DTA consists of a:
Sampler holder, usually ceramic, nickel, or platinum.
Furnace.
Temperature controller to provide a constant rate of heating.
Thermocouples for measurements of temperature and the
difference in temperature between the sample and the inert
reference material.
The recorder for the thermocouple output.
Typical Kaolinite
Element
Weight%
Atomic%
OK
14.83
26.83
Na K
0.75
0.94
Mg K
2.25
2.68
Al K
2.75
2.95
Si K
46.61
48.04
KK
2.31
1.71
Ca K
5.01
3.62
Fe K
25.50
13.22
Totals
100.00
Spectrum processing:
Peaks possibly omitted: 2.149, 8.036, 8.475, 8.900, 9.706, 11.501, 13.367 keV
Processing option: All elements analyzed (Normalised)
Number of iterations = 2. Jurica Clay, Queretaro city. Mexico. Alicia Del Real L
JU100-2 sitio 1 espectro2
Nitrogen adsorption
Mercury intrusion
Element
Weight%
Atomic%
OK
18.71
31.06
Na K
0.68
0.79
Mg K
1.75
1.92
Al K
10.36
10.20
Si K
46.95
44.40
KK
2.59
1.76
Ca K
4.57
3.03
Fe K
14.38
6.84
Totals
100.00
Spectrum processing :
Peaks possibly omitted : 2.149, 8.036, 8.515, 8.905, 9.706, 11.486, 13.350 keV
Processing option : All elements analyzed (Normalised)
Number of iterations = 3. Jurica Clay, Queretaro city. Mexico. Alicia Del Real L.
Sample: JU100 2 espectro4. Site of Interest 2 Type: Default. JU100-2 sitio 2
Element
Weight%
Atomic%
OK
18.71
31.06
Na K
0.68
0.79
Mg K
1.75
1.92
Al K
10.36
10.20
Si K
46.95
44.40
KK
2.59
1.76
Ca K
4.57
3.03
Fe K
14.38
6.84
Totals
100.00
Spectrum processing :
Peaks possibly omitted : 2.149, 8.036, 8.515, 8.905, 9.706, 11.486, 13.350 keV
Processing option : All elements analyzed (Normalised)
Number of iterations = 3. Jurica Clay, Queretaro city. Mexico. Alicia Del Real L.
Sample: JU100 2 espectro4. Site of Interest 2 Type: Default. JU100-2 sitio 2
BENTONITE
Bentonite usually forms from weathering of volcanic ash, most often in the
presence of water. For industrial purposes, two main classes of bentonite exist:
sodium and calcium bentonite.
Sodium bentonite expands when wet, possibly absorbing several times its dry
mass in water. Because of its excellent properties it is often used in drilling mud
for oil and gas wells and for geotechnical and environmental investigations.
The property of swelling also makes sodium bentonite useful as a sealant,
especially for the sealing of subsurface disposal systems for spent nuclear fuel
and for quarantining metal pollutants of groundwater. Similar uses include
making slurry walls, waterproofing of below-grade walls and forming other
impermeable barriers: e.g., to seal off the annulus of a water well, to plug old
wells, or as a liner in the base of landfills to prevent migration of leachate.
Sodium bentonite can also be "sandwiched" between synthetic materials to
create geo-synthetic clay liners (GLC) for the aforementioned purposes. This
technique allows for more convenient transport and installation and it greatly
reduces the volume of sodium bentonite required.
Characteristics:
Width: 60 cm (standard) 80 cm
Depth: up to 45 m
Mud: Bentontic polymer