Electronics

Definition:
Electronics is the science of how to control electric energy, energy in which the electrons have a
fundamental role. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical
components such as vacuum tubes, transistors,diodes and integrated circuits, and associated
passive electrical components and interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices
contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductorssupplemented with
passive elements; such a circuit is described as an electronic circuit.

History:
Brief History of Electronics and Its Development
Electronics actual history began with the invention of vacuum diode by J.A. Fleming, in 1897; and,
after that, a vacuum triode was implemented by Lee De Forest to amplify electrical signals. This led
to the introduction of tetrode and pentode tubes that dominated the world until the World War II.
Subsequently, the transistor era began with the junction transistor invention in 1948. Even though,
this particular invention got a Nobel Prize, yet it was later replaced with a bulky vacuum tube that
would consume high power for its operation. The use of germanium and silicon semiconductor
materials made theses transistor gain the popularity and wide-acceptance usage in different
electronic circuits.

Integrated circuits (ICs)

The subsequent years witnessed the invention of the integrated circuits (ICs) that drastically
changed the electronic circuits nature as the entire electronic circuit got integrated on a single
chip, which resulted in low: cost, size and weight electronic devices. The years 1958 to 1975 marked
the introduction of IC with enlarged capabilities of over several thousand components on a single
chip such as small-scale integration, medium-large scale and very-large scale integration ICs.

And the trend further carried forward with the JFETS and MOSFETs that were developed during
1951 to 1958 by improving the device designing process and by making more reliable and powerful
transistors.
Digital integrated circuits were yet another robust IC development that changed the overall
architecture of computers. These ICs were developed with Transistor-transistor logic (TTL),
integrated injection logic (I2L) and emitter coupled logic (ECL) technologies. Later these digital ICs
employed PMOS, NMOS, and CMOS fabrication design technologies.
All these radical changes in all these components led to the introduction of microprocessor in 1969
by Intel. Soon after, the analog integrated circuits were developed that introduced an operational
amplifier for an analog signal processing. These analog circuits include analog multipliers, ADC and
DAC converters and analog filters.
This is all about the fundamental understanding of the electronics history. This history of
electronics technology costs greater investment of time, efforts and talent from the real heroes,
some of them are described below.

Inventors in history of electronics

Luigi Galvani (1737-1798)
Luigi Galvani was a professor in the University of Bologna. He studied the effects of electricity on
animals, especially on frogs. With the help of experiments, he showed the presence of electricity in
frogs in the year 1791.
Charles Coulomb (1737-1806)
Charles coulomb was a great scientist of the 18th century. He experimented with the mechanical
resistance and developed coulombs law of electro-static charges in the year 1799.
Allesandro Volta (1745-1827)

Allesandro Volta was an Italian scientist. He invented battery in the year 1799. He was the first to
develop a battery (Voltaic cell) that could produce electricity as a result of chemical reaction.
Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1852)
Hans Christian Oersted showed that whenever a current flows through a conductor, a magnetic
field is associated with it. He initiated the study of electromagnetism and discovered Aluminum in
the year 1820.
George Simon Ohm (1789-1854)
George Simon Ohm was a German physicist. He experimented with the electrical circuits and made
his own part including the wire. He found that some conductors worked when compared to others.
He discovered Ohms law in the year 1827, which is a relation between current, voltage& resistance.
The unit for resistance is named after him.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Michael Faraday was a British scientist and great pioneer experimenter in electricity and
magnetism. After the discovery by Oersted, he demonstrated electromagnetic induction in the year
1831. This is the basic principle of the working of generators.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
James Clerk Maxwell was a British physicist, and he wrote treatise on magnetism and electricity in
the year 1873. He developed the electromagnetic field equations in the year 1864. The equations in
it were explained and predicted by hertzs work and faradays work. James Clerk Maxwell
formulated an important theory that is, electromagnetic theory of light.
Henrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-1894)
Henrich Rudolph Hertz was a German physicist born in 1857 in Hamburg. He demonstrated the
electromagnetic radiation predicted by Maxwell. By using experimental procedures, he proved the
theory by engineering instruments to transmit and receive radio pulses. He was the first person to
demonstrate the photo-electric effect. The unit of frequency was named Hertz in his honorarium.
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836)
Andre Marie Ampere was a French mathematician and physicist. He studied the effects of electric
current and invented solenoid. The SI unit of electric current (the Ampere) was named after him.
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)

Karl Friedrich Gauss was a physical scientist and a greatest German mathematician. He contributed
to many fields like algebra, analysis, statistics, electrostatics and astronomy. The CGS unit of
magnetic field density was named after him.
Wilhelm Eduard Weber (1804-1891)
Wilhelm Eduard Weber was a German physicist. He investigated terrestrial magnetism with his
friend Carl fried rich. He devised an electromagnetic telegraph in the year 1833, and also
established a system of absolute electrical units, and the MKS unit of flux was named after Weber.
Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1932)
Thomas Alva Edison was a businessman and an American inventor. He developed many devices like,
practical electric bulb, motion picture camera, photograph and other such things. While inventing
the electric lamp, he observed the Edison effect.
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)
Nikola Tesla invented the Tesla coil; the Tesla induction motor; alternating current (AC); electrical
supply system that includes a transformer; 3-phase electricity and motor. In 1891, Tesla coil was
invented and used in electronic equipment, television and radio sets. The unit of magnetic field
density was named after him.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff was a German physicist. He developed Kirchhoffs law that allows
calculation of the voltages, currents and resistance of electrical networks.
James Prescott Joule (1818-1889)
James Prescott Joule was a brewer and an English physicist. He discovered the law of conservation
of energy. The unit of energy Joule was named in his honor. To develop the scale of temperature,
he worked with Lord Kelvin.
Joseph Henry (1799-1878)
Joseph Henry was an American scientist, and independently discovered electromagnetic induction in
the year 1831 a year before faradays discovery. The unit of induction was named after him.
Lee De Forest (1873-1961)
Lee de forest was an American inventor, and he invented the first triode vacuum tube: Audion tube
in 1906. He was honored as the father of radio.

Walter schottky (1886-1997)

Walter schottky was a German physicist. He defined shot noise-random electron noise in thermionic
tubes, and invented the multiple grid vacuum tube.
Edwin Howard Armstrong (1890-1954)
Edwin Howard Armstrong was an inventor and an American electrical engineer. He invented
electronic oscillator and regenerative feedback. In 1917, he invented super-heterodyne radio and
patented FM radio in the year 1933.
Hope you got somewhat better understanding of this brief history of electronics. Why cant we
learn something from the above philosophers and great inventors for bettering our world and
technology? Please share your views on this article in the comment section below.

Application of Electronics
Electronics has made tremendous advancement during last few decades and our day to day life
involves the use of electronic devices. Electronics has played a major role in every sphere of our
life; this can be proved with the following application of electronics:
Entertainment and Communication
Availability of economical and fast means of communication paves the way for progress of a country.
Few decades ago, the main application of electronics was in the field of telephony and telegraphy.
Now, with the aid of radio waves we can transmit any message from one place to another, with out
the use of wires. Radio and TV broadcasting offers a means of both entertainment as well as
communication. Today, Electronics gadgets are widely used for entertainment.

Defence Applications
Defence applications are completely controlled by electronic circuits. RADAR that is Radio
Detection and Ranging is the most important development in electronics field. With the help of
radar it is possible to detect and find the exact location of enemy aircraft. Radar and anti craft
guns can be linked by an automatic control system to make a complete unit.

Industrial Application
Electronics circuits are widely being used in industrial applications such as control of thickness,
quality, weight and moisture content of a material. Electronic amplifier circuits are used to amplify
signals and thus control the operations of automatic door openers, power systems and safety
devices. Electronically controlled systems are used for heating and welding in the industry. The
most important industrial application is that the power stations which generate thousands of
megawatts of electricity are controlled by tiny electronic devices and circuits.
Medical Services
Electronics systems are being used by Doctors and scientists in the diagnosis and treatment of

various diseases. X-rays, ECG, Short eave diathermy units and oscillographs are some instruments
which have been used so far in medical science. The use of electronics in medical science has grown
so extremely and is useful in saving the life of mankind from a lot of sufferings.
Instrumentation Application of Electronics
Electronics instruments such as cathode-ray oscilloscopes, frequency counters, signal generators,
strain gauges are of great help in for precise measurement of various quantities. Without these
electronic instruments no research laboratory is complete.

An Introduction to Electronic Components

All electronic circuits contain few basic components. That are three passive components and two
active components. An Integrated circuit may comprise of thousands of transistors, few capacitors
on a small chip.
Types of Electronic Components:
Passive Components
1. Resistors
2. Capacitors
3. Inductors
Active Components
1. Tube devices
2. Semiconductor devices
What are Passive Components?
Resistors, capacitors and inductors are called as passive components. These electronics components
are called passive because they by themselves are not capable of amplifying or processing an
electrical circuit. However, passive components are as important as active components in any
electronic circuit.

Resistors: The component that opposes the flow of current is called a resistor. This opposing force
is called the resistance of the material. It is measured in ohms.
Capacitors: Capacitor is a component that is used to store electrical energy and release them
whenever desired. It is measured in farads. Capacitors like resistors can either be fixed or
variable. Some common capacitors are mica, ceramic, paper and air gang capacitors.
Inductor:
The electronic component which produces inductance is called an inductor. The inductance is
measured in henrys (H). All inductors, like resistors and capacitors are listed as fixed and variable.
What are Active Components?
Active components are used in electronic circuits. They are classified in two categories: Tube
devices and semiconductor devices. Due to many advantages of semiconductor devices, they are
replacing tube devices in many electronic applications.
Electronics components and electronic applications are penetrated everywhere in our day to day
life. Electronics deals in the micro and milli range of voltage, current and power and also control kilo
and mega volts, amperes and watts. Today, Electronics is an established branch of engineering.

III. Solid State Fundamentals

An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow freely, and
therefore make it nearly impossible to conduct an electric current under the influence of
an electric field. This contrasts with other materials,semiconductors and conductors, which conduct
electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an insulator is its resistivity;
insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or conductors.
Types of Insulators
These are the common classes of insulator:

Pin type insulator - As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is mounted on a pin on the
cross-arm on the pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator. The conductor
passes through this groove and is tied to the insulator with annealed wire of the same material
as the conductor. Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of

communications, and electric power at voltages up to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV,
the pin type insulators become too bulky and hence uneconomical.
Suspension insulator - For voltages greater than 33 kV, it is a usual practice to use

suspension type insulators, consisting of a number of glass or porcelain discs connected in series
by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this
string while the top end is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. The number of disc units
used depends on the voltage.
Strain insulator - A dead end or anchor pole or tower is used where a straight section of

line ends, or angles off in another direction. These poles must withstand the lateral (horizontal)
tension of the long straight section of wire. In order to support this lateral load, strain
insulators are used. For low voltage lines (less than 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain
insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strings of cap-and-pin (suspension)
insulators are used, attached to the crossarm in a horizontal direction. When the tension load in
lines is exceedingly high, such as at long river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel.
Shackle insulator - In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But

now a day, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can be
used either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the
pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.
Bushing - enables one or several conductors to pass through a partition such as a wall or a

tank, and insulates the conductors from it.[4]

Line post insulator

Station post insulator

Cut-out
Semiconductor

A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound, that can

conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a good medium for the
control of electrical current. Its conductance varies depending on
the current or voltageapplied to a control electrode, or on the intensity of irradiation by
infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.

The specific properties of a semiconductor depend on the impurities, or dopants, added to

it. An N-type semiconductor carries current mainly in the form of negatively-

chargedelectrons, in a manner similar to the conduction of current in a wire. A Ptypesemiconductor carries current predominantly as electron deficiencies called holes. A
hole has a positive electric charge, equal and opposite to the charge on an electron. In a
semiconductor material, the flow of holes occurs in a direction opposite to the flow of
electrons.

IV. Diode
A diode is a specialized electronic component with two electrodes called
the anode and thecathode. Most diodes are made with semiconductor materials
such as silicon, germanium, or selenium. Some diodes are comprised of metal
electrodes in a chamber evacuated or filled with a pure elemental gas at low
pressure. Diodes can be used as rectifiers, signal
limiters, voltage regulators, switches, signal modulators, signal mixers, signal
demodulators, and oscillators.
Diode Construction

A diode is formed by joining two equivalently doped P-Type and N-Type semiconductor. When they
are joined an interesting phenomenon takes place. The P-Type semiconductor has excess holes and
is of positive charge. The N-Type semiconductor has excess electrons. At the point of contact of the
P-Type and N-Type regions, the holes in the P-Type attract electrons in the N-Type material. Hence
the electron diffuses and occupies the holes in the P-Type material. Causing a small region of the Ntype near the junction to loose electrons and behaves like intrinsic semiconductor material, in the Ptype a small region gets filled up by holes and behaves like a intrinsic semiconductor.

This thin intrinsic region is called depletion layer, since its depleted of charge (see diagram above)
and hence offers high resistance. Its this depletion region that prevents the further diffusion of
majority carriers. In physical terms the size of the depletion layer is very thin.

Diode Biased Voltage[edit]

Zero Bias[edit]

When a diode is zero biased, that is has no bias, it just stays. Almost no current passes through the
diode. However if you connect the anode and cathode of the diode you might be able to observe
small voltage or current that is insignificant. This is because the electromagnetic spectrum that's
present in our environment by default (microwave background, heat, light, radio waves) knocks off
electrons in the semiconductor lattice that constitutes current. For practical reasons this current can
be considered zero.

Reverse Bias[edit]

In reverse bias the P-type region is connected to negative voltage and N-type is connected to
positive terminal as shown above. In this condition the holes in P-type gets filled by electrons from
the battery / cell (in other words the holes get sucked out of the diode). The electrons in N-type
material is sucked out of the diode by the positive terminal of the battery. So the diode gets depleted
of charge. So initially the depletion layer widens (see image above) and it occupies the entire diode.
The resistance offered by the diode is very huge. The current that flows in reverse bias is only due to
minority charge which is in nano amperes in silicon and micro amperes in high power silicon and
germanium diodes.

Forward Bias[edit]

In forward bias the P-Region of the diode is connected with the positive terminal of the battery and
N-region is connected with the negative region. During the forward bias the following process
occurs. The positive of the battery pumps more holes into the P-region of the diode. The negative
terminal pumps electrons into the N-region. The excess of charge in P and N region will apply
pressure on the depletion region and will make it shrink. As the voltage increases the depletion layer
will become thinner and thinner and hence diode will offer lesser and lesser resistance. Since the
resistance decreases the current will increase (though not proportional) to the voltage.
At one particular voltage level Vf called the threshold / firing / cut-off voltage the depletion layer
disappears (overwhelmed by the charge) and hence from this point on the diode starts to conduct
very easily. From this point on the diode current increases exponentially to the voltage applied.