6 The MR Scanner

41

6 The MR Scanner

All major components of an MRI system have now been mentioned. They
are (Fig.27):
A strong magnet to generate the static magnetic field (B0).
A gradient system consisting of three coils to produce linear field
distortions in the x-, y-, and z-directions and the corresponding
amplifiers.
A radiofrequency (RF) transmitter with a transmit coil built into the
scanner.
A highly sensitive RF receiver to pick up and amplify the MR signal.
Alternatively, imagers may use a single RF coil switched between the
transmit and receive modes.
Additional coils, either receive coils or transmit/receive coils.
Various computers for controlling the scanner and the gradients (control
computer), for creation of the MR images (array processor), and for
coordinating all processes (main or host computer, to which are connected the operators console and image archives).
Other peripheral devices such as a control for the patient table, electrocardiography (ECG) equipment and respiration monitors to trigger
specialized MR sequences, a cooling system for the magnet, a second
operators console (e.g. for image processing), a device for film expo
sure, or a PACS (picture archiving and communications system).

42

Fig. 27. The major components of an MR scanner

6.1

The Magnet

The main magnetic field generated by the magnet must have the following
features:
An adequate strength, which typically ranges from 0.1 to 3.0T in
medical MR imaging.
A high stability without fluctuations in field strength.
The best homogeneity possible with a uniform strength throughout the
entire field and without holes. Field homogeneity is usually expressed
in ppm relative to the main field over a certain distance. Inhomogeneities throughout the scan volume should be below 5 ppm (0.0005%).

6 The MR Scanner

43

Three types of magnets are distinguished:

Resistive magnets are conventional electromagnets that depend on a high
and constant power supply to create a magnetic field. The maximum
field strength generated by resistive magnets is about 0.3T. Their major
disadvantages are the high operating costs due to the large amounts of
power required and a field homogeneity that is often poor. An advantage is the safety of the system as the field can be turned off instantly in
an emergency.
Permanent magnets consist of ferromagnetic substances and create a
magnetic field that is maintained without an external power supply.
However, permanent magnets are very heavy, can generate a field with
a maximum strength of only 0.5T, and rely on a constant external
temperature.
Superconducting magnets consist of a coil made of a niobium-titanium
(Nb-Ti) alloy whose resistance to current flow is virtually eliminated
when cooled to near absolute zero (about 4Kelvin or 269C). In this
superconducting state, which is achieved using coolants known as
cryogens (usually liquid helium), a current once induced flows practically forever. Once the magnetic field has been established, it is maintained without additional power input. Very strong and highly homogeneous magnetic fields of up to 18T can be generated using super
conducting magnets. However, liquid helium evaporates and must be
resupplied regularly. In an emergency it is not possible to simply switch
off the magnet. About 95% of all MR systems used today have superconducting magnets. A quench refers to a magnets sudden loss of
superconductivity with subsequent breakdown of the magnetic field and
may be induced by very minute movements of the coil. Due to the
frictional energy released by this process, the coil temperature rises
above the superconductivity threshold and the coils suddenly develop
resistance. The current passing through an area of elevated coil resistance creates heat, which causes a sudden boiloff of cryogens. The
risk of quenches is reduced by insulation of the Nb-Ti with an extra
copper winding. Magnetic quenches are serious events but have become
rare with the use of state-of-the-art magnet technology.
Magnetic field homogeneity is a primary consideration in medical MRI,
regardless of the magnet used. To achieve an optimal homogeneity, it is often
necessary to make adjustments known as shimming. This is done either passively by placing pieces of sheet metal at certain locations within the magnet
bore and on the outer surface of the scanner or actively by the activation of
specialized coils of which over 20 may be present in a scanner.

44

Another important aspect is shielding of the magnet, which serves to

control the fringe fields external to the magnet. In the past, fringe fields
were contained mainly by incorporating large amounts of iron into the walls
and the ceiling of the scanner room (1020 tons!). Because of weight and
expense, this form of shielding is increasingly being abandoned and magnets with integrated or active shielding are used instead. Actively shielded
magnets have a double set of windings of which the inner one creates the
field while the outer one provides return paths for the magnetic field lines.
6.2

The Gradient System

Magnetic field gradients are applied for slice selection and spatial encoding (Chapter4). A set of three separate gradient coils, each with its own
amplifier, is needed to alter the magnetic field strength along the x-, y-, and
z-axes. These are switched on separately or in combination, e.g. to define
an oblique slice. The isocenter is the geometric center of the main magnetic
field, where the field strength is not affected by any of the three gradients.
The gradient coils generate magnetic fields that are small compared with
the main field but nevertheless need a current of several hundred amperes.
The changing magnetic fields generated when the gradients are switched
lead to the typical banging sound heard during an MR scan. Similar to a
loudspeaker, which is nothing but a coil inside a magnetic field, the gradient
coils try to move when the current is switched on and off, which causes a
noisy clanging.
Despite the high currents, the gradient fields must be extremely stable in
order to prevent image distortions. Moreover, it has been shown for gradient coils as well that actively shielded coils (Chapter6.1) are superior to
the simpler versions: with smaller fringe fields, there is less external RF interference (induction of so-called eddy currents, Chapter13.7).
Gradient performance is measured by three parameters:
Maximum gradient strength (in units of mT/m)
Rise time time to maximum gradient amplitude
Slew rate maximum gradient amplitude/rise time

6 The MR Scanner

6.3

45

The Radiofrequency System

The radiofrequency (RF) system comprises a powerful RF generator (the

Larmor frequency at 1.5T is 63.8 MHz, which is in the range of FM transmitters) and a highly sensitive receiver. The stability of these two components is crucial: as both the frequency and the phase of the signal are needed
for spatial encoding, any distortions, e.g. by phase rotation introduced by
the receiver, would result in a blurred image. Moreover, to adequately detect
the weak MR signal, effective RF shielding of the scanner room is necessary
to prevent interference from external sources. This can be achieved by housing the magnet in a closed conductive structure known as a Faraday cage.
The RF subsystem also includes the transmit and receive coils. These
may be combined coils acting as both transmitters and receivers such as
the body coil which is integrated into the scanner. It is not visible from the
outside and consists of a cage of copper windings encircling the patient.
The RF transmitter serves to deliver pulses that correspond to the resonant
frequency of hydrogen atoms.
As discussed in Chapter5, the SNR can be modulated by employing
coils other than the body coil. Careful coil selection according to the anatomy being imaged is important for optimizing image quality.
6.4

The Computer System

The computers of an MRI system control and coordinate many processes

ranging from turning on and off gradients and the RF coils to data handling
and image processing.
References
1.

McFall JR (1997) Hardware and coils for MR imaging. In: Riederer SJ, Wood ML
(eds) Categorical course in physics: The basic physics of MR imaging. RSNA Publications no 41, Oak Brook