Profitability Analysis of Steel Companies

AJRSH
Volume2,Issue10(October,2012)ISSN22497315
A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
SCIENCE & HUMANITIES
SR.
NO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
JournalofAsianResearchConsortium
http://www.aijsh.org
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
PARTICULAR
HEROES FROM PESANTREN: A BRIEF BIOGRAPHY
OF K.H. AHMAD SANUSI A PATRIOT OF INDONESIAN
INDEPENDENCE
SULASMAN
A STUDY ON PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS OF
SELECTED STEEL COMPANIES IN INDIA
M.KRISHNA MOORTHI, DR.M.RAMESH
GROWING INCIDENCES OF GENDER CRIMES AND
DOWRY DEATHS: AN EVOLVING THREAT TO
ASSAMESE SOCIETY
DR. POLLY VAUQULINE
A STUDY ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF PHYSICALLY
CHALLENGED CHILDREN
POLEE SAIKIA, SATYABRATA BARUAH
ISLAM IN SOUTH ASIA: A BRIEF OVERVIEW ON
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAM IN INDIA,
PAKISTAN, AND BANGLADESH
SULASMAN
INDIAS LOOK EAST POLICY: PERSPECTIVE AND
PROSPECTS
SUNIL KUMAR
ASSESSMENT OF SELF-HELP GROUPS FROM THE
LENSES OF POVERTY IN UTTAR PRADESH: A STUDY
OF SGSY
MONIKA SINGH, AJAY KUMAR, N.M.P VERMA
RETHINKING THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM
INDONESIA
SULASMAN
A REVIEW ON THE CUSTOMER PERCEIVED
SERVICE QUALITY AND PERCEIVED VALUE FOR
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN SERVICE INDUSTRY
MS.TULIKA SOOD, MS. SARIKA SRIVASTAVA
LAND AND PROPERTY RIGHTS OF WOMEN IN
INDIAN SOCIETY
DR. LATA MARINA VARGHESE
PAGE NO.
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95-104
105-117
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11.
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TRAGEDY OF MACBETH: OVERAMBITION TO

FIASCO
MS. PIU SARKAR
STRATEGIC EFFECTIVENESS OF MICRO-CREDIT IN
EMPOWERING WOMEN: A STUDY OF WOMEN SELFHELP GROUPS IN BLOCK BHALWAL (JAMMU
DISTRICT, J&K)
VARSHA KAPOOR
IMPACT
OF
FAMILY,
INTERPERSONAL
RELATIONSHIPS AND SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS ON
ADOLESCENTS
DR. K. SUNEETHA
USE OF PARTICIPATORY NOTES OR PROBLEMATIC
NOTES AS A SOURCE OF FOREIGN FUNDS
Dr.AMANDEEP BATRA
INVESTMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
DR. JATINDRA NATH SAIKIA
FEARNESS IN SCIENCE IN HIGHER SECONDARY
EDUCATION: AN ASSESSMENT WITH REFERENCE
TO BURDWAN DISTRICT IN WEST BENGAL
131-145
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146-155
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169-183
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184-192
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KRISHAN DUTT, ANAND S. KODAN, ASHWANI KUMAR

PRIMARY EDUCATION IN TEA GARDENS OF ASSAM:
A STUDY OF SIVASAGAR DISTRICT
[PDF]
DR. RIPU KR. GOGOI

A STUDY OF SOCIOLOGICAL
SUPERSTITIONS
[PDF]
FACTORS
125-130
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P.K. PAUL, N. K. MONDAL

WATER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA (ISSUES AND
CHALLENGES)
193-201
202-207
OF
DR. SAFIOLLAH SAFAEI, DR. AKBAR KHODABAKHSHI

SOCIO-POLITICAL CHANGES FOR DEPRESSED
CLASSES IN COLONIAL ERA
[PDF]
MR. RAMSHARAN, MR. YASHPAL

DYNAMICS OF P SORPTION AND SOLUBILISING
ACTIVITY IN TERMITE NEST MATERIAL
[PDF]
P. SATHIYA BAMA, DR. A. DAVID RAVINDRAN
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208-225
226-230
231-237
AJRSH
22.
23.
A STUDY OF THE COMPREHENSION SKILLS IN

ENGLISH OF CLASS VII STANDARD IN FEW
SELECTED DISTRICTS OF ASSAM
SONALI BORAH SAHARIAH
BANK EROSION OF SOUTHERN PART OF
BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER AND ITS SOCIO-ECONOMIC
IMPACT ON THE POPULACE
SWARUP JYOTI BAISHYA
[PDF]
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238-250
251-264
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
HEROES FROM PESANTREN:
A BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF K.H. AHMAD SANUSI
A PATRIOT OF INDONESIAN INDEPENDENCE
SULASMAN*
*Faculty of Adab and Humanities,
Sunan Gunung Djati,
State Islamic University Bandung, Indonesia.
ABSTRACT
JournalofAsianResearchConsortium1
Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi, well known as Ajengan Gunung Puyuh, was a
charismatic preacher from Sukabumi and even well known as a preacher in
Indonesia. He was nevertheless, also famous as politician who fought against the
Dutch and the Japanese colonizers. He also had taken a big part in Indonesian
history, during the revolutionary era against the colonizers, and there were much
more activities he had done for Indonesia. This journal tries to enlighten West
Javanese mind and Indonesian in general as well about how Kyai Haji Ahmad
Sanusi (KHAS) fought the colonizers since he was active at the Pesantren until
in the Indonesian parliament.
KEYWORDS: Pesantren, Parliament, Struggle, Colonizers.
__________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Kyai1 Haji Ahmad Sanusi (abbreviated become KHAS) was born in 3rd of Muharram
1036 Hijriah or 18th of September 1889 in Cantayan village, district Cikembar, sub district
Kyai is the designation for the scholars, who cleverly learned in matters of religion or science term for
leader of the boarding school. He is one group of people who are experts in religious law and have the ability to
carefully read the minds of the people in surrounding areas. On the basis of ability, Kyai able to put himself
debagai a charismatic local leaders, to be followed and adhered to by the environment. M. Iskandar, Peran Elite
Agama Pada Masa revolusi Kemerdekaan, Jakarta, 2000, hal 11; Hiroko Horikoshi, Kyai dan Perubahan
Sosial, Jakarta, 1987; Zamakhsary Dhofer, Tradisi Pesantren : Studi Tentang Pandangan Hidup Kyai, Jakarta,
1982.
AJRSH
Cibadak, afdeling Cibadak.2 He was the third child of K.H. Abdurrahim bin H. Yasin with his
first wife named Epok3. His father was also known as Ajengan4 Cantayan.
Since he was a child, he was familiar with Pesantren neighborhood to learn Islamic
study. At first, Ahmad Sanusi learnt Islamic Study in Pesantren Cantayan which belong to
his parents until he was fifteen years old. After considered adult enough, he was ordered to
study outside Pesantren neighborhood , which was rolled by his father. This was intended for
KHAS to not only deepen his study of Islamic Schools but also to add his experiences and
widened his association with the society.
STARTING FROM PESANTREN
Based on his fathers advice, Ahmad Sanusi studied in several Pesantren . At first, he
studied in Pesantren Selajambe Cisaat with K.H. Muhammad Anwar for eight months. After
that, he was taught by K.H. Muhammad Siddik in Pesantren Sukamantri Cisaat for two
months, and K.H. Djenal Arif in Pesantren Sukaraja for six months. Then, KHAS is taught
by many Kyai outside Sukabumi such as kyai in Pesantren Cilaku for twelve months and
Pesantren Ciajag in Cianjur for five months. From Cianjur, KHAS was taught by K.H. SujaI
in Pesantren Gudang Tasikmalaya for twelve months. After that, he was taught by K.H.
Ahmad Satibi in Pesantren Gentur in Jambudipa Warungkondang, Cianjur for six months
and Pesantren Keresek Garut for seven months and Pesantren Bunikasih, Garut for three
months.5
When he was twenty one years old on 1909, KHAS went to Mecca with his wife (Siti
Djuwaerijah). Not only conducting Hajj but also KHAS, in Mecca, continued his study of
Islamic Schools and general knowledge to the scholars in the town both local and entrants
scholars such as Syekh Ali Maliki, Syekh Ali Thayyibi, Syekh Saleh Bafadil, Said Jawani,
Haji Muhammad Junaedi (syeikh from Garut, West Java), and Haji Mukhtar. They all were
syafiiyah scholars. KHAS lived in Mecca until 1915. In the year, he together with his family
went home and back to Cantayan, Sukabumi6
CHARISMATIC, FIGHTER AND THINKER PREACHER
As he went home from Mecca on 1915, KHAS helped his father,K.H. Abdurrahim to
teach in Pesantren Cantayan. With the high knowledge and the different method of
The date is coherent with the date on Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi tombstone in Pesantren Gunung Puyuh
neighborhood, Sukabumi
3
R. A. Kern No. 275, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal , Land en Volkenkunde ( KITLV ); Muhammad
Iskandar, Kyai Haji Ajengan Ahmad Sanusi, Pengurus Besar PUI, 1993, P.2.
4
In the area of West Java, such as in Jakarta, Bogor, Sukabumi and Priangan there another name for the
elite of the Islamic religion that is Ajengan In general, who earned his Ajengan are clerics who led the
boarding school is quite charismatic in his area. Even for a well-known Ajengan designation is usually coupled
with local names, such as for example in Sukabumi H. Ahmad Sanoesi a famous Ajengan and Priangan Bogor
area known as the Ajengan Gunung Puyuh . M. Iskandar dklk, Peran Elite Agama Pada Masa revolusi
Kemerdekaan, Jakarta, 2000, P.11.
5
Sulasman, K. H. Ahmad Sanusi 1889-1950 Berjuang Dari Pesantren ke Parlemen, Pimpinan Wilayah
Persatuan Umat Islam, Bandung, 2008, P.22.
6
A.Mukhtar Mawardi, Haji Ahmad Sanusi Hidup Dan Perjuangannya, Skripsi Sarjana IAIN Syarif
Hidayatullah, Jakarta, 1985, P.41, Muhammad Iskandar, Kyai Haji Ajengan Ahmad Sanusi, Pengurus Besar
PUI,1993, P.2.
AJRSH
preaching, then his name was well known fast among the society. In more or less four years
after his coming from Mecca, KHAS has already been called as Ajengan Cantayan
In 1922, due to his father supports and for the sake of developing and spreading his
knowledge, then KHAS built Pesantren which was located at the feet of Gunung Walat, not
far from Pesantren Cantayan, Kampung Genteng, Cibadak district. The new Pesantren got
the full supports from the society. Therefore, KHAS was known as Ajengan Genteng.7
In Pesantren Genteng, KHAS often hold discussion about Islamic thoughts which
develop that time included concerning renewal movement and Islamic thoughts. KHAS
Islamic thoughts were published as a book, therefore for three years led Pesantren Genteng,
KHAS has published several books Therefore, KHAS started to be known among the society
and scent his name.
KHAS was one of the preachers whose fatwa was mostly followed. He was a member
of traditional Islamic group who follow SyafiI Madzhab. KHAS had several different views
in viewing Islamic application. His view which prominent enough was in zakat fitrah8 and
celebration (Lebaran). According to him, zakat fitrah was collected by the headman or amil
from Pakauman (the great mosque in district or Kabupaten) which the it was paid to naib and
forwarded to Hoofd Penghulu was wrong. Zakat and fitrah is Islamic people concern not
governmental concern. Moreover, in government rule is stated that government would not
intervene in Islamic religion. According to him, zakat and fitrah should not have to be paid to
the government, but it should be collected by the amil who was appointed by the society, and
then forwarded to mustahiq.
The fatwa got response from preachers outside pakauman. This was proven by many
people who reject to give zakat and fitrah to government amil, as implicitly in Adviseur vour
Inlandise Zaken letter on 7 May 1928 no. 1/149 . KHAS fatwa was opposed by Pakauman.
This can be understood because that time zakat and fitrah was handled by regent and
penghulu, kepala penghulu, and Ponggawa Kaum who become his subordinate to amil in
villages. Special for amil who get 30% from zakat and fitrah as their fees, after a part of it
was given to penghulu as the quota which has been determined. Because of that, fatwa KHAS
was felt by Pakauman not only offended the basic law of zakat and fitrah but also accused
their legality of authority as the collector and distributor. In other words, we can say that the
Pakauman authority in society was in danger. Moreover, the fatwa thread part of their living
fee especially pejabat eselon that consists of regent family and friends.
This KHAS fatwa often applied by santri and his followers especially who involved
actively in Sarekat Islam. Therefore, Dutch colonial government considered him involved
actively in the organization, so when there was Sarekat Islam happen, KHAS with K.H.
Hasan Basri from Pesantren Babakan Cicurug were captured by the government. Special for
KHAS, not only accused for spreading hatred but also accused for hiding K.H. AdraI.
See Proses verbal Haji Ahmad Sanusi in 7th of October 1919, copyright in R.A.Kern No. 278, KITLV;
Laporan Rahasia Matri Polisi Sukabumi in 20th of August 1935 No. Nota Rahasia copyright in Mailr Geheim
No. 953 geh/37, ARA; In addition to the title kiai, in the colonial archive is found also as Ajengan Cantayan
and Ajengan Roof. Designation Ajengan in fact widely used to refer to people Sukabumi Kyai Haji Ahmad
Sanusi. See the footnote No.19 in Muhammad Iskandar, 2001, P.86
8
Zakat Fitrah including the Five Pillars of Islam and Muslims are obliged to pay it once a year on the eve
of Eid al-Fitr..
AJRSH
KHAS fatwa was considered endanger government. Among the fatwa which was
considered would be endanger and overturn the governments authority was the fatwa which
stated that mention or pray for regent in Jumat prayer, it was not a compulsory and it should
have not be done. In the explanation, he said that since a long time ago, the leader who
prayed for was the fair leader. Pray for the tyrannical leaders were forbidden, moreover for
the regent, as the government official who was appointed and dismissed by infidel.
Definitely, they were not Islamic leader as they were not included in Islam observance at all.
This fatwa then was known as Abdaka Maulana case, directly translated by the government
as undermining and thread for their position and authority. Especially when there were
reports which stated that villagers in West Priangan includes Sukabumi rebels to headman
after attending KHAS preaching or recitation.9
The high knowledge and charisma which was possessed by KHAS became the
magnet which have its own power to attract student to study in his Pesantren. Therefore,
KHAS name was more popular in the society. KHAS popularity became a disaster for him.
This was caused by his popularity which was considered would compete Patih of Sukabumi
(known as Dalem Jendol10 ) popularity. Dutch colonial governments tried to separate KHAS
from the society, which was considered soon or later would endanger government authority
because lose in competition with KHAS (Ajengan Genteng). Dutch colonial government kept
looking for a space to arrest KHAS. The opportunity that had been waited by the government
finally arrived. In 1927, it happened the telephone network destruction in two places that
connect Sukabumi- Bandung and Sukabumi Bogor. The government directly addressed the
mastermind of that action was KHAS, with the reason that one of the broken network was not
far from Pesantren Genteng11 . Finally, in 1927, KHAS was arrested by Dutch Colonial
Government with reason that KHAS spread revolutionary concept and to keep public
peacefulness even government side did not have evident. Based on the consideration which
was given by Hartelust (West Java Governor); Adviseur voor Inlandse Zaken; Procereur
General J,K Onnen Raad van indie, J. van der Marel, and Director of Justice, D. Rutgers;
Jendral Governor decided to alienate KHAS to Tanah Tinggi Batavia Centrum without
litigation12
Even though KHAS was arrested in Batavia Centrum, Ajengan Genteng charisma has
not fade away even it gets shine and attracted people attention. During he was there, as
reported by the police that not less than ten thousand people visited him, as written in police
letter on 21Th of January 193713.They not only came from Sukabumi but also from other
regions. The visit of his followers to the place where he was arrested was not only visited
KHAS but also bring some religion problems14, which were considered disturbing15 to be
M. Iskandar dklk, Peran Elite Agama Pada Masa revolusi Kemerdekaan, Jakarta, 2000, P. 11.
Dalem Jendol is the nickname given by the group Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi told Patih Sukabumi, as
was rumored that his stomach is distended (ngajendol) because eating too much zakat collected by the prince
and take cash mosque. A. Mukhtar Mawardi, 1985, P.75.
11
Mailr. Geheim No. 679x/28 and Mailr Geheim No. 872x/28, ARA
12
Surat No. x /41/3, copyright in Mailr. Geheim No. 679x /28, ARA; SPECIAL arrest of the main
reasons is to keep the public peace, especially in the area Priangan. SPECIAL thought considered to be fertile
ground for revolutionary ideology. See Muhammad Iskandar, 1993, P.11.
13
M. Iskandar dklk, Peran Elite Agama Pada Masa revolusi Kemerdekaan, Jakarta, 2000, P. 118.
14
At the end of 1920 the Reformer very aggressive ideology spread orally or in writing. Opinion of the
Reformer many of them disturbing the public Talafudbiniat problem (same with the intention of which was read
before the Takbir in prayer), talqin (together with prayer / counsel are generally read at the time of burial), and
use yellow books (the work of scholars mutaakkhirin ) and the act of heresy hasanah (together with new things
10
AJRSH
forwarded to him. During the arresting, KHAS used time to write. By his writing, KHAS has
succeeded to place himself as defenders of religious concept who considered by some people
as orthodox concept. The knowledge that has been experienced and rare books which become
his references supported this appearance as the ajengan who be able to answer any kind of
problems that appear that time especially khilafiyah problems which become the discussion
among modernist group and traditionalist group. The religion comments developed that time,
he published as a book. Many books both in Sundanese and melayu (Indonesia) that were
written in Latin or Arabic were outstanding. Thanks to his works, KHAS then became the
most popular person in Sukabumi in his time.
On August 1932 KHAS returned from his alienation in Jakarta to Sukabumi and
become city custody. He was not allowed to out of town unless there was a recommendation
from burgemeester. KHAS built a shack in the north of Cipelang river bridge and keep on
working. From his works, in 1934 KHAS bought a plot of land and built a Pesantren . The
Pesantren named Sjamsoel Oeloem .
As an expert of Islamic knowledge, KHAS produced several writing works such as
Tahdzirul Awam min Muftarayaati Cahya Islam, Al Jauharotul Mardliyyah fi Mukhtasaril
Furu as Syafiiy, Al Luluun Nadlid, Majaut Thalibin, Raudhatul Irfan fi Marifati Al
Quran, Tafsir Fatihah, tafsir Yasin, Tafsir Surat Kahfi, dan Tafsir Surat Al-Waqiah.
INVOLVED INTO POLITICS
During stay in Mecca, beside study and deepen Islamic Religion, KHAS started to
introduce with politics. This sector was known by KHAS since he met Haji Abdul Muluk in
1913 in Mecca16. That time, Abdul Muluk showed statuten to KHAS Islamic Union, a
political organization was built in 1912 and he asked him to join the SI17.
in religion that are good). They said the ulema who taqlid, love to read talafudbiniat, talqin is polytheistic and
not the Nation of Muhammad. See Haji Ahmad Sanusi, refer to Basil fi al Darbi Tazakhiq ala al Batil (Batawi:
Sajjid Oetsman John son, 1928); Defenders of Islam, No. December 3, 1929; Letter voor Adviseur inlandse
Zaken on July 23, 1929 No. 1103, a copy of the Mailr, Geheim No. 1057x/29, ARA.; See also More in
Muhammad Iskandar, 1993, p. 12 and 34 and Footnote No. 35, P.26.
15
Public anxiety arises because the traditional Ajengan famous moment in Priangan no one appeared to
answer all the criticisms of the Reformer. They therefore come to the Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi being detained
and urged him to answer the criticism of the Reformer. At the urging of his followers Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi
wrote several books in response to fatwas issued by the reformer. He not only wrote the book and even
challenged the Reformer to prove all his allegations in writing in the book. See Also Haji Ahmad Sanusi,
Tahzirul Lay Min Muftarajati Tjahya Islam, (Batawi: Sajjid Oetsman John son, 1930); Muhammad Iskandar,
1993, P.12
16
Muhammad Iskandar, Kyai Haji Ajengan Ahmad Sanusi, Pengurus Besar PUI,1993, P.14.
Of this ever happened to the polemic between the Tamar Djaja Noer. Tamar Djaja with support
Sananhoedi Haji Islam Commerce suggested that SI was established on October 16, 1905, and SI Islam was
founded exactly one year later. Meanwhile Noer adhered to the argument that Islam SI 11 November 1912. On
this subject see Jaylani East Ahmad, The Islamic Movement SI: Its Contribution to Indonesian Nationalism, MA
Thesis, Mc Gill University in Montreal, Canada, 1959; Daily Abadi dated July 17, 1957, dated August 2, 1957,
the 12th, 13th, and 16th 1957; M. C. Ricklefs, History of Modern Indonesia (Hardjowidjono Dharmono
translation, original title A History Of Modern Indonesia, Gajah Mada University Press, New York, 1991, P.
252; APE Korver Sarekat Islam : Gerakan Ratu Adil ?, PT. Graffiti Press, London, 1985, P. 1; Colin Wild and
Peter Carey Gelora Api Revolusi Sebuah Ontologi Sejarah, Scholastic, London, 1986, P.. 20
17
AJRSH
The involvement of KHAS in political aspect was clearly shown when he held the
defense for SI on anonymous letter18 case in 1914 which vilify that organization by saying
that SI was not the organization which fight for Muslim interest. KHAS defense was written
in a writing entitled Nahratoe ddharham.
When he came back from Mecca in 1916, KHAS involved in SI Sukabumi actively.
On its early development, SI in Sukabumi went slowly, it was fail to get the member from the
society. After getting Pesantren leaders support such as KHAS and K.H. Muhammad Hasan
Basri, SI Sukabumi developed fast. Even in 1914,SI in Sukabumi had 16.000 members19 .
Beside allow his institution to be SI activity place, Kyai involved in the organization
actively as KHAS did. He became the advisor of SI, K.H Sirod as SI Sukabumi President.
KHAS was not long involved in SI Sukabumi he purposed to quit. Although he did not longer
involve actively in SI, he still kept the communication with the organization through his
students who became the members of SI. Beside that, he was also still invited in open
meetings in SI Sukabumi.
The experience through the alienation in Batavia Centrum had changed struggling
concept of KHAS. His struggle was no longer only fight against government policy which
was not fit in his view, but also contains the view about struggle to get the independence it
means that to drive the colonializers from Indonesia and to be independent. KHAS
considered that independence struggle based on basic nationalism did not contradict with
Islam, this fatwa was produced in order to be counter attack for some ulama who considered
Haram for Muslims to fight for nationalism or kebangsaan.
The frequent communication between KHAS and his followers who often came to the
alienation place and the grow of consciousness of nationalism to be independent had
encourage KHAS to build Islamic social organization named Al-Ittihadijatul Islamijjah
(AII) in 1931 in Batavia Centrum. Even though officially AII was stated as non-political
organization but in its development it has become the most militant organization in Priangan
and Bogor. Their activity was not only in Islamic social but also in national movement20.
KHAS popularity and the militancy of AII had caused worry of government official in
Sukabumi. Sukabumi regent with the support from West Java Governor asked KHAS not to
return to Sukabumi21. Because there were many AII members who visited KHAS and the
18
Collection of R. A. No Kern. 278 KITLV, Ahmad and Muhammad Idris Sanusi believes that the
written chain letter is Sayyid Uthman bin Abdullah Al Alawi. The conviction was due to both recognize the
language in the letter is a style of Sayyid Uthman. This was confirmed by Akhmad Khatib great scholars from
West Sumatra and West Java Kyai Mukhtar who both settled in Mecca. They also have the same beliefs about
who wrote the anonymous letter. See also footnote Muhammad Iskandar, No. 1993. 14. P.25
19
A. P. E. Korver, Sarekat Islam : Gerakan Ratu Adil ?, PT. Grafitti Press, Jakarta, 1985, P.222
20
At the moment it is not just a matter of furu are a matter of debate among scholars, but also the
problem of nationalism or nationality. On the one hand there are scholars who considered haram for the
Muslims fought on the basis of nationalism or nationality. But on the other hand, including Kyai Haji Ahmad
Sanusi considers the struggle for independence on the basis of nationality is not against Islamic teachings.
21
Sukabumi Regent on August 28, 1933 sent a letter to the Dutch East Indies government reported that
the Institute has made contact with Pasundan PI (Party of Indonesia) and PNI. In his letter explained that
many of the propagator which is the Institute's community leaders in the villages to act as leader of the PI and
PNI. And many members of the PI and PNI as a teacher at the Institute's schools. Regent opinion is reinforced
by a letter to the Governor of West Java, Dutch East Indies government with reference to several articles in the
magazine run by the Institute Soewara Moeslim entitledIndonesia Iboe kita and Islam dan Politiek
AJRSH
more militant of AII members and the spirit of nationalism, Dutch Colonial Government
decided to return KHAS to Sukabumi in 1932 with the custody status. The coming of KHAS
was welcomed by thousand of AII members and he was picked privately by Burgemeester
Sukabumi, Mr. Ouwerkerk with special supervision. Because his status was still custody,
KHAS did not be able to return to his Pesantren in Genteng.
KHAS became more popular especially after establishing Sjamsoel Oeloem. His
popularity has influenced AII development. When he was still arrested in Batavia Centrum,
AII just had 14 branches. After KHAS returning to Sukabumi, the organization had
succeeded open 24 branches, which spread in Priangan, Bogor and Batavia. In Sukabumi,
KHAS kept holding meetings with AII members both held discussions, and politics courses.
In every meeting, KHAS frequently discuss of Al-Quran meanings associated with dignity,
equality, fraternity, nationalism and independence. Not infrequently, after attending KHAS
lectures mass emotions were not controlled and causing some noise like that happened in
Cililin.
Due to the frequent conflicts between the KHAS followers and the government, then
KHAS safety and other kyai AII were threatened; therefore kyai deemed it was necessary to
have a special supervision. Seeing the spirit of AII members especially the youth, KHAS
considered leading them to the more positive direction. They need to be given a certain
medium in AII. In 1937, KHAS was inaugurated in by the Islamic Front stand abbreviated
Indonesia BII, as a youth organization AII. BII's name reflects the spirit of Islam and the
nationalism spirit. The BII first chairman was KH. M. Basyuni.
Although KHAS has successfully raised AII and formed BII, and the spirit of struggle
continued booming in Sukabumi region even in the west Java, his status remains a prisoner of
the city. Kyai charismatic status of Sukabumi always the subject of conversation the Dutch
East Indies government. It was not until 20 February 1939 the Dutch Government through the
governor general of AWL Tjarda issued a decree to exempt status KHAS of prisoners22.
When it was Indonesia in the shadow of the Greater East Asia War, marking a new phase of
the turn of the power of the Dutch to the Japanese Occupation Government.
STRUGGLING UNDER THE RISING SUN
Japan entered the area of Sukabumi, through Bandung and Bogor23. In a short time,
they controlled Sukabumi. The fast of occupation process Sukabumi by the Japanese was not
free from the KHAS help who mobilize members of the AII and BII to show pockets of
Dutch soldiers in the defense. After taking Sukabumi, the city came H. Abdul Muniam
International the Indonesian nation to its core evocative meperjuangkan his fate and his homeland. They accuse
the Institute is involved in political activity. No letter of Regents. 324/Rahasia, West Java Governor Letter dated
27 September 1933 No. G51/6/7. copy in Mailr. Geheim No.801x/34, ARA .More details see Iskandar,1993,P.
14.
22
Liberation Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi after GF Pijper on October 11, 1938 sent a letter to the GovernorGeneral A. W. L. Tjarda to detention Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi is terminated. The proposal was approved by the
Regents Sukabumi Pijper, Assistant Resident Sukabumi E. Tacoma, and the head of the PID Bogor and Jakarta
H. Steensma and resident Bogor C. van Rossen. More details see Muhammad Iskandar, 1993, P.18-19
23
Sulasman, K. H. Ahmad Sanusi 1889-1950 Berjuang Dari Pesantren ke Parlemen, Pimpinan Wilayah
Persatuan Umat Islam, Bandung, P.70.
AJRSH
Inada24 to meet KHAS in order to approach to working with the Government in implementing
the Japanese Occupation of programs of government in Indonesia, especially in the area of
Sukabumi. Offer of cooperation by the Government of the Japanese Occupation was not only
offered to KHAS, but almost all the Islamic leaders were offered the same thing. KHAS was
able to read the situation. He knew of the new ruling, there is no cooperative or noncooperative. For the Japanese occupation, government there was just collaboration or brushed
out. Therefore, to deal with the Government of the Japanese Occupation KHAS used
cooperative rather than confrontational politics. As a first step he accepted an offer as a
teacher at Alim Ulama Training Program in 1943 and the following year became the
Residency Council Bogor.
Before a joint venture with the Japanese Occupation Government, KHAS gave offers
to the government. One example was before accepting a position as the Residency Advisory
Council Bogor, KHAS asked the Government to revive the AII, which has been frozen. The
demand was somewhat unusual, since at that time the Japanese Occupation of the new
government formed Majlis Syuro Muslimin Indonesia (MASYUMI) as a good container that
religious organizations that represent the Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama reformers
who represent the traditional. However, the two figures were KHAS of traditional Kyai with
KH Abdul Halim from Majalengka able to convince the Japanese occupation government that
AII was different from Nahdatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, which have revived AII25. On
February 1, 1944 AII officially stood back and his name was changed from Arabic: Al
Ittihadijjatoel islamijjah wither into the language by adding the word back to Indonesia at the
Persatoean Oemat Islam Indonesia abbreviated PPOI Japanese occupation government lifted
a member of Sukabumi AII is Mr. R Samsudin26 as chairman of the Movement 3A.
When Ir. Sukarno, who was very anti-colonialism and imperialism was undergoing
treatment by Dr. Abu Hanifa at St. Lidwina Sukabumi hospital27, he visited Pesantren
Gunung Puyuh and held discussions with KHAS about attitude of Pesantren Gunung Puyuh
leaders who were working with the Government of the Japanese Occupation. In the meeting,
KHAS explained, that the Japanese was the new colonizers. Under the guise of cooperation,
energy and skill, the Japanese can be used, first to drive the Dutch, second they could be
asked to educate indigenous expertise in military affairs as the Japanese have an advantage in
the military field. That time, it was presented also by KHAS to Ir. Sukarno that the Japanese
had told him that there was necessary to cooperate with Indonesia in the framework of the
Great East Asia War.
24
Haji Abdul Muniam Inada was the Japanese who are Muslims, the Government of Japan's occupation
was assigned to handle the problem - religious issues under the leadership of Colonel Horie. He also serves as a
propagandist Japan to attract leaders - Muslim leaders in order to support the program - the Japanese Occupation
Government program.
25
Asia Raja on 4 February 1944; See also CAO van Nieuwenhuijze, Aspects of Islam in Post Colonial
Indonesia (The Hague: van Hoewe, 1958) p. 154. On 1 January 1944 the Institute officially recognized as a legal
entity by the command of the Japanese Occupation. Later renamed the Union of Islamic Ummah Indonesia
(PUII). On this subject see also Muhammad Iskandar, 1993, P.21.
26
Mr. R. Samsudin Sukabumi the child prince Ahmad Djuwaeni. He was a man educated and had
studied in the Netherlands. Before the Party of Indonesia Raya (Parindra) dissolved Japan on July 27, 1942 he
was chairman of the youth. He differed with his father and not in opposition to the AII, even he himself became
a member of the Institute after seeing that the Institute is an organization that is dominant in Sukabumi and have
the spirit of nationalism. Courtesy of Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi AII leader, Mr. Samsudin would accept the post
27
So far I have not found any disease suffered by Ir. While being treated by Dr. Sukarno. Abu Hanifah at
hospital of St. Lidwina.
AJRSH
At the end of 1944, Japan made significant changes in the level of government; new
positions at the regional level were given to the many high Priyayi. One of the positions that
resident representative or the Fuco Shuckokan was given to KHAS28. Then the other AII
figures who became chief executive was Mr.Samsudin as shityo of Sukabumi.
By the time symptoms of opposition to the Government of the Japanese Occupation
occurred, nationalist fight carried out in two ways, namely by an official on the ground
(open) and the underground movement29. Underground movement, was also developed in
Bandung, Surabaya, Sukabumi and other cities. Their size was usually very small, and very
limited information. The background of the underground members was vary, there was
derived from Islamic groups, the Nationalists, Socialists, and Kaum Menak30 it is Menak
Lama31 or Menak Baru32 also the rich people who sat in the structure of government
bureaucracy. Underground activities generally in the form of a discussion of political gossip,
especially the situation in Indonesia under Japanese Occupation Government
In Sukabumi there were several underground groups that mobilized by Edeng
Abdullah, S Waluyo, Jakaria, M. Soleh, Ali Basri, A. Rifa'i, Jaja, and M Oting. They often
have a discussion about the various problems that were happening in Sukabumi that time.
According to them, the Japanese Occupation Government has created misery and economic
damage systematically. In their discussions, develop ideas of rebellion and struggle for power
against the Japanese. The place where they discussed was A. M. Sipahutar resident on Jl.
Cikiray 10 B. They called as Cikiray 10 B group.
In addition to 10 B Cikiray group, there were also conducted other underground
movement also by Sukabumi Nationalist figures such as Dr. Abu Hanifa33, Mr. Samsoedin34,
Billy Mangkupradja, Saurina, Suradiradja, A. Gani, Setia Atmadja, Sasmitaatmadja,
28
Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi is the only religious scholars from the tradition of executive positions Harry J
Benda, Bulan Sabit dan Matahari Terbit: Islam Indonesia pada Masa Pendudukan Jepang, Jakarta, 1980, P. 218
29
George Mc. Turnan Kahin, Jakarta 1995, P. 133. Anderson, 1988, P. 58.
30
Menak is the local aristocracy in West Java. The group is composed of the Regents, regents
subordinates and relatives. In the marvelous Sukabumi in general is a descendant of the menak from Bandung,
Cianjur, Garut, Tasik, and Kudat which became official in Sukabumi be it at the time still part of Sukabumi
Cianjur and after becoming an autonomous region. Nina Herlina Lubis, 1998.
31
Menak lama is a descendant of the previous, where their status is automatically attached to him because
he is a direct descendant of the Regent, Regent Subordinate or relatives such as the descendants of the Sukabumi
Patih Soerjapamekas, Soejaningrat, Soerja Natalegawa, and the Regent as Prince Charming Sukabumi Soerja
Natabrata , Prince Charming Soerja Danoeningrat, Nina Herlina Lubis, Kehidupan kaum Menak Priangan 1800
1942, Bandung, 1998., Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia, Dienstaats van Soerja Natalegawa Patih van
Soekaboemi 1896 - 1906, Dienstaats van Soerjapemekas Patih van Soekaboemi 1906-1913,Dienstaats van
Soerjaningrat Patih van Soekaboemi 1913-1918,Conduitestaat van R.T. Soerjanatabrata regent van Soekaboemi
over het jaar 1918 1923, Conduitestaat van R.T. Soerja Danoeningrat regent van Soekaboemi over het jaar
1930 1942
32
Menak baru is aristocracy group whose status is obtained through formal education. Through education,
they can raise their status into a new social group as a new elite of educated and modern. Robert van Niel,
Munculnya Elit Moderen di Indonesia Jakarta, 1984.
33
Dr. Abu Hanifah, the nationalist leader who was then a doctor Hospital Hospital Sint Lidwina now Mr.
Syamsudin or Sukabumi Bunut Hospital.
34
Mr. Syamsudin, Prince Haji Ahmad Djuwaeni Headman prose. It is an educational mengenyam
educated knowledge of the Law in the Netherlands. It is a member of KBI before the dissolution of the Japanese
organization. Then in AII led K.H. Ahmad Sanoesi also as the leader of Hezbollah's leadership while prose
AJRSH
Iskandar, Sukatma, M. Subarna, Raden Didi Soekardi35, and R.A. Kosasih. They usually
gather in the dorm NOGAKO or agricultural schools. In addition to the underground
movement that spearheaded by the Nationalists such as Cikiray 10B group and dorm
NOGAKO, also obtained by the ulama and Islamic boarding schools such as Pesantren
Gunung Puyuh which was led by KHAS. It was often conducted political discussions in the
Pesantren , the participants most were members of Al Islamijah he ittihadijjatoel such as
KHAS, K. H. Muhammad Atjoen Basoeni, Mr. Samsoedin, Sasmita Atmadja, Faithful
Atmadja, H. M. Badroedin, and H. Soendoesi. In addition to political discussions there were
also carried out political education for students. The students were given the freedom to
participate in political discussions conducted figures such movement in Arudji Kartawinata
Cigerji, Adam Malik in Lembursitu, Mohammad Hatta in Cikole, and Karim Amrullah in
Cikiray.
Underground movement in Sukabumi cannot be separated from political

communication, which was done by the movement figures from Jakarta who came to
Sukabumi to held political discussions with local figures in the city. Among the movement
figures that came to Sukabumi were Ir.Sukarno, Drs. Mohammad Hatta36, Sutan Syahrir37,
DR.Tjipto Mangkunkoesoemo38, Adam Malik, PM Sipatuhar, Pandu Karta Wiguna, Amir
Syarifuddin, and Aruji Karta Winata. Meanwhile, local figures who were often involved in
political discussions with them such as Dr. Abu Hanifa, Mr Samsudin, KH Damanhoeri, Mr
harun, Edeng Abdullah, Emo Hardja, S. Waluyo, Suryana, and others.
When the Japanese occupation government issued a policy to form a volunteer army
patriot (map) by Osamu Seirei number 44 dated October 1943, KHAS had very important
role in the formation of Peta army residency in Bogor, including Sukabumi. For the success
of the program, he assembled the best scholars both were kyai and the propagator. In the
meeting approved the formation of Peta in western Priangan both in Sukabumi, Bogor,
Cianjur and with its figures which were K.H Abdulah bin Nuh and KH Ajengan Atjoen
Basoeni. Sukabumi figures among Muslim scholars play a role in Peta, there were Daidancho
(battalion commander) as KH Atjoen Basoeni who became the Daidancho in Pelabuhan Ratu
battalion, K.H Engging became Chudancho (company commander) in dai san cudan
(companies) and the battalion sukabumi, KH Bin Adullah Nuh became the Daidancho of
West Jampang battalion, KH Masthuro, became the Ensyu Gakari of Cianjur Cibeber
battalion.
35
Raden Didi Soekardi, the Greater Indonesia Party branch heads also guppies of proses. He was active in
Newspapers Oetoesan Indonesia. He was the companion in arms R. M. Surjopranoto, Dr. Soekiman, and H. O.
S. Tjokroaminoto. Family is family fighter who later figures prose at the time of the revolution such as Eddie
Soekardi TKR Regiment commander, who serves prose.
36
Drs. Mohammad came to Sukabumi Hata as a political exile at the end of Dutch rule. He occupied the
house of a police commander who made house prisoners housed in the School of Police Sukabumi. Now it was
on the scene Officer Candidate School (Secapa) headquarters in Jalan Sukabumi Suryakencana
37
Sutan Syahrir, as Drs. Mohammad Hatta, they both came to the Sukabumi after inmates moved from
Banda Neira at the end of Dutch colonial administration. He occupied the house, which is located adjacent to the
house occupied by Drs. Mohammad Hatta.
38
Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo come to Sukabumi as political exiles. He moved to Sukabumi of Napier as
suffering from asthma. After arriving in Sukabumi, Dr. Tjipto Mangunkusumo released. Then he and his family
lived in Salabintana. Drs. Mohammad Hatta and Sutan Syahrir frequently visited Tjipto Mangunkusumo and
they are also often involved in discussions about the situation at that time.
AJRSH
FIGHTING IN THE PARLIAMENT

At the time, the Japanese occupation government agencies establish preparation for
the independence of Indonesia, which later evolved into one of the Preparatory Committee
for Indonesian Independence (PPKI), KHAS was chosen as one of its members During the
trial the talk of the State, the draft Constitution of the State, insights and views about the state
was not inferior to those members who received western education39. KHAS was able to
provide a description of the proposal and the State form. For example, on 10 July 1945 in the
preparatory committee meeting for independence, the concept of KHAS file called
priesthood that no other is a republic.
Later in the heated debate concerning the issue of religion in article 28 paragraph 1,
the draft constitution again showed KHAS assertiveness. At that time K.H. Kahar Muzakir
requested that paragraph in paragraph odorless religion. While K.H. Maskur proposed to
include the phrase according to his religion. Some non-Islamic parties objected to the
inclusion of that sentence, so Ir. Sukarno as a small committee was drafting legislation
intended to strike back those words, and the proposed voting, which was approved by the
Radjiman Wediodiningrat as chairman.
That KHAS rejected the proposal from Sukarno and Rajiman. According to KHAS,
religious issues should not be decided based on a majority basis. For the trust issue cannot be
imposed on the basis of the majority. As a way out, it was decided only whether the tribunal
to accept the proposal KH Maskur or K.H Kahar Muzakir. Then KHAS suggested that the
paragraph that uses the phrase religion. Finally, the court accepted his proposal. The
decision was taken without a vote by crossing out the word it which means to accept the
sentence by religion40. In the trial, which according to his confession was the last session
that would follow, KHAS convey his views, hopes, and criticism. On that occasion he warned
the members of the court that they represent 70 million people of Indonesia. Therefore, in
conveying the ideas must not talk only and must not be a trial run. Should speak with clarity
what it means to be discussed and discussed properly should be clearly visible fault, so can
understand why something needs to be maintained or changed, because, if the problem was
not clear from now, then it is our descendants who will suffer.
KHAS also criticized the attitudes that emerged during the trial. According to
differences of opinion discussed the problem for the last time from the beginning in the spirit
of unity, so that really become one, so that the State will be formed which is truly the state
union. Then followed a way of questioning has been started this, did not happen the State of
unity, but Country divisions even though the name of unity, said KHAS closing speech.
CLOSING
In revolution time of 1945-1949, KHAS sat as National Committees Central
Indonesia. In 1948, along with the signing of Renville Agreement, KHAS had to leave
Sukabumi, because the place was no longer a part of Indonesia Republic area. In that time,
39
Kyai Haji Ahmad Sanusi of Sukabumi and Kyai Haji Abdul Halim of Majalengka are the members of
parliament which has 62 members. D. Rini Yuniarti, BPUPKI, PPKI, Proklamasi Kemerdekaan RI, Jakarta,
2003, P. 4-5; Muhammad Ridwan Indra, Peristiwa-Peristiwa di Sekitar Proklamasi, Jakarta, 1987, P.74-75.
40
Muhammad Yamin, Naskah Persiapan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, Jakarta, 1971, P. 384-385.
AJRSH
there was one decision of KHAS, which was considered very important in 1949 concerning
Darul Islam. He rejected Darul Islam, which was established by Suramadji Maridjan
Kartosuwiryo. Because what Kartosuwiryo outlined as written in Darul Islam charter was
considered not suitable with Islam, such as veto on leader hand (Kartosuwiryo). This path of
KHAS was followed by almost all his followers and his former students, like K.H. Yusuf
Taujiri from Pesantren Cipari Garut.
After the revolution ended, KHAS returned to Sukabumi. But, he did not have time to
rebuild his Pesantren and organization because in 1950 KHAS passed away and closed his
full struggle history of life. From his struggle experience, can be a reflection for the next
generation as a fighter figure for his country and he deserved to be a hero for his country.
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AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
A STUDY ON PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS OF SELECTED
STEEL COMPANIES IN INDIA
M.KRISHNA MOORTHI*; DR.M.RAMESH**
*Ph.D Research Scholar,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,
Tirunelveli.
**Associate Professor,
Department of Business Administration,
Annamalai University.
ABSTRACT
India is among the top producers of all forms of steel in the world. Easy
availability of low cost manpower and presence of abundant reserves make India
competitive in the global setup. Finance is regarded as the life blood of a
business. It is one of the foundations of all kinds activities. Management is
interested in evaluating every activities of the firm. Profitability refers to the
operational efficiency of a company to generate profits. It is the net result of all
the policies and decision taken by the company. A company should earn profit to
survive and grow over a long period of company depends on its profitability, the
secondary data were used for this study and analysed the data by using of Mean,
SD, ANOVA and correlation Student t-test finally it conclude that selected
companies are maintained similar level in NP and OP ratioby t test, there is no
correlation among SAIL to TATA and Bhushan to JSW of NP ratio and SAIL to
TATA and SAIL to TATA and Bhushan to JSW of OP ratio and in ANOVA test,
there is no significant difference in the ROI of SAIL, TATA, Bhushan, VISA, &
JSW
KEYWORDS: profitability, Return on investment, operating profit, Return on
Asset, liquidity.
________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
India is among the top producers of all forms of steel in the world. Easy availability of low
cost manpower and presence of abundant reserves make India competitive in the global setup.
The steel industry in India has witnessed an increase in demand due to expanding oil and gas
AJRSH
sector, huge spending on infrastructural facilities coupled with growth in housing, consumer
durables and auto sectors. According to the World Steel Association (WSA), India was the
fourth largest producer of crude steel during January 2010September 2010 and produced
50.1 million tonne (MT) crude steel during this period. At present, with the Government's
increased emphasis on infrastructure, it is estimated that the sector is poised for significant
growth. Finance is regarded as the life blood of a business. It is one of the foundations of all
kinds activities. Profit is essential for any business undertaking to meet its economic and
social obligation like fair return to investors, higher wages to workers, and greater security to
the creditors, more dividends to the owners, creation of employment opportunities, and
payment of tax to the government etc., Profitability refers to the operational efficiency of a
company to generate profits. It is the net result of all the policies and decision taken by the
company. A company should earn profit to survive and grow over a long period of company
depends on its profitability.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The primary objective of a business undertaking is to earn profits. Profit earning is
considered essential for the survival of the business. A business needs profits not only for its
existence, but also for expansion and diversification the investors want an adequate return on
their investment as well as workers, creditors. And a business enterprise can discharge its
obligation to various segments of the society only through earning of profit. Therefore,
profitability is committed with various functional area of management, so the problem is to
maintain profitability level at increase trend over a period of time. In order to find solutions
to this problem, the present study has been undertaken to ascertain the overall earnings
performance of selected steel companies in India
OBJECTIVES OT THE STUDY
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE
To ascertain the overall earnings performance of selected steel companies in India
SECONDARY OBJECTIVES
To evaluate the profitability related to sales of selected steel companies.
To study the profitability related to investment of selected steel companies.
To analyze the profitability related to equity share of selected steel companies.
METHODOLOGY TO STUDY
For this Empirical analysis, Data has been collected from the official website of NSE and
selected Steel companys financial reports. The Steel Companies which satisfied the
following criteria have been short listed for further research.
Availability of data at least for the period of 6 years.
Those companies had earned profit for last three years
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Sales volume were more than 50 cr
The above criteria has fulfilled by following company
SAIL
Tata steel
Bhushan steel
Visa steel
JSW steel
STATISTICAL TOOLS USED
Mean, Standard Deviation, Coefficient of Variations
Correlation Analysis and Student t-Test
ANOVA
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Frederick H. De B. Harris (1994) A higher, firm-specific, predicted cost of capital (COC)

lower capital intensity predicted capital intensity (CAPINS) increase liquidity (LTD) in the
firms capital structure and predicted profitability decrease. Increased debt financing raises
the firms systematic rise.
Pandey I.M. (2002), fluctuation in the profit earned by firms makes debt capital costlier.
Consistent profit earning capacity is also looked into as a determinant of profitability.
Further, competitive market creates such a risk. In more competitive markets, profitability
gets reduced due to higher cost of debt and thereby the chances of financial distress and
bankruptcy also increase.
Chang, S.J. (2003), profitability is positively associated with inside ownership and family
portions of inside ownership. Performance determines ownership structure but not vice versa.
Bevan et al.(2002). It is recommended that more profitable firms should hold less debt since
higher profits generate more internal funds.
Balramdogra et al. (2009). they found optimum capital structure enhances the profitability
and value of the firm. The result of a study on SMEs in India showed that they relied more on
their own funds and comparatively less on borrowed funds.
Booth, L.et al. (2001) strongly supported the hypothesis that profitability is inversely related
to debt. The data collected in us and European countries showed the more profitable the firm,
lower the debt ratio, regardless of how the debt ratio is defined which is consistent with the
pecking order hypothesis.
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Chen, L. et al. (2004), profitable firms tend to issue more debt as debt capital may be
available at a cheaper rate the negative relations between profitability and leverage ratio arise
from firms preference of internal fund over external funds and the availability of internal
funds.
Ramachandran Azhagaiah and Raju deepa, (2011) they found, income decides the extent to
which other predictor variable are related to profitability. The Ho H1, which assumes that
liquidity (LIQ) has no significant impact on profitability of the firms of food industry in
India, is accepted in all the categories irrespective of the level of income of the firms. The
overall results also support the same.
Dr. S.K. khartik titto Varghese, (2011) they found the profitability more or less depends upon
the better utilization of resources and to manpower. It is worthwhile to increase production
capacity and use advance technology to cut down cost of production and wage cost in order
to increase profitability, not only against the investment, but also for investors return points
of view. These programs are helpful to increase profitability of the company in future
prospects. If the management or government does not look into it seriously, it can result in
loss of jobs and the company will become a sick unit.
Agency cost theories, the pecking order framework (POF) proposed by Myers (1984),
suggest that firms finance their tangible assets growth, first by use of internally generated
funds, second by debt and last by external equity issue, the reason being the cost internal
funds are considered cheap and not subject to outside interference resulting in a negative
correlation between profitability and debt.
S. Chandrakumarmangalam. P. Govindasamy,(2010) they found, Debt increase with size and
Debt correlates negatively with profitability as indicated by the pecking order framework
theory. Growth (measured as total assets increase) results in higher use of total debt, basically
through higher short-term debt. The differences between the two types of firms are
summarized in the following; Higher profit margin were found to induce higher use of short
term debt only for SMEs
Abdul Raheman (2007) in this study selected a sample of 94 Pakistan firms listed in Karachi
stock exchange for the period of 6 years from 1999-2004. The result shows there is a strong
negative relationship between variables of the working capital management and profitability
of the firm. it means that as the cash conversion cycle increase it will lead to decrease
profitability of the firm, and manager can create a positive value for the shareholders by
reducing the cash conversion cycle to possible minimum level. They found there is a
significant negative relationship between liquidity and profitability they also found that there
is a positive relationship between size of the firm and its profitability there is also a
significant negative relationship between debt used by the firm and its profitability.
Eljelly (2004) elucidate, The study found that the cash conversion cycle was of more
importance as a measure of liquidity than the current ratio that affects profitability. The
variable was found to have significant effect on profitability at the industry level. The result
were stable and had implication for liquidity management in various Saudi companies first, it
was clear that there was a negative relationship between profitability and liquidity indicators
such as current ratio and cash gap in the Saudi sample examined. Second the study also
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revealed that there was great variation among industries with respect to the significant
measure of liquidity.
Vijayakumar and Venkatachalan (2003) In their study indicated a moderate trend in the
financial position and the utilization of working capital, variations in working capital size
should be avoided attempts should also be made to use funds more effectively, by keeping an
optimum level of working capital. Because, keeping more current assets cause a reduction in
profitability. Hence, efforts should be made to ensure a positive trend in the estimation and
maintenance of the working capital. A significant portion of financial research is concerned
with the management of working capital. This issue has been extensively investigated at both
conceptual and empirical trends.
Shine and Soemen (1998) found that there is a strong negative relation between the cash
conversion cycle and corporate profitability for a large sample of listed American companies
for the 1975-1994 periods.
Marc Deloof (2003) stated that the companies have large amount of cash invested in working
capital. It can therefore be expected that the way in which working capital is managed will
have a significant impact on the profitability of companies. This a significant negative
relation between gross operating income and the number of days accounts receivable,
inventories and accounts payable of Belgian firm. These results suggest that managers can
create value for their shareholder by reducing the number of days accounts receivable and
inventories to a reasonable minimum the negative relation between accounts payable and
profitability is consistent with the view that less profitable companies wait longer to pay their
bills.
J. Muralidharan, Dr.Azhagaiah (2007) they observed a negative relationship between
profitability and the cash conversion cycle which was used as a parameter therefore it seems
that operational profitability dictates how to manage the working capital of the firm further, it
is found that lower gross operating profit is associated with an increase tin the number day of
accounts payable. It could lead to the conclusion that less profitable firms wait longer to pay
their bills taking advantage of credit period granted by their suppliers. The negative
relationship between accounts receivable and firm profitability suggest that less profitable
firms will pursue a decrease of their accounts receivable in an attempt to reduce their cash
gap in the cash conversion cycle.
Asha(1987) of reserve bank of India had worked out the required norms and techniques for
evaluating the performance of public sectors banks. She has reinvaded the different
techniques adopted by different agencies and criteria for evaluating the banking performance.
The empirical findings of her study shows a positive trend in terms of opening new branches
deposits mobilization and advances over a period. Her study also adds that the performance
in terms of profitability has been on decline while the performance to achieve the social
objective is promising.
S. Chandrakumarmangalam, P. Govindasamy(2010), They found a negative sign in all
regressions, asset profitability (measured as net profit before tax over total assets) was found
to have a significant effect on short term and total debt gearing rations. The negative
correlation is explained by the POF, which seems to be more relevant for small firms, since
both the cost of debt and external equity are higher for them. It should be noted that during
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the period under study, the firms were facing very high interest rates. A negative relationship
between gearing and profitability was also found in other empirical research.
Asha Sharma and R.B. Sharma2011, These attempts identify and study the movement of key
financial parameters and their relationship with profitability of textile industry. It is an
attempt to and the study whether the key identified parameters move in a synchronous way
going up and coming down with basic profitability parameters. All three comparably profitmaking companies have been taken as the sample for the study for the period of 2006to2010.
The data have been taken from the figures supplied by prowess data base. On the basis of this
data a trend parameters is calculated for the year 2011. So on the base of the analysis the
broad conclusion is that the parameters are consistent within a wide horizon and with growth
that companies have achieved, the parameters have also responded in a synchronous manner.
Aubry lyimo, Dr.Reubenj.L mwamakimbullah kiko F.S.Hamza, (2010) they found costs
resulting from poles being rejected, reworked or down-graded were the highest at the study
mill. The cost of quality were so high and as a result they negatively affect the financial
performance of the mill.-cost of quality and its effect on companys profitability, the amount
accrued from costs of quality was too high to reject the null hypothesis which claimed that
costs of quality impacts negatively the profitability of the company. (p.value-0.4582)
Dr. P. Thirumalavan(2006) In this study an attempt has been made to find out the internal
variable, which influence the EBIT of aluminum companies through multiple regression. The
objectives of this study are: (1). to identify the internal variables which determine the EBIT
of the aluminum companies and to find out the extent to influence of such variables on EBIT.
(2). to find out the sub set of the variable which influence to EBIT of the aluminum
companies. (3). to ascertain the homogeneity among the variable which determine EBIT. The
results were Hindalcos EBIT was mostly influenced by fixed assets and net worth and
Indalcos EBIT was mostly influenced by cost of sales and profit retained.
Salawu, R.O. and Agboola, A.A.(2008) In their paper analyses the determinants of non
financial firms in Nigeria using a panel of 33 firms statistical tests were performed for a
period 1996-2004. The results revealed that profitability is positively associated to total debt
and long term debt.
Prof. Shilpa Peswani, 2011 they found the profitability of the company is not entirely
dependent on the source of financing, but the return to equity holders vary according to the
source of capital funding adopted by the company. The primary objective of any firm is to
enhance the value of its equity stakeholder and maintain solvency. To achieve both these
objectives, restoring to debt rather than equity is a profitable option.
N.V.R. Rajagopalan,( 2009) They conclude, profitability analysis by taking into account the
combined effect of sales related and assets related ratios is in the inception stage. In the
context of widening opportunities challenging competition, merger and acquisition wave,
strategic investment in subsidiaries and associates and increased dependence on debt
financing, the profitability scoring multiplier model is an attempt to identify profit paths and
in the process of relating income statement ratios with balance sheet ratio. It is only a
beginning.
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A.Vijayakumar, & S.Sridevi,(2011) they found that following (1)there was considerable
persistence of profitability in the Indian automobile companies (2)Greater size of Indian
automobile companies means increased profitability (3)Greater recourse to debt by indian
automobile companies means diminished profitability and (4)Liquidity also appears to be
relevant in explaining the profitability of Indian automobile companies.
K.V.N. Prasad & Dr. A.A.Chari,(2011) they found, the ratios spread as percentage of total
assets, non interest income as percentage of total assets and operating profit as percentage of
total assets have recorded a downfall leading to a decrease in the profitability of public sector
banks. The decrease in the ratios, non interest income as percentage of total assets. Burden as
percentage of total assets leads to an increase in the profitability of public sector banks. The
increase in interest earned as a percentage of total assets and net profit as percentage of total
assets increased by 23.18%, which is detrimental to their profitability of public sector banks.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRATION
GROSS PROFIT RATIO
Gross Profit ratio is the ratio of gross profit to net sales expressed as a percentage. GP ratio
helps the company in measuring the results of the trading or manufacturing concerns. It
shows the gap between revenue and expenditure at a point after which the enterprise has to
meet expenses like marketing, administration, finance, and also taxes ad appropriations
Gross Profit Ratio =
Gross Profit / Net Sales x 100
TABLE NO: 1 .MEAN, S.D, C.V OF GROSS PROFIT RATIO FOR SELECT STEEL
COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
35.25
52.70
27.30
16.06
23.58
2009-2010
43.72
51.24
23.85
22.44
29.93
2008-2009
36.80
51.05
27.91
14.77
26.79
2007-2008
48.50
55.44
17.81
9.11
36.28
2006-2007
44.13
52.14
17.50
19.72
43.47
2005-2006
36.78
52.87
19.73
13.92
34.34
MEAN
40.86
52.57
22.35
16.00
32.40
S.D
4.89
1.567
3.772
4.27
6.53
C.V
11.96
2.98
16.87
26.66
20.15
VARIANCE
23.91
2.55
14.227
18.20
42.64
Source: Secondary Data
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INTERPRETATION
The table 1 shows that the Mean, CV and SD values to GP ratio of selected steel company,
highest mean value of 52.57 was observed to GP ratio of TATA and lowest mean value of
16.00 for GP ratio of VISA and other selected steel companies are maintaining moderate
levels in GP ratio, SAIL-40.86, Bhushan-22.35, JSW-32.40, respectively. And highest
variability of 6.53 was observed in GP of JSW steel, and lowest variability of 1.56 was
observed in GP of TATA,.
NET PROFIT RATIO
Net Profit ratio indicate the managements ability to earn sufficient profits on sales not
only to cover all revenue operating expenses but also to have sufficient margin to pay
reasonable compensation to shareholders on their contribution to the firm. A high ratio
ensures adequate return to share holders.
Net Profit Ratio = Net Profit/ Net Sales x
100
TABLE: 2 .MEAN, S.D, C.V OF NET PROFIT RATIO FOR SELECT STEEL
COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
11.53
23.42
14.47
3.96
8.70
2009-2010
16.63
20.23
15.05
4.10
11.13
2008-2009
14.09
21.36
8.45
-6.41
3.27
2007-2008
18.86
23.84
10.13
6.40
15.17
2006-2007
18.06
24.19
8.17
3.85
15.03
2005-2006
14.23
23.17
5.52
3.25
14.19
MEAN
15.56
22.70
10.29
2.52
11.25
S.D
2.57
1.45
3.46
4.12
4.25
C.V
16.51
6.38
33.62
163.02
37.82
VARIANCE
6.60
2.10
11.97
16.95
18.10
INTERPRETATION
The above table inferred that the Mean, CV, and SD value to NP ratio of selected steel
companies, the highest mean value is 22.70 for TATA and the lowest mean value of NP is
2.525 for VISA, remaining company are maintaining moderate level, SAIL-15.56, Bhushan10.29, JSW-11.248, respectively. The highest variability of 4.25 was observed in NP of JSW,
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which means a higher degree of variability and lowest variability of 1.45 was observed in NP
of SAIL. The CV of NP of VISA was highest with 163.02 and the lowest variability of 6.38
in NP of TATA steel.
OPERATING PROFIT RATIO
The ratio measures the relationship between operating profit and sales. Operating profit is
calculated by excluding non-operating income and expenses, financial expenses such as
interest, taxes, dividend, provision for extra-ordinary expenses, and losses due theft, extraordinary revenues or capital receipt are excluded from its ambit. Operating profit is calculated
by the following formula:
Operating Profit Ratio = Operating Profit/ Net Sales x 100
TABLE: 3. MEAN, S.D, C.V OF OPERATING PROFIT RATIO FOR SELECT

STEEL COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
16.37
38.11
29.24
15.41
20.08
2009-2010
22.69
35.70
25.84
17.25
33.52
2008-2009
20.41
37.68
21.93
8.84
20.42
2007-2008
28.19
41.94
19.98
15.45
29.46
2006-2007
28.09
39.61
16.40
8.85
32.79
2005-2006
23.24
38.88
14.18
9.80
27.79
MEAN
23.16
38.65
21.26
12.60
27.34
S.D
4.15
1.97
5.18
3.50
5.39
C.V
17.92
5.09
24.36
27.77
19.71
VARIANCE
17.23
3.88
26.83
12.25
29.05
INTERPRETATION
The table 3 shows that the Mean, CV and SD values to OP ratio of selected steel the highest
mean value of 38.65 was observed to OP ratio of TATA and lowest mean value of 12.60 for
OP ratio of VISA and other selected steel companies are maintaining middle level SAIL23.165, Bhushan-21.26, JSW-27.34, respectively. Highest variability of 5.39 was observed in
OP ratio of JSW steel, which means, a higher degree of variability and the lower of 1.97 was
observed TATA steel. The CV of VISA was the highest with 27.77 and lowest variability of
5.09 in OP ratio of TATA steel.
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OPERATING EXPENSES RATIO

Operating expenses ratio indicate the relationship of operating expenses to net sales. The
operating ratio reveals the average total variations in expenses. to analyze the cause variation
of the operating ratio.
Operating expenses ratio = Operating expenses
/ Net Sales x 100
TABLE: 4 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF OPERATING EXPENSES RATIO FOR SELECT

STEEL COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
4.53
1.71
3.85
2.79
3.55
2009-2010
4.32
1.67
3.63
2.72
3.98
2008-2009
3.88
1.64
3.59
3.32
5.12
2007-2008
4.32
1.26
2.48
2.12
5.61
2006-2007
4.66
1.40
2.90
2.99
6.66
2005-2006
5.74
1.69
2.43
6.42
5.52
MEAN
4.58
1.56
3.15
3.39
5.07
S.D
0.54
0.17
0.57
1.40
1.05
C.V
11.77
11.06
16.59
41.29
20.61
VARIANCE
0.29
0.02
0.32
1.96
1.10
INTERPRETATION
The above table.4 show that the Mean, CV, and SD value to OE ratio of selected steel
company. The highest mean value of 5.073 was observed to OE ratio of JSW and lowest
mean value of 1.562 for OE ratio of TATA and other selected steel companies are
maintaining moderate level SAIL-4.58, Bhushan-3.147, and VISA-3.393, respectively. The
highest variability of 1.40 was observed in OE of VISA which means higher degree of
variability and the lowest variability of 0.17 was observed in OE of TATA. The CV of OE of
VISA was the highest with 41.29 and the lowest variability of 11.56 in OE ratio of TATA.
OPERATING RATIO
Operating ratio establishes the relationship between cost of goods sold and other
operating expenses on the one hand and the sales on the other. In other words, it measures the
cost of operations per rupee of sales. Operating ratio can be calculated by using the following
formula:
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Operating ratio = Operating cost/ Net Sales x 100

TABLE: 5 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF OPERATING RATIO FOR SELECT STEEL
COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
69.27
49.00
76.54
86.72
79.97
2009-2010
60.59
50.43
79.78
80.27
74.06
2008-2009
67.70
50.59
75.68
88.54
78.32
2007-2008
55.81
45.81
84.61
93.02
69.32
2006-2007
60.53
49.25
85.39
83.26
63.18
2005-2006
68.96
48.81
82.70
92.50
71.19
MEAN
63.81
48.98
80.78
87.39
72.67
S.D
5.11
1.62
3.83
4.61
5.68
C.V
8.01
3.32
4.74
5.27
7.82
VARIANCE
26.10
2.63
14.66
21.25
32.26
INTERPRETATION
The table 3.1.5 shows that the Mean, SD and CV values of operating ratio to selected steel
companies in India, and the highest mean value of 87.385 was observed to OR of VISA and
lowest mean value of 48.98 for OR of TATA and other selected steel companies are
maintaining moderate level, SAIL-63.81, Bhushan-80.78, and JSW-72.67, respectively. The
highest variability of 5.68 was observed in OR of JSW and the lowest variability of 1.62 was
observed in OR of TATA, which means, lower degree of variability. The CV of OR of SAIL
was the highest with 8.01 and the lower variability of 3.315 in OR of TATA.
RETURN ON ASSET
Profitability can be measured in terms of relationship between net profit and assets. This ratio
is also known as profit-to-assets ratio. It measures the profitability of investments. The
overall profitability can be known.
Return on assets = Earnings after tax/ Total assets x 100
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TABLE: 6 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF RETURN ON ASSET FOR SELECT STEEL

COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
8.56
8.94
4.47
2.85
6.04
2009-2010
13.55
8.08
5.49
3.17
7.89
2008-2009
17.38
9.18
4.01
-5.54
1.86
2007-2008
28.86
10.34
5.77
4.13
8.55
2006-2007
28.85
17.78
7.02
2.51
13.14
2005-2006
23.74
25.44
5.27
2.59
10.23
MEAN
20.16
13.28
5.34
1.61
7.95
S.D
7.63
6.35
0.96
3.25
3.50
C.V
37.83
47.81
17.98
201.35
43.91
VARIANCE
58.19
40.32
0.92
10.53
12.19
INTERPRETATION
The table 6 shows that Mean, SD and CV values of ROA to selected steel companies, the
highest mean value of 20.16 was observed to ROA ratio of SAIL and lowest mean value of
1.612 for ROA of VISA and remaining selected steel companies are maintaining moderate
level , TATA-13.28, Bhushan-5.34, and JSW -7 .952, respectively. The highest variability of
7.628 was observed in ROA of SAIL and the lowest variability of 0.96 was observed in
Bhushan. The CV of VISA was highest with 201.35 and lowest variability of 17.98 in ROA
of Bhushan
RETURN ON INVESTMENT
The term investment may refer to total assets or net assets. The funds employed in net assets
in known as capital employed, , therefore more appropriate to use one of the following
measures of ROI for comparing the operating efficient of firms
ROI = EBIT/ Total capital employed x 100
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TABLE: 7 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF RETURN ON INVESTMENT FOR SELECT STEEL

COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
20.82
18.99
10.15
35.74
23.96
2009-2010
32.30
18.89
11.63
33.17
29.90
2008-2009
43.22
20.50
10.27
-3.13
14.99
2007-2008
75.62
22.94
14.54
23.42
24.95
2006-2007
82.56
41.83
18.89
11.38
44.33
2005-2006
84.94
70.29
17.15
15.04
35.51
MEAN
56.57
26.09
13.77
19.27
28.94
S.D
25.47
26.67
3.37
13.35
9.27
C.V
45.02
102.22
24.52
69.10
32.03
VARIANCE
648.72
711.28
11.40
178.08
85.93
INTERPRETATION
The table 7 shows that Mean, SD and CV of ROI to selected steel company, the highest mean
value of 56.57 was observed to ROI of SAIL and lowest mean value of 13.77 for ROI of
Bhushan. Remaining selected steel companies are maintaining moderate level TATA-26.09,
VISA-19.27, and JSW-28.94 respectively. The highest variability of 26.67 was observed in
TATA, which means a higher degree of variability and the lowest variability of 3.37 was
observed in VISA. The CV of TATA was the highest with 102.22 and lowest variability of
24.52 in Bhushan.
RETURN ON EQUITY
A return on shareholders equity is calculated to see the profitability of owners investment.
The shareholders, equity or net worth will include paid-up share capital, share premium and
reserves and surplus less accumulated losses.
ROE = Earnings after tax/ Shareholders equity x 100
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TABLE NO: 8 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF RETURN ON EQUITY FOR SELECT STEEL
COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
13.23
14.51
17.24
14.41
12.79
2009-2010
20.27
13.57
21.38
14.91
22.52
2008-2009
22.06
21.46
20.77
-23.80
6.07
2007-2008
32.67
21.47
26.07
12.44
22.63
2006-2007
35.82
30.26
25.79
6.48
23.87
2005-2006
31.84
34.10
17.36
4.21
21.20
MEAN
25.98
22.56
21.44
4.77
18.18
S.D
8.03
7.54
3.54
13.38
6.53
C.V
30.91
33.42
16.51
280.19
35.91
VARIANCE
64.49
56.85
12.53
178.99
42.64
INTERPRETATION
The above table 8 shows that Mean, SD and CV value of ROE to selected steel companies,
the highest mean value of 25.58 was observed to ROE of SAIL and lowest mean value of
4.775 for ROE of VISA, remaining selected steel companies are maintaining moderate level,
TATA-22.56, Bhushan-21.435, and JSW-18.18 respectively. The highest variability of
13.379 was observed in VISA and lowest variability of 3.54 was observed in Bhushan. The
CV of VISA was highest with 28.19 and the lowest variability of 16.51 in Bhushan.
EARNINGS PER SHARE
EPS calculations made over years indicate whether or not the firms earnings from power on
per share basis has changed over that period. The EPS of the company should be compared
with the industry average and the earnings per share of other firms. EPS simply shows the
profitability of the firm on a per share basis;.
Earnings per share (EPS) = Profit after tax/ Number of share outstanding x 100
AJRSH
TABLE NO. 9 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF EARNINGS PER SHARE FOR SELECT STEEL
COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
11.87
71.58
47.32
4.67
88.87
2009-2010
16.35
56.37
199.09
4.31
106.56
2008-2009
14.95
69.70
99.20
-6.07
22.96
2007-2008
18.25
63.85
99.77
3.92
90.84
2006-2007
15.02
72.74
73.76
1.87
77.09
2005-2006
9.72
63.35
37.42
1.13
53.28
MEAN
14.36
66.27
92.76
1.64
73.27
S.D
2.82
5.69
53.05
3.68
27.71
C.V
19.61
8.58
57.18
224.71
37.82
VARIANCE
7.93
32.36
2813.24
13.54
767.84
Sources: Secondary Data
INTERPRETATION
The table .9 shows that Mean, SD and CV values of EPS to selected steel company in India,
the highest mean value of 92.76 was observed to EPS of Bhushan and lowest mean value of
1.638 for EPS of VISA and other selected steel company are maintaining moderate level like,
SAIL-14.36, TATA-66.265, JSW-73.27 respectively. The highest variability of 53.048 was
observed in Bhushan, which means a higher degree of variability and the lowest of 3.82 was
observed in SAIL. The CV of VISA was the highest with 224.7 and the lowest variability of
8.58 in TATA.
EARNING YIELD
The earnings yield evaluates the shareholders return in relation to the market value of the
share. The earnings yield is also called the earnings-price (E/P) ratio. The information no the
market value per share is not generally available from the financial statements; it has to be
collected from external sources, such as the stock exchanges o the financial newspapers.
Earning yield = Earnings per share/ Market value per share
AJRSH
TABLE NO. 10 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF EARNING YIELD FOR SELECT STEEL
COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
0.069
0.115
0.108
0.104
0.097
2009-2010
0.065
0.089
0.593
0.102
0.086
2008-2009
0.155
0.338
0.245
-0.326
0.099
2007-2008
0.981
0.092
0.752
0.089
0.111
2006-2007
0.132
0.183
0.777
0.069
0.156
2005-2006
0.117
0.134
1.015
0.021
0.176
MEAN
0.253
0.158
0.582
-0.045
0.121
S.D
0.327
0.087
0.313
0.146
0.033
C.V
129.24
55.06
53.78
-328.20
27.49
VARIANCE
0.106
0.008
0.097
0.021
0.001
INTERPRETATION
The table 10 shows that mean, SD and CV of earning yield to the selected steel companies in
India, the highest mean value of 0.582 was observed to EY of Bhushan and lowest mean
value of -0.00446 for EY of VISA and other selected steel companies are maintaining
moderate level like, sail-0.253, TATA-0.158, and JSW-0.121 respectively. The highest
variability of 0.327 was observed in SAIL, which means higher degree of variability and the
lowest variability of 0.038 was observed in JSW. The CV of SAIL was the highest with
129.94 and the lowest variability of -328.20 in VISA.
DIVIDEND YIELD
The dividend yield evaluates the shareholders return in relation to the market value of the
share. The information on the market value per share is not generally available from the
financial statements;
Dividend yield = Dividend per share/ Market value per share
AJRSH
TABLE NO. 11 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF DIVIDEND YIELD FOR SELECT STEEL
COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
0.041
0.041
0.001
0.022
0.013
2009-2010
0.013
0.013
0.013
0.022
00.77
2008-2009
0.026
0.026
0.078
----
0.004
2007-2008
0.020
0.020
0.023
0.022
0.017
2006-2007
0.027
0.027
0.041
----
0.0253
2005-2006
0.024
0.024
0.027
----
0.026
MEAN
0.025
0.034
0.035
0.022
0.0155
S.D
0.009
0.020
0.029
0.004
0.007
C.V
34.26
58.82
82.85
13.63
43.75
VARIANCE
0.000074
0.0004
0.00084
0.00001
0.00005
Source: secondary Data
INTERPRETATION
The table 11 shows that the Mean, SD and CV values of dividend yield to the selected steel
company in India, the highest mean value of 0.0355 was observed to dividend yield of
Bhushan and lowest mean value of 0.0155 for dividend yield of JSW and other selected steel
company are maintaining moderate levels like SAIL-0.0251, TATA-0.034, VISA-0.022
respectively. The highest variability of 0.029 was observed in Bhushan which means higher
degree of variability and lowest variability of 0.0038 was observed in VISA. The CV of
Bhushan was the highest with 82.85 and the lowest variability of 13.63 in VISA.
DIVIDEND PAYOUT RATIO
Dividend pay out ratio is expressed about the dividend per share in earnings per share its
formula expressed as
Dividend payout ratio = Dividends per share/ Earnings per share
AJRSH
TABLE NO: 12 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF DIVIDEND PAYOUT RATIO FOR SELECT
STEEL COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
0.202
0.16
0.010
0.21
0.14
2009-2010
0.20
0.14
0.0125
0.23
0.089
2008-2009
0.17
0.22
0.025
----
0.044
2007-2008
0.20
0.25
0.025
0.25
0.154
2006-2007
0.20
0.22
0.033
----
0.162
2005-2006
0.205
0.20
0.067
----
0.150
MEAN
0.196
0.198
0.025
0.23
0.123
S.D
0.023
0.039
0.021
0.016
0.043
C.V
11.73
19.69
84.00
6.95
34.95
VARIANCE
0.000533
0.0015
0.00044
0.00025
0.0018
INTERPRETATION
The table.12 shows that Mean, SD and CV values of DPR to the selected steel companies in
india, the highest mean value of 0.23 was observed to DPR of VISA and lowest mean value
of 0.025 for DPR of Bhushan and other selected steel company are maintaining middle levels
like, SAIL-0.196, TATA-0.198, and JSW-0.123 respectively. The highest variability of
0.0430 was observed in JSW and the lowest variability of 0.016 was observed in VISA. The
CV of Bhushan was the higher with 84.00 and the lowest variability of 6.95 in VISA.
PRICE EARNINGS RATIO
The price earnings ratio is widely used by the security analysts to value the firms
performance as expected by investors. It indicates investors judgments or expectation about
the firms performance.
Price Earnings ratio = Market value per share/ Earnings per share
AJRSH
TABLE NO: 13 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF PRICE EARNINGS RATIO FOR SELECT
STEEL COMPANIES
Company/year
SAIL
TATA
BHUSHAN
VISA
JSW
2010-2011
14.30
8.67
9.25
9.625
10.31
2009-2010
15.40
11.22
1.689
9.849
11.59
2008-2009
6.45
2.96
0.803
-3.064
10.09
2007-2008
10.12
10.86
1.33
11.30
9.016
2006-2007
7.60
5.46
1.39
14.304
6.40
2005-2006
8.60
7.483
0.985
47.30
5.68
MEAN
10.41
7.775
2.574
14.88
8.848
S.D
3.34
2.911
2.99
15.48
2.129
C.V
32.14
37.44
116.48
104.08
24.07
VARIANCE
11.15
8.44
8.94
239.63
4.532
INTERPRETATION
The table 13 shows that Mean, SD and CV values of PE ratio of selected steel company, the
highest mean value of 14.88 was observed to PE ratio of visa and lowest mean value of 2.57
for PE ratio of Bhushan. And other selected steel companies are maintaining middle level
like, SAIL-10.41, TATA-7.775, and JSW-8.84 respectively. The highest variability of 15.48
was observed in VISA, which means a higher degree of variability and the lowest variability
of 2.129 was observed in JSW. The CV of Bhushan was the higher with 116.48 and the
lowest variability of 24.078 in JSW.
SIGNIFICANCE OF COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION R AND STUDENTS
T-TEST
SET OF HYPOTHESIS
Ho: there is no correlation in the NP ratio of sail to TATA and Bhushan to JSW, and the OP
ratio of sail to TATA and Bhushan to JSW.
Ho: there is correlation in the NP ratio of SAIL to TATA and Bhushan to JSW, and the OP
ratio of sail to TATA and Bhushan to JSW.
AJRSH
TABLE NO:14 SIGNIFICANCE OF COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION R AND

STUDENTS T-TEST
particular
NP ratio
NP ratio
OP ratio
OP ratio
SAIL to TATA
Bhushan to
JSW
SAIL to TATA
Bhushan to
JSW
Correlation
0.56
-0.12
0.64
-0.394
Calculated
value of t test
1.35
-0.24
1.66
-0.67
Table value of
t test
2.57
2.57
2.57
2.57
Significant
No correlation
(H1 is accepted)
No correlation
(H1 is accepted)
No correlation
(H1 is accepted)
No correlation
(H1 is accepted)
Level
5%
5%
5%
5%
Sources: Secondary Data
INTERPRETATION
The table 14 indicates the correlation and studentt test value to SAIL, TATA, Bhushan and
JSW steel companies in India. The highest positive correlation of 0.64 is between operating
profit of SAIL and TATA and least positive correlation of 0.56 is observed between NP ratio
of SAIL and TATA.
The highest negative correlation of -0.394 between operating profit ratio of Bhushan and
JSW and least negative correlation of -0.12 is observed between NP ratio of Bhushan and
JSW. When students t test was applied at 5% of significant level, calculated value was less
than table value for sail to NP ratio of sail to TATA, Bhushan to JSW and SAIL to TATA,
Bhushan to JSW OP ratio, i.e., alternative hypothesis was accepted.
TWO WAY ANOVA FOR RETURN ON INVESTMENT OF SELECTED STEEL
COMPANIES IN INDIA
SET OF HYPOTHESIS
H0: there is a significant difference on the ROI of selected steel companies in India.
H1: there is no a significant difference on the ROI of selected steel companies in India.
AJRSH
CHART NO: 3.1.16 TWO WAY ANOVA TABLE FOR RETURN ON INVESTMENT
OF SELECTED STEEL IN INDIA
Sources
variance
of
Sum of square
Degree of
freedom
Mean square
F ratio
Between
column
SSC = 6519
R1 = c 1=4
MSC = 1630
FC = 9.15
Between row
SSR = 2825
R2 = r 1= 5
MSR = 565
FR = 3.174
Residual
SSE = 3551
R3 = r1xr2=20
MSE = 178
12895
29
2373
Total
INTERPRETATION
DECISION RULE: Decision (a) the computed value of FC = 9.15 > the table value of F at
significant level = 0.05 and for 4 and 20 degree of freedom = F0.05 (4, 20) = 2.87 = the null
hypothesis is rejected = H1 is accepted i.e., there is no significant difference on the ROI of
SAIL, TATA, BHUSHAN, VISA, and JSW.
Decision (b) since FR = 3.174 > table value of f at significant level = 0.05 and for 5 and 20
degree of freedom = F0.05 (5, 20) = 2.71 i.e., Ho is rejected and H1 is accepted = there is no
significant different on the ROI of SAIL, TATA, BHUSHAN, JSW and VISA. The above
table clearly shows they are maintaining different level of return in their investment.
FINDINDS FROM THE STUDY
GP ratio of selected steel companies was positive and showed both decreasing and
increasing trend throughout the study period. Among the selected steel company it was
found that the GP ratio was sound of TATA and SAIL. An average GP ratio of 52.57%
and 40.86 respectively it indicates that the company was able to control the direct
expenses of the business because the major impact of GP is direct expenses.
Operating profit ratio of the selected steel company are good because the highest average
ratio among the selected steel company of 24.60% is much above the normal rate or the
bank rate. The highest operating profit was earned by TATA steel (38.65). Decrease in
indirect expense and increase in sales is responsible for higher operating profit ratio. The
rate of decrease expenses was higher compared to increase in sales, which is a sign of
good operational efficiency.
Visas NP ratio is not satisfactory for the business, because its average of 2.52% is not
worthwhile for the organization the NP ratio of TATA of 22.70% is indicated the better
performance. The increase in production cost had a major impact on the NP ratio of the
company the NP position of selected steel company were found good except visa steel
company, due to proper controlled on indirect expenses like power and fuel, repair and
maintenance etc.,
AJRSH
The operating expenses ratio of selected steel companies in India are good, because
operating expenses ratio of mean range from 1.56% to 5.07% only to sales hereafter found
that the tatas operating expenses was the lower at 1.56% only to sales. It indicates, the
company was able to control the administration and selling expenses.
An average operating ratio of TATA is 48.98%. it indicates the very good operational
efficiency because they are only achieve the low rate of expenses to get more profit,
expenses like, cost of goods sold plus operating while compared with sample company.
The SAILS mean of ROA is 20.16%, it has only achieved the highest ROA. It indicates,
they make better utilization of available resources.
The return on investment of selected steel company India have a good return on
investment, as its average ROI of 28.92 is much higher than the nominal rate or the bank
rate. Decrease in production cost had a great positive impact on the ROI of the business
controlled in indirect expenses has resulted in higher return on investment.
ROI of SAIL (56.57) is the highest ROI among the selected steel companies. It shows the
better utilization of available resource.
The average EPS of selected steel companies had a positive trend except in visa steel
company in the year 2009. The value of EPS of selected steel company is above Re.1 over
a period of study. It denotes, the investors make their investment decision is the sample
company.
The findings from the ANOVAs test is that, decision (a) the computed value of
Fc=9.15>the table value of F at significant = 0.05 and for 4 and 20 degree of freedom =
F0.05 (4, 20) =2.80 = the null hypothesis is rejected =H1 is accepted i.e., there is no
significant difference in the ROI of sail, TATA, Bhushan, VISA and JSW. Decision (b)
since Fr at significant and for 5 and 20 7degree of freedom = F0.05 (5, 20) = 2.71 i.e., Ho
is rejected and H1 is accepted i.e., there is no significant different in ROI of sail, TATA,
Bhushan, VISA, JSW. They are maintaining different levels in return on investment.
THE FINDINGS FROM CORRELATION ANALYSIS AND ARE AS FOLLOWS
Correlation between NP ratios of SAIL to TATA, operating profit ratio of SAIL to TATA
was positive, it shows a positive correlation thereby found that they are maintaining similar
level of NP and OP ratio. Highest correlation of 0.64 was observed between operating profit
ratio of SAIL to TATA, which is sign of good degree of relation between SAIL and TATA.
Low positive correlation of 0.56 was observed between NP of SAIL and TATA. Negative
correlation of -0.12,-0.394 was observed between NP ratio of Bhushan & JSW. And OP of
Bhushan & JSW thereby found that, they are maintaining different level of net profit and
operating profit.
THE FINDINGS FROM STUDENTS T TEST ARE FOLLOWS
Students t test at 5% significant level showed showed significance in NP of sail to

TATA and Bhushan to JSW and operating profit of SAIL to TATA and Bhushan to JSW.
The calculated value of t in NP ratio of sail to TATA was 1.35 which is less than table value
AJRSH
of 2.57. Hence null hypothesis accepted i.e., no relation between NP ratio of SAIL and
TATA.The calculated value of t in NP ratio of Bhushan to JSW was -0.24 which is lessthan
table value of 2.57. Hence null hypothesis accepted i.e., no relation between NP ratio of SAIL
and TATA. The calculated value of t in OP ratio of SAIL to TATA was 1.66 which is less
than table value of 2.57. Hence null hypothesis accepted i.e., no relation between OP ratio of
SAIL and TATA The calculated value of t in OP ratio Bhushan to JSW was -0.394 which is
less than table value of 2.57. Hence null hypothesis accepted i.e., no relation between OP
ratio of Bhushan and JSW.
CONCLUSION
After the analysis of various data, related to selected steel companies in India founded in
theoretical statement, it clear that profitability more or less depends upon the better utilization
of resources, cutoff expenses and quality of management function in the products, customer
services and to manpower and goodwill and market share. It is worthwhile to increase
production capacity and use advance technology to cut down cost of production and wage
cost in order to increase profitability, not only against the investment, but also for investors
return point of view. These programs are helpful to increase profitability of selected steel
companies in India in future prospects. If the management or government does not look into
it seriously, it can result in loss of jobs and the company will become a sick unit. And
founded in numerical statement, the correlation of SAIL to TATA (0.56) of NP and SAIL to
TATA 0.64 of OP ratio was positive. It shows they are maintained similar level in NP and OP
ratio and negative correlation was observed among Bhushan to JSW (-0.12) of NP ratio and
Bhushan to JSW of (-0.394) OP ratio conclude by t test, there is no correlation among SAIL
to TATA and Bhushan to JSW of NP ratio and SAIL to TATA and SAIL to TATA and
Bhushan to JSW of OP ratio and in ANOVA test, there is no significant difference in the ROI
of SAIL, TATA, Bhushan, VISA, & JSW.
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WEBSITES
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AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
GROWING INCIDENCES OF GENDER CRIMES AND DOWRY
DEATHS: AN EVOLVING THREAT TO ASSAMESE SOCIETY
DR. POLLY VAUQULINE*
*Assistant Professor,
Department of Womens Studies,
Guwahati University.
ABSTRACT
Human history is replete with violence against its own kind. However, violence
based on gender within the confines of the community and home is perhaps the
most degrading of all other forms of violence. Crimes against women are as old
as civilisation and equally ancient are the efforts to combat and arrest them.
These efforts have not succeeded and crimes persist.
There have been growing incidences of gender crimes in Assam during the last
few years. Cases of dowry deaths also get reported occasionally but without
much speculation. The general Assamese community consciously withdraws from
these incidences. It is assumed that the occurrences of these incidences are within
the non-Assamese communities residing in Assam because dowry was never a
part of Assamese marriage custom.
In this paper reported crimes against women and dowry deaths in Assam are
analyzed (1997-2009) and in-depth case studies of dowry deaths are carried out
from 2001-2010. Both primary and secondary data are taken into consideration
for this study. The study reveals that the incidences of crimes against women in
Assam are not only high but are increasing at faster rate so also are the cases of
dowry deaths. Dowry deaths are the highest among the Assamese community in
Greater Guwahati, which is a matter of grave concern and immediate action
indeed.
________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Violence against women is age-old. Human history is replete with violence against its own
kind. Nationality, ethnicity and gender have been the cornerstones of discrimination and
violence between man and man. However, violence based on gender within the confines of
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the community and home is perhaps the most degrading of all other forms of violence.
However, the increase in reported incidences of violence against women over the past several
decades has firmly established the issue of concern for the women's movement globally. The
need for protection of the rights of women gained global recognition during the International
Decade of Women (1975-1985) and was steadily gaining momentum since then. This
recognition became international law in 1979, when the UN General Assembly adopted the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).
India became signatory to the Convention in 1993 and ratified CEDAW and committed itself
to work for the elimination of all types of discrimination against women. The most painful of
discrimination of women is the physical, mental and psychological violence perpetrated on
them. The threat of violence on women manifests right before their life begins, continues to
scar the early life, follows in the married life as domestic violence, endangers them as victims
of rape and worse still, in murders and engenders suicides in other cases.
Wife abuse, a practice shared with many other cultures, acquires a different
connotation in Indian society due to the institution of dowry. There is enough evidence to
suggest that such abuse often receives wider familial sanction. It is institutionalized in various
forms. In this context, it is important to note the growing number of cases being registered
under section 489 A of the Indian Penal Code (Karlekar: 2008). Generally, in India, there is a
tendency to club most marital violence under the overall heads of dowry, dowry deaths,
and dowry violence. This categorization glosses over the other causes of violence which
pervade the familial context. However, to argue that dowry is not always the cause behind
marital discord is not to ignore the fact that it is one of the major factors responsible for
domestic violence (Kishwar: 1986).
THE PRACTICE OF DOWRY: Although the root of the word dowry has originated from
the Anglo-French word douarie, the dowry system-payments from the bride's family to the
groom or groom's family at the time of marriage-has a long history in India and other
societies too (Lee, 1982). During the ancient period dowry was a widely practiced custom in
Europe. There was no evidence of the dowry in ancient Egypt under the Pharaohs. Perhaps
there was no need for it since women could own and manage their own property. When first
the Greeks and then the Romans took control of Egypt signs of the dowry began to appear,
but not until then. In ancient Athens when a woman was ready to marry, her father or other
guardian would choose a potential husband and negotiate with him on the size of the dowry.
Invariably a woman with a large dowry would marry a rich man and a woman with a small
dowry would marry a poor man. The then existing customs does not allow woman to own
anything more than her own clothing, jewelry and personal slave. The function of the dowry
was to provide a financial base that would assure the essentials of life for the wife regardless
of whatever disasters might befall. The dowry was administered by the husband who could
spend the proceeds on his family in whatever way he felt appropriate. The dowry, however,
remained the property of the wife. In ancient Rome the dowry was a means of sharing the
cost of setting up a new family. It was also a way of ensuring that a woman always had some
way of looking after herself in case of widowhood or divorce. If her husband died or if they
divorced the dowry was returned to her. In the Empire the law permitted the husband to retain
a sixth of the dowry if his wife had committed adultery. He could also retain an additional
sixth for each of their children who continued to live in his household after the divorce.
In Homeric times, the usual Greek1 practice was to give a brideprice2. Dowries were
Classical Greece was a 200 year period in Greek culture lasting from the 5th through 4th centuries BC.
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exchanged in the later classical time (5th century BC). Even in the oldest available records,
such as the Code of Hammurabi3, dowry is described as an already-existing custom.
Regulations surrounding the custom include: the wife being entitled to her dowry at her
husband's death as part of her dower4, her dowry being inheritable only by her own children,
not by her husband's children by other women, and a woman not being entitled to a
(subsequent) inheritance if her father had provided her dowry in marriage. If a woman died
without sons, her husband had to refund the dowry but could deduct the value of the bride
price; the dowry would normally have been the larger of the sums
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowry).
However in Indian context, with the progress of time, it subsequently transformed into
a disgusting social evil, a strong barrier for the progress of women in particular and the
society in general.
DOWRY SYSTEM IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW

The modem Indian dowry system has its roots in the traditional upper-caste practices
of kanyadhan (literal meaning: gift of the virgin bride), varadakshina (voluntary gifts given
by the bride's father to the groom), and stridhan (voluntary gifts given by relatives and friends
to the bride; Diwan, 1987; Van der Veen, 1972). Traditionally, although these gifts could be
significant, they were often small tokens of good wishes. More recently, however, the dowry
has come to involve a substantial transfer of wealth from the bride's family to the groom's,
and has become a major factor in marriage negotiations (Nadagouda, Krishnaswamy, &
Aruna, 1992; Paul, 1985; Teja, 1991). In spite of modernization and women's increasing role
in the market economy, the practice of the dowry in India is becoming more widespread, and
the value of dowries is increasing. There are many well-documented adverse consequences of
the dowry system, particularly for women (Srinivasan and Lee, 2004). The custom of Dowry
which originated with a noble cause, to give a daughter her dues at the time of her marriage
as she did not enjoy any right over her parental property, subsequently took a horrifying
scenario in the modern materialistic society. It went to such an extreme of violence that a
bride is killed by her in-laws if they are not satisfied with her dowry. Another alarming facet
of the dowry system in India is that it has flowed into those societies where it never existed
before.
WHY THIS STUDY?
It is accepted that the status of women in Assam is comparatively higher than the women
in other parts of India. We persist to live with this believe. However, someone had rightly
said The actual news of our country is to be found in the middle pages of a newspaper and
not the headlines. Whereas these pages are often rightly neglected or buried under the
sensations of the political warfares, economic tsunamis or sports gallantries that prevails the
Bride price, also known as bride wealth, is an amount of money or property or wealth paid by the groom or his family to the parents of a
woman upon the marriage of their daughter to the groom.
3
The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code, dating to ca. 1780 BC. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of
significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a human-sized stone
stele and various clay tablets. The Code consists of 282 laws, with scaled punishments, adjusting "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth" as
graded depending on social status, of slave versus free man.
4
Dower or morning gift, was a provision accorded by law to a wife for her support in the event that she should survive her husband (i.e.,
become a widow). It was settled on the bride by agreement at the time of the wedding, or provided by law. ("Settled" here refers to a gift
into trust.)
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headlines. And one of such truthful news that most of us seems to be ignoring is the growing
incidences of violence related to dowry in Assam. Many at times, the urban Assamese are
found claiming that the dowry is not prevalent in Assamese society, culture or value
system. It was indeed true a few decades ago because it is an accepted fact that dowry was
never a part of Assamese marriage custom or tradition. But what is surfacing poisonously
amidst the self-flattering cries of No dowry system in Assam is the fact that over the last
few years news of dowry deaths are seen to be frequently reported in local newspapers in
Assam. Unfortunately, the news of dowry death is being neglected by the media so that the
news gets a place of few lines that too in very inner pages. Along with the print media the
other public awareness systems also shows insensitivity and conscious withdrawnness toward
the whole issue of growing incidences of atrocities due to dowry and dowry death in Assam.
We read such instance occasionally, yet we tend to shy away from the issue stating Its not
something we do. Of all, intensive studies on the varied aspects of the dowry system in
Assam fail to exist. Whatever works carried out on this issue does not get highlighted due to
lack of publicity in reputed arena. The queries that the researcher in this article want to probe
are:
1. What is the magnitude of the problem of crimes against women and dowry in Assam
and more so in Guwahati?
2. What are their patterns of occurrence?
3. Is the Assamese society really influenced by the negative impacts of dowry?
DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY

The primary aim of this paper is to analyse the pattern of occurrence of crimes against
women along with dowry death across the state of Assam with special reference to Guwahati.
A comparative study between the two is necessary to analyse the overall crime against
women scenario in Assam. The article will also focus on the growth of these crimes from
1996 to 2009, over a span of 13 years. Pattern of existence of dowry death within Assamese
and other communities will also be studied. Focusing on these objectives primary as well as
secondary data are consulted. Although women maybe victims in any of the crimes, be it
'murder', 'robbery' or any other, the crimes in which women are the victims and which are
directed specifically against women are denoted as "Crimes Against Women by the Indian
Constitution. They can be regarded as gender specific crimes. They are broadly classified
under two categories: crimes identified under the Indian Penal Code (IPC) and crimes
identified under Special Laws (SLL) (National Crimes Record Bureau, Govt. of India: 1997).
For this study record of dowry deaths (2001 to 2010), which fall under 304 (B) IPC, are
consulted and compiled from Crime Branch, Senior Superintendent of Police Office (City).
They are the primary data (case studies). Crimes in India, a statistical record which is
published by National Crime Record Bureau is referred from 1996 to 2009. Other relevant
information are compiled from the C.I.D. Office, Assam Police, Assam.
Dowry death can be considered as the highest form of domestic violence against
women. To get to the core of the issue of dowry, comprehensive knowledge about the varied
aspects surrounding it is of utmost necessity. This is basically an analytical study to probe the
hidden aspects of the victims of dowry death, one form of gender crime, in Assam and within
Guwahati. The significance of this problem is enormous because the custom of dowry was
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never associated with Assamese marriage system. Dowry or dowry related violence was
unheard of till few years ago in Assam. The customs and traditions of Assamese society does
not promote dowry within the ritual of marriage. Rather it was non-existent few decades ago.
FINDINGS
CRIMES AGAINST WOMEN IN ASSAM: It is unfeigned that the position of women in

Assamese society is far better than many of her counterparts of rest of India. She enjoys
many privileges and has access to varied avenue that can help her to climb the ladder of
progress and development. But at the same time, the traditional systems of control with its
notion of what is right and proper for women still reigns supreme and reinforces the use of
violence as a means to punish its defiant female offenders and their supporters (Swayam,
2011). Hence it is of no surprise when the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB)
highlights that the growth rate of crimes against women in Assam is higher than that of all
India average. To elucidate the subject, it is essential to speculate at some government data
from the NCRB (1997-2009), and intensive research work. However it is important to
mention here, the data presented here is only a partial reflection of the extent of crimes
against women as most incidents of violence go unreported.
The overall incidence of crimes against women in Assam is observed to have
increased rather alarmingly in the last 13 years. At the same time it is also a hard fact, which
we often find it difficult to accept, that the crimes against women in Assam is higher than the
all India average. The statistics also highlights that the rank of Assam in respect to cases
registered under crimes against women has also increased substantially in the last few years.
It is rather shocking that in the year 2009, a state like Assam where many forms of
discrimination against women are believed not to exist, had crimes against women as 2nd rank
as per rate of total cognizable crimes and 7th rank in India as per percentage share. The cases
of crimes against women have always been high for the last few years in Assam. However,
the enormity of this problem can be realized when we make a comparative study of the trend
of its growth. Assams position was 6th ( rank as per rate of total cognizable crimes) and 12th
rank as per percentage share in the year 2003. It is indeed a great leap within a period of six
years.
TABLE 1: NUMBER OF INCIDENCES OF CRIME AGAINST WOMEN,
ASSAM
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
No of Incidences of
crimes against women.
3407
3388
3504
3732
4243
5092
5312
5700
6027
6801
6844
8122
9721
The table depicts that the number of incidence of crimes against women in Assam has
increased alarmingly in the last thirteen years. It has more than doubled in the study period.
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TABLE 2: RATE OF OCCURRENCE OF CRIMES AGAINST WOMEN, ASSAM.

1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
cognizable crimes, Assam
13.5
13.2
13.5
14.2
15.9
18.7
19.2
20.2
21
23.3
23.1
27
31.8
Rate of Occurrence to the

cognizable crimes, India
12.7
13.5
13.8
14.1
14
14.1
13.2
14.2
14.1
14.7
16.3
17
17.4
Year
Rate of Occurrence to the
When the rate of occurrence of the cognizable crimes against women in Assam is compared
with that of India it exhibits a grievous image of the reality. The rate of occurrence of crimes
against women both in India and Assam is showing a positive growth as a negative factor for
the overall development of women in particular and the society in general. The agitating
component in this finding is that the rate of occurrence of crimes against women in Assam
has always been higher than the all India occurrence rate. In addition to that the difference
between the two is also showing a sharp rise. In the year the 1997 the proportion of difference
was less than one percentage (0.8 %). However, the difference of the rate of occurrence has
increased ten times (10 %) just within a span of 13 years. It is really a cause of grave concern
for the always considered liberal Assamese society and the concerned people of Assam.
DOWRY DEATH IN ASSAM

Literature reveals that virtually there is no dowry system in the Assamese society
(Mishra, 1987: 109). It is generalized that dowry system is not prevalent in rural society
( Chandragupta and Vora, 2002: 16). It is also emphasized that Assam is the only area in the
country which is not so acutely affected by the dowry system (Das, 1995: 329). In wedding in
Assam, it is still the custom that the grooms side sends ornaments, bridal dress and
cosmetics according to their capacity, which would come back with the bride anyway. It is
upto the brides parents to give what they want to their daughter. Both sides arrange their
own wedding reception separately at their own expense. There are instances where one side
helps the other financially with the wedding expenses. Giving a dowry is considered a bribe
to get a good son-in-law when the girl is inferior, and therefore, it is considered an insult to
the parents who are, in fact conceding that their daughter is inferior (Bareh, 2001). However,
the data of varied aspects of dowry death in Assam is rather portraying it as a pro-dowry
society. An intense look at the following tables will provide an explanation to the assumption.
TABLE 3: NUMBER OF INCIDENCES OF DOWRY DEATH, ASSAM.
Year
No of Incidences
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
22
32
40
50
59
70
60
74
99
105
100
103
170
This table highlighting the total number of incidence of dowry death in Assam clearly
depicts that the incidences of dowry death in Assam has increased in the study period. But the
matter of grave concern is that it has increased exponentially from 22 cases in 1997 to 170
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cases in 2009. It also highlights that there is a steady but a sharp increase of this crime in
Assam.
TABLE 4: RATE OF OCCURRENCE OF DOWRY DEATH, ASSAM
Year
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Rate of Occurrence to
the cognizable crimes,
Assam
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3 0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.6
Rate of Occurrence to
the cognizable crimes,
India
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.6 0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
When compared with the rate of occurrence (of dowry death) to the cognizable crimes
in Assam with that of India, Assam has a lower rate of occurrence all through the study
period. Again, here the matter of concern is that the proportion of difference between the two
has gradually increased. In the year 1997 the Assams difference with the all India level was
.5 whereas it has reduced to just .1 in the year 2009. It indeed shows a gradual increase
during the span of thirteen years.
TABLE 5: PROPORTION OF OCCURRENCE OF DOWRY DEATH, ASSAM
Year
Proportion of
Occurrence
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.5
1.4
1.2
1.3
The proportion of occurrence of dowry death in Assam is showing even more

concerning impression of this hideous crime which was once unheard of in Assam. The
growth of the proportion of occurrence of dowry death from .4 percentage (1997) to 2
percentage (2009) of all the crimes is highlighting a sharp increasing trend.
All the tables depicting the varied aspects of occurrence of dowry death in Assam is
showing a rising trend and a steady growth of this crime.
INCIDENCES OF DOWRY DEATH IN GREATER GUWAHATI URBAN AREA:
There are general prevailing notions amongst the Assamese society that these victims of
dowry death do not belong to Assamese families. It is assumed that these incidences are of
those women who reside in Assam but originally belong to other states such as Bihar, West
Bengal and other North Indian states. To get a deeper insight to these common believes and
assumed assumptions, detailed case studies were carried out of the victims of dowry death
from the year 2001 to 2010. However due to certain limitations and time constrains the cases
of dowry death that have occurred within Greater Guwahti Urban Area (GGUA) are only
consulted instead of the entire state, Assam. It needs to be emphasized here that, as per the
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information provided by the C. I. D. Office, Assam, Guwahati Metro (GGUA) is one of those
districts where there is high occurrence of dowry death along with Cachar, Nagoan, Barpeta
etc. The data also reveals that there are incidences of dowry death in all the district of Assam
even though in low magnitude. However, the occurrence of this disgraceful crime cut across
the entire state.
There are a total of 21 police stations including the All Women Cell under the Office
of Senior Superintendent of Police, City which cover the entire Greater Guwahati Urban
Area. The records of cases of dowry death of these police stations are compiled from 2001 to
2010. The following table shows the pattern of occurrence of dowry death in GGUA.
TABLE 6: INCIDENCE OF DOWRY DEATH IN GUWAHATI CITY
Year
Incidence Of
Dowry Death
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
13
The pattern of occurrence of dowry death in Guwahati indicates a growth but do not
shows a definite trend. There was a sudden increase to 13 cases in 2006 and a fall again in the
next year, 2007, then again a rise in 2010. It is however elucidates that the cases of dowry
deaths in Guwahati city has increased during the study period though without a definite
pattern.
SPATIAL PATTERN OF OCCURRENCE OF DOWRY DEATH IN GUWAHATI

CITY: The spatial pattern of occurrence of the atrocious phenomena which is delineated on
the basis of police stations is highlighted in the following table.
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TABLE 7: SPATIAL PATTERN OF OCCURRENCE OF DOWRY DEATH IN

GUWAHATI CITY
Police
Station
2001
A.W.C.
Khetri
Fata.A
Jaluk
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Total
11
Bha.M
Pal.B
Chand
Azara
1
1
Dispur
Basist
PGR
Latasil
Noon.M
4
2
7
1
2
1
Sat.G
Sonapur
Geeta.N
Hati.G
Year
8
1
3
1
There were 16 police stations (PS) under Office of S. S. P. (City), Guwahati till 2007.
Five more were added during 2008. They are Gorchuk, Bhangagarh, Satgoan, Sonapur and
Hatigaon PS. At present there are a total of twenty one PS in Greater Guwahati Urban Area
which extends from Azara PS in the west to Pragjyotishpur (PGR) PS, (Chandrapur) in the
east. Located in the north is the North Guwahati PS and in the other extreme is Sonapur PS.
All these police stations are under the Office of the S. S. P. (City), Guwahati. It is indeed an
extensive jurisdiction encompassing urban population in the core of the city, semi urban and
semi rural population towards its periphery. The study of dowry death in these GGUA
throws some interesting dimensions.
Of the twenty one PS only in four PS no cases of dowry deaths were reported during
the study period. They are North Guwahati, Bhangagarh, Gorchuk and Panbazar. Of these
four police stations Bhangagarh and Gorchuk are constituted recently (2008) for which, it can
be considered that no cases of dowry death are registered in these PS. Again the All Women
Cell (AWC) is situated within the premises of Panbazar PS as for which the cases of dowry
deaths within Panbazar area are registered in the AWC. Thereby it can be stated that except
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North Guwahati, incidences of dowry death cut across the entire city though in varied
proportion.
The information in the table throws light that dowry death cases are reported even in
those police stations which has more rural characteristics than urban features such as Khetri,
PGR, Azara and Sonapur. All these police stations recorded more than one case of dowry
death. Here it can be emphasized that dowry deaths exist in GGUA in all forms of settlement
be it urban, semi urban or rural. There are four police stations where only a single case of
dowry death is reported. Of them, two are the newly established PS (Satgaon and Hatigaon).
Thereby it can be illustrated that occurrence of dowry death in Geetanagar PS and Latasil PS
is lower than the rest of the city. During the study period only a single case of dowry death is
reported in these PS.
The other side of the pictures depicts that Fatasil Ambari PS (11 cases) followed by
the Noonmati and Jalaukbari PS (8 cases) are the three PS which reported the highest
incidences of dowry death. Dispur PS and Basistha PS are the two other localities where this
crime flourishes in high degree. There were seven incidences of dowry death during this ten
years time (2001-2010). However, these do not throw any light on the socio cultural
background of the victims.
ETHNIC BACKGROUND OF THE VICTIMS OF THE DOWRY DEATH IN GGUA:
Along with the other facets of dowry death discussed in this article, one of the major aims of
this study is to find out if these victims belong to Assamese community or to those
communities where this type of violence fail to occur previously. To seek an answer to this
unexplored question, all the cases of dowry death that have occurred in GGUA from 2001 to
2010 were consulted. A detailed study of these cases were not possible due to time constrain
and enormity of the data. The process of going through these old records is time consuming.
Keeping in attention the focus of this study, details of the community and also the religious
background of the victims were consulted. Both these aspects of the victims were necessary
to show a pattern of its existence in the city. The objective to show their occurrence on the
basis of community was to contemplate if dowry deaths exist within Assamese community.
Again while consulting these cases a large number of victims who belong to Islam
community was identified. They are categorized as a religious group than as a community
because the data of the cases failed to reveal the linguistic community they belong to.
In the following table the temporal occurrence of dowry death are categorized on the
basis of both community and creed.
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TABLE 8: PATTERN OF OCCURRENCE OF DOWRY DEATH ACROSS CREED

AND COMMUNITY
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
Total
Assamese
33
Muslim
10
Bengali
14
08
Comm/
Creed
Year
Hindustani
Unknown
04
The table reveals a horrifying picture of the emerging pattern of dowry death in
GGUA. Highest occurrence of dowry deaths is within Assamese community (33 cases) in the
city in the last ten years. It accounts to nearly 48 percentage of all the cases. It is indeed a
cause of gravest concern to the Assamese society in general and to every conscious Assamese
citizen in particular more so because dowry demand never existed as a part of the Assamese
marriage system in the past. In certain communities within Assamese society bride price is a
more prevalent custom. But the negative influence of dowry demand is so immense that it has
percolated silently into the Assamese society. The evil custom of dowry demands can be
regarded as an evil imitation and an easy aspiration to climb the ravel of development
amongst the middle class Assamese society (Vauquline, P: 2007). It can also be considered a
greed for easy and quick wealth, one of the adverse effects of modernisation.
Another alarming fact revealed in this table is the cases of dowry deaths among the
Muslim community (10 cases). It is disturbing because there is no scope for dowry demand in
any part of the Muslim marriage system, however; the data reveals totally an unexpected
picture of the silent reality that exists within the Assamese society. It sincerely calls for an
intensive study into the factors influencing the growth of this atrocious crime. There are four
cases whose identity could not be revealed. Bengali and Hindustani (Hindi speaking
community) are the two other communities where incidences of dowry death are common.
CONCLUSION
From the study it can be concluded that the incidences of crimes against women in Assam has
increased substantially during the last few years. It has only shown a positive and rapid
growth but the occurrence of this crime is higher than the all India rate. As for incidences of
dowry death is concern it is also growing. The existence of the crime of dowry death cuts
across the entire state of Assam. It flourishes very much among the Assamese and also within
those communities (Muslim) which never existed before. It is a social issue which calls for a
grievous speculation and matter of concern for social scientist. If the Assamese do not take
pro-active measures right in this stage where the menace is just taking its pace of growth,
there will be no way one can stop the Assamese culture getting plagued with such nuisances
all throughout (Das: 2011). We need to acknowledge about its existence, be conscious and
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aware about its consequences and act as an obstruction in whatever possible way to its
diffusion to untouched space.
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Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi.
12. Srinivasan, P. and Lee, G. R. (2004). The Dowry System in Northern India: Women's
Attitudes and Social Change. Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 66, No. 5, Special
Issue: International
13. Perspectives on Families and Social Change, Dec. pp. 1108-1117
14. Swayam (2011). Status of Women: a reality check. Facts on Inequality and Crimes
Against Women (www.swayam.info/swayam_gi_leaflet_31mar.pdf)
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15. Teja, M. K. (1991). Dowry: A Study of Attitudes and Practices. New Delhi, India:
Inter-India.
16. Van der Veen, K. W. (1972). I give thee my daughter: A study of marriage and
hierarchy among the Anavil Brahmans of south Gujarat. Assen, Netherlands:
Koninklijke Van Gorcum.
17. Vauquline, P. (2007). Gender Related Crimes in Greater Guwahati Urban Area,
unpublished Ph.D thesis, North Eastern Hills University, Shillong.
18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowry
19. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece
20. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brideprice
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
A STUDY ON SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF PHYSICALLY CHALLENGED
CHILDREN
POLEE SAIKIA*; SATYABRATA BARUAH**
*Department of Education,
Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam.
**Department of Education,
B. Borooah College,
Guwahati, Assam.
ABSTRACT
In India, people with disabilities are amongst the most marginalized sections of
society irrespective of caste, creed and community. The social problem of
physically challenged children is a common phenomenon observed by
administrators, public workers and educationists. Researches on these problems
can be said to be neglected. This study has been undertaken to investigate social
problems of physically challenged children in Greater Guwahati Area, Assam at
a glance. For the present study 100 children were selected ranging from 6 to 14
years age by applying simple random sampling technique. In order to study
social problems of the children, the investigators has prepared 10(ten) different
social traits on the basis of behavioural characteristics. The data have been
analyzed and interpreted and significance of difference has also been calculated
between deaf and dumb and blind on account of their social problems. Suggestive
measures have been drawn to overcome such problems of physically challenged
children.
KEYWORDS: Blind, Deaf & Dumb, Social Development and Social Problem.
__________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
In India, the physically challenged children are excluded from the mainstream of the society
and denied their human rights. Discrimination against persons with disabilities takes various
forms, ranging from individual discrimination, such as the denial of educational opportunities
due to physical and social barriers. Effects of disability based discrimination have been
particularly severe in fields such as education, employment, transport, cultural and social life
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and access to public places and services. In a democratic set up, it is the prime responsibility
of the country to make every citizen as an efficient member of the society. In order to fulfil
democracy, every citizen must be well award about their rights. So, physically challenged
should not be far from it because they are also any of us in many respects.
From the commencement of the Indian Constitution, Government has made several
recommendations to empower the physically challenged children. The enactment of the
Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation)
Act, 1995 is a significant achievement of the Indian disability movement. The Act aims to
protect and promote economic and social rights of people with disabilities. The Act spell out
responsibilities of the Government at all levels including establishment under its control. It
lays down specific measures for the development of services and programs for equalizing
opportunities for the enjoyment of rights to education, work, housing, mobility and public
assistance in case of severe disability and Unemployment. Though several policy and
programs have enacted by the Government but practically it has not worked properly. Persons
with disabilities have discriminated by the society very largely. They face several problems
regarding social and personal adjustment with the society often, on the day of 3rd December is
observed as World Disability Day in each year but the importance of the day is found to be
very poor. So it is the right time to accept them as one of us in society so that the disabled
persons may take such disability as a challenged.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AND ITS PROBLEMS
The types of problems that confront the physically challenged children are mainly social.
Social development is very essential for proper adjustment in the society. It is in the form of
gregarious behaviour begins around the people and objects, in their environment and when
they respond differently to only in physical, mental and emotional behaviour but also
correspondingly in social functioning and character development.
Social development means acquisition of the ability to behave in accordance with social
expectations. It involves learning to get along with other people. It also involves proper
performance of behaviour, playing of approved roles and the development of social attitudes.
Social development takes place in a social group which has a particular culture or a set of
common characteristics and ways of behaving and believing.
When an individual fails to mix with other members of the society or fails to reach his goal
by socially acceptable means because of his incompetency or socio-economic barriers, he
attempts to mix or to reach the goal by anti-social activities which we term as socially
handicapped. The social problem is a product of social environment and it is a rebellion and
an expression of aggression which is aimed at destroying, breaking down the social customs
or changing the environment. But this rebellion is mostly against the social conditions which
deny the individuals basic rights and the satisfaction of his fundamental needs. Thus,
socially challenged children who are guilty of offences such as stealing, burglary, violence,
vagrancy, forgery, gambling, sexual offences and other anti-social behaviour.
In this study the investigators have tried to study the social problems of Physically
Challenged Children in terms of certain social behavioural traits. Playfulness, friendliness,
co-operative, obedience, consciousness, development of leadership quality etc are the
AJRSH
common social traits which identify childs social development. If these social traits are not
developed properly in behavioural characteristics then social problems may be created.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1.
2.
3.
To study the social problems of physically challenged children.

To find out whether there exist a significant difference in between the Blind and Deaf
and Dumb children regarding social difficulties.
To suggest some measures for desirable social development.
METHODOLOGY
For the present study, the descriptive survey method was used to investigate social problems
of physically challenged children. This method of educational research is very common. It is
that method of investigation which attempts to describe and interpret what exists at present in
the forms of conditions, practices, processes, trends, effects, attitudes, beliefs etc. It is
concerned with the phenomena that are typical of the normal condition.
SAMPLE SELECTION
For the present study 100 children ranging from 6 to 14 years constituted the sample. Out of
this, 50 children were Deaf and Dumb and other 50 children were Blind. The number of the
two sexs boys and girls was kept equal in both the groups. Out of the total population these
100 students who were the hostel border were taken as sample by simple random sampling.
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
The research tools used in the present study are

1.
Questionnaire for the teacher.
2.
Observation scheduled for the investigator.
ADMINISTRATION OF RESEARCH TOOLS

In the present investigation, the investigator has prepared a closed type questionnaire
containing 22 items. Out of these, 12 items were prepared to know about general information
about the teacher and the students. From item no.13 to 22 were associated with social
problems of the students. For studying social problems of physically challenged children, the
investigator visited the institutions and obtained the required data by administering the
questionnaire to the different teachers.
OBSERVATION
The investigator had to observe the physically challenged children in different times. To
study the problems of physically challenged both participant and non-participant observation
techniques were employed by the investigator.
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
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In order to have understanding about social problem of physically challenged children, the
investigator has prepared 10(ten) different items on the basis of following behavioural
characteristics
Playfulness, Friendliness, Co-operative, Feeling of Shyness, Dependency, Social
Participation, Obedience, Social Consciousness, Leadership, Adjustment
TABLE 1.1
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES OF TEACHERS
Trait
Types of Physically
Challenged
Children
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Playfulness
Total
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Friendliness
Total
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Co-operative
Total
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Feeling
of Total
Shyness
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Dependency
Total
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Social
Total
participation
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Obedience
Total
Blind
Social
Consciousness Deaf and Dumb
Total
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Leadership
Total
Blind
Deaf and Dumb
Adjustment
Total
Yes
Percentage
No
Percentage
28
30
58
20
13
33
20
10
30
30
35
65
(%)
56%
60%
58 %
40%
26%
33%
40%
20%
30%
60%
70%
65%
22
20
42
30
37
67
30
40
70
20
15
35
(%)
44%
40%
42%
60%
74%
67%
60%
80%
70%
40%
30%
35%
28
20
48
28
25
53
56%
40%
48%
56%
50%
53%
22
30
52
22
25
47
44%
60%
52%
44%
50%
47%
42
42
84
8
13
21
15
8
23
28
30
58
84%
84%
84%
16%
26%
21%
30%
16%
23%
56%
60%
58%
8
8
16
42
37
79
35
42
77
22
20
42
16%
16%
16%
84%
74%
79%
70%
84%
77%
44%
40%
42%
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From the table 1.1, the following interpretation may be drawn

Playfulness or participation in co-curricular activities is one of the most important sign of
childs social development. In the present study it has been revealed that 56% of Blind and
60% of Deaf and Dumb students were participated in co-curricular activities. Almost 58%
physically challenged children were participated in co-curricular activities.
From the study it was observed that physically challenged children finds some difficulties in
making friendship to each other. Almost 67% of physically challenged children have some
problems with regarding to making friends and mix-up with each other.
From the response of the teachers it was found that 40% of Blind and 20% of Deaf and Dumb
students were co-operating in all activities. The overall 70% of physically challenged
children were not co-operative in social activities. It is also a sign of social problem.
From the study it was revealed that physically challenged children have the feeling of shyness
when they mix with other people. Result indicates that 60% of Blind and 70% of Deaf and
Dumb students have the feeling of shyness to mix with other people which creates social
problem to the children.
The study indicated that 56% of Blind students and 40% of Deaf and Dumb students require
help and assistance in all activities. The rate of dependency was found to be high on visually
impaired students than the Deaf and Dumb.
The study reveals that 53% of physically challenged students participated in social activities
organized by the school or other organizations.
It may be observed that the sense of obedience was found to be very high. Almost 84%
students were obedient to the teachers not only in the school but in the hostel and other
situations also.
From the study it has revealed that physically challenged children were not so much socially
conscious. Only 20% of students were conscious about the problems of the society.
It has found that the quality of leadership among physically challenged children was not so
high. It was attempted that 23% of physically challenged children have such qualities which
may lead in a group.
The physically challenged children were adjusted in his hostel life very well. The study
shows that almost 42% of students face some problems in order to adjust in the hostel. This
problem is faced by only the beginners.
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TABLE 1.2
Type
Problem
Responses
Blind
Social
Yes 270
54%
No -- 230
46%
Yes 285
57%
No -- 215
43%
Deaf and
Dumb
Social
Percentage
df
x Value
Level
of
Significance
* Not
Significant
0.364
It has been found from the table No.1.2, that 54% of Blind and 57% of Deaf and Dumb
children have some social problems. Though there was a difference between Blind and Deaf
and Dumb regarding social problems but the chi-square (x) value had not supported. Table
1.2 shows that the chi-square value that calculated as 0.364 was not significant at 0.01 or 0.05
level. Thus it may be interpreted that there exist no significant difference between the Blind
and Deaf and Dumb regarding social problem.
It is evident that different investigators have tried to study various problems of physically
and mentally challenged children in Assam at a glance. Bora, J.R. (2002) has studied on The
Problems of Education of the Mentally Retarded Children in the State of Assam. The study
revealed that lack of sufficient infrastructure, dearth of trained teachers and ignorance of the
parents are the major educational problems of mentally challenged children. Nasa D. studied
on Self Concept of Physically Handicapped (Deaf & Dumb) Pre-adolescent and Adolescent
Girls to make a comparative study about the self-concept of physically handicapped (Deaf &
Dumb) between pre-adolescent and adolescent girl students. Baishya, P. (2010), A Study on
the Academic Achievement of Visually and Hearing Impaired Children of Assam. The study
revealed that academic achievement of visually impaired children had low in comparison to
the hearing impaired children. Thus, the earlier studies have also pointed out different
problems of physically challenged children in terms of education and social adjustment.
SUGGESTIONS & CONCLUSION
On the basis of the findings of the present study, the following suggestions are given to
promote social development for physically challenged childrenPsychosocial intervention must be provided to the physically challenged children to promote
proper social development. For instance, group therapy or group intervention with peer group
will give more fruitful ways to learn the social skill, control the problematic behaviour and to
learn the operative behaviour.
It is necessary to provide guidance and counselling programs for the parents and care takers
to lead a happy life. At the early stage, most of the parents are living under stressful condition
and experience difficulties to accept the disabilities of their child. Thus the stress
management techniques, guidance and counselling may give instant relief from their stressful
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condition and may lead their life happy which is most important for the rehabilitation of their
child.
For proper social development appropriate recreational skills are very necessary for human
beings. Physically challenged children should also give proper recreational facilities to
become more socially acceptable in the normal mainstream of society and these are much
more essential for the differently disabled children to exhibit their talents in general public
which will learn them an equal status and opportunities in the society. The children with
special needs can learn more if they are being exposed of specialized services in early
childhood stage. The Government should take necessary steps to provide them opportunity
for participation in various sports, recreation and cultural activities.
Supporting services like medical visiting teams, physiotherapist and occupational therapist
should be made available in special school periodically to consult for special problem of
physically challenged children and provide appropriate treatment. The State Social Welfare
Department should assist the school by providing financial help for this purpose.
REFERENCES
Heward, W.L.: Exceptional Children, Mac Million Publishing Company, New York 1992
National Policy for 1993 DD III Govt. of India, Ministry of Social Justice Persons with
Disabilities: Empowerment.
Bhuyan, P.C. (2001), Development of Education among the Physically Handicapped
Students of Assam since Independence
Vashishtha, K.C. and Lal. Nimisha (2007), Psychological Vignette of Hearing Impaired
Children, Psycho-Lingua, 37(1), 30-38.
Tiwari, Jyoti and Sharma, N. (2009), Personality Traits of Visually Handicapped and
Sighted Children, a Comparative Study, Indian Journal of Psychometry and Education, 40 (1
& 2), 101-104.
National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, (2006), New Delhi, Ministry of Social Justice
and Empowerment, Government of India.
Sharma, R.A. (2004), Fundamentals of Special Education (Integrated Teaching for
Mainstream), Meerut, Surya Publication.
Mohan, R., (2006), Research Methods in Education, New Delhi, Neelkamal Publications Pvt.
Ltd.
Mangal, S.K. (2007), Educating Exceptional Children, New Delhi, Prentice Hall of India Pvt.
Ltd.
Baishya, P. (2010), A Study On The Academic Achievement of Visually And Hearing
Impaired Children Of Assam, Ph. D. Thesis, Gauhati University.
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
ISLAM IN SOUTH ASIA:
A BRIEF OVERVIEW ON HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAM
IN INDIA, PAKISTAN, AND BANGLADESH
SULASMAN*
Sunan Gunung Djati, State Islamic University,
Bandung, Indonesia.
ABSTRACT
Islam as a religion of Rohmatan Lil'alamin was brought by Prophet Muhammad
contain a proselytizing mission that must be propagated to all of mankind. This is
evidenced by the presence of a brilliant civilization and history in the past. We
can see how the struggle of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions in doing
such a great expansion of territory in the spread of Islam, so that Islamic
civilization in the past so highly developed and rapidly. Among the expansion of
the territory once conquered by Islam and islamized is the South Asia region,
the countries included in this region are India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
and the Maldives. Islam was introduced in the region is in the form of a
civilization that has developed a culture characterized by agriculture, trade and
organized religious establishment. Islam is not the first force that can control this
area, but with the entrance and the rule of Islam in the region over the past three
centuries, Islam was capable of contributing to the local culture. Because the
region is comprised of various racial, ancestry, and the resulting group is easy to
be ruled by outside forces. South Asia region has its own characteristics or
identity and especially in relations between countries.
KEYWORDS: Islam, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh.
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses only the region or the State of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh based on
terms of culture before the coming of Islam, the entry of Islam into the region, as well as the
Islamic government that once ruled this region with the progress achieved with the retreat,
the rule of Islam in South Asia that is especially regions of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.
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EARLY ISLAM IN SOUTH ASIA

Since the days of Prophet Muhammad, in South Asia where India has had a number of
major ports so that there is interaction between India and Arab Muslims. Therefore, trade and
missionary activities together in one so that the King Kadangalur and Cheraman Perumal
converted to Islam and changed his name to Tajudin (Siti Maryam, 2003). At the time of
Umar Ibn Al-Khottob, Mughirah seeking to conquer Sin (India) but the effort failed (643-644
AD). At the time of Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib sent a messenger to learn the
customs and roads leading to South Asia (India). At the time of Muawiyah I, Muhammad ibn
Qasim conquered Sind and appointed Amir and Punjab. Sin and leadership in Punjab held by
Muhammad Ibn Qasim after he managed to extinguish the robberies against Muslims there.
Due to internal disputes between Hajjaj and Sulaeman dynasty weakened, and when in a
weakened state, the dynasty was conquered by the dynasty Gazni.
In the reign of Al-Ma'mun (Khalifah dynasty of Bani Abbas) has done to conquest of
South Asia, with the appointment of a number of emirs to lead the regions. Among those
believed to be amir was Asad ibn Saman for Transixiana area. He was appointed emir after
successfully helping Khalifah dynasty conquered Bani Abbas in safari, based in Khurasan
(Ibn Athir, 1965).
Saman Dynasty (874-999 AD) became amir Aliptigin raised in Khurasan. Aliptigin
was succeeded by his son Isaac. Isaac coup by baligtigin; baligtigin replaced by Firri and firri
dropped by Subuktigin. Subuktigin Gazna master and then set up Gaznawi dynasty (9631191 AD). Gaznawi Dynasty Dynasty conquered by Guri (1191 M). after death, Muhammad
Guri was replaced by his commander, Quthbuddin Aibek (because Muhammad Guri has no
sons). Quthbuddin Aibek is the slave who was freed by Muhammad Guri and he became
sultan since 1206 AD, since it stood the Sultanate of Delhi (India). The Sultanate of Delhi
consists of: (a). Mamluk dynasty of Delhi (1206-1290 AD), (b) Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320
AD), (c) Tughkuq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD), (d) Sayyed Dynasty (1414-1451 AD) and (e)
Lodi dynasty (1451-1526 AD).
In addition, Islam came to South Asia before the Muslim invasion of India. Islamic
influence first came to South Asia was at the beginning of the 7th century with the advent of
Arab traders. Arab traders who came to South Asia used to visit the Malabar region, which is
an area which relate them to the port in Southeast Asia. According to Historians Elliot and
Dowson in their book, The History of India as told by the historians themselves. they come
with the first ship carrying Muslim tourists look on the coast of India since 630 AD HG
Rawlinson, in his book: Ancient and Medieval India he said that the first Muslim Arabs
living on the coast of India in the last part of the 7th century AD. J. Sturrock in his South
Kanara and Madras Districts Manuals. that with the advent of Islam the Arabs who became a
leading cultural force in the world. Arab traders and merchants to be carriers of the new
religion and they spread it wherever they go.
South Asia encompasses India, Pakistan and Bangladesh that its width is about 2075
miles from north keselatan and 2120 miles from east to west. Adjacent to the North, the
region bordering Tibet (China) and Afghanistan, while the southern border with Indonesia
Ocean Sea, eastward border with Burma and adjacent western border with Persia (Iran). Their
economies are based on a combination of planting the grain in the puzzle that most of the
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fields irrigated and plowed by the use of breeding bulls and bullocks, buffaloes, sheep, goats
and donkeys.
THE CENTER OF ISLAM SPREAD IN SOUTH ASIA
Islam as the Teachings principle as brought by Muhammad, has been incised ink
brilliant civilization in the past. We can see the struggle of Muhammad and his companions
to do the expansion or extension of the realm is so great. so that the Islamic civilization in the
past, with the rapid advance.
Among the region once conquered by Islam is the region of South Asia, particularly
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka. Islam was introduced in the form of a civilization that
has developed a culture characterized by an organized religious establishment. While it is
religious in South Asia marked by the caste system, Hinduism Brahmanik, and Buddhist
beliefs, and stained with the dominance of elite Rajput and other Hindu political elite (Ira M.
Lapidus, 103). Islam is not the first force that can control this region, but with the reign of
Islam in the region over the past three centuries, Islam was capable of contributing to the
local culture. Because the region is comprised of various racial, ancestry, and the resulting
group is easy to be ruled by outside forces, including Islam.
Among the countries that once conquered by Islam include India. India's name was
drawn from the river's name Sindi, one of the major rivers on the continent of India, which
now is the government there tried going back to the original name, that is Bharat. Because of
that it is also called India Sind. And Sind has also become the name of the center seat of the
present State of Pakistan: Karachi.
The Muslims know this area as the Sind since the 711M, precisely when the Umayyad
commander Muhammad bin Qasim invaded this region. During the three-year reign of the
Umayyad occupied this region, namely the Indus region precisely at the time of Caliph alWalid (Ajid Tohir, 2006). At this time Islam has not fully mastered the important areas for
focus caliphate based in Damascus is still fragmented in the region of Central Asia, North
Africa to Spain. About 750M years during the reign of the Abbasid also occur the same steps,
but the caliph did not give full support to develop the region's territory. This is because the
Abbasids focused prefer to foster socio-cultural forces inside. When the Abbasids began to
incorporate new people into the Turkish power elite, they were given such an important task.
Turkish people are given the power to conquer the South Asia region, especially India is
Mahmud Ghazna. From this then became the ruler of Islam began to emerge India to the
reign of dynasties in turn.
General description of the people of India when Islam entered the region, shows
indication of a very difficult process of Islamization. This shows that how strong cultural
influence and domination that has been established by the predecessor and its ruler in creating
religious ideology and culture sentiment. Looking at this condition, a prominent Muslim
historian Al-Biruni is (d. 1048 AD at Ghazna, Afghanistan) he argued that there are five
important things that a point of concern and also become the hallmark of Indian society in
rejecting something that comes from outside, namely Language , religious traditions,
customs, bigotry (hatred of foreigners), and the pride in the culture (Ajid Tohir. 2006)
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THE EXISTENCE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

Ibrahim Lodi (Lodi sultan's grandson), last Delhi sultan imprisoned a number of
nobles who opposed him. That triggered a battle between Babur Ibrahim Lodi with Zahirudin
(grandson of Tamerlane) in Panipazh (1526 M). Ibrahim Lodi was killed and his power went
into the hands Zahirudin Babur; since the Mughal dynasty was established in India, and Delhi
made capital (Siti Maryam, 2003). After he died, Zaharudin Babur was replaced by his son,
Humayun Nashirudin (1530-1556 AD), and Nashirudin replaced again by his son Humayun
Akbar Khan (1556-1605 AD). in his day, Mughal dynasty reached the height of glory (Jaih
Mubarok, 2008).
INTERNAL CONFLICT AND THE DECREASE OF MUGHAL EMPIRE
Akbar Khan runs the government is militaristic. The central government led by the
king; government led by chief commander (Sipah Salar) and sub-regional governments led by
a commander (Faudzan) (Jaih Mubarok, 2008). Akbar applies political system sulh e-kul
(universal tolerance), namely the view that all people are the same degree. In addition, Din
Akbar formed the Divine (the effort to build religious tolerance in India) and Akbar also
founded Mansabdhari (public service agencies are obliged to prepare all the affairs of the
kingdom, including setting up a number of forces.
After he died, his son Akbar is replaced by Jahangir (1605-1627 AD). Which was
dropped by his son Jahangir Shah Jehan (1627-1658 AD). Shah Jehan is captured by his son
Aurangzeb, Shah Jehan after being arrested at the jail under the ground. Finally, there was
civil war between Aurangzeb with his eldest brother, Dara. Dara was defeated by his brother
thus became Sultan Mughal Aurangzeb (1658-1707 AD) with the title of Padshah Ghazi
Alamghir. Among the policies of Aurangzeb are: (1) prohibits gambling, liquor, prostitution
and narcotics (1659 M), (2) prohibits the practice of Sati (the practice of a widow burning
herself over the death by her husband) (1664 M), (3 ) memprakasai destruction of Hindu
temples and (4) initiated a modification of a product of Islamic law came to be called al-fitr
be given? Alamghir (Al-Fatawa Al-Lamgiriyat; Al-Fatawa Al-Hindiyat).]
After death, Aurangzeb replaced by a weak-weak sultan. Mughal sultans after
Aurangzeb are: (a) Baharudin Shah (1707-1712 AD), (b) Azimus Shah (1712 AD), Tihandar
Shah (1713 AD), (d) Farukh Syiyar (1713-1719 AD), ( e) Muhammad Shah (1719-1748 AD),
(f) Ahmad Shah (1748-1754 AD), (g) Alamghir II (1754-1759 AD) (h) Legal Nature (17611806 AD). and finally Mughal attacked by Ahmad Shah Durani from Afgan and Mughal
slowly disappeared from India, especially after the last Mughal emperor Shah Baharudin was
expelled from the palace by the British (1857 M).
Mughal kingdom experienced a gradual decline after the reign of Sultan Aurangzeb.
Many later kings who drowned in luxury and grandeur of the palace. Apart from the
kingdoms of the Brahmin who wanted to break away, the threat also comes from the kingdom
of Iran, led by Nadir Shah. After Nadir Shah can master the power of heredity, Shafawiy
arises a desire to master the Mongol empire in Delhi Agra. With a blind attack the kalahlah
Muhammad Shah by Nadir Shah, and finally he confessed submission and surrender to Nadir
Shah. Population at that time was very sorry to defeat the insurgency and eventually held, but
Nadir Shah mercilessly punishes the inhabitants of the fight. Looking at the Sultan
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Mohammed Shah incident cannot do nothing but ask for forgiveness and protection. His
request was granted on condition of paying a fine, which is very expensive (Hamka, 1994).
After the death of Muhammad Shah Alam digantikanlah position by Sultan Shah. At
the time, there was an attack by the Afghan government that led to the defeat of the Mongols.
After that, there was no war with Britain forever. Since then the Mongol power weakened,
but rather the more powerful English by studying the weaknesses of India. See in India
consists of many religions and sects; it is a milestone for the British to divide the unity of
India. Pedamaian subject and conducted by the British sovereign Shah Alam consequences
for India to hand over customs charges. The fate of the Sultan Alam Shah was so very sad,
after he lost to England he was imprisoned and punished by the commanders by prying eyes.
With the death of the Sultan Alam Shah, the more chaotic condition of India thus opening
great opportunities for the British to conquer India soon. After the death of Sultan Alam
Shah, substituted his position by his son, named Bahadur Shah. Same fate as his father, the
power available to him does not mean anything because he was only given a salary by the
British. By using divisive politics, the UK can control most of India. From day to day the
people of India began to feel the pressure is so overwhelming inward heart. Good people who
are Hindus or Muslims all feel the same way. Like fire in the husk, the desire to break away
from colonial rule was eventually turned into a major insurgency. The whole people of India
are aware, they all develop the strength to fight the British. For that the rebels asked Bahadur
Shah became a symbol of their struggle. They are going to restore the spirit of freedom and
greatness of India under the banner of Islam Mongol empire. Bahadur Shah heard the
statement expressed willingness to be a symbol for their cause. Rebellion which occurred in
1857 is called rebellion Sipahi (Hamka, 1994). In such conditions made running topsy turvy
Britain, but with the help of the kings who had sided with the British finally suppressed the
rebellion can be. At that time Britain was hurt avenge the rebellion by killing the people who
make a resistance with no mercy. After the British captured the last Mughal emperor,
Bahadur Shah to Burma and banished him to the death in 1858M (Usyairi Al Ahmad, 2008).
Then the emperor, the emperor who had helped England beat Bahadur Shah and his followers
had the grandeur and power by means of inheritance, and given the title of the stars. Be
Victoria inaugurated as emperor of India.
After the death of Bahadur Shah and the appointment of Victoria became Emperor of
India it was finished the Mongol rule in India. Seeing such a long struggle of the Mughal
empire in India will give us insight into the development of Islam in this land of Hindustan.
We know that the struggle to establish a civilization is not easy. A rule of the king of the next
king has the particularity of each in the running wheels of government. With this power will
also lead to successive powers in accordance with the power of the then ruling king.
Moreover, if the kings of the ruling have been possessed by a sense of love of luxury and
grandeur it can be ascertained that the strength of a country or empire will slowly decline.
Not infrequently happens is the king of seduction tergodanya women can also lead to
weakening of the force.
BRITISHS AUTHORITY IN SOUTH ASIA
British trade in India through the British East India Company (BEIC) by setting up
factories in Madras, Bombay and Calcutta (1612-1690 AD) that produce silk and woven
fabrics. In the 18th century AD, a battle took place between England and France because of
fighting over colonies in Asia. England wins and then conquered areas in India one by one.
AJRSH
At the time of Akbar II England through the British East India Company (BEIC) were
given the freedom to develop its business in India, and in return Britain are obliged to ensure
the life of the king and royal family. British finally conquered by the Mughal dynasty drove
Bahadur Shah (last Mughal Emperor), and make the conquest of India.
HINDU-MUSLIM RELATIONS AND RESPONSE MUSLIMS AGAINST BRITISH
RULE
In the days of British rule in India there are two major political parties, namely the
Congress Party led by Jawaharlal Nehru. Members of this party consists of Hindus and
Muslims, and Muslim League of India, the party set up to accommodate the Muslim vote.
Two of the party is never a single vision and mission for different interests.
Response to British Muslims into three groups: first, non-cooperative groups led by
the traditional clergy Deoband; both cooperative groups led by Sayyid Ahmad Khan and
third, the Abstain group (the group that did not oppose and do not work well) led by the
University Aligarh is the follow Ahmad Khan (Siti Maryam, 2003).
In 1857 AD there Multiny Revolution, the peak resistance against British Muslims.
This revolution was triggered by British attitude that does not include Islam and Hinduism in
the parliament. This revolution then push the UK to embrace the Hindus and Muslims isolate.
In such an atmosphere, Sayyid Ahmad Khan tried to save the Muslims through cooperative
attitude toward the British government. Sayyid Ahmad Khan's efforts are: (a). The agency
established the Translation Society, to translate the books of art and science, (b). form
Tahdheeb magazine Al-Akhlaq (1870) to improve the moral or morals, and (c). founded the
Mohammadan Anglo Oriental college College (1875 M) is then converted to Aligarh
University (1920 M) by using a curriculum from the West.
In 1940, India Muslim League party formed an agreement whose content is that
populated regions such as the Muslim majority zones of West and East India, should be
incorporated as an independent country. Union of regions is then called the State of Pakistan.
ISLAM IN PAKISTAN
Islamic State of Pakistan before coming to this country to separate from the State of
India, Islam arrived in the area now known as Pakistan in the year 711 AD, when the
Umayyad Arab Muslim dynasty sent a army led by warrior Muhammad Ibn Qasim against
the ruler of Sindh, Raja Dahir. This was due to the fact that Raja Dahir had given shelter to
many Princes Zoroastrians who fled the Islamic conquest of Iran.
The experience of Pakistan regarding the interaction of religion and politics is unique
because it is integrally related to the idea of a separate homeland for Indian Muslims who
emerged in the late 1930's. Since then, since the founding of Pakistan in 1947, however,
influenced by the political development of Islam and may remain so in the future.
Pakistan is a country founded for Muslims, was proclaimed on August 14, 1947. The
birth of this country is the fruit of long struggle of Muslims in India to escape the domination
of the majority Hindus. Pakistan states that the architect was a dream of an ideological state,
where the Muslims were able to apply the teachings of Islam and live in harmony with the
instructions. Furthermore, this new country is a democracy with the concept of popular
AJRSH
sovereignty as a base. Therefore, the Ijma 'as the implementation of collective Ijtihad is
necessary so that the scholars agreed into the legislative council to assist and lead the
conversation, talk about issues related to the law, at least in the intermediate levels to Islamic
law has been modernized. These ideas that later became the basis of political thought
Pakistan Muslim modernists.
Pakistan standing and independence from Britain on August 14, 1947. He is a
combination of the five provinces of which are Balukistan India, Sind, Punjab, Bengal, and
Assam. Pakistan is a beginning designer Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938 AD) and which
embodies the design is the Muhammad Ali Jinah (1876-1948 AD).
Modernist figures who supported the establishment of Pakistan is Ahmad Khan, Syed
Amir Ali, and Muhammad Iqbal. In addition, the establishment of Pakistan State also has the
support of (a). Jama'ah Tabliq leader Muhammad Ilyas, (b). Ashraf Ali Sufi movement led
Tsanvi; (c). Jama'ah Islamiyah leader Abu Al-A'la Al-Mawdudi, (d). Khilafah movement
headed by Muhammad Ali Jauhar (e). Khaksar motion Inayatullah Al-Masyruqi leadership.
The first is the President of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinah to death (1948 AD). after
the death of Muhammad Ali Jinah, Muslim Pakistan are faced with the contradictions that
occur due to: first Liaqot Ali Khan, the successor to Ali Jinah lacks clear authority. And two
Muslims are divided into two groups, namely the modernist (western educated Muslims) and
traditionalists (who want the relationship between religion and state regulation is based on
Islamic Shari'ah). This conflict gave birth to the Constitution 1956 (as a compromise) that
determines: (a). form is a democratic state based on Islamic Shari'ah principles, (b). the head
of state should be Muslim, and (c). research center established to help government (Harun
Nasution, 1986).
Ayub Khan to power in a coup in 1958. In his days, the constitution was amended by
the 1956 changes: (a). Islam liberation from superstition and promote these through the
development of science, and (b). established the Advisory Council of Islamic ideology
(Islamic Research Institute). This policy was opposed by traditional scholars.
Ayub Khan was replaced by Yahya Khan; Yahya Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was
replaced by; and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto by Zia ul Haq's coup (5 July 1977). Ziaul Haq tried to
realize the Islamic Shari'ah through: (a). establishment of the Committee and the collector
and distributor of the Zakat tax, (b). Establishment of Sharia Court, (c). elimination of Riba in
the banking system, and (d). revision of textbooks in schools and colleges.
THE RISES OF ISLAM IN PAKISTAN
The Rises of Islam in Pakistan in recent years, seen in various areas of collective life.
Field of politics, the Islamic parties and the government has rejected Western parliamentary
model of democratic legitimacy and even tried to introduce a political system based on
Islamic principles. One such effort is a national referendum, which sought a mandate for
further Islamization, it is summed up in it, the extension of presidential term to five years,
together with non-party elections for national and provincial councils.
In economy, the rise of Islam expresses itself in actions such as the obligation to collect
alm and taxation, and the Bank introduced a system of interest-free investments, legal
AJRSH
restrictions on private property levies, denationalization of certain businesses and industrial

companies. In the field of law, the resurrection means to introduce Islamic criminal law and
Islamic law of evidence. Further rules have been completed to establish Shariah Courts
Federal Court also Qodi to solve criminal cases and civil rights based on Islamic law.
Islamic resurgence in culture, including the ban on dance clubs, the imposition of
strict sexual morality, obedience to the moral standards of Islam in the production and
broadcast of television programs, revision of school text books and universities to disclose
the Islamic custom, the allocation of increases for the teaching of Arabic and Islam, the
establishment of International Islamic University in Islamabad, said Friday as legal holidays
replaces Sunday, setting a clock-hour break for prayer during the working hours of officegovernment and private offices, emphasizing language urdu and national dress at the officeoffice and disclosure premerintahan moral aversion to Western culture (Shireen T. Hunter,
2001).
ISLAM IN BANGLADESH
People's Republic of Bangladesh is a country in South Asia bordering India in the

West, North and East, with Myanmar in the southeast and the Bay of Bengal to the south.
Bangladesh, along with West Bengal in India, forming the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal.
Bangladesh literally means Country of Bangla. The capital and largest city of Bangladesh
is Dhaka.
Bangladesh border defined by the separation of India in 1947. This country is the
eastern wing of Pakistan (East Pakistan) that is separate from the west wing as far as 1,600
kilometers. Political discrimination, language, and the economy caused the split between the
two wings, which led to the outbreak of the war of independence in 1971 and the
establishment of Bangladesh. The years after independence was marked by famine, natural
disasters, poverty, political turmoil, corruption and military coups. Bangladesh has the eighth
largest population in the world and is one of the world's most populous country with high
poverty levels. However, Bangladesh's per capita income has doubled since 1975 and the
poverty rate dropped 20% since the early 1990's. The country is included as one part of the
Next Eleven. The capital Dhaka and other urban areas become the main drivers behind this
growth.
Muslims already menginjakan foot in Bengal since the time of Umar Ibn Al-Khathab
(637 M). in the year 711 (era still Umar), Muhammad Ibn Al-Qosim already conquered Sind
(West Pakistan); territory expanded again in the days of Bani Abbas. In the year 871 AD,
Muslims already settled there. Government (Dynasty) who ruled the Islamic Bengal is
Mahmud Gaznawi of central Asia (Afghanistan) in 1001 AD then Bengal ruled by the
Sultanate of Delhi. In the year 1341 AD, Bengal break away from the Delhi Sultanate and
declared independence under the leadership of Ilyas Syamsudin until the year 1541 AD after
the Afghan dominion over, and then Bengal conquered by Akbar (Mughal) in the year 1676
AD Bengal was then under Mughal Empire; leader called the Nawab of Bengal (Governor).
After the weak Mughal Bengal became independent (1699 M). however, later ruled by the
British Bengal (1757 M). when it became independent from Britain, merged with the State of
Pakistan Bengal.
AJRSH
After Britain granted independence, Pakistan is divided into two: West Pakistan and
East Pakistan. Injustices of culture, politics, and economics began to be felt by the population
of East Pakistan. In addition, the population of Bengal was exploited by West Pakistan. East
Pakistan received only 36% of total national income, only 13% of the people of Bengal who
are employees of government, and less than 13% of the Bengal army. In terms of language
(culture) of West Pakistan to impose Urdu language, 'but they have their own language
(Shireen T. Hunter, 2001).
Discontent against the culture of people of East Pakistan, political, and economic
Pakistan and finally crystallized, Mujiburrahman (in 1971 AD) led a revolt that demanded
independence. Mujiburrahman later became Bangladesh's first president. Bangladesh does
not claim to be an Islamic state even though the majority of the population is Muslim. The
1972 constitution stated that the basic principles of Bangladesh is secular, and prohibit
political party formed by Religious Affiliation.
In 1975, Mujiburrahman replaced by Ziaur Rahman (1975-1981 AD). in 1977, Ziaur

Rahman article substitute secularism in the constitution of 1972 and replace it with faith in
God almighty. At this time also established the Department of Religion, the Islamic Research
Council, and the planned establishment of the Islamic University. Ziaur Rahman was
replaced by HM Ershad (1982-1991 AD). in 1988 the National Assembly passed a
constitutional amendment which states that Islam is the official state religion of Bangladesh.
Syncretism of Islam with Hindu into society under Islamic religious shades (Rural) in
Bangladesh. Religious syncretism in Bangladesh quite severe due to the exchange of worship.
It can be seen in the sermon, sermons, performances of certain lyrics, and shamans cure
diseases by using the power drawn from the Qur'an and Krishna (Hindu religion). Such
circumstances lead to the distance or gap between the Muslim religion professed by the lower
classes (rural or atraf), the local community, the Muslim upper class (elite or ashraf), people
who claim to be from the Middle East. This situation is bridged by religious leaders to
introduce the orthodox teachings of Islam and Hinduism harmonize with the teachings of
Islam through the introduction of cosmology, mysticism, and traditions.
Syncretism also spawned a movement Faraidi (1818 M) led by Haji Syari'atullah
against syncretism, and in 1900 AD they openly calls on Muslims to reject syncretism. Other
movements are Tariqh I Muhammadiyah. This movement is a continuation of the Wahabis in
Arabia. I Tariqh Muhammadiyah movement introduced by Titus dibengal Mir (1782-1831
AD). the goal is to implement the teachings of Islam in a pure no mortar is mixed with a
culture that exists.
The largest congregation of his followers in Bangladesh is Qadiriyya. The majority of
the people are Sunni Hanafis. In 1961 AD, set Ordonasi family law. Among its contents are
the records of marriage and the permissibility of polygamy upon the approval of the Court of
Arbitration. Arbitration is a representative member of the husband, the representative of the
wife, and a neutral arbitrator selected by the local government. Islamic education in three
levels and areas which are: first, the basic pendidkikan dimesjid called maktab implemented.
Field of science that is studied religious education. Second, continuing education, called
madrassas. Field of science studied is moral education. And third, higher education or
university; fields of science are studied Arts Professions (Professional).
AJRSH
CONCLUSION
Islam came to South Asia since the time of the Prophet Muhammad, brought by Arab
traders through a number of major ports in India, so there is interaction between the people of
India by Arab traders. Therefore, the trade brought by the Arabs and the preaching together in
an activity so that there is one king and the king Kadangalur Cheraman Pertamal to Islam and
changed his name to Tajudin. After the Prophet Muhammad wafatpun spread of Islam in this
region continues, as is evident in the time of Umar Bin Khottob, Uthman ibn Affan and Ali
Bin Abi Talib sent a messenger to learn the customs and the road leading to south asia
especially in India.
Even in the reign of Al-Ma'mun (Bani Abbas dynasty) has done to the region
conquest of South Asia, with the appointment of a number of emirs to lead in these areas.
Areas including the south Asia is India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Islam was introduced in the
form of a civilization that has developed a culture characterized by an organized religious
establishment. While it is religious in south Asia colored with caste system, Hinduism
Brahmanik, and Buddhist beliefs, and stained with the dominance of elite Rajput and other
Hindu political elite. Islam is not the first force that can control this region, but with the reign
of Islam in the region over the past three centuries, Islam was capable of contributing to the
local culture. Because the region is comprised of various racial, ancestry, and the resulting
group is easy to be ruled by outside forces, including Islam.
REFERENCES
Ahmad, Al-Usairy ( 2008 ) Sejarah Islam Sejak Zaman Nabi Adam Hingga Abad XX
Akbar Media Eka Sarana, Jakarta
Hamka, ( 1994 ), Sejarah Umat Islam. Bulan Bintang, Jakarta.
Ibnu, Atsir ( 1965 ) Al-Kamil Fi al-Tarikh, Bairut: Dar al-Shadr.

Lapidus, Ira M ( 2007 ) Sejarah Sosial Ummat Islam Bagian kesatu dan Dua, PT Raja
Grafindo Persada, Jakarta.
Mubarak, Jaih, ( 2008 ) Sejarah Peradaban Islam. Pustaka Islami, Bandung.
Maryam, Siti ( 2003 ), Sejarah Peradaban Islam Dari Klasik Hingga Modern. Yogyakarta:
Jurusan SPI Fakultas Adab IAIN Sunan Kalijaga.
Nasution, Harun, ( 1986 ) Islam ditinjau dari Berbagai Aspek, Jilid II. UI Press, Jakarta
Supriyadi, Dedi, ( 2008 ) Sejarah Peradaban Islam. Pustaka Setia, Bandung.
Thohir, Ajid ( 1997 ) Sejarah Diplomasi dan Perkembangan Politik di Asia. Bina Budhaya.
Bandung.
Thohir, Ajid dan Ading Kusdiana, ( 2006 ) Islam di Asia Selatan; Melacak Perkembangan
Sosial, Politik Islam di India, Pakistan, dan Bangladesh. Humaniora. Bandung.
T. Hunter, Shireen. ( 2001 ) Politik Kebangkitan Islam. Tiara Wacana, Yogya.
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
INDIAS LOOK EAST POLICY: PERSPECTIVE AND PROSPECTS
SUNIL KUMAR*
*Central University of Haryana,
Mahendergarh.
ABSTRACT
Foreign policy of any country is all about advancing the national interest of the
country. Indian foreign policy is no exception. However, Indias look ease policy
remained a victim of global politics of cold war for almost four decades. India
continued to look into the regions through the prism of cold war. By the time,
fighting and maneuvering space was lost. Later on 1992, the look ease policy was
framed to weave its relations with south eastern countries. Very soon this region
not merely economically but strategically became a pivotal ground for its
external ties. These ties placed India to counter expanding Chinese feet in South
Asia. Globally India got recognized an important power. The wave of change in
world politics demands formidable ties between India and South East countries.
My paper discussed all these factors in great detail.
________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
The foreign policy of a country is an one ping process in which a number of factors interact
with one another in different way and in different situation. It is because factors like
civilizational heritage, geopolitical situation, culture, nature of border, policies of government
etc. influence a country's foreign policy in a very significant way.1 Besides these domestic
factors, external environment (both regional and global) works as a key factor in the
promotion of a country's foreign policy. The end of cold war and the rapid growth of
globalization are indicative of such a change, as they have changed the political and
economic structure and process of the world in a substantial manner.2
In many ways, the Post Cold War external environment of a globalizing world,
without rival political alliances, gave India the opportunity to improve relation with all the
major powers. Military and domestic political necessities have also influenced the nature of
1
2
.
.
R.S. Yadav, "Changing Contour of India Neighborhood Policy," World Focus, June 2011, p. 335.
R.S. Yadav, "Changing Dynamics of India Foreign Policy," in R.S. Yadav & Suresh Dhanda (eds.),
India's Foreign Policy Contemporary Trends, Shipra Pub. New Delhi, 2009, pp. 22-23.
AJRSH
policy towards particular region at different moments. This war the time (1991) when India
launched its look East Policy. This also coincided with the period when India had launched
her economic liberalization reforms.3
LOOK EAST POLICY
Situated in the Asian subcontinent, South-East Asia nations form the second ring of
neighboring states for India. India is no stranger to Southeast Asian States and to the regions
beyond it, given her deep historical, cultural and maritime bends with them.4 After
independence, India looked forward to craving role for herself in the Asian continent. Nehru
as the philosopher and architect of independent India's foreign policy, in general and its Asia
Policy in particular were aimed at building Asian solidarity. He took in to account the
aspiration of a new independent and resurgent Asia.5 Speaking in at the Asian Relations
Conference in New Delhi, in March 1947, he said:
'We are of Asia and the people of Asia are nearer and closer to us than
others. India is so situated that she is the pivot of Western, Southern
and Southeast Asia. In the past her culture flowed to all these countries
and they came to her in many ways. These contacts are being renewed
and the future is bond to see a closer union between India and
Southeast Asia.'6
Nehru's vision was based on three assumptions. First, he asserted India's geo-strategic
centrality to Asia, second, its deep historical and cultural ties with southeast Asia and third,
he believed that India's neutralist/non-aligned policy had a considerable appeal in Southeast
Asia because the decolonized and newly independent countries of Asia would like to keep
away from great power rivalries and conflict.7
But with India's obsession towards Pakistan and with its preoccupations with China,
the Southeast Asian region did not figure much in its foreign policy till the early 90s. The
India leadership viewed ASEAN as an American "imperialist surrogate". While ASEAN
dubbed India as the "surrogate of Soviet Union".8 The signing of friendship Treaty (1971)
with the Soviets, India's stand on Afghanistan and India's recognition of the Hang Samarian
Government in 1981 all these led to extrangement between India and ASEAN. India's
decision not to participate as a dialogue partner in 1980 was a further set back.9
The next phase of India ASEAN relation that started in the early 1990s was one of
bonhomie. The crisis like situation India faced on both economic and political front was the
catalyst to begin a new era. A solid begging was made to liberalize the economy and a new
foreign policy agenda was set in motion. ASEAN was one of the prime targets for economic,
.
.
6
7
8
9
.
.
.
.
C.s. Kuppuewamy, "India's Look East Policy A Review," Paper No. 3662, South Asia Analysis
Group, 12 Feb., 2010, http://www.Southasiaanalysis.org/%5cpapers37%5cpaper3662html.
Stephen Cohen, India: Emerging Power, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2001, p. 245.
S.D. Muni, "India's Look East Policy: The Strategic Dimensions," Paper No. 121, ISAS, Singapore, 1
Feb. 2011, p. 5.
Ibid.
S.D. Muni C. Raja Mohan, "Emerging Asia: India's Option," International Studies, Vol. 31, No. 4, Sage
Pub., 2004, p. 319.
C.s. Kuppuswamy, op. cit., No. 3, pp. 1-2.
Ibid.
AJRSH
political and strategic interaction.10 And the results were dramatic: India became a sectoral
dialogue partner of ASEAN in 1992. In 1995 this was upgraded to full dialogue partnership.
This policy gave an opportunity for resourceful India to come out of regional politics
and play a global role in forging partnership with the east befitting the size, population,
resources and economic development in India.
CHALLENGES
To make the 'Look East Policy' a success, India will have to face several challenges
which may stand on her way.
Southeast Asia and India's neighboring South Asian regions are fort becoming a major
hub of trans-national crimes. They shared global and regional concerns on non-traditional
threat to security like terrorism, trans-national crimes, trafficking in narcotics and drugs,
human being and in small arms, maritime challenges, piracy etc. are emerging as new and
important contemporary areas of regional and global cooperation.11
China's growing economic and strategic presence and influence in the region, maker a
diversified relationship with India necessary for Southeast Asia. The problem would
however arise if and when China starts asserting itself on these countries. As this
assertion increase, India's presence in the region may come under pressure.12
Another problem in Asia's most critical strategic triangle is the on constituted by India,
the US and China. This relationship cannot be free from competition and tensions. Each
one among them will try to influence this region more than other. China in particularly
worried about the growing strategic understanding between India and the US aimed at
constraining China's emerging strategic presence as stake in the region.13
India ASEAN relations still lack depth content and direction. At the political and
strategic levels, India has not been able to build and capitalize and emerging convergence
with southeast Asia unlike China, Japan and South Korea which are for ahead of India.14
India and ASEAN should harmonize their relation on the issuer of common interests like
WTO, NEO, democratization of UN, UN reforms etc. and should adopt joint strategy to
increase their combined share of global trade.15
10
11
12
13
14
15
.
.
.
.
.
.
G.V.S. Naidu, India and ASEAN, Delhi Papers, No. 9, IDSA, New Delhi, 1998, p. 75.
Sworan Singh, "Mekong Ganga Cooperation Initiative: Analysis and Assessment of India
Engagement with Greater Mekong Sub-Region," Paper No. 3, Research Institute on Contemporary
Southeast Asia, Bangkok, 2007, p. 17; also see: V. Jayant "The Mekong Ganga Initiative," the Hindu,
28 October, 2000.
Kripa Sridharan, op. cit., no. 20, pp. 120-130.
Sudhir Revare, "India and Southeast Asia: Towards Security Convergence, ISAS, Singapore, 2006, p.
210.
S.D. Mini, op. cit., no. 5, pp. 19-20.
Ibid., For more details, also see: Sudha Ramachandran, "India Singh on as Southeast Asia Watchdog,"
Asia Times, 5 April, 2002; Ravid Brewister, "India's security partnership with Singapore," The Pacific
Review, Vol. 22, No. 5, Dec. 2009, p. 597-618; K.M. Panippor, The Strategic Problem of India Ocean,
Allahabad, 1944; P.S. Das, "Looking East Strategically," Indian Foreign Affairs Journal, Vol. 2, No. 2,
AJRSH
India and ASEAN share common land and maritime boundaries. Instability in one region
can effect the other. Unfortunately, natural disaster, epidemics, local turmoil and tensions,
environmental degradation, common maritime space and the exploitation of natural
resources have become factors that have aggravated the problem. Because of lack of
regional trans-border infrastructure, separatists and criminal elements are able to use each
other's territory for wrong purpose.16
India's road to diplomacy involving a trilateral India Myanmar Thailand highway
project, the establishment of land and air links while facilitating trade, may also create
new problems associated with cross-border migrants and refuges.17
PROSPECTS
India has to maintain a close relationship with the region by working on the areas in
which both the countries are interested in the development of economic interaction
particularly through her dialogue partnership with ASEAN. One important area to which
the two regions must pay attention in to develop institutional linkage.18
The Southeast Asian countries are engaged in massive defiance modernization and thus
from on attractive market for India products and services. In order to harness this market,
India has to increase it expertise and involvement at the level of its diplomatic mission in
the region and improve its bargaining and negotiating skill.19
India and ASEAN countries must intensify their cooperation both at the bilateral and
regional level to common threats to security and to promote place, stability and common
security in Asia.
The Southeast Asian region has been occupying an important place on the foreign
policy agenda of India.20 For long, India hardly regarded the nations of Southeast Asia as
priority area despite their strategic political, economic and cultural significance. The long gap
of alienation led to mutual distrust and suspicion. This period of alienation however, come to
an end following the reorientation of India's foreign policy known as 'Look East Policy' since
1990s. It was Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao who initiated Look East Policy by forging
links and enhancing cultural, economic, political and strategic cooperation. The adoption of
'Look East Policy' by Association Southeast Asian Nation (ASEAN) and Australia also
coincided with Look East Policy by India. Through Look East Policy, also led in enhancing
political, economic, cultural and strategic partnership with the countries of ASEAN Look
East Policy Meaning.
16
17
.
.
19
.
18
20
April-June 2007, pp. 16-22; Anushree Bhattacharya, "Indian Navy and its Role in India's Look East
Policy", World Focus, October 2010, pp. 448-450.
Archna Pandya & David M. Molona, "India's Asia Policy: A Late Look East," Paper No. 2, Institute for
South Asian Studies, Aug. 2010, p. 12.
G.V.C. Naidu, op. cit., no. 10, p. 41.
Archna Pandya, op. cit., no. 27, p. 17.
Smitha Financis, "A Sectoral Impact Analysis of the ASEAN India Free Trade Agreement," Economic
& Political Weekly, Vol. XLVI, No. 2, Jan. 2011, p. 48. Also see, Anjali Ghosh, et a., (eds.), India's
Foreign Policy, Pearson Pub. New Delhi, 2009; ASEAN India Vision 2020, RIS, New Delhi, 2004.
C. Ravinderanatha Reddy, "India's Look East Policy: Problems and Prospects," World Focus, Oct.
2010, p. 437.
AJRSH
India's Look East Policy has become increasingly important element in its foreign
policy focus. It gave a new direction and provided a decisive shift in India's traditional focus
on foreign policy. The Look East Policy is pursued in a multifaceted manner in diverse areas
such as improved connectivity, promotion of trade and investment and cultural exchanges
and has also been pursued through constructive engagement with various regional
organizations such as ASEAN, East Asian Summit (EAS) Bay of Bengal initiatives for
Scientific, Technical and Economic cooperation (BIMSTEC), Mekong Gang a Cooperation
(MGC).
Challenges: To make the "Look East Policy" a success India will have to face several
challenges which may stand on its way. Nevertheless, it will have to translate its
disadvantages into advantages to reach the goal.
Though India and ASEAN do enjoy excellent bilateral relations, the relationship has not
translated into good and beneficial macro-level relationship.
India's perceived inability to absorb swiftly Southeast Asian capital and technology is
seen by many because of India's over protectionist policies, national laws and procedures.
India's bureaucracy and business practices are seen as major impediments to forging
meaningful partnership with the East.
India's inability to identify areas in which it seeks to ASEAN expertise and cooperation
like tourism and infrastructure can reduce the interest of other.
The Free Trade Agreements with some of the ASEAN countries have taken years to
negotiate. India has been painfully slow to grasp the opportunities offered by Southeast
Asia India has entered into a number of pacts, agreements and FTAs with nations of
ASEAN, but its regard for implementation of such accords has been poor.
Summit level dialogues should be result oriented. Each meeting should be carefully
conceived, planned and prepared with a clear idea of what India wish to see emerge. So
for, unfortunately, it appears that Indian participation in high level dialogues has been
some what less than result oriented.
India should re-ignite the MGC and BIMSTEC cooperation agreements because it can by
pas the gloomy SAARC and the enormous potencies for cooperation it has in the Bay of
Bengal region.
As part of Look East Policy, India is building linkages with the South Pacific Island
nations. They have not been a focal point of India's foreign policy until now. India must
allow its new activism towards inlands of countries south pacific. In the changing global
environment India could play a significant and constructive role in the economic
development of South Pacific countries.
India should take an assertive role despite seeking cooperation with some of the ASEAN
countries (Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam) and securing a role for joint
patrolling in the Malacca straits.
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It is said that Look East Policy failed to uplift the Northeast of India in the last fourteen
year or so as most of the goods from ASEAN sent through sea-route as the land route is
highly unsafe and lack of infrastructure and insurgency.
If India wants good relations with the Asia Pacific, India must look at economics and
commence as the Prime factor which will propel all round development. It is not
necessary to over emphasize India's civilizational and historical links with the region.
Relationship to be enduring and self-sustaining it must be broad based mutually beneficial

all above all inactive the people.21
In the Manila informal summit of ASEAN in November 1999, it was agreed that the
leaders of ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea would meet regularly (every year) and
this group was named as ASEAN. In its efforts of strengthen its Look East Policy, India
also made a deliberate attempt to join this grouping. But China wanted the group not to
become "too crowded".22
China is already well entrenched in the ASEAN region, at least in economic terms, and
much ahead of India. So much so that AEAN is China's 6th most important trading partner
and ASEAN, collectively is one of the top four or five investors in China.23
LACK OF COORDINATION
Cooperation between the different ministries did not occur as naturally as required for
an efficient economic diplomacy policy. The ministry of foreign affairs found it very difficult
to integrate with the government's economic activities and ministries of commerce and
finance did not recognize its legitimacy in this matter. Some Indian diplomats also regretted
the fact that foreign postings were still under-utilized, whereas they ought to have been the
back-bone of economic diplomacy. The diplomatic corps also found itself handicapped by a
shortage of staff, both at the intermediary and higher levels. To cite an example the Indian
High Commission in Singapore had to devote an increasing share of its manpower and time
to play host to the various dignitaries visiting the city-state : central and state ministers,
legislators, and even presidents of political parties. It reached such as extent that middle level
diplomats were obliged to neglect their normal work, including essential work related to trade
and investment.24
More geographical distances between India and ASEAN countries Japan and China
because they are near situated these countries and luck of communication networks in
ASEAN countries it is major problem for Indian investor.25
21
22
23
24
25
.
.
.
.
.
Ibid, pp.
Prakash Nanda, Rediscovering Asia: Evolution of India's Look East Policy, Lancer, Publishers, New
Delhi, 2003, p. 526.
Ibid., p. 567.
Isabelle Saint Mezard, East Ward Bound India's New Positioning in Asia, Manahaur, New Delhi,
2006, pp. 126-127.
Ibid., p. 131.
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The relationship involving Myanmar, China and Pakistan, particularly if it is essentially

based within a military framework does constitute a strategic triangle that was negative
implications for India. The relationship, indeed, constitutes an "encirclement" of India
and the main beneficiary of this scheme of things could only be China.
There is the apprehension that insurgency and anti-social activities like terrorism, drug
trafficking etc. will pick up with opening up of the border trade outlets. Infect, insurgency
in the N.E. India is the fall out of unemployment problem. Once the employment
generation through trade and commerce is ensured, insurgency will gradually come down.
It is a fact that at present the NE region of investor friendly climate. But India will have to
face the challenge keeping in mind that most of the factors contributing to such a situation
are fallout of unemployment problem faced by the youths of the region.26
India's engagement with Southeast Asia has been guided by its concern for its security.
Realism has guided its policy towards a country with which it shares a 1600 km long
border. Myanmar has had a turbulent history and a policy of isolation, its engagement was
restricted to china, who gave economic end military support to a regime was ostracized
by those who were critical of the repressive military regime.27
India has already signed a joint declaration with the ASEAN against terrorism for closer
collaboration in enforcement of anti-terrorist measures. Thus a positives control upon the
problems of terrorism, drug trafficking and other anti-social activities can be achieved. It
will finally play an important role in the improving international environment.28
India's objectives in Look East Policy can be furthered through areas like education,
democracy, culture where it has comparative advantage over other Asian countries. In this
context, the Nalanda Project which envisages the setting of an international university is
noteworthy.
India has lead in Institutes of Technology and many Southeast Asians are not only
interested in our IITS and IIMs but also campuses opened in places like Singapore, Kuala
Lumpur and Jakarta. India can further enhance relations by the promotion of education in
collaborating with Southeast Asian Countries.
Tourism is an area for the promotion of relations among various places of Buddhist
interest like Bodh Gaya, Saranath, Nalanda and places of Muslim interest like Taj Mahal,
Fatepur Sikri, Ajmer and Hyderabad have to be suitably promoted for establishing people
to people contacts.
26
27
28
Rana Bijoy Deb, "Regional Co-operation and India's Loak-East Policy: opportunities and Challenges",
Subodh Kumar & M.C. Pande, Indian Economy Issues and Options, Anamika Publishers, New Delhi,
2007, pp. 153-154.
Man Mohini Kaul, "India's Look East Policy: New Era of India-ASEAN Relations," World Focus, Oct.
2010, p. 435.
Deb, op. cit., p. 153.
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India can pay more attention to the economically under developed countries Cambodia,
Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar where there is enough scope and opportunity for India to
extend its influence.
At the strategic level, India's Look East policy envisaged the ASEAN states and Japan as
key patners in East Asia. Ties with South Korea are also strengthening. With India-USA
partnership also expanding the scope and content, India can become a stabilizing and
balancing force in the region.
EAS would not only after India an opportunity to hold a summit level dialogue with
ASEAN, the Plus three (China, Japan and South Korea), Australia and New Zealand but
also strengthen the claim to join APEC, a forum larger than the EAS.29
The success of India's Look-East policy ultimately depends on New Delhi's capacity to
reduce the gap in the race of competition with China. Where India could March over
China in better cultivating the ASEAN is its edge in the spheres of information and biotechnologies and its "non-dominating civilization strength" as a country believing in
pluralism.30
CONCLUSION
In fine, it is expected, under the present global trade scenario, the Look East policy of
the Government of India would usher in a new vista of development to bring prosperity to the
countries like India, Myanmar and China. Myanmar being a member and India being a close
trade partner of the ASEAN, the Possibility of establishing trade linkage by India via
Myanmar with the South-East Asian countries, more particularly with the WTO members
like Thailand, Indonesia, Korea, Singapore, etc. through the India's North-Eastern region is
very bright.
29
30
.
.
Reddy, op. cit., pp. 441-442.

Nanda, op. cit., pp. 567-568.
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Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
ASSESSMENT OF SELF-HELP GROUPS FROM THE LENSES OF
POVERTY IN UTTAR PRADESH: A STUDY OF SGSY
MONIKA SINGH*; AJAY KUMAR**; N.M.P VERMA***
*Research Scholar, Department of Economics,
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University,
Lucknow - 226025, India.
**Research Scholar, Department of Economics,
BabasahebBhimraoAmbedkar University,
***Professor, Department of Economics,
BabasahebBhimraoAmbedkar University,
ABSTRACT
Poverty is an economic as well as social phenomenon hence the tools to deal with
poverty must inculcate socio-economic tilt. Self-help Groups are plugged with all
possibilities regarding this tilt. This study relates the existence of Self-help
Groups as a poverty eliminating tool. It is an attempt to check the viability of
Self-help Groups in poverty reduction in Uttar Pradesh. This is a unique study
with its district level application. Results are highly argumentative and present a
challenge in its implementation.
__________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Poverty and vulnerability are not truly economic phenomena, reflecting what people have
they are also social phenomena, reflecting who they are. Other than the rest of the world,
South Asian region has different base for poverty specially, caste, religion, community based.
Particularly in India, poverty comprises caste, religion and most prominently region based.
Southern and Western region are most prosperous but northern, north-eastern region have
highest incidence of poverty. In this scenario Uttar Pradesh, most populous state of India, has
presented a dismal picture of poverty over the decades.
To find out the factors responsible for high poverty in India, we must note that poverty dwells
in its primary sector, especially in agriculture. In India most of the population dwells in rural
areas and they are working in unorganized sector. Their economic activities are related to
mainly agriculture and allied activities, Animal husbandry, fishing in coastal areas, mining
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and daily wages etc. agriculture is an area that requires investment for better technology for
production, good variety seeds and fertilizers for a quality product. Hence, small investment
from time to time is mandatory but Indian Agriculture is based on Monsoon. Therefore, a bad
monsoon and consequently, poor harvest leaves the farmers in pitiable condition. They con
not think of finding two square of meals. Let alone how to save to invest in agriculture?
Thus, the thought of borrowing comes. Despite of good monsoon, they save something to
invest for the next harvest but these small saving are not enough to fulfill the requirement of
them.
HURDLES IN BORROWING
WITH BANKS
When borrowers go to the government institutions for borrowing like cooperatives,

banks etc., they generally, do not have enough money to open an account.
Banks do not lend to them as they are from unstable low income group and therefore
comes under high risk category borrowers. Their chances of defaulting are more than
high income group borrowers.
Lending to higher income groups will make more money for banks.
These borrowers needs frequent and small amount of loan which is not possible with
banks.
Illiteracy and unawareness also prevents them to go to banks and fulfill the necessary
formalities.
Going to banks or other government institutions means loss of the one day wages
which eventually leads to the lossof meal for that day.
WITH MONEYLENDERS
If they go for a money lender those are the ultimate source of instant borrowing,
they will be charged a higher interest rate.
Long duration of repayment may lead to high interest burden. Here, the borrower
keeps something as security against loan.
The money lender can make a default here by hiding some facts about the
agreement. The illiteracy of the borrower also help lender to deceive them.
Experiencing with above two options, low income group people turned to microfinance. The
financial service provided at their habitat. Self-help Groups became the best tool to provide
these services.
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OBJECTIVE
Theobjective of the present study is to find out the relationship between poverty and self-help
groups in Uttar Pradesh.
HYPOTHESIS
A negative relationship is found between self-help groups and poverty in U.P.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY
Cross-section data is used for this study. Data of Poverty for the year 2004-05 and Self-help
Groups with all other variables is taken for the same year. But some indicators based on
Census, belong to the year 2001. For self-help Groups, data is collected from the Department
of Rural Development, Uttar Pradesh. Data refers to time period from 1999-2010 but for
regression modeling purpose only 2005 data is utilized. The reason is that poverty data was
only available for the year 2004-05. For poverty data, district wise Head Count Ratio is taken
from a special article on Levels of Living and Poverty Patterns: A District-Wise Analysis for
India written by SiladityaChaudhuri, Nivedita Gupta,Economic & Political Weekly Vol
XLIV No 9, February 28, 2009. The district level HCR was calculated by the National
Sample Survey Organizations Consumer Expenditure Survey held in 2004-05. The data for
the other district development indicators is taken from abstract of District-wise Development
Indicators Uttar Pradesh 2006, Economics and Statistics Division, State Planning Institute,
Uttar Pradesh. Some of the indicators relate to the year 2004-05. Data of Deprivation Index is
taken from Human Development Report, Chapter 2, Uttar Pradesh, 2006.
For the poverty section, separate regression model is done. The purpose was to identify the
most important factors contributing to the poverty in the state. Poverty is taken as dependent
variable and SHGs as independent variable with other independent variable. The idea is to
come across the relationship between poverty and SHGs in U.P. Is proliferation of Self-help
Groups capable of reducing poverty or not? If yes, then up to what extent? Ordinary Least
Squares method is used in the all sections of modeling. To tackle the problem of endogeneity
and simultaneity, Two-Stage Least Squares method is applied.
SELF-HELP GROUPS IN UTTAR PRADESH
SHGs have been growing in a substantial manner over the years in U.P. The following table
represents the physical growth of SHGs in U.P.
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TABLE 1: PHYSICAL PROGRESS OF SELF-HELP GROUPS
Physical progress
Swarojgaris (no.)
Year
Groups formed
Group Swarojgari
Individual Swarojgari
Total Swarojgaris
1999-00
15637
54023
54023
2000-01
18829
2649
121415
124064
2001-02
64353
31175
90225
121400
2002-03
77549
65342
33127
98469
2003-04
79682
121882
18740
140622
2004-05
24182
190984
55840
246824
2005-06
8901
225225
35855
261080
2006-07
11280
211273
46306
257577
2007-08
24605
227670
64435
292105
2008-09
36209
224988
99047
324035
Total
361227
1301188
619011
1920199
Source: Rural Development Department, Uttar Pradesh
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FIGURE: 1PHYSICAL PROGRESS OF SELF-HELP GROUPS IN U.P.
250000
200000
150000
Groups formed
Group Swarojgari
100000
Individual Swarojgari
50000
19
99
2 0 -0 0
00
2 0 -0 1
01
2 0 -0 2
02
2 0 -0 3
03
2 0 -0 4
04
2 0 -0 5
05
2 0 -0 6
06
2 0 -0 7
07
2 0 -0 8
08
-0
9
Although no swarozgaris groups were formed in the very first implementing year of the
programme yet individual swarozgari were captured. The reason might be that group
formation and group agreement for an economic activity is difficult rather than taking up
individual economic activity. But gradually, group swarozgaris increased more than the
individual one over the years as shown in the line chart. An important thing to note is that
from 2002-05 the total no. of groups formed were increasing whereas the total no of
individual swarozgaris declined sharply with a continuous upward shift in group swarozgaris.
But overall total no of swarozgaris has increased which is a major objective of SGSY.
Since initiation of the SGSY in U.P., total 76.38 percent swarozgaris have on track their selfemployment. It only decreased from 49% in 2001-02 to 39% in 2002-03. For the rest of the
years, the no. of swarozgaris increased tremendously. It must be noted that for the year 200708 to 2008-09 the achievement is greater than the target which shows high growth of selfemployment over the years.
FINANCIAL PROGRESS OF SELF HELP GROUPS
The SGSY scheme is funded by Centre and State both by sharing 75:25 ratio of the total fund
allocation.
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TABLE 2: FINANCIAL PROGRESS OF SELF-HELP GROUPS
Financial Progress (in crore)
Year
Total Available Fund
Expenditure
1999-00
312.49
89.75
28.7
2000-01
360.84
199.68
55.3
2001-02
263.79
155.37
58.9
2002-03
225.5
147.22
65.3
2003-04
256.06
195.65
76.4
2004-05
315.24
277.22
87.9
2005-06
293.56
267.79
91.2
2006-07
308.17
261.43
84.8
2007-08
431.56
366.66
85.0
2008-09
568.86
403.73
71.0
2009-10
702.53
494.52
70.39
Looking at the table above, the year 2006-07 witnessed a decline in expenditure yet fund
allocation was increased as compared to the previous year 2005-06. Fund utilization
substantially declined from 91% to 84%. Although, it again increased in subsequent years yet
never reached the percentage of 2005-06. Looking at division wise performance of allocation
side, it is found that Lucknow division received the highest amount of total fund (6306.08),
followed by Faizabaddivision (2560.04) and Allahabad division (2251.98). From percentage
of expenditure side of total fund available, Agra division (96.78), followed by
Chitrakootdham division (94.08),Aligarhdivision(92.75) secured top three ranks among the
other divisions. Here is interesting to note that Chitrakoot district is the poorest district of
U.P. but expenditure percentage for SHGs is also second highest for this division. This is a
bit contradictory.
REGIONAL AND DISTRICT WISE POVERTY IN U.P.
Uttar Pradesh is divided into four regions on agro-economic basis. These regions are Eastern
region, Western region, Central region and Bundelkhand region. Each region has some
geographical, social and economic characteristics. These characteristics highly affect their
rank in overall. Like Bundelkhand and Eastern regions are supposed to be backward on
geographical and cultural features. Bundelkhand is less rain-fed area. Whereas, Eastern
region does not take more of wheat into production while it produces rice. On the other hand,
Central and Western region are the leaders in wheat production comparing with other regions.
Western U.P. is the best example of the success of green revolution.
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For the year 1993-94, Bundelkhand region was the poorest region among all the regions of
U.P. thereafter, Central Eastern and Western regions comes respectively. But surprisingly,
from 1993-94 to 1999-00 the scenario got changed. The poverty in Bundelkhand region
sharply declined. It declined more than half of its previous percentage rate. Simultaneously,
other regions like Eastern region got second place, followed by Central and Western region.
Again, up to 2004-05 Bundelkhand region successfully removed poverty by approximately
22%, Central region by 16 %, Eastern region by 3 %, very less margin. In this duration, the
most significant thing took place that percentage of poverty increased in Western region up to
almost 2%, which is unexpected in itself. Now, looking at the district wise high and low
poverty ratio may make the picture apparent.
TABLE3: TEN LEAST POOR
TABLE 4:TEN MOST POOR
DISTRICTS OF U.P.
DISTRICTS OF U.P.
Ten districts with min % of rural poor

(2005)
Ten districts with max % of

rural poor (2005)
S.
No.
Districts
% of Rural Poor
(HCR)
S.
No.
Districts
% of Rural Poor
(HCR)
G.B. Nagar
2.6
Chitrakoot
81.5
66.3
J.P. Nagar
4.7
Sidhartha
Nagar
Meerut
6.5
Pratapgarh
65.2
Barabanki
14.2
Sant. K.
Nagar
58
Saharanpur
14.6
Gorakhpur
56.5
Ghaziabad
&Bulandshahr
14.9
Shravasti
56.1
jalaun
15.3
Kushi Nagar
54.8
Moradabad
17.1
Ghazipur
53.7
Bijnor
17.9
Maharajganj
53.4
10
Balrampur
18.6
10
Banda
52.8
(Calculated from all district HCR)
Firstly having a look at both tables one can find that there is a wide variation in the incidence
of poverty in the state. It is minimum for Gautam Buddha Nagar with 2.6 % of total poverty
and maximum for Chitrakoot with 81.5 % of total poverty. It can be stated here that the
population residing in Chitrakoot district that comes under the Bundelkhand region is most
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poor of highest populated state. Going deep into the data it is found that out of these ten least
poor districts, eight belongs to Western region. One is from Central region. Point to note
here is that Jalaun district with 15.3 % poverty is representing Bundelkhand region. This is
the same region from where most poor district Chitrakoot is coming out. It further implies
that there are some factors leading for less poverty in some districts of the one region while
not affecting the poverty of other district of the same region.
Therefore, it will be better to search for the factors that reduce the poverty in all districts. For
this purpose Multivariate Regression Analysis is used with rural poverty measured by Head
Count Ratio as dependent variable and net sown area, animal husbandry and cash crop area as
independent variable for all 70 district of Uttar Pradesh. But it is important here to define
Head Count Ratio before going ahead.
POVERTY FROM THE LENSES OF HEAD COUNT RATIO (RURAL POOR)
However, in order to know the relationship among independent variable, one correlation
matrix is prepared. The regression model is as follows:
Rural poor = + 1 netsownarea + 2 animalhus + 3cashcroparea +
TABLE 5: REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF RURAL POOR
Explanatory Variables
Regression Equation 1
Net sown area
-.2442414 (-2.86)*
Animal Husbandry
-3.79539 (-2.18)**
Cash crop Area
-.303975 (-2.89)*
Constant
70.78361 (9.19)
R-sq
= 0.37
F Value (3, 66)= 13.21
*, **, *** are significant at 1, 5 and 10 percent respectively.

t-value is given in parenthesis.
Net sown areas of the total agricultural area, animal husbandry, Cash crop area of the total
harvesting area are significantly related with poverty. If these three will increase in a district,
poverty will reduce. Cash crop increases the income of farmers, while animal husbandry is a
beneficial occupation in rural area. It can fulfill the increasing demand for milk and other
products in urban areas as well as in rural one. Net sown area will decrease the magnitude of
barren land and cultivation will provide them better earning opportunity.
Other variables like total literacy, community health centre, bank, junior basic school, crop
density, credit-deposit ratio etc. were not coming out to be significant using step-wise
regression to minimize multi-co linearity effect. But it does not imply that these variables are
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meaningless for reducing poverty. Actually, estimation of poverty is a debatable issue in

itself. There are various measures of poverty like Head Count Ratio, Gini Coefficient, Lorenz
Curve and Human Poverty Index etc. it is difficult to say that which one gives the best result.
Recently, Tendulkar committee has suggested a new method of poverty estimation.
Therefore, to examine the effect of all other variable with above regressands, Deprivation
Index is taken as dependent variable calculated by the officials of State Planning Institute,
Uttar Pradesh using UNDP methodology. Before explaining the regression result, it is
important to distinguish between Head Count Ratio and Deprivation Index.
POVERTY FROM THE LENSES OF DEPRIVATION INDEX
The Deprivation Index captures the deprivation in basic amenities in terms of the quality of
habitat. The Deprivation Index for U.P. was 65.12 in 1991, which declined to 54.53 in 2001.
Low deprivation index means high access to basic amenities. The regression model is as
follows.
Deprivation Index = + 1urbanpop + 2 bank + 3cashcroparea + 4 net sown area + 5 chcs
+
TABLE 6: REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF DEPRIVATION INDEX
Regression Equation
Urban Population
-.3294539 (-3.08)*
Bank
-.8037526 (-0.66)
Cash crop Area
-.2456862 (-3.54)*
Net sown Area
-.128331 (-2.51)**
Community Health Centre
-.4585368 (-0.38)
Constant
81.5695
R-sq
(13.67)
= 0.61
F value (5, 64) = 20.40

Here, urban population, cash crop area and net sown area are negative and significantly
related with deprivation index. Only net sown is significant at 5% level, other two are at 1%
level means highly significant for reducing the deprivation in the districts. Banks and CHCs
are negatively related but insignificant. Cash crop area of the total net sown area will increase
the income of the people and urbanization will improve their access for basic amenities hence
deprivation will get reduced. R-square value suggests that 61% variation is explained by the
model.
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Now, graphically comparing the head count ratio and deprivation for the all districts of Uttar
Pradesh, it comes to know that Mahoba district is exceptional case with low poverty but high
deprivation from basic amenities. This further implies that more income does not lead to the
assurance of the access to basic amenities. Some districts are having both the measures
almost at the same level and there is one exceptional case where poverty is more than the
deprivation for basic facilities or income is less but sufficient access for enhancing humans
capabilities are exciting.
LINKAGE BETWEEN SELF-HELP GROUPS AND POVERTY IN UTTAR
PRADESH
Here again, Head count ratio and Deprivation Index both are used as dependent variable to
explain the effect of self-help groups as major explanatory variable with other variables.
Both results are showing a positive relationship between self-help groups and poverty. Both
are increasing simultaneously. One possibility seems here. Huge variation exists regarding
percentage of poor in U.P. some districts are less poor and some are highly poor. It varies
from 2.6% to 81.5%. For capturing the effect of SHGs on highly poor and lesser poor
districts separately, data is split up into two parts for both regression model i.e. SHG and
poverty and SHG and Deprivation. For SHG and poverty model, state average of poverty i.e.
33.3% for 2004-05 is taken as a base for splitting data. And for SHG and Deprivation model,
state average is 54.53% for 2001. Thus, 0-35% poor districts are regressed separately and
35% to 85% poor districts separately SHG-Poverty model. For SHG-deprivation model, 055% and 55%-75% range in assumed for data splitting. Separate regression is done for the
four models. The regression analysis table given below consists of both range of SHGpoverty model.
MODEL 1: SHG AND POVERTY
The regression model is:

Rural poverty = + 1shgrural + 2netsownarea + 3animalhus + 4 bank + 5chcs +
6junbsch + 7cashcroparea + 8urbanpop +9totallit +
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TABLE 7: REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF RURAL POVERTY

(HEAD COUNT RATIO)
Up to 35% poverty
SHG per rural population
-6.449489 (-0.35)
2.686674 (0.10)
Net sown area
.0300247 (0.54)
-.3136113 (-3.62)*
Animal Husbandry
3740886
-.6873029 ( -0.21)
(0.28)
Bank
-3.520273 (-1.67)***
-5.633564 (-1.93)***
-.8955737 (-0.49)
-2.098012 (-1.04)
Junior Basic Schools

Cash crop Area
.047537 (0.68)
-.2462795 (-2.13)**
.0966868
(0.66)
-.0089337 (-0.03)
Urban Population
.1999912 (1.29)
-.1393608 (-0.39)
Total Literacy
.0830998 (0.60)
.2748877 (1.09)
76.90285 (4.00)
31.80445 (2.59)
Constant
F( 9, 35) =
R-sq.
35% to 85% poverty
1.01
= 0.2981
F( 9, 15) = 7.77
R-sq
= = 0.4162

INTERPRETATION FOR REGRESSION EQUATION 1

For the first regression equation covering the range of 0-35% i.e. for less poor districts, a
negative but insignificant relation between poverty and SHGs is coming out. It means that
SHGs are not so much effective to reduce poverty. It may be because group lending may not
be sufficient to increase the income of members. Secondly, whether this money is used for
income generation or personal consumption? Banks, Cash crop Area are the two variables
that affect poverty significantly the districts coming under this range. Cash crop area is
increasing therefore, poverty is decreasing. Therefore, such type of cropping should be
encouraged. Banks are effective but may not be through SHG-Bank Linkage Programme. The
R-square value suggests that about 30% variation in poverty is explained by the banks and
cash crop area.
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For the second regression equation range is 35%-85% poor districts. Here, the sign of the
coefficient of SHG variable is not as per hypothesis. It is depicting a positive relationship
between poverty and SHG. Net sown area and again banks are negatively and significantly
related with poverty. Net sown area is highly significant at 1% level of significance. If this
will increase, poverty will reduce in these highly poor districts. The reason may be that most
of the districts of this range belong to Eastern region that is based on agriculture. Some
districts are industrialized but most are resource lacking. Uttar Pradesh Development Report
(2006) also shows that Eastern region has the highest poverty incidence (38.0%) among all
regions. The R-square value suggests that about 42% variation in poverty is explained by the
net sown area and banks.
MODEL 2:SHG AND DEPRIVATION
This table is designed by adding two regression results of two ranges of data. The regression
equation is:
depindex = + 1shgrural + 2netsownarea + 3animalhus + 4 bank + 5chcs +6junbsch +

7cashcroparea + 8urbanpop +9totallit +
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TABLE 8: REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF DEPRIVATION INDEX

Up to 55% deprivation
55% to 75% deprivation
SHG per rural population
-72.85567 (-2.15)**
3.265707
Net sown area
-.0618402 (-0.39)
-.0859797 (-2.50)**
Animal Husbandry
-4.296017 (-1.43)
-.4223568
( -0.55)
Bank
-5.311502 (-4.06)*
.5104555
(0.64)
.4200163
(0.18)
Junior Basic Schools
0855092 (0.97)
-.7500119 (-1.25)
0050803
(0.13)
Cash crop Area
-.356957 (-3.68)*
.1407204 (1.42)
Urban Population
-.1184401 (-0.72)
-.1730299 (-2.52)**
.3549763 (1.56)
.2748877 (0.68)
Total Literacy
88.61019 (2.50)
Constant
F( 9, 13) =
R-sq
(0.62)
9.73
= = 0.7506
76.90285 (11.76)
F( 9, 37) = 3.48
R-sq = 0.2951


For 0-55% range of deprivation covering districts, a negative and significant relationship is
found between deprivation index and self-help groups. It is significant at 5% level of
significance. If SHGs will increase deprivation will decrease in terms of basic amenities i.e.
pucca house, clean drinking water and sanitation facilities etc. It may be because self-help
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Groups are not only meant for income generation but for the economic, social and political
empowerment of the members. SHGs increase the capabilities of the members to be efficient
to claim for their share. It also generates awareness inside the group members and outside
through its spillover effects. Here banks and cash crop area are also negative and significant
with 1% level of significance. Net sown area, animal husbandry and urban population are
carrying negative sign but not significant. R-sq value is suggests that 75% variation is
explained by the model.
For the highly deprived districts, SHGs are not efficient to reduce deprivation. Sign of
coefficient is positive means SHGs are related with deprivation at all. But net sown area and
urban population are reducing deprivation effectively at 5% level of significance. Here again
as in the poverty model was seen, net sown area is significant factor in poverty reduction.
Eastern region is again the most deprived region followed by Bundelkhand and Central
regions. These people are most deprived in comparison of other regions. One can say that this
is highly poor region with maximum deprivation. Increasing net sown area can improve the
situation as it is agriculture backboned region. The Deprivation Index here seems linked to
the degree of urbanization of the district. More urban population is leading to less
deprivation. It is very obvious for deprivation index because people are having more access
to basic amenities. 30% variation is explained by model looking at r-sq value.
banks are coming out to be significantfor poverty and Deprivation index. It is a good sign for
the rural poverty reduction and development. More the access to credit faster will be the
financial inclusion.
One possible reason for the positive coefficient of the SHG variable in regression results
presented above is that there is a two-way relationship between SHG and Poverty. While
SHGs may help in poverty alleviation, High incidence of poverty may lead greater formation
of SHGs. For checking the simultaneous relation between poverty and SHGs and for
Deprivation index and SHGs, the two-stage least square method is used here. To apply this
method, first a regression model of SHG as dependent variable is estimated then predicted
value of self-help groups is used as independent variable for the poverty and deprivation
models separately. The results showed that Self-help Groups are not affecting poverty. The
value of coefficient for both poverty and Deprivation Index is positive.
CONCLUSION
Relevance of SHGs reveals that they are necessary to improve the access of poor to the
financial sources. But the development of Self-help Groups is not equal in all regions of the
country. This is happening especially in the poorest regions. Most important issue related
with their growth is poverty reduction. Economic activities with increasing female work
participation were found as leading factors of SHGs. It is not necessary that these factors are
also responsible for poverty reduction. Poverty also depends on regional and geographical
features. Poverty eradication in Eastern region of Uttar Pradesh is governed by net sown area
and banks rather than economic activities. Hence, both the Self-help Groups and Poverty are
led by different factors hence required different treatment. Taking them together, it is found
for that SHGs are somehow existing but not able to make a markable influence on poverty.
Yet they are influencing other factors rather than poverty.
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Here, it can be stated that there is a two-way relationship between SHGs and poverty as both
are increasing simultaneously. The reason for such behavior lies in the regional,
geographical, institutional, administrative set up of the different regions. Present goals of
SHG formation are not matching with the goal of poverty reduction. The major objective of
forming SHGs is to generate employment opportunities that will in turn, reduce poverty. In
Uttar Pradesh, secondary data on the extent of employment generated through SHGs is not
available. Therefore, measurement of poverty reduction becomes difficult.
Socio-cultural environment of the state is also not viable for sustainability of SHGs and
ultimately, reducing poverty. Illiteracy, unawareness, vested interests, societys mind set
towards women, demonstration effect etc. are few example of it. Political unwillingness,
delayed administrative activities, lack of facilitation, corruption, irresponsive behaviour of
bureaucracy etc are the main hurdles in the way of success of SHGs. Poverty is not bestowed
to them rather than accepted.
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
Although the result is not coming out in support of hypothesis yet it is important to face the
challenge endowed with its rejection. By following the successful examples of the southern
region and other successful regions, by increasing the level of awareness, scaling up the
literacy level among the villagers, more participating attitude of policy makers as well as
implementers are some manner to undertake this challenge.
Many factors are leading the growth of SHGs but few of them are able to deal with poverty.
Nature of poverty in different regions is important to understand. Different region demands
different policy treatment for reducing poverty. High incidence of poverty districts and low
incidence of poverty districts can be considered as a segregating line for different policies.
Like Sodic Land Reclamation Project I and II supported by World Bank. Self-help group
under this type of project will support income leading agricultural activities that can prepare a
base for poverty reduction over the years. These agricultural activities must be coordinated
with modern technology. That will increase the net sown area that in turn, leading to increase
in income and ultimately empowerment.
REFERENCES
1. Wanchoo R, Micro-finance in the India: the changing face of micro-credit scheme,
MRPA Paper No. 3675, June 2007.
2. Nair S.T., The Transforming World of Indian Microfinance, Economic and Political
Weekly, April 23, 2005.
3. Basu P. and Srivastave P., Exploring Possibilitties Micro Finance and rural Credit
Access for the poor in India; Economic and Political Weekly, April 23, 2005.
4. Umesh R. Economic Reforms and the Less Developed Regins: A Study of Uttar
Pradesh in India, paper presented in the 16th Biennial Conference of the Asian Studies
Association of Australia in Wollongong June 26- June 29 2006.
5. Kozel V. and Parker B, A Profile and Diagnostic of Poverty in Uttar Pradesh,
Economic and Political Weekly, Vol 38, No. 4 (Jan. 25-31, 2003) pp. 385-403
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6. Sriram M.S., Microfinance and the State Exploring Areas and Structures of
Collabortion, Economic and Political Weekly, April 23, 2005.
7. P M.Verman, Impact of Self-help Groups on Formal Banking Habits, Economic and
Political Weekly, April 23, 2005.
8. Harper M, Berkhof A, Ramakrishna R V, SHG-bank Linkage A Tool for Reforms in
Cooperatives, Economic and Political Weekly, April 23, 2005.
9. NCAER (National Council for Applied Economic Research) Study, Impact and
Sustainability of SHg Bank Linkage Programme, July 2008.
10. State level Report of evaluation study of Self-help Groups formed and financed under
the SWaranJayanti Gram SwarojgarYojana, Economic and Statistical Division, State
Planning Institute, Uttar Pradesh, 2007-08
11. District wise Development Indicators- 2006 for acknowledgement of the Economic
status of Uttar Pradesh, Economic and Statistical Division, State Planning Institute,
Uttar Pradesh, 2006.
12. Chaudhuri S. Gupta N.,Levels of Living and Poverty Patterns: A District-Wise
Analysis for India, Economic& Political Weekly Vol XLIV No 9, February 28, 2009.
13. Vatta K, Microfinance and Poverty Alleviation, Economic& Political Weekly, Vol.
38, No. 5, Feb. 1-7, 2003.
14. Shil N. C., Microfinancefor Poverty Alleviation: A Commercialized View,

International Journal of Economics and Finance, Vol. 1, No. 2, August 2009.
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
RETHINKING THE HISTORIOGRAPHY
OF ISLAM INDONESIA
SULASMAN*
Sunan Gunung Djati,
State Islamic University, Bandung, Indonesia.
ABSTRACT
Diversity in the writing of history is not just about the topic but also about the
object of study or research the history of writing. Spanning the history of the
Muslim community in Indonesia since the the vast stretches of the process of
Islamization and form of power-economic and political power to the resistance
movement against the occupation of Western nations with a peak of Indonesias
Independence Proclamation. Therefore, it is in the historiography of the Islamic
community in Indonesia is very Improbable that the Historian with all its
limitations Able to describe or reconstruct the whole history of Muslims from the
beginning until now. Nevertheless, the works of the writing on the history of
Islam in Indonesia has been widely written, Both by Indonesian and foreign
writers. One side of the history of Islam is still rarely in Indonesia touched in the
historiography of the world the which includes boarding schools, religious
scholars and students. Yet, if we go back to the fold resistance to the penetration
of Western history, many events in the which is a resistance movement of the
students.
KEYWORDS: Kyai, Pesantren, Historiography, History, Islam.
________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Interest in history was not only happening among academics, but also came from other
professions. The whole of Indonesian Historiography then enlivened also along with the
development of the theory and methodology of science. Another thing that also enliven the
writing of the history of Indonesia is the emergence of some interest that requires historical
legitimacy. This development is interesting because the writing of history to be diversed.
Diversity in the writing of history is not just about the topic but also about the object of study
or research the history of writing. This phenomenon then gave birth to a lawsuit against the
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National History of Indonesia, one from among the Muslims who questioned how the
position of the Islamic Society of Historiography in Indonesia in the context of the National
History of Indonesia.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MUSLIMS IN INDONESIA
At least until the middle of 15th century, Muslims had not only expanded to the
whole Indonesian archipelago, but socially, had been the agent of change in the history. At
that time, even though Islam did not reach to the back country completely, they had built
what it was called as trading diaspora-diaspora especially in the territory of coastal area.
With the support of merchant class, the process of Islamization was taking place great fully
and almost became the dominant history landscape in Indonesia at that time.
Being in agreement with A. E. Priyono ( 1991 ), although the track of Islamic history
could be identified since the 11th however, the development of Islamization seemed begun to
start in the late of the 13th century and especially in the 14th and 15th century when the center
of the greatest natives power, Majapahit was being in the decline. Islamic religion had been
being in the rapid progress at that time. The rapid development of Islamic religion was
because that new religion had attractiveness. The attractiveness of this new religion was on
the idea of similarity, it was a very interesting idea for the merchant classes which was
increasing, and not possessed within the concept of Hindu social stratification.. Thus, Islam
provided blue print for organization politiko-ekonomi which then opened the way for
the march of new structural change process from the system agraris-patrimonial toward
what was called by Van Leur as politic-capitalism ( Van Leur, 1960 ) This politikoekonomi blue print which caused many classes of native traders believed on Islamic religion
to participate within international Muslim traders community ( Christine Dobbin, 1980 ).
Lately, international Muslim traders community in Indonesia developed since the
late of the 14th century, it was since Malaka developed becoming a entrepot-state.
Moslems merchants in the coastal area of the north Java beach, such as in Gresik, Giri,
Tuban, Jepara, Demak, and Jayakarta arranged trading relationship with the international
trading center such as in Mediterania, Siam and even Japan. This development showed that
the Islamization had resulted the middle class of Muslim merchant with the center of
international Muslim trading integrated, therefore it gave basis material for the emerging of
new political institutions which was signed by the establishing of Demak maritime state as
the first Islamic Kingdom in Java in the beginning of the 16th century ( H.J.de Graaf and Th.
G. Pigeaud, 1985 ). This proved that at that time Islam appeared as the integrative element
which was able to unite the power of economy, politic, and religion in a state. Along the first
middle of the 16th century, Demak Islamic Kingdom attempted to consolidate its authority
through various conquests both military and economy to the area along North Java coastal
area, or even to the back country of eastern Java which had not been Islamized to bent down
under the new sultanate (M.C.Ricklefs, 1986). After that, appeared the power of other Islamic
politics among them, such as Islamic Kingdom of Banten and Islamic Kingdom of Cirebon
which was located in the district of Western Java.
The goal of Demak Sultanate to integrate between religion, economy, and politic
gained many challenges, both from outside and inside. These challenges came along with the
emerging of new power; it was Western penetration which was signed by occupying the
Malaka by Portuguese as the result of mercantilism politic expansion which was developing
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in Europe to the whole of the world. The expansion of Europes mercantilism which was
supported by the military power had wished off Asian International context toward
mercantilism capitalist all at once tarnished what was called by Anthony Reid (1988) as the
era of Asian trading which then entered the new era, it was colonialism era ( Immanuel
Wallerstein, 1974 ).
In regional context which is got historical transition Demak appeared and
developed in short time and just existed for approximately a half of century, shorter than the
three centuries Majapahits hegemony. According to A.R.T. Kemasang ( 1985 ), the
happening of great transition in Asian, Islamic Kingdom of Demak international trading
system caused by western penetration was not only losing the base of its maritime trading,
but also losing the base of material for its legitimating claim whether politically or
ideologically. Thus in the other word based from the statements explained above, the
integrative power of Islam was failed in playing its role in its history. The ruin of Demak,
internally was caused by the growing back of the local ideology, and externally was caused
by the western capitalism expansion.
After the happening of western capitalism expansion which was later substituting the
social order, culture, and tore down the supremacy of Islamic policy, then appeared the
reaction of Indonesian Moslem society, indicated by the resistance movement of santri
society came from pesantren world with Kyai as a causal mechanism in several historical
event lied from Western to Eastern of Indonesia.
HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ISLAM IN INDONESIA

If we see the description above, therefore it will be seen the spread of Indonesian
Moslem Societys history lied along widely since the process of Islamization later built the
economical and political supremacy until the resistance movement against the western
colonialism with the Indonesian proclamation of independence as its top. The power of
economy was indicated by the establishment of international trading bases such as Malaka,
Banten, Jakarta, Cirebon, Tuban, Makasar, and many more. The power of politic was
indicated by the establishment of the Islamic Kingdoms in Indonesia such as Islamic
kingdom in Aceh, Demak, Cirebon, Banten, Goa, Makasar, Tidore. The resistance
movements against the western penetration were indicated by the santri society resistance
movement. According to Clifford Geertz (1960), the resistance movement of santri society
happened in several area such as Perang Diponegoro in Central Java led by Pangeran
Diponegoro, Kyai Madja, Sentot Alibasyah in 1825-1830, Perang Paderi in West Sumatera
led by Tuanku Imam Bonjol in 1821-1828, Perang Aceh led by Teuku Umar in1873-1903,
and in West Java exactly in Banten in the year of 1834, 1836, 1842, then risen again in 1880,
and 1888 led Kyai Haji Wasid (Ahmad Mansur Suryanegara, 1995 ), also the resistance
movement in Singaparna led by K. H. Zenal Mustofa 1942, and etc. Therefore, based in
historiography of Indonesian Islamic society, it is impossible if the historian with its lack of
ability can dissect or reconstruct the whole history of Islamic follower from the beginning
until now. Despite of that, there are so many written works about Islamic history in Indonesia
has been made, whether written by the Indonesian writer itself or the foreigner writer.
Among the works about Islamic history in Indonesia, for instance the work written
by Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah or known as HAMKA entitled Sejarah Umat Islam
volume IV . He wrote the Indonesian Islamic history as a part of Islamic history itself. In
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writing aspect, Hamka was more interested in periods than the state. Besides that, he was
more emphasizing in the heroes and sultans role in dissecting the appearance and
disappearance a sultanate in the archipelago of Nusantara. Hamka as an clergy and historian
was giving valuable information about the sources he used, such as Sejarah Melayu by Tun
Sri Lanang, Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai by Syaikh Nuruddin Ar Raniry, Tuhfat Al-Nafis by Ali
Haji, Sejarah Cirebon, Babad Giyantidan, and etc ( A. Muin Umar, 1988 ). Beside Sejarah
Umat Islam jilid IV, the written works about the history of Indonesian Islam is also existed in
Sejarah Nasional Indonesia volume III. The book edited by Uka Tjadrasasmita who
approached the Indonesian Islamic history as a part of Indonesian National History. He was
different with Hamka who emphasized in individual factor, so Uka Tjandrasasmita was more
emphasized that the history is a process in a society happened by the transition of elements
which stay in society ( A. Muin Umar, 1985 ). In writing the Indonesian Islamic history as in
Sejarah Nasional Volume III, Uka Tjadrasasmita used sources such as book, articles, or
manuscripts, state story and foreigner used released. Last, the writing of Indonesian Islamic
history was written by the researcher team includes the historians such as Prof. Dr. Taufik
Abdullah made by Majlis Ulama Indonesia entitled Sejarah Umat Islam Indonesia. Although
the three works above do not fulfill hope of the written of Indonesian Islamic history totally,
but they had put the basic form of the historiography of Indonesian Islamic History to be
discussed more comprehensive.
In discussing about the Indonesian Islamic historiography, we can use the
framework from Franz Rosental ( 1968 ) they are:
1. The theme which is based on the local historical written, such as Hikayat Bandjar,
Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai, Hikayat Kutaiand etc.
2. The theme which is based on Islamic history written works generally. This model can be
seen by the works such as the written work created by Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah
or HAMKA in Sejarah Umat Islam for four volumes.
3. The theme which is based on the military written works such as Civil War created by T.
Ibrahim Alfian who wrote Perang di Jalan Allah : Aceh 1873-1912.
4. The theme which is based on biographical written work such as the written work of
Sulasman who wrote K. H. Ahmad Sanusi Berjuang Dari Pesantren ke Parlemen.
5. The theme which is based on historical novel such as the work of Muhammad Daud
entitled Hikayat Putra Baren.
Beside Franz Rosentals model, the historical writing step is also can be made based
on its period as stated by Muin Umar ( 1988 ) as follow:
1. Historiography of Islam in the period of the entering of Islam to Indonesia until 16th
century.
2. Historiography of Islam in the period of the resistance to the colonialism, especially in the
period of the western political penetration which raise the reactions such as in Aceh,
Banten, Mataram, Banjar Goa and other places.
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3. Historiography of Islam in the period of the beginning of 20th century AD, such as written
work created by Deliar Noer about Gerakan Moderen Islam di Indonesia 1900-1942.
4. Historiography of Islam in the contemporary period such as the written work created by
B. J. Boland The Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia.
Islam in Indonesia is an interesting phenomenon to be written continually, and also
the written of the history of Islam in Indonesia, generally has become an interesting subject
for the historian or any other experts who have interested on that problem based on each
perspective. There are plenty of written works about the Indonesian Islamic history, for
instance the written work created by Taufik Abdullah who wrote Adat and Islam An
Examination of Conflict in Minangkabau year 1961, D.A. Rinkes De Heiligen van Java I. de
Makam van Sjech Abdoelmoehji year 1910, J.J. Ras, Hikajat Bandjar: A Study in Malay
Historiography year 1968, J. Noorduyn De Islamisering van Makasar year 1956, H. A. Mukti
Ali An Introduction to the Government of Achehs Sultanate year 1970, J. P. Moquete,
Mohammedansche Inscriptie van de Java year 1921, R. L. Mellema, Een Interpretatie van de
Islam year 1958, and etc.
Variation of theory, and methodology, philosophical view or the establishment of
the science especially social disciplines as a support discipline in approaching Indonesian
Islamic history has made a variation in historiography of Islam in Indonesia. It is not too
different with Indonesian national history; historiography of Islam has also space to be
researched and to be written in many perspectives. An example of the untouchable
Indonesian Islamic historys side in historiography is a world of pesantren includes pesantren
itself, kyai and santri. Whereas, if we open up the history of the resistance movement against
western penetration there were so many events which was actually the resistance movement
of santri society.
KYAI AND PESANTREN IN INDONESIAN ISLAMIC HISTORIOGRAPHY

One of the great traditions in Indonesia is the teaching of Islamic religion which
appeared in pesantren. The primary reason of the pesantren appearance was making the
transmission of traditional Islam ( Mastuhu, 1994 ) as told in classical book or kitab kuning.
Pesantrens tradition as a framework of traditional educational system has interested the
experts to write it such as Karel A. Steenbrink, J. F. B. Brumund, van den Berg , Hurgronye ,
Geerz, A. H. John, Zamakhsyari Dhofier, Dawam Rahardjo, Sartono Kartodirdjo,
Muhammad Iskandar, Mastuhu. They aware about the strong influence of pesantren in
creating and maintaining the social, cultural, political, and religious life.
As long as the colonial time, pesantren was a Grass Root People educational
institution unite with the people life. In revolution time, pesantren whos led by kyai or
ajengan was one of the guerilla centers in war against Netherland to take over the
independence or also in the revolution time. Kyai is the calling for the Islamic preacher who
are smart, intelligent, in the term of religion or a calling for pesantren leader. They are a
group of society who are expert in the law of religion and possesses intelligent skill within
reading the minds of people surrounding. On the basic of that skill, Kyai are able to place
them as a charismatic local leader, who are obeyed by the society surrounding them. Ajengan
is the other name Kyai, In West Java district, such as in Banten, Bogor, Sukabumi and
Priangan there were other calling for the elite of Islamic religion, it is Ajengan generally,
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who gained the title of Ajengan are the kyai as the leaders of pesantren who are charismatic
in their territories. In fact, for a famous ajengan usually, that title is bunched with the name
of his territory, for instance, in Sukabumi H. Ahmad Sanoesi a famous ajengan in Bogor and
Priangan are well known by the calling as Ajengan Gunung Puyuh . In Pesantren, there
was also created Hisbullah which was later became an embryo of Indonesian National Army
( B.J.Boland, 1985 ).
According to P. A. A. Djajadiningrat the life at pesantren life is full of regularity,

loyalty, and fidelity. Pesantren is a self community where kyai, santri, and the holder, lived in
a neighborhood. Pesantren basically is a boarding college of a traditional Islamic education
whose the students stay and learn together under the guidance of one or more kyai or
ajengan.They are a big family beneath a control of a kyai. In pesantren, santri has two parents
and two kinds of brother. At pesantren santri possesses two parents, they are their siblings
parents and kyai who takes care of them, he also possesses two kinds of brother, they are
sibling brother and brother of school (fellow). Basically, pondok pesantren is a
boardinghouse, the students live and study together under a guidance from the kyai. Pondok
or boardinghouse is a special trait of pesantren. The reason why pesantren gives
boardinghouse for santri are: The first the famous and the knowledge of a kyai interests its
santris from far, to get the knowledge, santri must stay and settle in pesantren. Santri who
studies at pesantren consists of two kinds: (1) Santri mukim, they are santri who come from
far place from pesantern and stay in the group of pesantren. (2) Santri kalong, they are santri
who dont live and stay at the pesantren. Usually, they come from the place surrounding
pesantren. The second There is a take and give relationship between santri and kyai, where
the santri consider the kyai as their father and the kyai consider the santri as a deposit from
god who need to be protected, therefore kyai has a responsibility to give a place to live for the
santri. Thus, in santri life there will grow a dedication to the kyai, therefore kyai has a source
of power for the pesantren interests. The relationship between kyai and santri in the
revolution time had made easy of mass mobilization as a power of revolution..
The very important element on a pesantren is kyai. The term of Kyai and Ulama was
introduced by Cliford Geertz ( 1960) in the year of 1960s. Since that, there were so many
researcher who wrote about Kyai dan Ulama in Indonesia, for example Leonard Binder,
Deliar Noer, Hiroko Harikoshi, Zamakhsary Dhofier, Karel, Stenbrink, Huub de Jonge, Elly
Touwen Bouwsma, and Muhammad Iskandar.
Specially for West Java, especially in Priangan state for example in Sukabumi, there
is the other name to call a kyai it is ajengan. Generally, someone who get ajengan degree is a
charismatic kyai in his state. A famous ajengan commonly connected where the ajengan
himself come from ( Mohammad Iskandar, 2001 ), for example K. H. Abdurahim known as
Ajengan Cantayan, K. H. Ahmad Sanoesi known as Ajengan Gunung Puyuh, K. H. Hasan
Basri known as Ajengan Cicurug. The image about a kyai in Sukabumi came from a
Netherland secret polices report about K. H. Ahmad Sanoesi. Based on his report, K. H.
Ahmad Sanoesi was more famous as Ajengan Gunung Puyuh and was a most famous and
influenced kyai in West Priangan state. The sum of santri and his sympathizer was thousands.
His house was never quiet being visited by the guests who came to ask questions about
problems, especially the questions about religion. Gobee, adviseur voor inlandse zaken
praised him as a kyai with high intelligence. Approbation also came from Pijper the successor
of Gobee, he described that the clergy like K.H. Ahmad Sanoesi will not decrease his
influence just because imprisoned by the government. He seemed light shining wherever he is
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According to Zamakhsary Dhofier ( 1982 ), the factor which made kyai as a social
leader of people is very strong and well honored, because kyai is a teacher. In pesantren
neighborhood appeared a paradigm that forgetting the relationship with the teacher is claimed
as a big mistake and also losing teacher bless. Then if santri forget the relation with the
teacher, therefore the knowledge of the santri will not be useful. In the tradition of pesantren,
a kyai doesnt have a status and popularity because of the personality of him. The status and
popularity can only be reached if there is any ratification on his knowledge through a series
of knowledge (certain knowledge web) which approved through sanad. Sanad itself is
usually written tidily and justified by kyai A popular kyai in his grada. That Sanad all at
once as a confession of the relationship between teacher and his student, according with what
is written inside. Kyai who doesnt have a chain-link of knowledge like it will not be
acknowledged or will not be popular especially in pesantern of tarekat.
The aspect which make kyai influences in the people life are because the institution
of pesantren itself, where in pesantren there has just stayed thousands santri who come from
many area. Santri in practically is not only a student of a kyai, but also as a campaigner who
support the kyai and the pesantren where they stay and dig knowledge. Whereas for the
people around the pesantren, santri role as a mediator between people with the kyai. Beside
teaching santri, kyai also hold a temporal studying for common people which is held in or
out the pesantren neighborhood or even far from pesantren. The temporal studying has double
function, they are as a media of religious illumination, and a media in maintaining the good
relationship between kyai and the people surrounding ( Mohammad Iskandar, 2001 ).
About the relationship between kyai and the people of pesantren was described by a
police in his report that people attention to the kyais who had a place in their heart; they
seemed had no distance. Wherever that kyai stayed moving or out casting they would try to
visit him as long as possible. As an example was K.H. Ahmad Sanoesi, although he was out
casted to Batavia Centrum in the year of 1927, his santri and followers were loyal
maintaining relationship with him. According to Dutch secret police journal as long as K. H.
Ahmad Sanoesi imprisoned, more than ten thousand visitor visit him there. The paragon
manner in leadership made a magnet power which was used by the kyai in controlling mass
to face the colonial power especially in the revolution time..
Kyai is an important element of pesantren. The establishment of a pesantren depends
on the ability of its kyai itself. According to Zamakhsyari Dhofier (1982) the life of
pesantren depends on the ability of that pesantren to have a high ability successor kyai. There
are two probabilities of the pesantren viability after being left by the founder kyai. First, the
big and famous pesantren then will ruin and disappear. The second, pesantren will grow
bigger and more famous, because there is prepared a successor to keep tracking the struggle
of the founder.
There are several efforts done by the kyai leader of pondok pesantren in preserving
the tradition of the pesantren, they are establishing pesantren network through strong
partnership solidarity between them. The way doing by kyai is establishing a tradition that a
close relative would become a candidate of leader successor of the pesantren. Kyais always
put attention in their kin education to get the successor. If a kyai has kin more than one, the
older son will be prepared to become a leader of the pesantren after he pass away, whereas
the other sons and daughters is trained to establish the new pesantren or can be as a successor
of their parent in law who most of them are the leader of the pesantren ( Zamakhsary Dhofier,
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1982 ). For kyai or ulama who have obstacle in doing the regeneration, to keep his authority
as a order and tradition taker they establish a endogamous marital network between kyais
family or marry his daughter with his clever student ( santri ), especially if that santri is son
or relative of a kyai therefore potentially to become a successor himself. The existing of inter
kyais family marriage is not only making an authority of the kyais family maintained, but
also their precept (Mohammad Iskandar, 2001). Through this way the relationship between
kyais is maintained in a strong relative relationship. More famous a kyai, wider the
relationship rope with the other kyais. Pesantren network which is tied in relative
relationship, or knowledge transmission is very helpful in revolution happened in Sukabumi.
The very important thing for the pesantren course is released a Dutch colonial
government rule as Ordonansi Guru which give a responsibility to a kyai to get a teaching
license. Kyai must explain the lesson who taught to his student and his follower in line with
the government rule, teaching activity of the Kyai always be supervised by the Dutch colonial
government by placing a secret police. The suspicion of the colonial government to the
pesantren was just because there was a signal arrived to the government, in pesantren there
was always teaching a material which taught and raised of anti Netherland feeling especially
in a pesantren which became a center of a tarekat activity. This discussion was described by
P.A.A. Djajadiningrat that in pesantren where he studied, there was always raised an anti
Netherland feeling by the kyai, therefore the santri commonly hated Dutch people and hated
the people who work for Netherland interests ( P. A. A. Djajadiningrat, 1936 ). Nationalism
around the pesantren had born a rebellion led by kyai like rebellion in Sukamanah
Tasikmalaya.
The growing of nationalism awareness in pesantren was in line with the feeling of
brotherhood and equality among the santri. According to Rakhmatullah Ading Afandi (1982
), among santri there is no difference in social status or parental status, therefore the
relationship among the santri is just like with their brother without level.
Pesantren which rebelled, most of these are pesantren which taught or even become
a center of tarekat activity. In this pesantren always be taught tarekat rituals such as dzikir,
wirid, ratib, and many more. Pesantren people who do tarekat rituals believing strongly about
the ability of supernatural power likes power, invulnerability, agility, and everysupernatural
skill taken from tarekat rituals ( Martin Van Bruinessen, 1995 ).
Amulets, agility training, latent energy and other skill in the normal situation are just
only unimportant aspects in tarekat, but in unsecured situation and in war and rebellion
situation, these aspects become very important. In many rebellion cases which involve tarekat
activity, it was not that tarekat which became a volunteer in rebellion but the rebels who
enrolled in tarekat activity to get the supernatural skill. In several cases closed to war and
rebellion, there were people who came to famous kyais place to get supernatural skill and to
be accepted as a student.
In the revolution time there was the same phenomenon. There were youth who were
ready to involve in war with Netherland practicing martial art and latent energy. In Sukabumi
for example K.H. Ahmad Sanusi was very famous as a teacher of agility and additional
martial art (his students supernaturally mastering martial art skill they didnt learnt). Most of
the Sukabumi youth asked for promised by him. In the other pesantrens wirids, hijibs like
Hijib Akbar, Hijib Rifai, taught to the santri, and also the agility skill were given to santri to
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become a martial art supply. When heading to the battle these rituals were useful for the
sentry or even common people. They were also asking bless from kyai to be having salvation
in the battle. When the battle happened there were kyai showering and blessing them who
were ready to go to the battle by the holy water. After being showered with the holy water,
they were given drinks and isims or wafak (kind of amulets) which they believed has a
mythical power on it. The conviction of the power of prays, wirid, isim and the other amulets
was a self power in battle especially for them who came from pesantren.
CONCLUSION
There are many interesting phenomenon on the journey of the Indonesian Islamic
society history. Multiple theories or methodologies also the existing of local wisdom make
the historiography of Indonesian Islamic society becomes colorful. The variation in
historiography of Indonesian Islam shows the space side in historiography of Indonesian
Islam itself can be filled with the other written work and also as reflection material to do the
reposition and redefinition of Indonesian historiography.
REFERENCES
Ali, A. Mukti ( 1985 ) Penulisan Sejarah Islam Indonesia, in Muin Umar dkk( ed ) , Penulisan
Sejarah Islam di Indonesia Dalam Sorotan, Seminar IAIN Sunan kalijaga, Dua Dimensi,
Yogyakarta.
Affandi, Rakhmatullah Ading (1982 ) Dongeng Enteng ti Pasantren, Bandung, Tarate.
Binder, Leonard (1960) The Islamic Tradision and Politic: The Kijaji and The Alim,
Comparative Studies in Society and History. Vol. 2.
Boland, B. J. (1985) Pergumulan Islam di Indonesia, Grafiti Press, Jakarta.

Bouwsma, Elly Touwen (1988) Staat Islam en Lokale Leiders in West Madura, Indonesia,
Kampen.
Bruinessen ,Martin Van ( 1995 ) Kitab Kuning Pesantren and Tarekat, Mizan, Bandung.
Dhofier, Zamakhsyari (1982) Tradisi Pesantren; Studi Tentang Panandgan Hidup Kyai,
LP3ES, Jakarta.
Dobbin, Christine (1980) Islam and Economic Change in Indonesia Circa 1750-1930, in J. J.
Fox, Indonesia: The Making of a Culture, Research School of Economic Studies, The
Australian National University, Canberra.
Djajadiningrat, P. A. A. (1936) Kenang Kenangan, Kolf-Buning Balai Poestaka.
Geertz, Clifford (1960) Islam : Observerd Religious Development in Marocco and Indonesia,
Yale University Press, New York.
Horikoshi, Hiroko (1987) Kyai and Perubahan Sosial, Jakarta, P3M. 1987.
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Iskandar, Mohammad (2001) Para Pengemban Amanah; Pergulatan Pemikiran Kiai and
Ulama di Jawa Barat, 1900 1950, Mata Bangsa, Yogyakarta.
Iskandar, Mohammad (2000) Peranan Elit Agama Pada Masa Revolusi Kemerdekaan
Indonesia, Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, Jakarta.
John, A. H. Islam in Southeast Asia,dalam Indonesia,C.M.I.P, No.19.
Jonge, Huub de (1989) Madu ra Dalam Empat
Ekonomi and Islam, Jakarta, Gramedia.
Zaman:
Perdagangan, Perkembangan
Kemasang A. R. T., (1985) Bagaimana Penjajah Belanda Menghapus Borjuasi Domestik di

Jawa, translated by Ariel Heryanto from the Review IX, 1st of September.
Kartodirdjo, Sartono (1966) The Peasants Revolt in Banten in 1888, The Hague .
Leur, J. C. Van (1960) Indonesian Trade and Society: Essay in Asia Social and Economic
History, Sumur Bandung Edisi 2, Bandung.
Mastuhu, (1994) Dinamika Sistem Pendidikan Pesantren,INIS, Jakarta.
Noer, Deliar (1980) Gerakan Moderen Islam di Indonesia 1900 1942, Jakarta, LP3ES.
Pigeaud, Th. G. and H. J. de Graaf (1985) Kerajaan Kerajaan Islam di Jawa : Peralihan dari
Majapahit ke Mataram, Grafiti Pres, Jakarta.
Priyono , A. E. ( 1991 ) in the Prologue book of Kuntowijoyo, Paradigma Islam Interpretasi

Untuk Aksi, Mizan, Bandung.
Rahardjo, Dawam (1973) Kyai, Pesantren and Desa; Suatu Gambaran Awal, Prisma No. 4
Th. II, 1973; juga Pesantren and Pembaharuan, LP3ES, Jakarta.
Reid, Anthony ( 1988 ) Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Yale University
Press, New Haven and London, 1988.
Ricklefs, M. C. (1986) A History of Modern Indonesia : c 1300 to the Present , Macmillan
Education Ltd.
Rosental, Franz (1968) A History of Muslim Historiography, Leiden, E.J. Brill.
Suryanegara,Ahmad Mansur ( 1995 ) Menemukan Sejarah: Wacana Pergerakan Islam di
Indonesia, Mizan, Bandung.
Stenbrink, Karel A. (1986) Pesantren, Madrasah, Sekolah, Pendidikan Dalam Kurun
Moderen, Jakarta, LP3ES.
Umar, A. Muin (1988)Historiografi Islam, Rajawali Press, Jakarta.
Wallerstein, Immanuel (1974) The Modern World System : Capitalist Agriculture and The
Origin of the European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century, Academic Press, New
York.
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
A REVIEW ON THE CUSTOMER
PERCEIVED SERVICE QUALITY AND PERCEIVED VALUE FOR
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION IN SERVICE INDUSTRY
MS.TULIKA SOOD*; MS. SARIKA SRIVASTAVA**
*Research Scholar,
Jaipur National University,
Jaipur.
**Assistant Professor,
Jaipur National University,
Jaipur.
ABSTRACT
Unlike the quality of tangible goods, the intangible nature of services makes their
quality difficult to measure. Services cannot be subjected to objective quality
control tests before it is provided to the general marketplace; it is only with
experience that we know how consumers perceive the quality of the services they
receive. It is an important basis, which customers use for differentiating between
competitors. Maintaining a consistent standard of quality in service industry
becomes very difficult because of the inherent variability of personnel, as
compared to machines. Service quality concept offers a way of achieving success
among competing services, particularly in case of firms that offer nearly identical
services. The service encounter in Service industry is the most essential as its
service quality is tested at each encounter.
The study is a review of Service Quality, Customer perceived value and Customer
Satisfaction in the Service Industry which are an essential for any Service firm to
achieve a competitive advantage.
KEYWORDS: Customer Perceived Service Quality, Customer perceived value,
Customer Satisfaction, SERVQUAL.
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Kotler has aptly said, It is no longer enough to satisfy customers. You must delight them.
The turn of the century has seen profound changes in the global economy. Services have
played a crucial part in these changes, because services are becoming the way organizations
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meet with their markets. Organizations are already aware that survival no longer exclusively
depends on the products they offer, but also on the additional offerings that they make to their
customers that differentiate them from their competitors (Lovelock and Patterson, 1998:4).
Nowadays, the institutions are focusing on UCP (Unique Customer Perception) rather than
USP (Unique Selling Proposition). According to Peter Drucker, Quality in a service or
product is not what you put into it. It is what the client or customer gets out of it. Hence,
organizations are trying to assess customer perception about the quality of service provided
by the organization. It is now obvious that most economies, the world over, are increasingly
becoming services economies and, therefore, there is a need to manage services in the best
possible way. The service sector growth can been attributed to consumer influence, working
women, DINK, leisure time, greater life expectancy, product innovations, new young youth
and corporate crowd to name a few.
There is increased competition in the service sector with increased presence of a large
number of players in the market place, in the era of globalization. Everyone is trying to have
some competitive advantage. Technology is enabling customers to make comparisons quickly
and accurately and hence Customers are becoming increasingly aware of their expectations,
and demand higher standards of services. Their perceptions and expectations are continually
evolving, making it difficult for service providers to measure and manage services
effectively. For a service based company, fulfilling customer needs are a key source of
income and achieving complete customer satisfaction or rather higher satisfaction than
expected is the only key for the company to succeed and capture advantage.
SERVICE INDUSTRY AND INDIA

Services hold immense potential to accelerate the growth of an economy and promote general
well-being of the people. The service industry forms a backbone of social and economic
development of a region. It has emerged as the largest and fastest-growing sectors in the
world economy, making higher contributions to the global output and employment. Its
growth rate has been higher than that of agriculture and manufacturing sectors. It is a large
and most dynamic part of the Indian economy in terms of both employment potential and
contribution to national income. It covers a wide range of activities, such as trading,
transportation and communication, financial, real estate and business services, as well as
community, social and personal services. In India, services sector, as a whole, contributed as
much as 68.6 per cent of the overall average growth in gross domestic product (GDP)
between the years 2002-03 and 2006-071. In 2009-10, services growth was 10.1 per cent and
in 2010-11(advance estimatesAE) it was 9.6 per cent. Indias services GDP growth has
been continuously above overall GDP growth, pulling up the latter since 1997-98. The
contribution of the services sector to the Indian economy has been manifold: a 55.2 per cent
share in gross domestic product (GDP), growing by 10 per cent annually, contributing to
about a quarter of total employment, accounting for a high share in foreign direct investment
(FDI) inflows and over one-third of total exports, and recording very fast (27.4 per cent)
export growth through the first half of 2010-11.2
Services or the "tertiary sector" of the economy covers a wide gamut of activities like (roads,
railways, and civil aviation), financial services, and social services (health and education),
1
2
Services Sector, http://business.gov.in/Industry_services/services_sector.php

http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2010-11/echap-10.pdf
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construction industry. Different services sub-sectors in India are domestic trade, Hotels and
Restaurants, Railways, Other Transport & Storage, Communication (Post, Telecom),
Banking, Insurance, Dwellings, Real Estate, Business Services, Public Administration;
Defence, Personal Services, Community Services and Other Services3.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1. To understand the Concept of Service and Service Quality and its importance in
Service Industry.
2. To analyze the ways and means of Managing and Measuring Service Quality in a
Service Industry.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Exploratory research method is employed to understand the concepts. The data was collected
from various sources such as Books and Journals. Extensive use of Websites has also enabled
to compile the data.
SERVICES: THE CONCEPT

Services are deeds, acts or performances. Philip Kotler (1996) defines a Service as any act
or performance that one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does not
result in ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a physical product.
One of the first to define services was the American Marketing Association, which as early as
in 1960 defined services as activities, benefits, or satisfactions, which are offered for sale or
provided in connection with the sale of goods. Groonroos(1990) defined a service as an
activity or series of activities of more or less intangible nature that normally, not necessarily,
take place in interactions between the customers an service employees and/or physical
resources or goods and/or systems of the service provider ,which are provided as solutions to
customer problems.
The above definitions clearly show that services deal with intangible components. The
purchase of service does not necessarily result in physical transfer or ownership but still
creates a bundle of benefits during or after the service interaction or experience4. Hence,
services are intangible and cannot be stored. Services have three qualities that are
intangibility, heterogeneity, and inseparability of production and consumption (Parasuraman,
Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985).Due to the intangible nature we cannot also measure services by
such indicators like durability and number of defects (Crosby, 1979). Due to the
heterogeneity, service quality measurement, become more challenging. The unique
characteristics of services namely; Intangibility, Perish ability, Inseparability and Variability
make them different from products and definitely create distinctive challenges for service
marketers in attracting new customers and retaining existing customers.
3
4
http://indiabudget.nic.in/es2010-11/echap-10.pdf
https://ujdigispace.uj.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10210/313/FinalChapter2.pdf?sequence=6
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CHARACTERISTIC OF SERVICES (FIG: I)
MANAGING SERVICE QUALITY
1. SERVICE QUALITY
Service quality has been defined broadly as consumers assessment of the overall excellence
or superiority of the service (Zeithaml et al., 1993). It is viewed as an attitude or global
judgment about the overall excellence of a service, with comparison of expectations and
performance as the measuring tools. For services, the assessment of quality is made during
the service delivery process, which usually takes place with an encounter between a customer
and a service contact person5. Parasuraman et al (1985) proposed service quality to be a
function of pre-purchase customer expectations, perceived process quality, and perceived
output quality. Four primary factors have been identified by Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) as
influencing customers perceptions of service: service encounters or moments of truth, the
evidence of service, image and price; whilst perceived service quality is a consumer
judgment; a form of attitude and results from comparisons consumers make between their
expectations and their perceptions of the actual service performance (Lewis, 1989).
Equation 1: Service quality = f (Perceptions Expectations).
Based on the above equation, Parasuraman and his colleagues developed and proposed the
SERVQUAL instrument as a reliable and valid way to measure the service quality construct.
Hence, Service quality has been conceptualized as the difference between a customers
expectations and the actual performance of the service provider (Parasuraman et al, 1985).
Thus, if perception of the actual service delivered by the supplier falls short of expectation, a
gap is created which should be addressed through strategies that affect the direction either of
expectations or perceptions or both (Parasuraman et al, 1985; Zeithmal et al, 1990) as in
Figure II. When expected service exceeds perceived service, quality is less than satisfactory.
www.ccsenet.org/ibr, International Business Research, Vol. 3, No. 3; July 2010,p.172
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Volumee2,Issue1
10(Octobeer,2012) ISSN22497315
When ex
xpected servvice equals perceived sservice, percceived qualiity is satisfaactory. Wheen
perceived
d service ex
xceeds expected servicee then servicce levels aree more than
n satisfactoryy,
possibly even tendingg towards cu
ustomer pleaasure. Closinng this gap m
might requiree toning dow
wn
the expectations or heightening the percepttion of whaat has actuallly been recceived by thhe
o both.
customerrs or a little of
GAP ANA
ALYSIS(FIG
G II)
vice Quality model identifies five gapps that causee unsuccessfful delivery:
The Serv
1. GAP
G
between
n customer expectation
e
a managem
and
ment percepttion
2. GAP
G
between
n managemeent perceptioon and servicce quality specification
3. GAP
G
between
n service quaality specificcation and seervice deliveery
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4. GAP between service delivery and external communications

5. GAP between perceived service and expected service
As per the figure the first gap is between consumer expectations-management perceptions.
Basically, management may not always put themselves in their customers shoes by not
knowing their customers expectations in advance. The second gap is the management
perceptions-service quality specifications gap. Customers are still not the main focus in the
service firms processes and maybe management commitment is lacking and the stress is
therefore on the wrong service quality standards. Thirdly, the service quality specificationservice delivery gap is considered as the service performance gap. Every single service
delivered by each employee is unique and service firms usually face difficulties to measure or
standardize service delivery. Fourthly, the service delivery-external communications gap
arises. When promises do not match delivery, problems will arise. Four gaps stand in the way
of delivering a service perceived by customers as being of high quality. The gap model
highlights the four organizational gaps which contribute to the fifth gap, namely the
discrepancy between the external customers perceptions and expectations; expectedperceived service.
2. CUSTOMER PERCEIVED SERVICE QUALITY: Customers form service

expectations from many sources, such as experiences, word of mouth and advertising. In
general, customers compare the perceived service with the expected service. If the perceived
service falls below the expected service, customers are disappointed. Successful companies
add benefits to their offerings that not only satisfy customers but surprise and delight them.
Delighting customers is a matter of exceeding expectations. (Gronroos, 1984) defined service
quality as follows:
the perceived quality of a given service will be the outcome of an evaluation process,
where the consumer compares his expectations with the service he perceives he has received,
i.e. he puts the perceived service against the expected service. The result of this process will
be the perceived quality of the service.
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Let us identify the Service Quality concept by Groonroos

CONSUMER PERCEPTION OF TECHNICAL AND FUNCTIONAL QUALITY
(FIG:II)
Service Expectations
Service Quality
Dependent on
Advertising, Word of
Mouth, and Past
Experiences
The difference
between service
expectations &
perceived standard of
delivery.
Perceived Standard
of Delivery
Corporate Image
Quality judgment also
influenced by
opticians image.
Technical Quality
The relatively quantifiable aspects
of a service, which consumers
receive in their interaction with
the service firm
Functional quality
The way in which the service is
delivered in relation to staff,
that includes attitude and
behavior, appearance and
personality etc
Source: Gronroos (1983a)

He (1993) claimed that a customers perceptions of the service encounter consider three
dimensions: process or functional quality; outcome or technical quality and the image of the
service provider. Gronroos also described these three distinct but interrelated dimensions as
follows:
Technical quality is the outcome of the exchange process, e.g. what is received by customer.
The functional quality of the exchange process is how the service is provided, including all
interactions between the organization and customer (Gronroos, 1982; 1983). The functional
service quality dimension consists of seven attributes that are process-related. These are
employees behavior, attitude, accessibility, appearance, customer contact, internal
relationship and service mindedness. The technical dimension consists of five output-related
attributes: these are employees technical ability, employees knowledge, technical solutions,
computerized systems, and machine quality (Gronroos, 1982; 1983). The third dimension of
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service quality, image is described by Gronroos (1982) as the customers general perception
of the supplier.
3. CUSTOMER SATISFACTION: Customer satisfaction is the state of mind that
customers have about a company when their expectations have been met or exceeded over the
lifetime of the product or service (Kevin Cacioppo, 1995 and Kumbhar, 2010). Customer
satisfaction is a key factor in formation of customers desires for future purchase (Mittal &
Kamakura, 2001). Furthermore, the satisfied customers will probably talk to others about
their good experiences. Satisfaction is best defined as an evaluation between what was
received and what was expected (Parker & Mathews, 2001). When customers pay money to
buy a service he has some minimum expectations from the transaction. These expectations
from the purchase have to be met substantially, if not entirely for the customer to become a
loyal customer of the service (Akbar and Parvez, 2009). There is no single definition of
satisfaction. Satisfaction can be considered as some thing related with Post purchase
evaluation. Post- purchase intention means that consumer will purchase you service again
(Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). Customer satisfaction can be created through high
services quality (Donald J. Shemwell, 1988). Hence, providing quality service is considered
an essential strategy for success in todays competitive environment (A.Parasuraman, 1985;
Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996).
4. MEASURING SERVICE QUALITY

Measuring service quality is difficult due to its unique characteristics: Intangibility,
heterogeneity, inseparability and perish ability (Bateson, 1995). Service quality is linked to
the concepts of perceptions and expectations (Parasuraman et al., 985, 1988; Lewis and
Mitchell, 1990). Customers perceptions of service quality result from a comparison of their
before-service expectations with their actual service experience. The service will be
considered excellent, if perceptions exceed expectations; it will be regarded as good or
adequate, if it only equals the expectations; the service will be classed as bad, poor or
deficient, if it does not meet them (Vzquez et al., 2001). Based on this perspective,
Parasuraman et al. developed a scale for measuring service quality, which is mostly popular
known as SERVQUAL. This scale operationalizes service quality by calculating the
difference between expectations and perceptions, evaluating both in relation to the 22 items
that represent five service quality dimensions known as tangibles, reliability,
responsiveness, assurance and empathy.
The SERVQUAL scale has been tested and/or adapted in a great number of studies conducted
in various service settings, cultural contexts and geographic locations. The universality of the
scale and its dimensions has also been the subject of criticisms (Lapierre et al.,1996) and it is
suggested that they require customization to the specific service sector in which they are
applied. Parasuraman & Zeithaml, SERVQUAL, 1988, provided a multiple frame work to
measure service quality which is called SERVQUAL. Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985,
gave ten dimensions. These dimensions are reliability, responsiveness, tangibles, security,
competence, creditability, access, communication, access, and understanding of customer.
After some time they conducted another research to clarify the concept of quality and
produced 22 items scale to measure service quality. In this scale they minimized dimensions
to only five. These were Assurance, Empathy, Tangibles, reliability and responsiveness,
(Parasuraman & Zeithaml, SERVQUAL, 1988).
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Five Broad Dimensions of Service Quality are:

Tangibles :
materials
Appearance of physical facilities, equipment, personnel and written
Reliability :
Ability to perform the promised service dependably and accurately
Responsiveness :
Willingness to help customers and provide prompt service
Assurance :
and confidence
Empathy :
individualized
Employees knowledge and courtesy and their ability to inspire trust
Caring, easy access, good /communication, customer understanding and

attention given to cutomers
Source: Adapted from Zeithaml et al. (1990)

This SERVQUAL scale is the most popular in checking service quality across many service
sectors due to its generic nature.
Dimensions of Service Quality (Fig III)
Influencing Expectation
Word of Mouth
Personal Needs Past Experience External Communication
Dimensions of
Expected Service
Service Quality
(ES)
Perceived Service Quality
Tangibility
ES<PS (Highly satisfied)
Empathy
ES=PS (Satisfied)
Reliability
ES>PS (Unsatisfied)
Assurance
Perceived Service
Responsiveness
Adapted from A. Parasuram, V.A Zeithaml & LL Berry , 1985
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5. CUSTOMER PERCEIVED VALUE (CPV)

Consumers today are more educated and informed than ever and they have the tools to verify
companies claims and seek out alternatives. How then do customers ultimately make
choices? Customers estimate which offer will deliver the most perceived value and act on it.
Whether the offer lives up to the expectations affects customer satisfaction and the
probability that the customer will purchase the product again. Perceived value can be defined
as the consumers overall assessment of the utility of a product based on perceptions of what
is received and what is given (Zeithaml 1988 p.14). Perceived value is often mixed with
customer satisfaction in literature but both are different. The main difference is that perceived
value can occur at any stage of purchase, including repurchase (Woodruf f R., 1997), but
satisfaction is considered as post purchase evaluation (Oliver, 1981). Perceived value is
defined as monetary terms by many authors (Zeithaml V. 1988) presented four dimension of
value. These are low price, what customer demand, value is quality received for the price
paid and final dimension is related with what customer get reference and how much they
paid. But (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001; Petric J. A., 2002) presented perceived value as
multidimensional. They provide four sub dimensions of perceived value which are quality,
emotional, social, functional value. .
Customer Perceived Value (CPV) is the difference between the prospective customers
evaluation of all the benefit and all the costs of an offering and perceived alternatives
(Fig:IV)
Total Customer Benefit is the perceived monetary value of the bundle of economic,
functional, and psychological benefits customer expects from a given market offering
because of the products, services, personnel and image involved.
Total Customer Cost is the perceived bundle of costs customer expect to incur in evaluating,
obtaining, using and disposing of the given market offering, including monetary, time, energy
and psychological costs. Hence, CPV is the difference between what the customer gets and
what he or she gives for different possible choices. The customer gets benefits and assumes
costs.
AJRSH
DETERMINANTS OF CPV: KOTLER, (2000) (FIG IV)

Product Value
Total Customer
Value/Benefit
Customer Perceived
Value
Service Value
Personnel Value
Image Value
Total Customer
Cost
Monetary Cost
Time Cost
Energy Cost
Psychic Cost
CONCLUSION
In order to ensure a successful service delivery experience, having access and efficient
technology tools are not enough. The service provider: the organization or management need
to know the criteria that are compatible to the employees in the environment that they are in.
The Increased focus on customer expectations and perceptions is what is important for
marketers. This is the key to developing and delivering service offerings which the customers
will value. Emphasis on service quality measurement reflects the importance good companies
place on their ability to quantify and measure services quality as they strive to build customer
loyalty and evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of service offerings. Hence it is utmost
necessary that the service sector effectively identifies customers needs and requirements,
provide value for the money spent by the consumer and maintain Service quality in the
service delivery encounter.
The review of the various determinants shows how companies can deliver customer value,
satisfaction and loyalty.
REFERENCES
1. Ahmed Affiane, Sungip ZalinaAn Assessment on Service Quality in Malaysia
Insurance Industry : Communications of the IBIM , Volume 1, 2008
2. Awan Hayat Muhammad, Zafarullah Muhammad K, Bukhari Khuram S,
Relationship between service Quality, perceived Value, satisfaction and revisit
intentions in hotel industry, Pakistan, Elsevier Editorial System(tm) for Tourism
Management, Manuscript Number: JTMA-D-11-00053
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3. Bakshi Mangla, Kumar CS, Assessment of customers perceived service quality in

financial services industry :Bimaquest - Vol. VIII Issue II, July 2008
4. Bhandari Deepak, Sharma Amit (2011), Marketing of Services, Vrinda Publications
(P) Ltd, pp. 3-20
5. Caruana, A. (2002). Service Loyalty: The Effects of Service Quality and the
Mediating role of Customer Satisfaction. European Journal of Marketing, 36(7), 811828
6. Dinesh S, Arivazhagan R, Moorthy Nadana N Assessment of perceived service
quality in reliance life insurance company limited at South Tamilnadu : Indian
Journal of Commerce & Management Studies, VolII , Issue -2 March 2011
7. Mosahab Rahim, Mahamad Osman, Ramayah TService Quality, Customer
Satisfaction and Loyalty: A Test of Mediation : International Business Research
Vol. 3, No. 4; October 2010
8. Naik Krishna, Gantasala Swapna Bhargavi, Prabhakar gantasala, Service Quality
(Servqual) and its Effect on Customer Satisfaction in Retailing : European Journal of
Social Sciences Volume 16, Number 2 (2010)
9. Parasuraman.A, Berry Leonard l, Refinement and Reassessment of the SERVQUAL
scale : Journal Of Retailing, Vol 67, Number1, 1991
10. Siddiqui Dr. Masood H, Khand Vineet, Measuring the Customer Perceived Service
Quality for Life Insurance Services: An Empirical Investigation: International
Business Research, Vol. 3, No. 3; July 2010
11. Service Quality (Servqual) and its Effect on Customer Satisfaction in Retailing,
European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 16, Number 2 (2010).
12. Upadhyaya Deepika, Badlani Manish Service Quality Perception and Customer
Satisfaction in Life Insurance Companies in India : International Conference on
Technology and Business Management, March 28-30, 2011
13. Verma Harsh V Relative Importance of Service Quality Dimensions: A Multisectoral
Study : Journal of Service Research, Vol 4, No 1(April-September 2004)
14. Wu Kuang-Wen Customer Loyalty Explained by Electronic Recovery Service
Quality: Implications of the Customer Relationship Re-Establishment for Consumer
Electronics E-Tailers: Contemporary Management Research, P.21-44, Vol. 7, No. 1,
March 2011
15. BIMA QUEST-Vol VIII, Issue II, July 2008)
16. International Journal of Bank Marketing;Vol. 24 No. 5, 2006 ,pp. 266-283q
17. Indian Journal of Commerce & Management Studies ISSN 2229-5674)
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18. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 21, Number 4 (2011)

19. Health Services Research,,January 17, 1991.
20. Service Marketing, Himalaya Publishing House, 2002
21. Marketing Management, Pearson Education, 2009
22. IC-33 Life Insurance (Revised) ,2005
23. Delivering
quality
service:
Balancing
expectations, Free press (March 25, 2009)
customer
24. www.ccsenet.org/ibr
25. www.scholarshub.net
26. www.scribd.com
27. www.emeraldinsight.com
28. www.irda.gov.in
29. www.amazon.com
30. www.business.gov.in/Industry_services/services_sector.php
perceptions
and
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Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
LAND AND PROPERTY RIGHTS OF WOMEN IN INDIAN SOCIETY
DR. LATA MARINA VARGHESE*
*Associate Professor,
PG Department of English,
Catholicate College,
Pathanamthitta, Kerala.
ABSTRACT
All human beings are entitled to certain basic rights that define a meaningful
existence. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was formulated
by the United Nation in 1948 to safeguard and promote human rights at the
global level. Since then various human rights treatise have been established to
safeguard the interest of the minorities and the marginalized sections of society
including women. Womens human right is a revolutionary notion. During the
UN Decade for Women (1976-85), apart from establishing universal standards to
promote and protect womens rights, the United Nations held four international
conferences on women for achieving gender equality, including that of
inheritance rights(land and property rights). However, in Indian society, within
the family, gender constructs creates gender roles leading to gender
discrimination. In addition, the Personal Laws have often been exploited to the
disadvantage of women, although it is hoped that the Uniform Family Code
(UFC) will take into account the anomalies within the existing laws. In India,
agriculture is the main source of livelihood and land is an essential element of
identity. Land rights are civil rights of fundamental importance to an individual
and it does not merely mean ownership rights. For most women, especially in the
rural context, land is their only source of livelihood. While women in India have
the legal right to own land, very few do. For those women who do own land,
ownership rarely translates into control of the land or of the assets flowing from
the land. It is against this background I wish to examine the Land and Property
Rights of Women in Indian Society.
KEYWORDS: Human rights, Women, Land and Property rights, Indian society.
_________________________________________________________________________
AJRSH
INTRODUCTION
Human beings are entitled to certain basic and natural rights that define a meaningful
existence. Equal dignity of all persons is the central tenet of human rights. The League of
Nations having failed in enforcing and safeguarding international peace and security, it was
only in the aftermath of the gruesome Second World War that the need to acknowledge and
safeguard human rights was articulated at the global level in the form of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights(UDHR) in 1948. One of the main goals of the United Nations
is to promote and encourage respect for human rights. Article 1 of the Universal declaration
states that All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights, without
distinction of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status(Aricle2 UDHR). In 1966, the United Nations
General Assembly adopted the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), which
together formed the International Bill of Human Rights. This bill laid the foundation for the
formulation and adoption of human rights treaties which incorporated concerns relating to
equality, non-discrimination, education, health, social security, administration of justice,
social development, violence against women, and the status of refugees and minorities.
Womens human right is a revolutionary notion. The first concerted assertion of the
rights of women came in the form of the Declaration of Sentiments in 1848, when under the
leadership of Elizabeth Cady Stanton, women demanded equal rights. Thereafter the liberal
feminist movement secured the right to vote, right to access educational institutions, right to
secure employment, and right to equal pay for equal work, amongst many other rights. The
Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action of 1993 (which was the outcome of the World
Conference on Human Rights) promoted womens rights as Human rights. It emphasized that
human rights of women and girls was an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal
human rights. A womans human rights framework equips women with a way to define,
analyze, and articulate their experiences of violence, degradation and marginality. During the
UN Decade for Women (1976-85), apart from establishing universal standards to promote
and protect womens rights, the United Nations held four international conferences on
women- at Mexico city in 1975, at Copenhagen in 1980, at Nairobi in 1985 and in Beijing in
1995, which has set new bench marks for the advancement of women and achievement of
gender equality. The equality of rights is also explicitly asserted in the three Articles of the
UN Charter. The Charters provisions on womens equality offer a clear and compelling basis
for asserting advancement of the political and legal status of women. But in spite of all such
provisions women are not treated equally at the global level. To redress these inequalities the
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
was established in 1976. But even CEDAW acknowledges that discrimination against women
which violates the principles of equality of rights and respect for human dignity has not
abated in many countries. This, in turn, has affected the development of family and society as
a whole.
Women empowerment, equal rights to men and women, equal share of property,
etc., are some of the issues which are discussed every day, but the stark reality is that these
issues are still unresolved. Not much has actually been done to create equality between the
male and female gender, especially regarding land and property rights. Why do women need
to own land? is one of the first questions often asked. According to Article 17 of the
Universal Declaration a) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in
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association with others, b) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of property. But women who
perform two-third of the worlds work earn only one-tenth of all income and own less than
1/10 th of the worlds property. Almost seventy percent of the worlds people living in
poverty are women. Many women live in landless or near-landless households and even when
a womans family owns land, she rarely personally owns any fraction of the land. So women
remain economically disadvantaged which makes them vulnerable to violence perpetuated by
patriarchal ideology.
Human rights have evolved and developed as a reaction to oppressive institutions,

politics, and practices. Based on Aristotles notion that equals are entitled to equal things,
and that formal equality is a principle of equal treatment, the Indian Constitution guarantees
and posits formal equality under Articles 14, 15, and 16. Although Article 15(1) of the Indian
Constitution prohibits all forms of discrimination, however under Article 15 (3) power is
vested in the State to make special provisions for women and children. The National Human
Rights Commission of India (NHRC) established under the Protection of Human Rights Act,
1993, together with the State Human Rights Commission, inquires into and investigates
complaints of human violations. Owing to the overwhelming patriarchal structure of Indian
Society, women have been relegated to a secondary status and have been subject to various
legal and social discriminations. The framers of the Constitution having recognized the need
to remove such inequities made special provision to redress the same. The National
Commission for Women (NCW) was thus established under the National Commission for
Women Act in 1990. The NCW as a statutorily constituted body is empowered to consider
matters relating to deprivation of womens rights. However, in India, within the family,
gender constructs creates gender roles leading to gender discrimination. Further, personal
laws provided different set of rights and obligations which has lead to further discrimination
amongst women belonging to different religions thereby violating the right to equality
enshrined in Articles 14 and 15 of the Indian Constitution. The Uniform Family Code (UFC)
nonetheless, it is hoped, will incorporate the positive aspects of all personal laws and take
into account the anomalies within the existing laws.
Most of the worlds estimated 1.4 billion poorest people are still rural. Yet the
majority lack ownership (or any secure rights) to the land that is their principal source of
livelihood. Land empowers. Its significance lies in its self determination, identity and
economic security of an individual. Land rights are civil rights of fundamental importance to
an individual and it does not merely mean ownership rights. In India, agriculture is the main
source of livelihood and land is an essential element of identity. Collective rights and
community control are seen as hallmarks of this identity, guaranteed by the Fifth and Sixth
Schedules of the Constitution of India. In principle, collective rights can promote gender
equality by guaranteeing all members of the community access to land. In practice, however,
it doesnt necessarily work in this way, as landed property has historically been linked with
male identity. Therefore womens demand to land is seen by many men as disrupting the
struggle to establish a collective identity and gain collective rights (Rao 10). Hence the
discourse of community is often used to deny women access to land as individuals. The
assertion by women to their rights is a demand for recognition but it is construed as a
challenge to male authority that needs to be controlled. Men therefore struggle to reshape
their identities and masculinities by engaging in aggressive behavior to ensure discipline
(Osella et al. 2004). Women who publicly assert their rights to land are therefore branded as
dain(witch) in north India, especially in Bihar and West Bengal, and are harassed and
killed(Mishra 2003). Hence, in the struggle for land rights it is becoming increasingly clear
AJRSH
that it is critical for women to win land rights for establishing more equal gender relations,
both within and outside the house.
India has a long history of land struggles. The first land struggle in India to explicitly
take up the issue of womens rights to land was led by the Chhatra Yuva Sangharsh Vahini in
Bodhgaya district in Bihar in 1979. But when the lands were finally distributed the titles of
land were in the names of men, with the exception of some widows. The women who had
participated in the struggle felt it was unjust and persisted with their claims, leading
ultimately to their getting the titles, countering multiple tiers of resistance, from the family,
and the community, including male activists, the state and the bureaucracy in the process.
Another successful land struggle was from Maharashtra in 1980, where male farmers were
persuaded to voluntarily transfer a piece of their land in their wifes name. In 2002 Janu, a
tribal woman leader of Waynad district of Kerala had exposed patriarchal biases in the landreforms implemented in Kerala. In Gujarat, womens organizations had formed a coalition to
pressurize the state to ensure land-right for women. Since the late 1970s and early 1980s,
peasant women and grassroots activist had raised the issue of womens independent land
rights within mass- based peasant movements. The Agricultural Policy of India, 2000 made
an explicit link between womens rights to land and the household food security, especially
the children (Tenth Plan, Section 4,1-60). A major reason for this shift in policy was the
increasing visibility of womens participation in the agricultural labour force because with
rising population and growing pressure on land, diversification of livelihood had become
essential for survival. And with men moving into non-farm activities or having migrated,
women were left behind to tend the land, although ironically, they had no right or control
over it.
Womens human rights include their right to land and property which is a critical
factor in determining their social status, economic wellbeing and empowerment. Married
women in India, especially in northwest India, unlike their brothers do not inherit the
ancestral land. In Maharashtra, rural women divorced or deserted by their husband are forced
to work as agricultural labourers on the farms of their brothers who are substantial
landowners. Elsewhere in India, there are similar cases of widows who, deprived of their
rightful shares by prosperous brothers or brother-in-laws, have been left destitute and forced
to seek wage work or even beg for survival. Although women have struggled for and won
rights to inherit and control land, few own land, and fewer have effective control over it. In
most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, nor do they get a
share of parental property. According to the Indian Succession Act, 1925, everyone is entitled
to equal inheritance. But women continue to have little access to land and property due to
various reasons.
In India, the property rights of the Hindu women are highly fragmented on the basis of
several factors apart from religion and the geographical region to which they belong. Property
rights of Hindu women also vary depending on the status of the woman in the family and her
marital status. Today the property rights of Hindus are governed by the Hindu Succession Act
of 1956(applicable to all states except Jammu and Kashmir). However the Act has special
provision for Hindu matrilineal communities. The Act does not cover the communities of the
northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland,
where local customs prevail. Nonetheless, the Act sought to unify the Mitakshara and
Dayabhaga systems, and purported to lay down a law of succession whereby sons and
daughters would enjoy equal inheritance rights, as would brothers and sisters, although
AJRSH
gender inequalities continue. To redeem this, in Kerala the Kerala Joint Hindu Family system
(Abolition) Act of 1976 deemed all family members with an interest in the Hindu Undivided
family estate as holding their shares separately as full owners from then onwards. Andhra
Pradesh in 1986 and Tamil Nadu in 1989 have amended the Hindu Succession Act to
recognize unmarried daughters as coparceners by birth in their own right, giving them claims
equal to those of sons in joint family property. But the Hindu Womens Right to Property Act
of 1937 did not apply to agricultural land. Womens legal rights to agricultural land still
continue to show vast disparity by region. Some states acted to equalize the intestate
inheritance rights of women under the Succession Act. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, and Maharashtra extend co-parcenar rights at birth to daughters, and Kerala abandoned
the concept of joint family property altogether. However, the amendments do not reach
daughters who married before the amendments came into effect, and wives are not granted
any right to joint family property.
Muslim womens inheritance rights in India show a marked divergence historically
between scriptural texts and customs. But unlike the Hindu texts, the Koran gave women
significant inheritance rights, including in land, although these rights were unequal to mens,
except in matrilineal communities. Under the Muslim Personal Law (Shariat) Application Act
of 1937, prevailing customs or usage were abrogated by explicitly excluding from its purview
agricultural land which constituted the bulk of property held by the Muslim community. Once
again it was the women who had to suffer loss, although after Independence, in Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh, the Act was amended in 1949 to include agricultural land; in 1963,
Kerala did the same. But in several states of northwest India like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, the Act has not been amended to include agricultural land,
and customs prevailing prior to the Act(along with land reform laws) still govern the
succession of such land, as they do in Jammu and Kashmir(which was not covered by the
Act). The intestacy rights of Muslims, who constitute approximately 12 percent of the
population, are governed by Muslim Personal Law, as set forth in the Muslim Personal Law
(Shariat) Application Act of 1937. The Act grants widows and daughters who are in the same
relation as a male family member to the deceased half the share of property received by the
male family member. The Act prohibits a Muslim man from bequeathing more than one-third
of his property by will, so he cannot completely disinherit his spouse and female children.
The laws for Christians vary according to domicile. For instance, Christians from
Goa are governed by the Portuguese Civil Code; those from Cochin and Travancore (Kerala),
till recently by the Cochin Christian Succession Act of 1921, and The Travancore Christian
Succession Act of 1916, respectively. However it was only in 1983 that the Travancore Act
of 1916 was challenged in the Supreme Court by Mary Roy (mother of Arundhati Roy) on
the ground that it violated the Constitutional guarantee of equal rights for both sexes. The
Supreme Court upheld that after the inclusion of Travancore and Cochin within the Indian
Union, the relevant laws governing Christians in those regions was the ISA of 1925 and by
this judgment the Travancore-Cochin Succession Act of 1916 stood superseded by the ISA
Act of 1925, with retrospective effect from 1951. One effect of this judgment was that
daughters and sons can now share equally in the fathers property although in most cases
women prefer to waive away their land and property rights in favour of their brother/s for the
sake of access to natal homes in cases of marital discord. Research show that what is striking
in overall terms is that in all states, including Kerala, a significant majority of women,
although legally eligible, do not inherit as daughters (Agarwal 253).
AJRSH
In some tribal communities, unmarried daughters customarily have usufruct rights to

land, as among the Ho and Santal tribals of Bihar in Eastern India. In capacities other than as
daughters and widows, women (especially among Hindus) virtually never get land. It is rare
for a sister to inherit. Against this backdrop, it is important to understand that the
disinheritance of women as daughters is a critical gender issue which cannot be made up even
if womens rights as widows are fully recognized, for widows constitute only a small
percentage of rural female population. Hence once disinherited as daughters, most rural
women for major part of their lives would have no land of their own, while inheritance of
males as sons are well recognized. The erosion of womens customary rights and the
increasing incidence of land related witch killings is particularly apparent among a number
of tribal communities in Bihar such as Santal, Ho and Munda. Now- a- days incidences of
witch killing has become a means of preventing women in these communities from
exercising their customary claims in land.
Apart from the attitudes of kith and kin, a significant determinant of womens ability
to exercise their legal rights is the male bias in administrative and judicial bodies. Ironically
even in matrilineal communities, jural authority rested with men. In the post-colonial period,
attempts have been made to democratize the system with the setting up of the Panchayti Raj
in 1950s in an attempt to increase female representation at the local level bodies. But Gram
panchayats ruling in northwest India have been observed to favour the view that family
property should be inherited by sons and not their daughters (Agarwal 279).
Womens contribution to the economy and society at large remains unrecognized,
largely underpaid and mostly unpaid. Therefore womens struggle around land represents
their struggle to gain social identity as complete beings and not just home-makers. For most
women, especially in the rural context, land is their only source of livelihood. Unfortunately
most women waive their rights to the land dependent as they are on male protection, in times
of distress. It is also equally important to recognize that womens claims for land have always
been different from those of men. So while some women support womens rights as central to
their economic survival, others oppose them, depending on their perceptions of what they
have to gain or lose. Although in India there is considerable legislation to support womens
rights with Articles 14, 15 and 16 making equality before the law a Fundamental Right to
every citizen of the country, the claims for equality can be conflicting, as the claims of some
would be recognized over others, in a context of limited resources. Research, nevertheless,
shows that womens capacity to access and use land is important for economic growth and
for poverty reduction.
CONCLUSION
In a predominantly male dominated society that makes up this world, there is no
doubt that women have always been discriminated against. The gender-biases are deep rooted
and are reflected in womens lack of access to and control over land and property in
particular. While women in India have the legal right to own land, very few do. For those
women who do own land, ownership rarely translates into control of the land or of the assets
flowing from the land. Establishing and clarifying womens land rights through
formalization, which till recently had been neglected in both research and policy, has
therefore become a key issue in development policies which aim to promote more productive
uses of land. Women who own land are significantly more likely to have the final say in
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household decisions, which is a measure of their empowerment. When women have access
and secure rights to land, they are better able to improve the lives of their families and
themselves. So improving womens land rights makes a powerful contribution to household
food security. Gender equality in land rights is thus both a livelihood objective in itself and a
powerful means of eradicating poverty. But Indian women still have a long way to travel
before attaining equality in land and property rights. In a country where women continue to
be property themselves, the right to land and property is still seen as insurmountable.
WORKS CITED
Agarwal, Bina. A Field of Ones own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Bhuimali, Anil(ed). Poverty and Human Rights of Women. New Delhi: Serials Publications,
2005.
Mishra, S., Casting the Evil Eye: Witch Trials in Tribal India. New Delhi: Namita Gokhala
Editions, 2003.
OByrne, Darren J. Human Rights-An Introduction (2003).India: Dorling Kindersley
Pub,2007.
Osella, Filippo and Caroline Osella. Social Mobility in Kerala: Modernity and Identity in
Conflict, London: Pluto, 2000.
Rao, Nitya., Good Women Do Not Inherit Land-Politics of Land and Gender in India, New
Delhi: Orient BlackSwan & Social Science Press, 2008.
Saradamoni K. Changing Land Relations and Women: A case study of Palghat district,
Kerala, in Vina Mazumdar (ed.) Women and Rural Transformation: Two Studies. New
Delhi: Concept Publishing Co, 1983.
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
TRAGEDY OF MACBETH: OVERAMBITION TO FIASCO
MS. PIU SARKAR*
*Research Scholar,
University of Burdwan &
Part-time Lecturer in English,
Guskara Mahavidyalaya,
Burdwan, W.B. India.
ABSTRACT
Shakespeares Macbeth hinges on the theme of how insatiable and indomitable
thirst for power inevitably culminates in the destruction of the eponymous hero
who despite his villainous action and treacherous deed captures the readers
admiration for his mental anguish due to constant wavering between spurs of
ambition and the stings of compunction. Forced to commit a series of heinous
crimes under the spell of equivocal prediction and vaulting ambition, Macbeth all
throughout his life has been haunted by a terrible sense of guilt and has failed to
taste the glory of kingship. Inspite of his perfidy to King Duncan and treason to
Banquo, Macbeth can neither be ascribed as a cold-blooded murderer nor does
his suffering produce the effect of poetic justice. Instead, his spiritual torment,
feelings of stark disillusionment, apathetic attitude towards life and profound
sorrow at the loss of moral values contribute to his tragic grandeur and
transform him from an ostensible villain to a pathetic figure. In this article an
endeavour has been taken to analyze Macbeths character, his vacillating mind
and to trace the factors responsible for his fiasco.
Key Words: Overambition, Prophecy, Compunction, Accomplice, Eponymous, Soliloquy.
_______________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Shakespeares magnum opus Macbeth has marvellously portrayed the eponymous heros
conscious departure from the path of goodness towards the mysterious world of evil and has
captured vividly the moral decline, mental agony and psychological trauma that accompany
him throughout his doomed life. Unlike Shakespeares other tragedies that precede it,
Macbeth is unique in its representation of the protagonists dilemma between conscience and
desire, reason and passion, and in its powerful evocation of readers sympathy towards
Macbeth, who emerges as the bonafide hero of a tragedy instead of being labelled a villain, a
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tyrant or an antagonist of the play. If Hamlet highlights procrastination as the cause behind
Hamlets tragic failure to revenge upon his fathers unnatural death, Othello considers
jealousness as the prime factor beneath Othellos suspicion and killing of Desdemona, King
Lear pivots on the story of filial ingratitude, Macbeth becomes an unparalleled creation of
Shakespeares artistic genius in its characterization of Macbeth and his insatiable thirst for
power, his overriding ambition and the inevitable and dreadful consequences that ultimately
led him to limbo. What lends Macbeth a completely different flavour is the fact that neither
Macbeth disregarded the beckoning of kingship, fuelled by the witches ambiguous prophecy
nor did he manage to retain his goodness for his overambitious craze for crown and
ultimately all his efforts were ended in smoke in the riddle of power and compunction.
PLOT IN BRIEF
With its startling opening in an ambience of thunder and lightning that introduces the three
weird sisters rhyming in unison: Fair is foul, and foul is fair/ Hover through the fog and
filthy air (I.i), Macbeth surpasses other Shakespearean tragedies successfully as well as
prepares the readers for an atmosphere of evil and mystery that looms large the entire play.
The inauspicious presence of the witches and their equivocal words, juxtaposing fair and
foul, not only signify a blurring of good and evil but also foreshadow their spiritual kinship
with Macbeth, the valiant warrior of King Duncans empire. On their way of return after a
grand victory, Macbeth, accompanied by Banquo, is hailed as Thane of Glamis, Thane of
Cawdor and the future King of Scotland respectively by the three witches. While the
prophecy ignites his most cherished desire of heart, Duncans declaration of Malcolm as the
crown prince at once dethrones Macbeth from his regal dream. However, unable to quell his
ambitious mind, Macbeth ultimately commits the grave crime of regicide with Lady Macbeth
as his perfect accomplice. But attaining kingship does not provide Macbeth the happiness and
peace of mind and he cannot evade the retribution of conscience. Once embarking on the path
of crime eventually leads him to commit series of murder to justify himself and also to ensure
his throne power. But Macbeths deeds of violence give him in turn only suffering, torment
of mind, a profound sense of futility and a life emptied of meaning. His relentless wrestling
against his conscience and his feelings of anguish towards his own acts of crime help to
accentuate his tragic dignity instead of merely degenerating him into a cold-blooded villain.
Macbeths clear understanding of his failure despite all finally brings his destruction in the
hands of Macduff while Lady Macbeth has already succumbed to her sense of guilt and
wrongdoing, after suffering miserably from psychological trauma that has followed her active
role in the assassination of Duncan.
ANALYZING MACBETHS CHARACTER: HIS SOLILOQUIES & ASIDES
Cyril Tourneur in his play The Revengers Tragedy puts forth his view regarding tragedy
that When the bad bleed, then is the tragedy good. But Shakespeares Macbeth reverses the
view in highlighting Macbeth as a person deliberately embarking in horrid deeds and very
much conscious about the grave consequences of his crime and still Macbeth emerges as the
tragic hero drawing readers sympathy in his sufferings. Instead of feeling elated at the
punishment and atonement of the evil-doer, the readers of Macbeth experience an admixture
of pain and compassion for Macbeth in his utmost distress and agony. When Macbeth bleeds,
the readers equally bleed. The sting of conscience that continually pricks Macbeth in the
midst of his crime is what contributes to Macbeths tragic dignity.
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The overwhelming prophecy of the witches astonishes Macbeth as well as fuels his lust for
power, as he ponders over: Two truths are told,/ As happy prologues to the swelling act/ Of
the imperial theme (I.iii), but he does not want to adopt any unfair means: If chance will
have me King, why, / chance may crown me, / without my stir (I.iii). Malcolms nomination
as the heir to the royal throne gives a jerk to Macbeths ambitious thoughts: The Prince of
Cumberland! That is a step/ On which I must fall down, or else oerleap,/ For in my way it
lies (I.v). The following statement Stars, hide your fires/ Let not light see my black and
deep desires (I.v) conforms to Macbeths evil intentions, bolstered by his inordinate
ambition. Rightly does Duncan enunciate the ironical words: Theres no art/ To find the
minds construction in the face (I.iv). Duncans arrival at Inverness provides Macbeth a
golden chance to actualize his murderous thoughts but he cannot keep at bay the conflict
between his gratitude to the king and his own ambition to be the king, between the right and
the wrong: But in these cases/ We still have the judgement here; that we but teach/ Bloody
instructions, which, being taught, return/ To plague th inventor: this even-handed justice/
Commends th ingredients of our poisoned/ chalice/ To our own lips(I.vii).
The thought of crime in the form of regicide and treason to Duncan brings to Macbeths mind
its violent repercussion among the people of Scotland: pity, like a naked new-born babe,/
Striding the blast, or heavens cherubin horsed/ Upon the sightless couriers of the air/ Shall
blow the horrid deed in every eye,/ That tears shall drown the wind (I.vii). Again Macbeth
acknowledges that Duncan, his guest, is in double trust (I.vii) and being the host, Macbeth
should against the murderer shut the door/ not bear the knife (I.vii) himself. The reference
to the knife or dagger finds a veritable shape in his imagination when he determines to
accomplish the task of Duncans murder. The fatal and nightmarish vision of a dagger,
pointing towards Duncans chamber, is actually a figment of his heat-oppressed brain and a
symbolic representation of his future role as a murderer, not as the protector of Scotland.
Although the visionary knife, dipped in blood, is a false creation of Macbeths guilt-ridden
mind, it conspicuously highlights the eternal combat between the spur of ambition and the
restraining force of conscience, present in Macbeth. Not only that, the imaginary dagger is
the external manifestation of Macbeths acute moral sense which hinders him from advancing
in his journey towards self-damnation. In this regard it is worth noting that Macbeth suffers
not less before he commits his first heinous crime. Quite expectedly after the sacrilegious
murder of King Duncan, Macbeth becomes unhinged and frantically screams: What hands
are here? Ha! They pluck out mine eyes!/ Will all great Neptunes ocean wash this blood/
Clean from my hand? (II.ii). The intensity of emotion in his pensive cry externalizes the
profundity of sorrow at his moral defeat.
From now on the more Macbeth commits crime, the more he becomes his own tormentor. To
overcome the violent feelings of guilt, he determines to toughen himself in deeds of crime:
My strange and self-abuse/ Is the initiate fear that wants hard use/ We are yet but young in
deed (III.iv). When the appalling sight of Banquos ghost seems to unnerve him, he resolves
to plunge himself deeper into fresh acts of murder and slaughter. In this context Walter Curry
wisely observes: In proportion as the good in him diminishes, his liberty of free choice is
determined more and more by his evil inclinations and he cannot choose the better course
(Shakespeares Philosophical Patterns). Perceiving well that the past deeds are not rectifiable,
Macbeths defiant impiety takes the form of a craving for destruction and annihilation and
here like Miltons Satan, Macbeth realizes: only in destroying I find ease/ To my
relentless thoughts (Paradise Lost, Book IX, line 129). Consequently during Macbeths reign
in Scotland Each new morn/ New widows howl, new orphans cry (IV.iii). But to his
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utmost dismay and consternation, Macbeth finds continuing the evil course as fatiguing and
difficult as abandoning it: I am in blood/ Steeped in so far that, should I wade no more/
Returning were as tedious as go oer (III.iv). The moral deterioration is almost complete in
Macbeth who like the Marlovian hero Faustus, is frightfully conscious of his descent into
hell. Incessantly haunted by a terrible sense of guilt and tortured conscience, Macbeth
considers life as a tale/ Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury/ Signifying nothing (V.v)
and in his final confrontation with Macduff, Macbeth fights like any common man in
desperation to save himself in lieu of accepting failure: I will not yield,/ To kiss the ground
before young Malcolms feet,...Though Birnam Wood be come to Dunsinane,/ And thou
opposed, being of no woman born,/ Yet I will try the last (V.viii).
THE BANQUET SCENE: THE ZENITH & THE NADIR OF MACBETHS

KINGSHIP
The famous banquet scene in Act III of Macbeth inaugurates the ceremonial coronation of
Macbeth in the royal throne of Scotland. At the outset Macbeth is informed by the hired
assassins that Banquo is ambushed and killed but his son Fleance has escaped the deadly
clutch. The news of Fleances escape gives a jerk to Macbeth before the celebration but a
greater shock and astonishment await Macbeth when he discovers, to his utmost disbelief and
dismay, Banquos ghost seated on Macbeths place. Appalled at such a ghastly sight, visible
only to him, Macbeth is driven near distraction. Unable to cope with the aftermath of his
criminal deed, Macbeth loses self-control and interrogates Banquos ghost: Thou canst not
say I did it. Never shake/ Thy gory locks at me (III.iv). Although Lady Macbeth earnestly
tries to jolt Macbeth into reality, by fabricating a plausible explanation of her husbands
irrational behavior, Macbeth lacks the courage to face the consequences of his crime. The
second appearance of the ghost makes Macbeth almost unmanned in folly (III.iv) and he
frantically screams: Avaunt! and quit my sight! Let the earth hide thee!/ Thy bones are
marrowless, thy blood is cold;/ Thou hast no speculation in those eyes/ Which thou dost glare
with (III. iv). In fact Macbeths felony and his increasing sense of guilt afflict him in the
form of a horrible spectre of Banquos ghost. Macbeths words in frustration: The times has
been/ That, when the brains were out, the man would die,/ And there an end; but now they
rise again (III.iv) evince his infirmity to handle his own criminal activities. It is crystal clear
from Macbeths appearance and eccentric behaviour that Macbeth has become a prisoner of a
morally punishable world. The royal banquet is therefore the zenith of Macbeths kingship
and the beginning of his nemesis simultaneously.
ROLE OF THE WITCHES IN IGNITING MACBETHS AMBITION
The uncanny witches with their equivocal predictions play a dominant role in Macbeths
destructive journey towards attaining the royal throne. Macbeths strong kinship with the
weird sisters has been profoundly hinted at his first uttered words: So foul and fair a day I
have not seen (I.iii). Although it would be incorrect to hold the sinister witches responsible
entirely for Macbeths descent into hell through his murderous actions, one can easily
perceive that the witches prophetic greeting sets fire to Macbeths ambition to be the king of
Scotland. The immediate fulfillment of two prophecies ignites his greatest desire and he
ignores Banquos words of caution: oftentimes to win us to our harm,/ The instruments of
darkness tell us truths,/ Win us with honest trifles, to betrays/ In deepest consequence (I.iii).
Not only regicide, the prophetic words of the witches compelled him to exterminate Banquo
and Fleance (but he escaped) because the witches hailed Banquo father to a line of kings
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(III.i) and placed a fruitless crown (III.i) upon Macbeth and a barren scepter (III.i) in his
grip. Actually Macbeths inordinate ambition makes him succumb to the temptations of evil,
represented by the witches. But despite getting his ambitions fulfilled, Macbeth realizes that
Noughts had, alls spent (III.ii). Therefore when Macduff reveals the fact that Macduff
was from his mothers womb/ Untimely ripped (V.viii), Macbeth despairingly cries out:
be these juggling fiends no more believed,/ That palter with us in a double sense;/ That keep
the word of promise to our ear,/ And break it to our hope (V.viii). The agony and anguish,
inherent in these lines, anticipate the dreadful consequence for paying too much attention to
the witches prophecy which lures human beings to delude in reality.
LADY MACBETH AS AN ACCOMPLICE

Lady Macbeths unquenchable thirst for power, mendacity in appearance, frightfully
determined will and unflinching audacity make her a perfect accomplice to her husband in
their joint venture towards usurping the throne of Scotland by means of murder and treason.
Knowing that Macbeth is too full o th milk of human kindness (I.v) to accept the proposal
of murder to expedite kingship, Lady Macbeth decides to pour her spirit in Macbeth and to
chastise him with the valor of her tongue (I.v) since what they aspire highly cannot be
achieved holily. When Macbeth faltered: If we should fail? it was Lady Macbeth who
manipulated him towards the atrocious murder of Duncan by her blistering taunts: Was the
hope drunk/ Wherein you dressed yourself? Hath it slept since? Letting I dare not wait
upon I would/ Like the poor cat i th adage? (I.vii). Even she tried to pacify Macbeth
when he, in utmost fear, dared not to look at his blood-stained hands after the assassination:
My hands are of your color, but I shame/ To wear a heart so white A little water clears us
of this deed:/ How easy it is then! (II.iii). But it is ironical that Lady Macbeth herself suffers
miserably under the burden of sin in the long run when she confesses her connivance with the
royal crime in her famous sleep-walking scene: Heres the smell of the blood still. All the
perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand. Oh, oh, oh! (V.i). Once again in the
ceremonial banquet Lady Macbeth takes the initiative to save Macbeth from embarrassment
before the invited guests. But after the fiasco of the royal banquet Lady Macbeth recedes in
the backdrop. Even her death fails to evoke sympathy from her beloved husband: She should
have died hereafter:/ There would have been a time for such a word (V.v).
CONCLUSION
Macbeths overwhelming ambition for crown and its corollary mental weariness, profound
feelings of repentance and increasing isolation conspicuously evince the tragic end of a
prosperous life devastated in crime. Through Macbeths journey from a gallant warrior to the
King of Scotland, Shakespeare depicts how reckless and indomitable ambition paves the way
of ones destruction. Throughout all his acts of crime for the sake of power, Macbeth has
always been conscious about his departure from the world of moral values and trust. The
civic sense at the core of Macbeths heart gets defeated before the temptation of evil fuelled
by the witches prophecy and the untiring hammering of Lady Macbeth and ultimately
Macbeth loses his mental sanctity, committed the brutal carnage and loses all. Despite his
crime, Macbeth gets sympathy from the readers for his abysmal downfall in life. While the
dead butcher (V.viii) is the people of Scotlands epitaph on Macbeth, he is not by nature an
unambiguous villain like Richard III, but an extraordinary valiant general whose vaulting
ambition takes away his life.
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REFERENCES
Barnet, Sylvan, ed. William Shakespeare: The Tragedy of Macbeth. New York:
Signet Classic, 1963. Print.
2.
Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear,

Macbeth. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 1905. Print.
3.
Curry, Walter Clyde. Shakespeares Philosophical Patterns. Los Angeles: Louisiana

State University Press, 1937. Print.
4.
Keefer, Michael. "Introduction". Doctor Faustus: A Critical Edition. Ontario:

Broadview, 2008. Print.
5.
Klein, Joan Larsen. Lady Macbeth: Infirm of Purpose. The Womans Part: Feminist
Criticism of Shakespeare. Ed. Carol Lenz, Gayle Greene & Carol Neely. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1980. Print.
6.
Lewis, C.S. A Preface to Paradise Lost. London: Oxford University Press, 1942.
Print.
7.
Ribner, Irving. Patterns in Shakespearean Tragedy. London: Methuen, 1960. Print.
8.
Tourneur, Cyril. The Revengers Tragedy. Lawrence J. Ross, ed. Lincoln: University
of Nebraska Press, 1966. Print.
1.
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Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
STRATEGIC EFFECTIVENESS OF MICRO-CREDIT IN
EMPOWERING WOMEN: A STUDY OF WOMEN SELF-HELP
GROUPS IN BLOCK BHALWAL (JAMMU DISTRICT, J&K)
VARSHA KAPOOR*
*Lecturer,
10+2 Higher Secondary School Education,
J & K, India.
ABSTRACT
India, which has about 70 percent of the total population living in rural areasmost of who are poor - the programme of microfinance in terms of linking SHGs
with banks holds a critical role in targeting poverty reduction and empowering
women socially, politically and economically. In Jammu and Kashmir (J&K)
there is a lot of scope for involvement of women in Micro-credit programmes,
because many women in the state are involved in handicraft sector. The present
paper explores the impact of micro-credit through the agency of Self-Help
Groups (SHGs) in empowering women in Jammu district (J&K) under
Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojna (SGSY). The study focuses on the
economic as well as non-economic aspects of women empowerment to make the
study sociologically significant. Women have been empowered to some extent as
observed through various changes at social, personal, economic and political
fronts but microcredit movement has to be viewed from a long-term
perspective under SHG framework to make it a real achiever.
KEYWORDS: Empowerment, Micro-credit, Self- Help Groups, Women.
_______________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
India's status as an emerging global superpower rests on narrow economic data drawn from
its booming middle class of 50 million people, less than 5% of the population. Beneath this
veneer, hundreds of millions face a daily struggle for essentials.
Liberty is not just a matter of having rights on paper, it requires being in a material
position to exercise those rights and it is likely that womens subordination will not be
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adequately addressed as long as women are confined to a sphere traditionally devaluated,

linked with a low perceived well-being contribution (Nussbaum 1999).
The decades of freedom could not unshackle people of the chains of hunger, disease,
illiteracy, and innumerable other ills all arising out of poverty to which women are most
vulnerable. The persistence of hunger and abject poverty in India and other parts of the world
is due in large measure to the subjugation, marginalisation and disempowerment of women.
At the same time, it is the women who bear the primary responsibility for actions needed to
remove hunger and promote education regarding nutrition, health and family income.
Empowerment of women and gender equality are recognised globally as key elements
to achieve progress in all areas. It is one of the eight millennium goals to which world leaders
agreed at the Millennium Summit held at New York in 2000 (Bhagyalakshmi 2004:38-41).
Human beings are extremely creative and resilient, especially when they are operating
within an institutional framework that encourages and supports their actions (Yunus 2003).
One of the powerful approaches to empowerment of women and rural

entrepreneurship is by the supply of micro-credit through the agency of SHGs.The basic
principles of the SHGs are group approach, mutual trust, organisation of small and
manageable groups, spirit of thrift, demand based lending, women friendly loan, peer group
pressure in repayment, skill training, capacity building and empowerment (Lalitha 2004).
In Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) there is a lot of scope for involvement of women in
Micro-credit programmes, because many women in the state are involved in handicraft
sector. The women of Jammu and Kashmir suffered economically during the last decade as
their employment rates have fallen sharply. In the years 1994-2000 the state recorded a
negative growth rate of employment for women. Majority of the women have voluntarily
preferred to stay at home due to prevailing turmoil and terrorist activities. There is a greater
need to push forward the processes of womens empowerment in the state translating the
economic benefits into human development and welfare (Dutta 2006)
The present paper explores the impact of micro-credit through the agency of SelfHelp Groups (SHGs) in empowering women of Jammu district (J&K) under Swaranjayanti
Gram Swarozgar Yojna (SGSY).
To make the study holistic and sociological significant focus was given to both the
economic as well as non-economic aspects of women empowerment.
AREA OF STUDY
Jammu & Kashmir state consists of 22 districts. Jammu district forms the population
of the present study from which Bhalwal Block was taken as sample through purposive
sampling. In this block, Self-Help Groups are formed under District Rural Development
Agency (DRDA). 72 Self-Help Groups have been registered till now in Bhalwal block under
SGSY. WSHGs are found in villages like Pandorian, Kalri, Garhi, Kullian, Thathi, Gharota.
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OBJECTIVES
i)
To analyse the actual working of Self-Help Groups in accordance with their specified
structure and functions under the scheme (like monthly savings, regular meeting, skill
development, entrepreneurial activities).
ii)
To examine the role of Self-Help Groups in empowering women by providing

financial assistance and involvement in various entrepreneurial activities
iii)
To investigate the impact of Self-Help Groups on various dimensions of

empowerment-social, economic and personal (it included issues like power of
decision-making, self-confidence, mobility, freedom, awareness and knowledge).
METHODOLOGY
For the present research, the EMPOWERMENT APPROACH/PERSPECTIVE was
selected which is best suited to achieve the objectives of the study.The empowerment
approach is the most recent and is aimed at empowering women through greater self-reliance
and internal strength. Keeping the objectives of the study in consideration the design chosen
for the present research was Exploratory research design which provides insight into and
comprehension of an issue or situation.
Purposive sampling was chosen for the study. There are 391 WSHGs initiated in
Jammu District under SGSY (DRDA, Jammu). From the time of inception of SGSY there are
72 WSHGs in block Bhalwal, out of which 12 have reached the stage of Bank Linkage and
acquisition of subsidies and loans (BDO, Bhalwal). All these 12 SHGs form the sample for
interview. A complete list of 122 members in the selected SHGs was obtained from the
officials of the SHGs and five SHG members per SHG were selected at random making a
sample of 60. Non-participant observation is also made use of to analyse the functioning of
SHGs in their naturally occurring settings.
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TABLE NO.1-DETAILS OF SHGS SPONSORED FOR FINANCING SINCE

INCEPTION UNDER SGSY. SOURCE: BDO OFFICE, BHALWAL
S.N
o
Name
of SHG
Gita
2
3
4
Bhagani
Dhanoo
Maha
Durga
Baba
Surgal
Om Sai
5
6
7
Maha
Laxmi
Niranka
ri
Bhagwa
ti
Padmi
Raja
Mandlik
Santosh
8
9
10
11
12
Name of
Village/
Panchaya
t
Kalan
Upper
Bhalwal
Bhagani
Dhanoo
Bhalwal(
L)
Lower
Kote
Lower
Kote
Kote
Activity
No. of
Year of
Member Formatio
s
n
No
. of
ST
s
-
Gener
al
1999
No.
of
SC
s
10
Basket
Making,decorati
ve items etc
Dairy
Dairy
Dairy,boxmaking
Dairy
10
10
10
10
1999
2000
2005
10
10
10
-
10
2006
10
10
Dairy
11
2006
11
Dairy
10
2005
Gharota
Dairy
10
2005
Kullian
Dairy
10
2006
10
Padmi
Thather
Dairy
Mushroom
12
9
1999
2005
10
1
2
-
Gardhi
Dairy
10
2006
10
This block is particularly chosen as it has maximum number of functioning WSHGs

in the district including the Self-Help Group Geeta which has become a success-story of
SGSY. It must be noted that there are only 24 WSHGS in Jammu district which are working
properly and out of these 12 are in a single block i.e. Bhalwal (DRDA, Jammu).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To bring about social transformation, two important dimensions have to be considered:
access, ownership and control of productive resources; and inclusion in the decision-making
process.
MONTHLY INCOME
Income is the major determinant of the standard of living of the people. The income of
the SHG members has been increased after joining the SHGs. Many housewives (i.e. 43%)
did not earn anything before joining SHGs, but after becoming the members of the SHGs,
they are also earning reasonably. After joining SHGs only 8.33% of members remained nonearning. Monthly income of all income groups increases.
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TABLE NO.2-MONTHLY INCOME OF THE MEMBERS BEFORE AND AFTER JOINING

SHGS
BEFORE JOINING SHGs
AFTER
JOINING SHGs
S. No.
Monthly Income
(Rs.)
No. of
Percentage
Respondents (%)
No. of
Percentage
Respondents
1.
Non-Earning
26
43.33
8.33
2.
1000-2000
17
28.33
23
38.34
3.
2000-3000
10
16.67
14
23.33
4.
3000-4000
12
20.00
5.
4000-5000
6.67
6.
5000 and Above
3.33
7.
Total
60
100.00
60
100.00
WORKING OF SHGS
KIND OF ACTIVITIES
33.33% of women are engaged in dairy farming while 40% of women are engaged in
box-making and basket making. Other than this, making decorative items, mushroom farming
etc are some other areas in which these women work. It was realised through observation that
during peak seasons or on getting a big order, other family members including males also
helped women in completing their task.
TABLE NO.3-KIND OF ENTREPRENEURIAL ACTIVITIES
S NO.
BASIC ACTIVITES
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE (%)
1.
Dairy Farming
20
33.33
2.
Box Making
12
20.00
3.
Basket Making
12
20.00
4.
Decorative Items
10
16.67
(Soft Toys, Wall Hanging

etc)
5.
Any Other
10
6.
TOTAL
60
100%
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PURPOSE OF LOANS TAKEN
While the main purpose for which SHGs are initiated is to enhance entrepreneurial
activities and mainly loan should be given for business purpose. It was realised through
fieldwork that maximum amount of loan i.e. 33.33% is taken by women members for
marriage of their children. The loan taken for business purpose is only 23.33%.
In a comparable study of the women members in SHGs of Kerala, it was noticed that they
prefer to utilise the loans for their immediate consumption needs, health care and the
education of their children, while only a minority turns to productive activities like
Microenterprises. (Sooryamoorthy 2007)
TABLE NO.4-TYPES OF LOAN TAKEN FROM THE GROUP
S
NO.
TYPES OF LOAN
MAXIMUM
AMOUNT TAKEN
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE
(%)
1.
Business Loan
20,000 to 25,000
14
23.33
2.
Marriage Loan
Upto 20,000
20
33.33
3.
Medical Loan
10,000 to 15,000
14
23.33
4.
Repay the Old Debt
Upto 5,000
12
20.00
5.
TOTAL
60
100%
TRAINING
A successful intervention for empowering women necessitates several elements an

important one is imparting of new skills: the consequence of women assuming new roles is
also support through training for enabling them to perform these roles (Umashankar 2006).
The SGSY seeks to lay emphasis on skill development through well-designed training
courses. Those, who have been sanctioned loans, are to be assessed and given necessary
training. The design, duration and the training curriculum is tailored to meet the needs of the
identified Key Activities. DRDAs are allowed to set apart upto 10% of the SGSY allocation
on training. This may be maintained as SGSY Training Fund but it is observed that
56.67% of the members have never received any kind of training and only 8.33% of members
got training more than one time.
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TABLE N0.5-TRAINING FOR INCOME GENERATION ACTIVITY

S NO.
TRAINING
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE (%)
1.
One Time
21
35
2.
Several Times
8.33
3.
No Training
34
56.67
4.
TOTAL
60
100
VALUES LEARNED:
SHG is a medium for the development of saving habit among women. The microcredit programmes influence savings in a number ways. First of all, it inculcates a habit of
regular savings and thrift, and the saving is made compulsory, which was absent previously.
Secondly, the compulsory savings mobilised would be invested in productive activities,
which in turn able to increase the employment, income and output. Thirdly, this increase in
income would increase the purchasing power and effective demand among the community
and thereby the standard of living and the economic development of the nation would
improve.
As members of SHGs, the maximum members learned to inculcate the habit of saving
(43%) while only 16.67% members responded that SHGS help in increasing the general
awareness.
TABLE NO.6-VALUES LEARNED AS A MEMBER OF SHG

S NO.
VALUES LEARNED
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE (%)
1.
Saving Habit
26
43.33
2.
Spirit of Cooperation
18
30.00
3.
General Awareness
10
16.67
4.
Any Other
10.00
5.
TOTAL
60
100%
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INDICATORS OF EMPOWERMENT
INDICATORS OF SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT

-
60% of the women replied that their recognition in the society has been increased
after joining SHGs. According to them, they have started interacting with different
people (officials of SHGs, people related to their work from whom they get the
material etc.) and people have started recognizing them because of their increased
mobility and the things they made. 30% replied that there is no change while 10%
were non-responsive.
58.33% of women replied that their role in making decisions related to family is
increased as they are also participating economically in the household affairs
while 31.67% replied that even after earning and spending money on family, their
role in making decisions remained same as earlier.
As far as promotion of education for children is concerned, more than half of the
respondents (53.33%) replied that their situation is improved after joining SHGs
while the condition of 40% remained unchanged.
Even after working hard to raise family income, only 21.67% of women got the
ownership of property. 63.33% of women do not own any property as before
joining SHGs. Moreover, ownership of property of 6.67% of women decreased
(especially aged women who gave their property to their sons) after joining SHGs.
There is a contravention between rights and the actual situation. In patrilineal cultures,
there is tough opposition to giving daughters land; this is seen as getting no mutual benefit, as
there are taboos on asking a daughter for help. In addition, the land given to her goes out of
the hands of the family to her in-laws (Umashankar 2006)
TABLE NO.7-INDICATORS OF SOCIAL EMPOWERMENT
S
NO.
INDICATORS
CHANGES
Increases
No change
decreases Nonresponse
Total
1.
Recognition in society
36(60%)
18(30%)
6(10%)
60
2.
Role in Family
Decision -Making
35(58.33%)
19(31.67)
6(10%)
60
3.
Promotion of
32(53.33%)
Education for Children
24(40%)
4(6.67%)
60
4.
Resistance against
Social Evils (Dowry,
Domestic Violence
etc.)
23(38.33%)
34(56.67%)
3(5%)
60
5.
Ownership of Property 13(21.67%)
38(63.33%)
4(6.67%)
5(8.33%)
60
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INDICATORS OF ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
Economic empowerment is a necessary condition for enabling women to seek justice

and equality. Without economic strength, women cannot be able to exercise their guaranteed
rights. It is, therefore, necessary to seek participation of women as equal partners with men in
all fields of work, equal access to all positions of employment, equal opportunities for work
related training and full protection of women at work place (Sooryamurhty 2007).
- 38.33% of women got liberty from debt trap after joining SHGs. 33.33% told
that they remained in the debt trap even after joining SHGs. Some of them
(6.67%) replied that the amount of debt increased as they took the loan from
the group for starting an enterprise but are not able to return it.
- More than half of the women (56.67%) replied that they earn a handsome
amount of money but they cannot take financial decisions independently. Only
33.33% replied that they are economically independent. Many among these
are either widow or divorced. Some of them do not reveal the money earned to
their husbands and manage the money themselves.
- 56.67% of women contribute to the education of their children while the position
of 43.33% of women in this context remained unaffected.
- The saving habit of maximum women i.e. 78.33% increased while 20% of
women replied that they do not get much to save for a rainy day.
TABLE NO. 8- INDICATORS OF ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT
CHANGES
S NO.
Increase
No change
NonDecrea
respons
se
e
Total
INDICATORS
1.
Liberty from debt trap
23(38.33
%)
20(33.33%
)
4(6.67
%)
13(21.6
7%)
60
2.
Economic independence
20(33.33
%)
34(56.67%
)
6(10%)
60
3.
Contribution for children

education
34(56.67
%)
26(43.33%
)
60
4.
Savings to meet financial

challenges
47(78.33)
12(20%)
1(1.67%
60
)
INDICATORS OF PERSONAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT

-
More than half of the women i.e. 58.33% replied that they have become more
confident in expressing their desires in front of family, friends, and SHG
officials. 35% has no change in expression of desires.
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63.33% of women responded that they have positive self-image after joining
SHGs as they feel good when they do some work and get some money in
return. The self-image of 23.33% of respondents remained unchanged.
70% of women feel proud as they can supplement the family income to raise
standard of living. They feel proud as they get the feeling that they can do
anything which a man does. 20% of the women remained silent and 10% find
no change in their feeling about themselves.
33.33% replied that they do things as per their own wish while 53.33% replied
that they cannot do things independently. They have to seek the
advice/permission of their family before doing anything. 13.33% remained
silent to this question.
TABLE NO.9- INDICATORS OF PERSONAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL

EMPOWERMENT; INCREASE IN SELF-CONFIDENCE
CHANGES
S
NO.
INDICATORS
Increase
No change
Decrease
Nonresponse
Total
1.
Expression of desires
35(58.33%)
21(35%)
4(6.67%)
60
2.
Doing things as per

own wish
20(33.33%)
32(53.33%)
8(13.33%)
60
3.
Positive self-image
38(63.33%)
14(23.33%)
8(13.33%)
60
4.
Feeling of pride
42(70%)
6(10%)
12(20%)
60
INDICATORS OF CHANGES IN PHYSICAL MOBILITY
Women often have limited mobility (stemming from domestic responsibilities,

cultural factors or even the lack of access to transportation). This constrains their ability to
carry out business in numerous ways including attending training, and searching out new
markets and possible suppliers.
The group formations under micro-credit institutions are based on a growing
institutional concept in terms of resource and management skills of the women members to
reduce the gender inequality and to increase their confidence to get involved in issues and
programmes in the public and private spheres.
-
In the present study, the mobility of 33.33% of women within village improved
significantly, while 58.33% responded that their mobility is improved but not
to a great extend.
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33.33% replied that they have started going to banks, post-offices etc.
frequently
without fear (significantly improved). 53.33% goes to such
offices but rarely (improved).
30% of women go for shopping etc themselves and also arrange picnics for
SHG members (significantly improved). 33.33% of women have started
going out themselves but not frequently (improved). 33.33% replied that they
still do not go out without husband or any other family member (no change).
Only 20% of the women go to cities (mostly leaders). 76.67% of the women
still do not go to city alone.
Against this backdrop, in a study of village named Rampalli in AndhraPradesh, it

was realised that the physical mobility of women increased not only within village but
outside the village too. Majority of women (80%), especially from lower castes reported that
earlier their mobility was very restricted. Earlier they were accompanied by their husband or
other members of family but after the commencement of Velugu project, women started
knowing each other and go out with their newly made friends to hospitals, weekly markets
etc (Sucharita and Rao 2008).
TABLE NO.10- INDICATORS OF CHANGES IN PHYSICAL MOBILITY
CHANGES
S NO.
INDICATORS
Significantly
improved
improved
No change
Nonresponse
Total
1.
Move freely
within village
20(33.33%)
35(58.33%)
5(8.33%)
60
2.
Go to banks,
post-offices etc.
20(33.33%)
32(53.33%)
8(13.33%)
60
3.
Go to cinemas,
shopping etc
18(30%)
20(33.33%)
20(33.33%)
2(3.34)
60
4.
Go to city
12(20%)
46(76.67%)
2(3.33%)
60
INDICATORS OF CHANGES IN DECISION-MAKING POWER
Note: - only 46 women replied to the question related to number of children as others are
either unmarried or widow/divorced.
The root cause of men's domination over women lies in their institutionalized power
of taking decisions not only on issues governing themselves but also governing women's
lives.
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Decision-making was one of the most important aspects looked into while studying the
SHGs and empowerment of women through SHGs.
-
In regard to the decisions related to education of children, 26.67% responded that

their husbands take all the decisions while 50.00% replied that they and their
husbands jointly take decisions. According to 13.33% of women, other members like
father-in-law, brother-in-law take decisions. 10% take the decisions themselves.
63.33% replied that their husbands take the decision related to number of issues while
13.33% told that they take the decisions mutually.
According to half of the women (50%), the decisions related to financial matters are
taken by their husbands while 30% responded that they took the decisions jointly.
53.33% replied that their husbands take the decisions of marriage of children while
30% take the decisions jointly. 10% of women alone take the decision in this context.
TABLE NO.11-INDICATORS OF CHANGES IN DECISION-MAKING WITHIN

FAMILY
CHANGES
S
NO.
INDICATORS
Woman
member
husband
jointly
Others (other
family
members)
Total
1.
Decisions relating
to education of
children
6(10%)
16(26.67%)
30(50.00%)
8(13.33%)
60
2.
Decisions relating
to number of
children
38(63.33%)
8(13.33%)
46
3.
Decisions relating
to financial
matters
6(10%)
30(50%)
18(30%)
6(10%)
60
4.
Decisions relating
to marriage of
children
6(10%)
32(53.33%)
18(30%)
4(6.67%)
60
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations have been made based on the findings of the present
study.
Women cannot be inactive recipients of measures to improve their status, but active
initiators of change. For this, full details about programme implementation agencies,
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activities, legal rights, instruments of grievance, redressal of grievances etc. should be

made available to the women.
The skill development programme would be an integral part of SGSY and training
must be provided on the basis of market demand and potential market opportunities.
The training programme must promote critical analysis in women and encourage them
to think independently and challenge unequal gender relations and exploitation.
There is need to accept that womens needs are not only for self-employment. The
Programmes should be designed on the basis of the needs of women at the microlevel. Planning for self-employment for women needs a multipronged strategy.
There is an urgent need to streamline the procedure for applying, seeking and
releasing of credit from the banks. The procedural difficulties are one of the major
impediments, which have denied women the financial benefits of the banks
Compulsory saving may also result in cut in the necessary expenditure. This should
not check the nutritional status as it may result in the reverse impact on the standard
of living of the poor.
CONCLUSION
Although Self Help Groups made under SGSY in Jammu district took no visible
deliberate effort to empower women. Nevertheless, women have been empowered to some
extent as observed through various changes at social, personal, economic fronts. However,
there have not been any visible structural changes like control over assets, mobility outside
village, involvement in decision-making in the family, vis--vis men. At the same time
maximum women are illiterate, uses the loan take for immediate personal needs and not for
starting a new business, there is lack of proper training and skill-development.
Some people think that microcredit is a magic bullet and whatever they do just
lending money to women they have empowered them. No, simply providing microcredit does
not necessarily empower women. But what is needed is to ask ourselves exactly how a
service like microcredit can go about changing relationship in a society in such a way that
becomes possible for women to empower themselves. The essence of women empowerment
is to do it yourself.
Thus, it can be concluded that, Micro Credit is not an end in itself; it is a means
towards the socio-economic empowerment of people. The focus of the programme should not
exclusively be on the credit management; but also on participatory mechanism, development
education and decentralization. Micro- credit movement has to be viewed from a
long-term perspective under SHG framework.
REFERENCES
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Publications.
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Economy. Commonwealth Secretariat.
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New Delhi: Sage Publications.
12. Lalitha N. (1998). Micro Finance: Rural NGOs and Banks Networking. Social
Welfare 45(7):13-17.
13. Lina Joy, A. Prema and S. Krishnan. (2008). Determinants of Group Performance of
Women-led Agro-processing Self-help Groups in Kerala. Agricultural Economics
Research Review 21: 355-362.
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Working Group On Non-Governmental Organizations And Self Help Groups,
Bombay, PP. 14-15.
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18. Sen Amartya.(1999).
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19. Sengupta A.K and Singh A.K. (2008). Women's Empowerment: Some Issues And
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
IMPACT OF FAMILY, INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS AND
SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS ON ADOLESCENTS
DR. K. SUNEETHA*
*UGC Postdoctoral Fellow,
Department of Psychology & Parapsychology,
Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, India.
ABSTRACT
India has the highest number of adolescents who account for almost 20 per cent
of the countrys population. Adolescence is a stage of life that begins sometime
around the onset of puberty and ends sometime when the individual obtains adult
rights, responsibilities, and recognition by family, and society. For this
transition to take place effectively there are several factors that impact the
proper physical and psychological growth and development of the adolescents.
Researchers focused on identifying such factors in their studies. This article is a
review of literature on the impact of such crucial areas on adolescent
development with special reference to parent and family issues, interpersonal
relationships and socio economic factors. Although there are several
international research studies, increasingly Indian researchers too focused their
attention on these factors on the adolescents of India.
KEYWORDS: Adolescents, family, interpersonal relationships, socio economic
status.
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
1. ADOLESCENCE
India has the highest number of adolescents who account for almost 20 per cent of the
countrys population. According to UNICEF (2011) there are 243 million adolescents in our
country. Adams (2009) defines adolescence as a stage of life that begins sometime around
the onset of puberty and ends sometime when the individual obtains adult rights,
responsibilities, and recognition by family, law, society, and such. Evidence shows, that
puberty is beginning earlier than ever before the age of puberty for both girls and boys has
declined by fully three years over the past two centuries (UNAIDS, 2004). The World Health
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Organization (WHO) defines adolescent as individual between 10 to 19 years of age. This

is also the period of psychological transition from a child who has to live in a family to an
adult who has to live in a society (Planning Commission, 2001).
Adolescence is often described as a phase of life that begins in biology and ends in
society (Sharma, 1996). Internationally adolescence has been considered a separate stage
signified by turbulence, conflicts, heralding individuality and growth. In India, until recently
adolescence was not always considered a separate stage. It is generally understood that
from a child one becomes a young adult (Planning Commission, 2001). The word youth is
better known and has been used at the levels of policy formulation and programming (Singh,
1997). One of the reasons could be that the autocratic traditional parenting style and the
combined-family environment facilitated smooth transition.
However, in the ancient text of Dharamashastra the crucial nature of this age group
was recognized and specific codes of conduct have been prescribed. These codes are deeply
rooted in the Indian psyche and continue to influence cultural practices towards adolescents
in a powerful manner (Verma & Saraswathi, 2002). Today adolescence is recognized as a
separate stage and several Government Policies started focusing on them for improving their
lot. For example in the Population Policy 2000 and Draft Youth Policy 2001 the unique and
special needs of adolescents have been recognized. In the past decade there is a spurt of
research on adolescence covering several significant aspects of their lives. It is important that
periodically a review of the research is attempted in order to identify research trends. The
following is a review of literature on the impact of some crucial areas on adolescent
development. Although there are several international research studies, increasingly Indian
researchers too focused their attention on the adolescents of India.
2. PARENT AND FAMILY ISSUES

Indian culture leans more towards a collectivist community. Indian society values
conformity. Early training that emphasizes family responsibilities, interdependence on each
other and involvement in duties to maintain the workings of the collective whole is thought to
be more normative (Reddy & Gibbsons, 1999). According to Baumrind (1966; 1991) there
are four types of parenting styles. They are authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and
neglecting. Several researchers (Chao, 2001; Glasgow, Dornbusch, Troyer, Steinberg, &
Ritter, 1997; Hart, DeWolf, Wozniak, & Burts, 1992; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts,
& Dornbusch, 1994) indicated that these four clusters differentially affected adolescents selfconcept, locus of control, and academic achievement. Research exploring the relationship
between parenting and adolescent adjustment shows consistently that parental support,
monitoring, and nurturing, all characteristic of an authoritative parenting style; are associated
with positive outcomes (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005; Minke & Anderson, 2005; Sheldon &
Epstein, 2005). Improved school performance, less substance use, and greater social
competence (Amato & Fowler, 2002; Gunnoe, Hetherington, & Reiss, 1999; Jackson,
Henriksen, & Foshee, 1998) have been associated with parents who are effectively
implementing such elements within their repertoire of parenting skills. Deb and Chatterjee
(2008) discussed parenting styles relevant to Indian families in their book on Styles of
Parenting Adolescents: The Indian Scenario.
Adolescents from Hyderabad served as participants in a study by Kons, Mau and
Schvaneveldt (2011) who examined the predictability of key dimensions of parental
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behaviors on self-efficacy of adolescents in the Indian culture. The sample consisted of 295
males and 167 females with a Mean age of 14.92. The results of this study indicate
punitiveness as detrimental to adolescents self-efficacy. Another negative predictor of selfefficacy was a higher level of familism. It indicates behavior of seeking approval from one's
family before major personal decisions are made. Thus, an adolescent may not feel as
confident in individual activities, such as independent decision making, that could promote
greater self-efficacy. This study provides insights in how parents can foster greater levels of
self-efficacy among Indian adolescents.
India being a country of rich cultural heritage, Sapru (2006) investigated the ancestral
and acculturated cultural meanings in Indian parenting and adolescent identity in Indian
parents and their adolescents in Delhi, India, and Geneva, Switzerland. Results showed
beliefs and practices to be similar for the two groups of parents except that immigrant parents
in Geneva placed greater emphasis on traditional Indian culture at home. Geneva adolescents
have fewer attributes of interdependence compared to their counterparts in Delhi. In another
study Carson, Chowdhury, Perry & Pati (1999) examined the relationship among a host of
family characteristics and indicators of adolescent competence in a sample (N = 107) of 8thand 9th-grade students in one school located in Berhampur city in Orissa state. The results
indicated that families of more socially competent participants tended to be verbally and
emotionally expressive; democratic with regard to discipline, input, and decision making;
close but not enmeshed; higher in their level of parentadolescent communication and family
ideals; and low in external locus of control. Consequently, families of more antisocial
adolescents had more conflict and enmeshment and were more external-locus-of-control
oriented and either permissive or authoritarian. The education level of mothers and fathers
was positively related to social competence and negatively to antisocial behaviour. The
findings have implications for parenting and family-life education efforts in India that could
have a major impact on the development of adolescent competence.
A cross-cultural study of parenting and adolescent attachment in India and Germany
(Albert, Trommsdorff & Mishra, 2007) revealed that Indian adolescents reported less anxiety
with increasing use of control by their mothers, unlike their German equivalents. That is,
maternal control appeared to convey security and acceptance to Indian adolescents whereas
for German adolescents this was perceived as overprotection and constraint. A study by
Parmar and Rohner, (2010) explored the relationship between Indian adolescents perceptions
of their teachers and parents acceptance and behavioral control, students conduct in school,
and students psychological adjustment. A sample of 217 high school students in India
enrolled in the study. Results showed that the students perceived their teachers, mothers, and
fathers to be warm and accepting. Both the teacher and parental (maternal as well as
paternal) acceptance were significantly correlated with the psychological adjustment of both
boys and girls. However the main documented cause of anxiety among Indian adolescents is
parents high educational expectations and pressure for academic achievement (Deb, 2001).
The common disagreements with parents reported by adolescents were related to chores,
academics, regulation of interpersonal relations and regulation of behaviour/activities,
finance and other matters (Kapadia, 2008).
Deb, Chatterjee, & Walsh (2010) examined adolescents perceptions of quality time
with their parents. A group of 460 adolescents (220 boys and 240 girls), aged 13-17 years of
Kolkata participated. They found that adolescents with working mothers are more anxious.
32.1% of the adolescents perceived they did not receive quality time from fathers and 21.3%
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from mothers. A large number of them also did not feel comfortable to share their personal
issues with their parents (60.0% for fathers and 40.0% for mothers). Several studies on
Indian adolescents have indicated that parents rarely provide the desired support to growing
adolescents regarding biological and physiological changes as also the meaning attached to
these. Youth sexuality stands out as an important aspect which is inadequately understood;
taboos to access information and lack of counselling services make youngsters turn to peers
and other sources of information (Abraham, 2000; Sachdev, 1998; Murthy, 1993).
Parental work stress has implications for the quality of family interaction and, in turn,
adolescents adjustment. Crouter and Bumpus (2001) in their review found that the effects of
parental work stress on childrens and adolescents adjustment appear to be indirect. Work
stress is linked to parents feelings of overload and strain, which predict lower parent-child
acceptance and higher conflict. It was found adolescent adjustment depends on the interplay
of parents personality qualities, parents coping styles, and work and family circumstances.
3. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS
It is during adolescence that individuals individuate from their parents and support
from friends may help to achieve this goal. Most adolescents have good quality friendships:
they receive support from their friends, can count on them to talk about their problems and
have fun spending time with them (Ciairano, Rabaglietti, Beyers, Roggero, & Bonino, 2007).
Several studies showed adolescents with high quality friendships report higher wellbeing
(Berndt, Hawkins, & Jiao, 1999), less loneliness (Ladd, Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1996),
better school adjustment (Ladd & Price, 1987; Tomada, Schneider, de Domini, Greenman, &
Fonzi, 2005), greater ability to cope with stress (Hartup & Stevens, 1997) and higher selfesteem (Bishop & Inderbitzen, 1995). Adolescents who have higher quality friendships are
likely to be better adjusted and friendships can provide protection against various kinds of
socio-emotional problems (Ciairano et al., 2007).
Although the role of peers in shaping the behavior of adolescents is undisputable, the
negative impact of bad relationships is also researched upon. Previous research showed that
peer victimization (e.g., bullying) during adolescence is associated with current and future
maladjustment, for instance, as expressed in anxious-depressed symptoms, antisocial
behaviors, and academic and work-related problems (e.g., Finnegan, Hodges, & Perry, 1998;
Hemphill, Toumbourou, Herrenkohl, McMorris, & Catalano, 2006; Hoglund, 2007; Kokko &
Pulkkinen, 2000; Moffitt, 1993; Moffitt, Caspi, Harrington, & Milne, 2002; Olweus, 1992). It
was found that a deficit of social skills heightens the problems of adolescents to effectively
deal with their interpersonal relationships (Bakker, Ormel, Lindenberg, Verhulst, Oldehinkel,
2010).
4. IMPACT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
Adolescents from families with lower parent education are less optimistic than teens
from more educated families. This pessimism may be a mechanism through which lower SES
increases stress in adolescence (Finkelstein, Kubzansky, Capitman, & Goodman, 2007).
Social disadvantage is associated with increased stress among adolescents and worse health
(Goodman et el., 2005). Numerous studies have documented the challenges that lower (SES)
youth confront in their lives (Evans, 2004; Grant et al, 2006). Adolescents have fewer
psychological resources for meeting the stress of the increasingly more challenging
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environment experienced as SES decreases. Gallo and Matthews (2003) suggested that the
relative lack of resources could be due to interrupted development of coping resources or
depletion with lack of replenishment of other existing resources.
Raju and Rahmtulla (2007) examined the adjustment problems of school students
from urban and rural schools of Visakhapatnam district. The study was conducted on a
sample of 461 students (197 boys, 264 girls) with a mean age of 13.88 years. The major
findings of the study have shown that parental education and occupation significantly
influenced adjustment of the adolescents. Family adjustment is more in high SES students,
academic adjustment is better among children of low SES. Emotional adjustment is higher
for students from English and privately managed schools. Chaudhary and Shetty (2007)
attempted to explore stress in parenting adolescents in their study in the city of Vadodara. It
aimed to understand the perceptions of 48 parents, belonging to middle and higher SES
families regarding stress experienced in rearing adolescents. In-depth interview schedule
consisting of questions on parent adolescent conflicts, parental perceptions of these
conflicts, resolution of conflicts and stress was used to collect the data. Qualitative analysis
revealed that maximum parents experienced stress when their child goes through the phase of
adolescence. Most of their concerns were directly or indirectly related to the academic
achievement of the adolescent and his future career direction. Stress was found to be more in
case of adolescent girls than for adolescent boys. Mothers were found to be experiencing
more stress for their children as compared to fathers. Digression was the most popular way of
coping with stress in these SES groups.
According to the UNFPA Report on Adolescents in India: A Profile (2003), variations
in the current images of adolescents in India arise from factors such as urban, rural and tribal
residence, ethnicity and socio economic levels of the family. Lifestyle of urban adolescents
from upper SES is quite different from that of middleclass and lower-class adolescents.
Former have access to private, good quality education and are influenced by western ways of
life. Researchers felt that on the surface there does not appear to be any gender discrimination
in the families of these adolescents but covertly they do exist. Pursuing educational
endeavours is encouraged both in upper and middle urban class. Urban Adolescents from
lower class have to struggle for survival and grow in impoverished, disadvantaged
environment making them vulnerable to several risks. Malnutrition, risk of poor health,
becoming victims of antisocial activities, brewing and sale of illicit liquor, sex exploitation,
prostitution and drug peddling were reported threats for adolescents from slums in a multi
indicator survey (Khosla, 1997).
In contrast, the picture of rural adolescents is different; the disparity between boys and
girls is even greater among them. Less emphasis on formal education makes boys and girls
participate in adult activities at home and outside at an early age. Boys are expected to join
men in work to earn their living and the routine of a pre-adolescent/adolescent rural girl is
demanding-cleaning the house, cooking, washing, fetching water, bathing younger siblings.
Rural girls rarely pursue education beyond primary school level. Early marriage as a trend is
common even now in rural India (UNFPA, 2003). It is found that adolescents from the
lower-middle class opt for vocational training after school or for a college degree in arts or
commerce, where entry is easy, ensuring a white-collar job as typist, clerk, accountant,
postmaster or similar position. The upper-middle and upper-class adolescents, both boys and
girls, compete for courses in professional training such as medicine, engineering, finance and
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management and more recently in the computer sciences in elitist institutions (Verma, Sarma,
& Larson, 2002).
5. CONCLUSION
One of the most important commitments a country can make for its future economic,
social, and political progress and stability is to address the health and development related
needs of its adolescents (World Health Organization, 1997). Adolescents are often
considered the next generation of actors on the social and economic stage; therefore all
societies would benefit from harnessing their energy and skills. The findings summarized in
this article can guide both parents, teachers and other caregivers of adolescents regarding the
types of family practices and parenting styles they have to adopt for smooth and healthy
development of the adolescent. The knowledge about the impact of the kind of relationships
and socio economic variables on the adolescents can aid in better educational practices to
foster better mental health in this sensitive population.
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
USE OF PARTICIPATORY NOTES OR
PROBLEMATIC NOTES AS A SOURCE OF FOREIGN FUNDS
(A study in the Context of Indian Equity Market)
DR.AMAN BATRA
Assistant Professor,Department of Commerce
Guru Nanak Girls College
Yamunanagar
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the use of participatory notes (PNs) by foreign investors, as a
conduit for portfolio flows into Indian equity markets for more than a decade. The
broadening of India's foreign investor base, in recent years, has a bias towards hedge
funds/unregistered foreign investors who invest primarily via PNs. While tax arbitrage via
capital gains tax has almost disappeared since July 2004, it is intriguing to note that since
then the demand for PNs has actually increased. Today foreign investors find Indian market
as very attractive destination for their investment, but dont want to disclose their identity
due to many justified or unjustified reasons. These so-called unjustified reasons for using the
p-notes are becoming a big reason for the tussle between the different market regulators
prominently amongst the Security Exchange Board of India (SEBI) and the Apex Bank of the
country i.e. Reserve Bank of India (RBI). The paper suggests some reasons for the
continuation of a buoyant market in PNs, and explains the possible impact from the recent
regulatory changes.
Key words: Participatory Notes, Foreign Institutional Investment, SEBI, RBI, Mauritius
Treaty, ELN
___________________________________________________________________________
1. Introduction:
In the budget speech for the year 1992-93, the then Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan
Singh had announced a proposal to invite FIIs such as Pension Funds, Mutual Funds,
Investment Trusts, Asset Management Companies, etc. to the Indian capital market. Foreign
institutional investor is an entity established or incorporated outside India, which proposes to
make investment in India. Since September 14, 1992, FIIs have been permitted to invest in all
the securities traded in the primary and secondary markets, including the equity and other
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securities/instruments of companies, which are listed/to be listed on the stock exchanges in

India including the OTC Exchange of India. These securities would include share,
debentures, warrants and the schemes floated by domestic mutual funds, etc.
India has emerged as an important destination for global investment. This is reflected
in the number of Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) registered with Securities and
Exchange Board of India (SEBI). FIIs registered with SEBI have increased from 18 up to
31st March, 1993 to 1713 up till 31st March, 2010.1
Since very banging when the FIIs were allowed to invest in India, there is a steady
growth in the investment made by the FIIs and the net investment being made by FIIs is
growing year by year. In the year 92-93 it stood at 4 US $ million, whereas up to the year 0910 the figure rose up to 89333 US $ Million (cumulative). The flow has always remained
positive since very beginning except in the year 98-99 when there was net outflow of FIIs
amounting to 386 US $ Million. During last one decade the assets belonging to FIIs/SA under
the custody of custodians have increased from Rs. 61753 crores in 2001-2002 to Rs. 900869
crores in 2009-2010.2
But apart from the rosy picture of FIIs inflows mentioned above, there is a dark side
of the story also i.e. the infusion of foreign funds via participatory notes route or P-notes. In
the recent past, a lot of coverage has been given to participatory notes and they have become
a matter of concern for regulatory bodies in India. The participatory notes were responsible
for largest fall witnessed ever in Indian Stock markets. For all these reasons, participatory
notes are sometimes referred to as Problematic notes3.
2. Concept of Participatory Notes:

FII may issue, deal in or hold offshore derivative instruments which derive their
values from underlying Indian securities which are listed or proposed to be listed on any
stock exchange in India. PNs are like contract notes and are issued by FIIs, registered in the
country, to their overseas clients who may not be eligible to invest in the Indian stock
markets. PNs are used as an alternative to sub-accounts by ultimate investors generally based
on considerations related to transactions costs and recordkeeping overheads.4
The special features about the participatory notes are that they are largely unregulated
instruments and regulatory bodies in India do not exercise any regulatory jurisdiction over
them and so they are not required to adhere to disclosure and other norms which are generally
applicable to other market players. Another special feature of Participatory Notes is that the
Handbook of Statistics on the Indian Securities Market 2010, SEBI, p.3.

Handbook of Statistics on the Indian Securities Market 2010, SEBI, pp. 48 & 59.
3
SEBI plans curbs on FII participatory notes A Business Daily from THE HINDU group of publications,
October17,2007
2
ReportoftheExpertGrouponEncouragingFIIFlowsandCheckingtheVulnerabilityofCapitalMarketsto
SpeculativeFlows,Govt.ofIndia,Ministryoffinance,p.7
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beneficial ownership or the identity of the owner is not known unlike in the case of FII since
these are freely transferable and trading of these instruments makes it all the more difficult to
know the identity of the owner of these instruments and this the most important reason for
high popularity of the Participatory Notes. Their anonymity and secrecy enables large hedge
funds to carry out their operations without disclosing their identity. Then, some of the entity
route their investment through participatory notes to take advantage of the tax laws of certain
preferred countries.
Since 1992, when the FIIs were allowed to invest in Indian equity markets after the
balance of payments crisis, an offshore market for PNs developed as a primary conduit for
foreign investors to invest in India.
The origins of such flows stems from the bilateral tax treaty5 that India has had with
Mauritius. The main provision of the 1983 treaty was that no resident of Mauritius would be
taxed in India on capital gains arising from the sale of securities in India. The treaty therefore
gave capital gains exemption for investments routed via Mauritius.6The skirting of short-term
capital gains tax by investing via PNs registered primarily in Mauritius has been going on for
well over a decade.7The Double Tax Avoidance Agreement (henceforth, the Mauritius
Treaty) has allowed certified residents of Mauritius to pay corporate taxes in Mauritius that
are effectively zero Estimates of cumulative losses to the Ministry of Finance from
investments routed via Mauritius since early 1990s may be significant8.
The other such offshore derivative instrument includes equity linked notes, capped
return notes and investment notes. These offshore derivative instruments may be better
understood with the help of the following diagrams and further discussion.
The bilateral tax treaty between India and Mauritius has helped in attracting FIIs to the Indian equity
markets especially from 1992, when FIIs were allowed to invest after the balance of payment crisis. Entities
based in Mauritius are exempted from capital gains tax arising from their investments in India.
Use of Participatory Notes in Indian Equity Markets and Recent Regulatory Changes IMF Working
Paper no. WP/07/291, by Manmohan Singh, December 2007, pp. 3
Double taxation avoidance agreements now also exist with Singapore and a few other countries
Obscene profits at the FII ranch, Surjit S Bhalla, Business Standard, August 4, 2007. Estimates suggest
Cumulative tax losses by not having FIIs invest from onshore may have been about $10 bn.
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Source: The dictionary of financial risk management by Gary L. Gastineau, Mark P.

Kritzman.
Equity-Linked Note (ELN): A security that combines the characteristics of a zero or
low-coupon bond or note with a return component based on the performance of a single
equity security, a basket of equity securities, or an equity index. In the latter case, the security
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is typically called an equity index-linked note. Equity-linked notes come in a variety of

styles. The minimum return may be zero with all of what would normally be an interest
payment going to pay for upside equity participation. Alternatively, a low interest rate may be
combined with a lower rate of equity participation. The participation rate in the underlying
equity instrument may be more or less than dollar for dollar over any specific range of prices.
The participation may be open ended (the holder of the note participates proportionately in
the upside of the underlying security or index, no matter how high it goes), or the equity
return component may be capped. Other things equal, a capped return is associated with a
higher rate of participation up to the cap price.9
3. Influence of P-Notes on Indian Market-The Current Status

The participatory notes have a very strong influence in Indian markets and Governments and
regulators cannot take the risk of taking them lightly. Their strong presence in the Indian
markets has cautioned the government to address the issue of participatory notes very
carefully because otherwise they may adversely affect the FIIs inflow into India: the prime
reason being is that those FIIs that dont wish to register with SEBI or fails to get registration
or are ineligible to get registration make entries in the Indian capital markets through the
participatory notes and the other reason being is that FIIs earns huge rent while facilitating
investment of participatory notes holders like unregistered FIIs, hedge fund, university
endowments, etc in the Indian Capital markets. The influence of Participatory Notes in Indian
Capital markets can be gauged from the simple fact that, there were 34 FIIs/sub-accounts
issuing ODIs. The notional value of PNs outstanding grew to Rs. 3,53,484 crore by August,
2007, constituting 51.6 per cent of Assets Under Custody (of all FIIs/subaccounts).10However according to the recent data published by SEBI, P-notes outstanding is
down from the record high of 4,49,613 ( in crore) in October 2007 to 1,88,325 ( in crore)
towards the end of November, 2010. Share of P-notes in FII assets under management
(AUM) is down from the peak value of 51 per cent to 16 per cent.
The Dictionary of Financial Risk Management by Gary L. Gastineau, Mark P. Kritzman, Published by:
Frank J. Fabozzi Associates, p. 122
10
PaperforDiscussiononOffshoreDerivativeInstruments(Participatorynotes)datedOctober16,2007,
bySEBI.
AJR
RSH

Volumee2,Issue1
Further itt is very muuch evident from

f
the monnth-wise datta of current notional vallue of p-notees
from Jannuary 2010 to January 2012, that the total vaalue of P-N
Notes on equuity and debbt
includingg P-Notes onn derivativess have not ccrossed the level
l
of Rs 22,00,000 croore (Except in
i
Septembeer 2010 and
d in May 2011). Infact in
i Decemberr 2011 this figure camee down to R
Rs.
138711 Crore.
C
At th
he same timee the total value of P-N
Notes on equity and debtt including P
PNotes onn derivativess as % of asssets under custody
c
of FIIs
F came doown from 19.5% in Maay
2011 to 15.1% in December
D
20011. The lateest data stroongly suggessts that therre is a overaall
decrease in the investment in FIIs via P-Notees.
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Current Notional Value of P-Notes

(January 2010 to January 2012)
NOTIONAL VALUE OF PARTICIPATORY NOTES (P-Notes) Vs ASSETS UNDER MANAGEMENT OF FIIs
[Rs Crores]
Total value of PNs
Total value of PNs
* Total value of
PNs on Equity &
on Equity & Debt
on Equity &
* Total value of
PNs on Equity &
Debt excluding
including PNs on
Debt excluding
Debt including
PNs on
#Assets Under
derivatives as % of PNs on derivatives
Month
PNs on derivatives
derivatives
Custody of FIIs
B
as % of B
Jan-10
A1
A2
C1
C2
131,938
110,951
814,844
16.2
13.6
Feb-10
124,177
110,435
818,894
15.2
13.5
Mar-10
145,037
132,557
900,869
16.1
14.7
Apr-10
154,340
140,397
927,194
16.6
15.1
May-10
159,927
136,415
883,379
18.1
15.4
Jun-10
168,016
138,881
927,468
18.1
15.0
Jul-10
165,749
144,343
971,022
17.1
14.9
Aug-10
163,657
147,473
999,130
16.4
14.8
Sep-10
200,927
145,383
1,124,352
17.9
12.9
Oct-10
182,056
148,142
1,151,339
15.8
12.9
Nov- 10
188,325
154,950
1,136,754
16.6
13.6
Dec- 10
175,584
141,894
1,164,623
15.1
12.2
Jan-11
174,485
134,838
1,057,474
16.5
12.8
Feb- 11
171,601
126,329
1,016,892
16.9
12.4
Mar-11
175,097
133,098
1,106,550
15.8
12.0
Apr-11
166,444
118,230
1,106,718
15.0
10.7
May- 11
Jun-11
211,199
153,291
161,210
107,640
1, 081,996
1,086,388
19.5
14.1
14.9
9.9
Jul-11
150,414
102,954
1,077,096
14.0
9.6
Aug -11
152,288
100,454
985,893
15.4
10.2
Sept -11
175,291
115,311
979,164
17.9
11.8
Oct - 11
180,002
116,475
1,025,530
17.6
11.4
Nov - 11
179,035
117,532
938,098
19.1
12.5
Dec - 11
138,711
93,563
917930
15.1
10.2
Jan- 12
157,697
114,092
1,043,130
15.1
10.9
Source: Security Exchange Board of India (SEBI).

A. The Apprehensions and Vulnerabilities Caused by P-Notes
There are several reasons that have made the issue of participatory notes hotly
debatable in India. Firstly, investors who are investing money in the market deserve access to
details from FIIs on inflow of funds. This will help them find out how much a registered FII
has invested or holds in the country. This will also help investors in gauging the investment
climate of the country as accurately as possible. But this is not possible in the case of
participatory notes which constitute the major chunk of FIIs inflow into India. Another cause
of concern is that many times accounted wealth of rich Indians veiled under the pretext of
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foreign institutional investment is used to invest in these participatory notes and it is

generally alleged that such monies are tainted and linked with illegal activities such as
smuggling and drug-trafficking and most dangerously the terrorist organizations also invest
monies in the Indian capital markets through the participatory notes since the identity of the
holders is not disclosed. The situation becomes grimmer for a country like India which is
already suffering from the evils of terrorism. The terrorist outfits invest in Indian market via
p-notes route, in this way, one the one hand they control over the financial market of India
and on the other hand earn huge amounts to fund their organizations. The sensitivity of the
matter can be gauged from the fact that recently National Security Advisor M K Narayanan
had cited instances of terrorist outfits manipulating stock markets to raise funds for their
operations. The stock exchange in Mumbai has reported fictitious or notional companies
engaged in trading only confirm the Narayanas worst fears.11
Another Contentious issue regarding the participatory notes is tax issues. The income
tax department has proposed to tax participatory notes holders. The FII invests in Indian
securities and issue participatory notes to its beneficial owners. On redemption/maturity, the
FII passes on the gains to the investors. However, if FII registered in a tax favourable
jurisdiction, then FII discloses the gains in its return of income and validly claims the
exemption, the contention of the FII is that such gains should be considered as reported to the
tax authorities in India and hence should not be considered again in the hands of the overseas
investors (participatory notes holders). In crux the main apprehensions associated with the
issuance of p-notes are given below:
Discrimination with Genuine Investor
Investment of Tainted Money
Threat to National Security
Issue of Tax Evasion
Creates illusion in the Market

4. Regulators Reaction and Response:
The issue was examined by the Ministry of Finance in consultation with RBI and
SEBI. Following this consultation, it was decided that with effect from February 3, 2004,
overseas derivative instruments such as PNs against underlying Indian securities can be
issued only to regulated entities and further transfers, if any, of these instruments can also be
to other regulated entities only. FIIs/sub accounts have been required to ensure that no further
downstream issuance of such derivative instruments is made to unregulated entities.
Regulation 15 (A), inserted from February 3, 2004 in SEBI (FII) Regulations, 1995,
says; (1) FII or sub account may issue, deal in or hold, off-shore derivative instruments only
in favor of those entities which are regulated by any relevant authority in the countries of
their incorporation or establishment, subject to compliance of know your client,
requirement. Provided that if any such instrument has already been issued, prior to February
11
Tracing Source of Terrorist Funds; Business line, A Business Daily from THE HINDU group of
publications,February2,2007
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3, 2004 to a person other than a regulated entity, contract for such a transaction shall expire
on maturity of the instrument or within a period of five years from February 3, 2004
whichever is earlier. (2) A FII or sub account shall ensure that no further down stream issue
or transfer of any instrument referred to in sub-regulations (1) is made to any person other
than a regulated entity12.
Apart from insertion of regulation 15A the FIIs issuing such derivative instruments
are required to exercise due diligence and maintain complete details of the investors, based
strictly on "know your client" (KYC) principles which includes that FIIs must know all the
requisite details about their clients and be able to furnish the same, as and when demanded by
the regulator, to which there should be strict compliance.
5.
Participatory Notes Crisis of 2007:13
On, Oct 16, 2007 Market regulator SEBI proposed restrictions on the issue of
participatory notes by Foreign Institutional Investors, in an apparent bid to stem the
unceasing inflows into the booming Indian stock market. In a surprise development SEBI,
late on that day, issued a discussion paper suggesting an immediate ban on issue of PNs by
FIIs against underlying derivatives (futures and options on shares) while also restricting issue
of PNs in the cash segment.
The proposed move assumed significance, because due to the issue of p-notes, there
has been a tug-of-war between the RBI and the Finance Ministry for some time now.
But the proposals made by SEBI regarding the issuance of p-notes by FIIs were not
clear and this led to a knee-jerk crash when the markets opened on the following day
(October 17, 2007). Within a minute of opening trade, the Sensex crashed by 1744 points or
about 9% of its value - the biggest intra-day fall in Indian stock-markets in absolute terms.
This led to automatic suspension of trade for one hour. Finance Minister P. Chidambaram
issued clarifications, in the meantime, that the government was not against FIIs and was not
immediately banning PNs. After the markets opened at 10:55 am, they staged a remarkable
comeback and ended the day at 18715.82, down just 336.04 from Tuesdays close after
tumbling to a days low of 17307.90.
This was, however not the end of the volatility. The next day (October 18, 2007), the
Sensex tumbled by 717.43 points 3.83 percent to 17998.39, its second biggest fall. The
slide continued the next day when the Sensex fell 438.41 points to settle at 17559.98 at the
end of the week, after touching the lowest level of that week at 17226.18 during the day.
The SEBI chief, M.Damodaran held an hour long conference on the 22nd of October
to clear the air on the proposals to curb PNs, where he announced that funds investing
through PNs were most welcome to register as FIIs, whose registration process would be
12
13
Notification in official gazette F.No SEBI\LAD\DOP\19023\2004 in the (Foreign Institutional Investors)

(Amendment)Regulations,2004issuedbySEBI.
SEBI plans curbs on FII participatory notes A Business Daily from THE HINDU group of
publications, October 17, 2007
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made faster and more streamlined. The markets welcomed the clarifications with an 879point gain its biggest single-day surge on October, 23, thus signaling the end of the PN
crisis. SEBI issued the fresh rules regarding PNs on the 25th of October, 2007 which said that
FIIs cannot issue fresh P-Notes and existing exposures were to be wound up within 18
months. The Sensex gave thumbs up the next day - Friday, 26th October by re-crossing the
19,000 barrier with a 428 point surge. The coming Monday (October 29, 2007) history was
created when the Sensex leaped 734.5 points to cross the hallowed 20,000 mark.
Then after a period of approximately one year the SEBI had eased the restrictions
which were imposed on the p-notes. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) on
Monday, Oct 06, 2008 decided to do away with the restrictions on issue of Participatory
Notes (PNs) by foreign institutional investors (FIIs) against securities, including derivatives,
as underlying. The Board undertook a limited review of the FII regime in respect of overseas
derivative instruments, popularly known as Participatory Notes (PNs). This review was due
in terms of the decision that was taken along with the decision taken in October 2007 and
decided to do away with restrictions on issue of PNs by FIIs against securities, including
derivatives, as underlying, said C. B. Bhave Chairman, SEBI, after the board meeting. 14
B. Suggestive Framework and Justification of Myths Regarding P-Notes:

Some of the experts are of the opinion that regulating and restricting participatory
notes for the sake of increasing transparency may be counterproductive. They are of the view
that when the flow of foreign capital into India is caused by global factors rather than by local
ones, and then can the solution lies in blocking a few channels? They are of the opinion that
if the entry conditions in Indian markets were made easier, instead of money coming through
Participatory notes; it would come through registered bodies. A vast pool of foreign money is
in action in the New York Stock Exchanges, or the London Stock Exchanges, etc. But this
foreign money does not flow through participatory notes in those countries, because the
market is easily accessible to the foreign investors. This has neither weakened regulation nor
led to market manipulation, do they contend. Therefore, the policy focus should examine the
incentives, like ad hoc registration systems, that lead to the use of instruments like
participatory notes.
For example, under current SEBI Regulations, individual investors need to have a net
worth of not less than fifty million US dollars to register as a sub-account of an FII.15 There
are, no doubt, investors of net worth less than this amount who would legitimately be
interested in investing in India. Hence, opening portfolio investment more broadly through
the QFI framework to individuals with less than fifty million US dollars would increase
levels of investment while reducing the incentive to participate in P-notes.
Further, as SEBI and RBI rules have made entry for foreign entities cumbersome and
expensive, it has given impetus in terms of high rents earned by FIIs registered in Indian
markets. When investors come through those already registered in the markets they pay them.
14
15
SEBI lifts curbs on Participatory Notes THE HINDU, Indias national news paper, October 07, 2008
SEBI FII regulations, supra note 3, at Regulations 13(1) a) (iv) read with Explanation I, paragraph B.
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If the market is made more accessible, then instead of a handful of FIIs making decision to
buy or sell, the decision will be taken by thousands of investors scattered all over the world.
Further, the efforts on the world level are on to minimize the menace caused by P-notes and
due to the consistent strict financial standards world-wide, the apprehensions regarding pnotes have reduced up to a great extent. For instance, the entities issue P-Notes directly or
indirectly through global financial centres such as London, Hong Kong, Singapore, are
having, Anti-Money Laundering (AML) and Combating Financing of Terrorism (CFT)
regulations in place16, due to which the apprehension of terrorist funding via p-notes has
reduced considerably. Additionally, FII investments into India continue to be subject to
Indian Anti-Money Laundering and KYC norms. Moreover, currently P-notes may only be
issued to counterparties that fulfill SEBI specified requirements. In nutshell, it can be said
that no-doubt the quantum of apprehensions regarding issuance of P-notes may have come
down, but still a constant vigil on the activities of these ODI, s is must in order to save the
Indian financial market from the vulnerabilities caused by these hot funds.
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January, 30 - Feb. 1.
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
INVESTMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
DR. JATINDRA NATH SAIKIA*
*Associate Professor,
Department of Human Resource Management,
Golaghat Commerce College,
Golaghat, Assam.
ABSTRACT
Investment in any sector is able to produce returns. Return is the expected fruit of
every investment. Investment in education sector produces human resources
which in turn produce everything needed for the sustenance of mankind.
Investment in higher education may be able to produce wonderful multiple results
in long run. Higher the amount of investment in higher education, greater would
be the impact in all sectors of an economy. Education is the only sector which
can enrich all the sectors since education is related to the creation, dissemination
and modification of knowledge as per the need of the mankind.
Human brains are designed to think and act for development. A country can
never get developed status until and unless resources are utilized and technology
is applied. But resources are not unlimited and all the technology is not safe.
Investment in higher education would facilitate to utilize the limited resources
and apply safe technology keeping in view of the need of the posterity for no
development is desirable at the cost of the future generation. For achieving the
goal of sustainable development a widespread education is necessary for which
investment in higher education has to be increased particularly by the developing
nations. If education is imparted keeping an eye on the future generation of
mankind definitely there would be positive results and the mankind will be
sustained.
KEYWORDS: Sustainable Development, Investment, Higher Education,
Environment.
_______________________________________________________________________
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A.1. INTRODUCTION
Investment in Higher Education helps in bringing about sustainable development. To fulfill
the objective of bringing about sustainable development, creation and application of new
knowledge is required. Educational institutions are concerned with creating new knowledge a
well as developing and modifying the existing knowledge. It is concerned with disseminating
of knowledge too. So education sector can be regarded as knowledge sector. All the people
engaged in the education sector such as teachers as well as the taught can be regarded as the
knowledge workers. Higher educational institutions are the creators of new knowledge which
are needed for the society. From time immemorial, knowledge workers have been trying to
create and develop the knowledge that is needed for the well being of mankind. Human
beings have developed and created knowledge for their own sustenance since long and in my
view it is perhaps one kind of human instinct which is quite natural for every living being.
Higher educational institutions, which are the creators of required knowledge for the
sustenance of mankind in this planet, need to be developed through pumping financial
resources. The investment in higher education produces human resources which in turn
produce everything needed for the sustenance of mankind. Investment in higher education
may be able to produce wonderful multiple results in the long run. The Higher the amount of
investment in higher education, the greater would be its impact in all sectors of an economy.
Education is the only sector which can enrich all the sectors since education is related to the
creation, modification and dissemination of knowledge as per the need of the mankind. No
living being would like to get extinct. Human beings, the most intelligent living beings in this
planet do not wish to be extinct. So human beings not only think for the need of today but
also think for the future generations. Moreover, human beings do not like to retain a stagnant
character. They want development, for human brains are designed to think and act for
development. Most of the human acts are related to development-development of somethingit may be an idea, a machine, a technology, a product or anything else. Restless human minds
always struggle to do something new, something for a change. Knowledge sector injects,
inspires and provides opportunity to continue struggling to obtain new knowledge, idea for
the mankind.
The United Nations Resolutions on the Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development 2005-2014 have decided to include several key themes in education for
sustainable development. These are: Overcoming Poverty, Gender Equality, Health
Promotion, Environmental Conservation and Protection, Rural Transformation, Human
Rights, Intercultural Understanding and Peace, Sustainable Production and Consumption,
Cultural Diversity, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs,).
The United Nations General Assembly (UNDESD) proclaimed the ten year period from
2005 to 2014 as the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. All
the Governments of the world have been invited to integrate education for sustainable
development in their national educational strategies and action plans at appropriate levels
during the decade. Educational institutions are capable of converting the abstract into reality
and developing the capacities of individuals and societies to work for a sustainable future.
The World Summit for Sustainable Development, 2002 declared very clearly the four
principles for achieving human development which reflect the four Pillars of education
described in the Delors Report (RICE, 1996). These are as follows:
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Achieving
Requires
Sustainable
Development Education provides the Skills for:
Recognition of the Challenge
Learning to know
Collective Responsibility and constructive Learning to live together

Partnership
Acting with determination
Learning to do
The indivisibility of human dignity
Learning to be
So education can be regarded as primary agent of transformation towards Sustainable

Development increasing the human capabilities to transform their visions for society into
reality. Apart from providing scientific and technical skills, education provides motivation,
justification and social support for pursuing and applying them. Education also provides the
knowledge of making decisions to consider the long term future of the economy, ecology and
equity of all communities. Education builds the capacity to develop the future oriented
thinking.
Unlike the traditional pattern, the above approach of education clearly states a new
vision which helps people irrespective of their age to understand the world better they live
in. Education helps them understanding the complexities and interconnectedness of problems
such as poverty, wasteful consumption, environmental degradation, urban decay, population
explosion, health, conflict and the violation of human rights that threaten the future of
mankind. This approach of education emphasizes a holistic and interdisciplinary approach
for developing the knowledge and skills required for a sustainable future and changes in
values, behaviours and the life styles. This calls for the reorientation of the education system,
policies and practices which would help in empowering everyone to make decisions and act
in culturally appropriate and locally relevant ways to meet the challenges that threatens the
common future of human beings.
DISSEMINATION OF THE MESSAGE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT THROUGH EDUCATION
Education for sustainable development has four major domains which reflect diverse
goals and audiences: promotion and improvement of basic education, reorienting existing
education at all levels to address sustainable development, developing public understanding
and awareness of sustainability and training. Following are the illustration of these four
domains:
BASIC EDUCATION: Basic education is also not accessible for many, particularly for the
girls and the illiterate adults in developing countries in the world. Instead of focusing on
increasing the rate of literacy and numeric ability only, the basic education need to focus on
sharing knowledge, skills , values and perspectives throughout a lifetime of learning in the
way that it encourages sustainable livelihood and helps mankind to live a sustainable life.
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This approach of basic education need to be supported by public participation and community
decision making, which in turn helps communities to achieve their sustainability goals.
REORIENTING EXISTING EDUCATION PROGRAMMES: Development of new
knowledge and modification of exiting knowledge, skills, perspectives and values relating to
sustainability is very important for the present as well as the generations to come. For this
review of existing curricula in terms of their objectives and contents to develop transdisciplinary understandings of social, economic and environmental sustainability is required.
DEVELOPING
PUBLIC
AWARENESS
AND
UNDERSTANDING
OF
SUSTAINABILITY: In order to achieve sustainable development, a widespread community
education as well as a responsible media with a commitment to make the public aware about
different aspects of sustainable development is needed.
TRAINING: The workforce of all the sectors and at all levels is able to contribute for the
local, regional and national sustainability. This truth should be understood by the business
houses and accordingly the message should be disseminated to every on-going vocational and
professional training session. Educational institutions should develop the knowledge and skill
of making decisions and to perform the work by the work force in a sustainable manner.
Development is a desired status for human beings. Every person and every country
wants to develop and struggle for attaining a developed status- be it economic, social,
educational, health or anything that is related to human life. Since time immemorial, we have
seen a sea change in everything in the earth. Human beings have attained development in
every sector. Economic development has taken place in almost all the countries of the world.
Some countries have reached the highly developed status and some others are yet to reach
that. But these are also trying their best to reach the status of the developed countries and at
present we regard these countries as the developing countries.
A country can never get the developed status until and unless resources are utilized
and technology is applied. We all know that resources are not unlimited and all the
technology is also not safe. When the resources are utilized to meet the unlimited wants of
people, they would surely be diminished. Moreover, the technology, that is applied to
produced goods or create wealth, may harm the environment in various ways. So the
developed status may not sustain for long. As stated earlier, development is no doubt a long
cherished dream for every person and every country of the world. But if the development
process harms the environment and ecology of the earth, this will harm mankind and the
posterity will have to suffer a lot. No development is desired at the cost of our environment
which in turn will cast a harmful impact on the posterity. Therefore, the people of the globe
have evolved an alternative process of development known as Sustainable Development.
Ensuring environmental sustainability and including the principles of sustainable
development into country policies is one of the stated Millennium Development Goals of
UNDP. Given the very visible effects of global warming and the renewed commitment of the
world leaders leading up to Coppenhagen conference, issues of simple, low cost renewable
sources of energy and water management takes on new urgency. At the local level, this has
got implication on empowerment of women/community, maternal and child health, human
resource development, prevention of deforestation and bio-diversity loss, food security and
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eradication of poverty. At the global level, they have a great potential for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and help mitigate climate change.
METHODOLOGY
Secondary data collected from different Websites have been used for the theoretical
and conceptual portion of the paper. For the Section-C, in order to prepare the Project as an
Action Plan, primary information have been used which are collected through canvassing
questionnaires to different persons living in rural areas of Assam, Uttaranchal, Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh of India. The study has covered 50 villages of Assam, 30 villages of
Uttaranchal and 35 villages for Bihar and Uttar Pradesh each. In each village 3 questionnaires
have been distributed. Interview Schedules have also been used to collect information about
different problems relating to Drinking water, Energy supply and Agriculture.
The first portion of the paper (Sec-A, I) is the theoretical and conceptual one and it
includes the Introduction which elaborates the role of education in bringing about Sustainable
Development and the need of investment in Higher Educational institutions and the
Methodology of the study. The next portion (Sec-A, 2) of the paper describes the meaning of
Sustainable Development, International level initiatives on Sustainable Development. After
that (Sec-B, I), the paper elaborates about the meaning and need of sustainable Agriculture in
developing countries. The next portion of the paper (Sec-C) elaborates in detail about a
Project Proposal that can be made and implemented by the Higher Educational institutions
with the help of different actors of the community and last portion of the paper contains the
Conclusion.
A.2. MEANING OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

In 1987, a document prepared by the World Commission on Environment and
Development defined Sustainable Development (WC SD, 1987) as meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need.
People of the world have become very much concerned about sustainable development and
consequently different world forums have started working for it. The Rio Declaration from
the World Conference on Environment and Development in 1992 began by stating Human
beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a
healthy and productive life and harmony in nature.
The Johannesburg Declaration of the World Summit on Sustainable Development in
2002 built on this aspiration and expressed the commitment of world leaders to build a
humane, equitable and caring global society cognizant of the need for human dignity for all.
According to Kofi Annan, the former Secretary General of the United Nations ( UNPR,
2001), our biggest challenge in this new century is to take an idea that sounds abstractsustainable development- and turns it into reality for the entire worlds people. The
Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations have shown a way in attaining
sustainable development. Sustainable development is, no doubt, a dynamic and evolving
concept with many dimensions and interpretations and reflects locally relevant and culturally
appropriate visions for a world in which development meets the needs of the present without
depriving the future generations needs. The Millennium Development Goals have initiated
international actions to bring such visions into reality by overcoming poverty, improving
child, maternal and sexual health, expanding educational provision and redressing gender
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inequalities in education and developing national strategies for sustainable development. In

order to know whether a project proposal is able to achieve the goal of sustainability we
should examine the following:
Whether the Project would protect our biodiversity?
Will the project be able to prevent soil erosion?
Whether it will contribute in slowing down the population growth?
Whether it will be able to increase the green cover?
Whether it will be able to cut off the emissions of CFC, SOx, NOx and CO2?
Will the Project be able to reduce the waste generation?
Whether it would be able to benefit all concerned?
These are a very few parameters in order to achieve the goal of sustainable development.
INTERNATIONAL LEVEL INITIATIVES ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The UN Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972 discussed
seriously about environmental issues at the international level for the first time. In that
conference discussion was held about the widespread public awareness on environment and
its fragility. That was regarded as one of the most successful outcome of the Stockholm. But
in case of implementation of such decisions discussed in that Conference to protect the
planet, the countries, particularly the developed countries were not so much active. The UN
set up the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1980 to examine
strategies and means by which the world Community could deal more effectively with
environmental concerns. Consequently, the World Commission on Environment and
Development published a report entitled Our Common Future (also known as Brundtland
Report) in 1987 and set out the concept of Sustainable Development as an integrated
approach to policy and decision making in which environmental protection and long term
economic development have been regarded as complementary to each other.
As the 1997 Report of the Secretary-General (UNPR, 2001) highlights, a comparison
of the action plans produced by the Stockholm and Rio conferences illustrates a major shift in
our understanding of, and approach to, the problems of long-term human development.
'Where Stockholm adopted an issue-oriented approach to pollution and non-renewable
resource depletion, Rio emphasized integrated strategies to promote human development
through economic growth based on sustainable management of the natural resource base'
(RSGUN, 1997). Agenda 21, the action plan that emerged from the UNCED process,
represents a statement of willingness to strive for a form of development that recognizes the
linkages between economic growth, social equity and protection of the environment.
This agenda clearly identifies information, integration, and participation as key
building blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interacting
factors. It emphasizes that in sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of
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information. It stresses the need to change from old sector-centered ways of doing business to
new approaches that involve cross-sectoral co-ordination and the integration of
environmental concerns into all development processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphasizes
that broad public participation in decision making is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving
sustainable development.
As these multiple dimensions of development have been taken into account by
governments, agencies and other organizations, we see a different language emerging in
development papers and reports. The World Bank defines participation as 'a process through
which stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives and the decisions
and resources which affect them', and talks about the need to 'empower' the poor -- helping
them move from being 'beneficiaries' to 'clients' (World Bank 1996). The United nations
Development Program (UNDP) coined the term 'sustainable human development' to describe
the very human-centeredness of sustainable development (UNDP 1996). The Vice-President
of Canada's International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Pierre Beemans (1996)
suggests that development is the 'change that improves the conditions of human well-being so
that people can exercise meaningful choices for their own benefit and that of society'.
From the above discussion it has been revealed that the people of the whole world are
concerned with sustainable development. As has already been stated, it is human instinct to
think and act for the sustenance. Accordingly, ideas, technology etc. have been developed by
the knowledge workers of higher educational and research institutions. Investment in higher
educational institution for developing new knowledge and safe technology will surely help in
achieving the objective of sustainable development. Universities, colleges and different
institutions getting engaged in research and development activities will be able to create
knowledge for bringing about sustainable development if these institutions are fed with
financial investment.
B.I. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the main occupation particularly for the developing countries of the
world including India. Investment in the educational institutions imparting knowledge of
Agriculture would be able to create knowledge on how sustainable Agriculture can be
brought about. In this regard, study on the soil biodiversity is very much essential since it is
the backbone of sustainable agriculture. Soil is regarded as the dynamic and living matrix that
is an important segment of the terrestrial ecosystem. Soil is essential not only for the
production of agricultural items but for the maintenance of most life processes too. Soil
contains enormous number of diverse living things. Soil biodiversity reflects the variability
among living organisms in the soil- ranging from the myriad of invisible microbes, bacteria
and fungi to more familiar macro-fauna such as earthworms and termites. These diverse
organisms interact with one another and with the various plants and animals in the ecosystem
forming a complex web of biological activities. Different environmental factors, such as
temperature, moisture and acidity as well as anthropogenic actions, in particular, agricultural
and forestry management practices affect to different extents soil biological communities and
their functions. Soil organisms are an integral part of agricultural and forestry ecosystems and
they play a critical role in maintaining soil health, ecosystem functions and production.
In case of the developing countries, where the population explosion has created a dangerous
threat to the entire planet, sustainable agriculture and viable agricultural system is very much
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essential to meet the ever increasing demand for food. Sustainable agriculture (including
forestry) involves the successful management of agricultural resources to satisfy human
needs while maintaining or enhancing environmental quality and conserving natural
resources for future generations. Improvement in agricultural sustainability requires,
alongside effective water and crop management, the optimal use and management of soil
fertility and soil physical properties. Both rely on soil biological processes and soil
biodiversity. This calls for the widespread adoption of management practices that enhance
soil biological activity and thereby build up long-term soil productivity and health.
Biodiversity (Kaushik Ahuja & Kaushik C.P, 2009) refers to the variety and
variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they
occur. From the driest deserts to the dense tropical rainforests and from the high snow-clad
mountain peaks to the deepest of ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum of
forms, size, colour and shape, each with unique ecological inter-relationships. The benefits of
biodiversity are immense since a tiny, insignificant organism may play a vital role in
maintaining ecological balance of the ecosystem. Such a micro organism may help mankind
in various ways, from producing medicine to curing some deadly diseases. So biodiversity
benefits mankind a lot to sustain in the planet. Management of biodiversity in Agricultural
Ecosystem is very much essential since agriculture provides one of our basic needs- food.
In order to manage biodiversity agricultural eco-system our agricultural scientists and the
environmental scientists should try to identify, test and promote locally developed
management practices in an area that:
i.
Combine traditional knowledge and approaches with new knowledge and

technology.
ii.
Embrace ecosystem functions and processes for enhancing livelihoods, principally

through optimal degree of structural, spatical, temporal; trophic, species and
genetic diversity. In order to implement this project all the farmers and scientists
should be involved in setting up demonstration sites in critical ecosystems and
significant biodiversity such as forest, mountain, semiarid, freshwater and wetland
in major region in our country.
Agricultural biodiversity includes all components of biological diversity of relevance to

food and agriculture, including genetic crop and livestock resources. Agricultural biodiversity
provides food, income and materials for clothing, shelter and medicine. It also performs
ecological services essential to human survival, such as nutrient cycling, pest and disease
regulation and pollination. Much has been written about the impacts on biodiversity from
land use practices, but only limited work has been done on how farmers, the custodians of
biodiversity, manage their resources to sustain and enhance them. Through innovation and
experiment, farmers have accumulated rich knowledge of managed biodiversity.
Collaborative efforts between scientists and small farmers have been initiated to tap farmers
knowledge and skills for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in agroecosystems.
In order to achieve the above objectives the educational institutions getting engaged in
imparting and creating relevant knowledge regarding sustainable Agriculture would need
huge investment.
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C.I. HIGHER EDUCATIONAL

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
INSTITUTIONS
AND
PROJECTS
FOR
The Universities, other Higher Educational institutions and Research and development
organizations with proper invested capital can take up projects on Community driven
Sustainable energy and Water Management in every developing country of the world.
Following elaborations will justify WHY such projects are very much essential and HOW
investment in higher educational institutions will help in achieving sustainable development:
Sustainable Human development and Poverty Alleviation through community level energy
and water management: The overall Goal
The overall goal of the proposed project should be to contribute towards sustainable human
development and alleviation of poverty by tackling two of the most important elements of
development at the community level, namely water supply for household and agriculture, and
energy security for households and community.
Energy and water directly determine the fate of most rural poor, particularly women
and children. The goal of sustainable human development by the UNDP and the international
community will remain unfulfilled without dependable and sustainable energy and water
supply to the rural communities in developing nations. Energy and water their source,
management and use- directly affect the global climate change whose first and foremost
victims are the poor. At the household level energy supply literally makes the difference
between light and darkness. The existing reality in rural areas of most developing nations is
erratic, highly undependable. The energy supply in most nations are way below demand and
demand in growing economies like India and China are growing at an unprecedented rate.
The losers again are the rural areas who are first victims of energy cuts, leaving most
households in dark at night. Two vulnerable groups suffer- women and children. Women
suffer because they mostly are responsible for household chores including energy/fuel for
cooking and looking after children. The other reality that millions of rural childrens
education suffers because of lack of light at night also directly cast an adverse impact on
human resources in the countries in general and the rural areas in particular. At the village, at
the community and district level, energy supply is directly related to economic activities (lack
of dependable energy supply stunts and prevents potential economic activities).
Water supply can similarly be looked at the two levels- the household and the
community/district level. At the household level it is again related to empowerment of
women. Clean drinking water affects children and maternal health- water born diseases being
one of the most serious causes of death, again another factor impacting human resources. At
the community/district level water is one of the main inputs to economic activities, especially
to agriculture. More than in any other sector, investment in agriculture can help reduce
poverty. Water harvesting and water management is one of the most important tools. Why
water abundant areas suffer from water scarcity, both for drinking and for irrigation? Are
there ways to manage water at the community level that will ensure clean drinking water and
give impetus to agriculture? Can this be supported by dependable energy supply at the
community level?
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C.2. SUSTAINABLE AND BOTTOM UP NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

FOR HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: THE PARADIGM
The bottom up approach has to do with peoples right to choose and participate in the
process of their own development. Participation is one of the cornerstones of good
governance. Empirical evidences from around the world shows, participation of people and
communities decisively impacts the success or failure of development projects.
The approach takes a bottom up; community based self sufficiency approach within
the framework of local government organisations and public-private partnership and can be
initiated by the higher educational institutions of every developing country.
C.3. COMMUNITY DRIVEN WATER HARVESTING AND MANAGEMENT FOR
DRINKING AND AGRICULTURE
The next world war will be fought over water is an oft repeated wisdom in our time.
Almost half of the worlds population face scarcity of water. Nearly one billion people live
without clean drinking water. Women shoulder the largest burden in collecting water. The
population without water is also the population without proper sanitation.
Access to dependable and clean water at the household level has an impact on
maternal and child health. It prevents water borne diseases and empowers women by
reducing the drudgery of collecting water (the unhygienic sources and impossible distances
that women have to cover are well documented in many empirical studies). Dependable water
supply for agriculture is one of the primary requirements of development in the rural areas.
Yet, in many water abundant areas of the world, the population have no access to water for
drinking and agriculture. The government departments of water supply and irrigation,
particularly of Assam, India, have failed to ensure water supply to most of the rural
communities. Again the investment on big projects, big departments have not only failed
to benefit the rural communities but also damaged environmental balance in many regions.
Water can be harvested and managed at the household and at the community levels. A
community driven water management programme shall ensure clean drinking water supply at
the household level. It will also ensure dependable supply of water for irrigation and boost
agriculture.
Both energy and water are crucial inputs for sustainable human development. By
generating and controlling their supply, the community is able to set in motion critical links
in development process. In terms of country policies, community driven energy and water
supply are important contributions to human development and environmental sustainability.
In order to maintain the logical integrity of the proposal, it is organised according to a
framework which takes a systems approach.
C.4.THE OUTCOME OF THE PROJECTS WHICH ARE THE COMPONENTS OF
ENERGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT ARE AS FOLLOWS
Community organisations, especially of women and of development oriented, are

identified and participatory awareness campaign for energy and water security
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initiated. Mechanisms for coordination and partnership with local government

organisations and private investors established.
Energy need/ energy security threats, short and long term, identified need
assessment and identification of gaps.
Alternative renewable sources of energy identified and assessed and the technology
and viability assessment also made.
Drinking water shortage and water scarcity threats for agriculture identified and
assessed
Existing low cost and small scale water harvesting, storing and distribution
technologies identified and assessed
An integrated and participatory project plan for community driven energy and water
management formulated.
Finance and budget plan formulated
Implementation design (plan of operation) including monitoring and evaluation

scheme formulated
Concerned actors/agencies/organisation to initiate physical implementation according

to plan of operation finalised.
C.5. ACTIVITIES
Investment in Higher Educational institutions engaged in the Project of sustainable
development would facilitate to undertake the following activities in order to implement such
projects:
RESULT 1: Community organisation, especially women and development oriented,
identified and participatory awareness campaign for energy and water security initiated.
Mechanisms for coordination and partnership with local government organisations and
private investors established.
ACTIVITIES FOR RESULT 1
1. Interest (group) Analysis: Identification of interest groups for partnership in energy
and water management.
2. Analysis of local government organisations and potential investors.
3. Identification and development of coordination and partnership mechanisms among
identified stakeholders.
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4. Formulation and initiation of a Campaign strategy for energy and water security at
the community level that can be implemented at various contexts and levels- such as
district, state and national.
5. Campaign initiated in this context involving identified stakeholders and interest
groups
RESULT 2: Energy need/ energy security threats, short and long term, identified need
assessment and identification of gaps.
1. Current energy requirements for households and other productive activities,
especially, agricultural and related activities, within the community determinedpresent and future demand.
2. Current energy supply for the community from various sources identified.
3. Long term energy requirement for households and for sustainable economic activities
for the community projected.
4. Threats to energy security based on current supply and sources identified.
5. Current and long term gap between energy supply and energy requirement for the
community identified.
RESULT 3: Alternative renewable sources of energy identified and assessed- (technology
and viability assessment).

1. Alternative renewable sources of energy such as solar, wind, water, bio-fuel and other
sources within the context identified,
2. Each source or combination of sources evaluated and assessed for technical and
financial viability,
3. Determination of preferred option or combination of options given technical
feasibility and willingness and ability to pay by the stakeholders and beneficiaries,
4. Compilation of a technical and a financial viability report
RESULT 4: Drinking water shortage and water security threats for agriculture identified and
assessed.
1. Present drinking water requirements for the households, their sources and their
method of harvesting and storing identified.
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2. Current and future clean drinking water supply gap perennial and seasonal
identified.
3. Current water requirement for agriculture, based on present cropping pattern
determined and shortage and supply gaps identified.
4. Efficiency of present cropping pattern in terms of water requirement analysed and
options for alternative diversified cropping pattern analysed
5. Short and long term water security threats, especially for agriculture identified.
RESULT 5: Existing low cost and small scale water harvesting, storing and distribution
technologies identified and assessed.
1. Analysis of potential alternative source or sources of drinking water and water for
agriculture.
2. Analysis of low cost, efficient water harvesting and storing methods both for drinking
water and water for agriculture and related activities.
3. Options for water efficient agriculture and potential for multiple and diversified
cropping pattern assessed.
RESULT 6: An integrated and participatory project plan for community driven energy and
water management formulated.

1. Formulation of an integrated energy and water management plan that is characterised
by:
Context based character
Community initiated and community managed in collaboration with other

stakeholders
Participatory from analysis to implementation and management
Project that is demand driven, affordable and sustainable
RESULT 7: FINANCE AND BUDGET PLAN FORMULATED

1. Formulation of a finance and budget plan that clearly defines:
Sources of finance including the community source.
Liquidity plan.
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Community participation in determining the management of budget.
RESULT 8: IMPLEMENTATION DESIGN (PLAN OF OPERATION) INCLUDING

MONITORING AND EVALUATION SCHEME FORMULATED
1. Selection of appropriate
implementing the Project.
agencies,
organizations,
Identification of Monitoring and evaluation agencies.
Feedback from the beneficiaries.
Community participation in implementing the project.
persons
selected
for
Higher educational institutions can do numerous activities so far as the sustainable

development is concerned. The primary requirements are sufficient investment and efforts
from the researchers. If the knowledge workers put their heart in their works surely there
would be expected results.
CONCLUSION
Educational institutions from the primary level to higher level have to play vital role in
shaping a sustainable future. Since these institutions are related to creation and dissemination
of knowledge proper investment should be made in these institutions in order to facilitate
them to do for sustainable development.
REFERENCES
Kaushik A.et al,: Perspectives of Environmental Studies, Third Edition, New Age
International (P) Ltd, New Delhi, 2009, P. No.114.
RICE, 1996: Report of the Independent Commission on Education for the 21st Century,
UNESCO,
Learning
The
Treasure
Within,
1996,
also
available
at
http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpURL_ID=23365&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.h
Accessed on 21st May, 2010.
RSGUN, 1997: Report of the Secretary General, UNO, Agenda-21, also available at
http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/ev.phpURL_ID=23365&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.h
Accessed on 21st May, 2010.
UNDESD: United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development, January 2005
to December-2014, Framework for a Draft International Implementation Scheme, available at
http://www.unu.edu/env/plec/about.html Accessed on 30th April, 2010.
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UNPR: United Nations Press Release, SC/SM/7739 Secretary General Calls for Break in
Political Stalemate over Environmental issues, 15/03/01
WC SD, 1987: World Commission on Sustainable Development (1987), Our Common
Future, Oxford University Press, P 43.
OTHER WEBSITES
www.cseindia.org
www.education.vsnl.com/cee/index.html
www.evirolink.org
www.envfor.nic.in
www.nwf.org
www.panna.org/panna/
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
FEARNESS IN SCIENCE IN HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION:
AN ASSESSMENT WITH REFERENCE TO BURDWAN DISTRICT IN
WEST BENGAL
P.K. PAUL*; N. K. MONDAL**
*Research Scholar,
Department of Environmental Science,
The University of Burdwan,
Burdwan, West Bengal, India.
**Associate Professor,
Department of Environmental Science,
The University of Burdwan,
Burdwan, West Bengal, India.
ABSTRACT
This paper attempts to analyze the nature and extent of science fearness of
students in some selected higher secondary level schools of West Bengal. The
study covers 160 students both in urban and rural areas encompassing 250
teachers, guardians and school authorities of Burdwan district in West Bengal.
The results reveal that few factors have significant negative impact in reducing
science fearness while one factor has positive impact for enhancing fearness in
science of students. A binary logit regression model has been used to determine
relationship between science fearness and several factors associated with it.
Moreover, studentst-test, median test and multiple response analysis have also
been used to examine the assumed hypothesis whether any variation among
gender base (i.e., among boys and girls) or area base (i.e., among village and
town) and economic condition exists or not. Finally, it is concluded that the
extent of science fearness of students is significantly affected by several socioeconomic and cultural factors along with schools infrastructural facilities.
KEYWORDS: Science fearness, Economic background, Studentst-test,
Availability of competent teachers, Schools infrastructural facilities.
________________________________________________________________________
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INTRODUCTION
Science education is the field concerned with sharing science content and process with
individuals not traditionally considered part of the scientific community. The target
individuals may be children, college students, or adults within the general public. The field of
science education comprises science content, some social science, and some teaching
pedagogy. The standards for science education provide expectations for the development of
understanding for students through the entire course of their K-12 education. The traditional
subjects included in the standards are physical, life, earth, and space sciences. Right to
Education Act (RTE, 2009) provides a ripe platform to reach the unreached, with specific
provisions for disadvantaged groups, such as child labourers, migrant children, children with
special needs, or those who have a disadvantage owing to social, cultural economical,
geographical, linguistic, gender or such other factor. For education to be a meaningful right
it must be available1, accessible2, acceptable3 and adaptable4.
The world cannot reach its goal to have every child complete primary school by 2015
without India. Indias education system over the past few decades has made significant
progress. According to Indias Education For All Mid Decade Assessment, in just five years
between 2000 and 2005, India increased primary school enrolment overall by 13.7 per cent
and by 19.8 per cent for girls, reaching close to universal enrolment in Grade 1.
Even with these commendable efforts, one in four children left school before reaching Grade
5 and almost half before reaching Grade 8 in 2005. Learning assessments show the children
who do remain in school are not learning the basics of literacy and numeracy or the additional
skills necessary for their overall development. Again there is a common syndrome among
the madhyamik passed students of science fearness. This means that most of the students are
not willing to take science after madhyamik examination. So enrolment of students in science
stream is severely low. Several studies have been conducted in India and abroad to examine
the role of factors and their possible consequences to analyse fearness in science among the
madhyamik passed out students. Banu (1986) conducted a study among four hundred and
fifty-one students regarding attitudes towards science and the result indicated that students in
general hold a favourable attitude towards science; male students have more positive attitude
towards science than female students. Durant (1995) explored the relationship between
understanding of science and levels of support for science using a national sample of over
2000 British respondents. The analysis reveals that the internal consistency of attitudes
towards science is poor and the links between attitudes towards science in general and
attitudes towards areas of scientific research are weak. Again understanding of science is
weekly related to more positive attitudes in general but more significantly, it is also
associated with more coherent and more discriminating attitudes. Daniel (1995) in his study
showed that girls positive attitudes towards mathematics decline as they grow older. Initially
girls have more positive attitudes towards math than boys do, but as they continue in school,
girls attitudes become more negative. Ma and Kishore (1997) conducted a meta analysis
concerning the relationship between attitude towards mathematics and achievement in
mathematics. The relationship was found to be dependent on grade, ethnic background,
sample selection, sample size and gender did not have a significant effect on the relationship.
Dershanesi (2008) was conducted a study to understand pupils attitude towards school
science and the result indicated that pupils attitude towards science was at the medium level
and it depends on several factors like- pupils favorite subject, attended schools, grade,
familys monthly income and their self achievement. Steinkamp and Maehr (1983) in their
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study showed that boys achieve slightly better than girls in science, and they tend to possess
slightly more cognitive ability. Again, in some content areas within science, boys
demonstrate more positive affect than do girls; in other content areas the reverse is true.
OBJECTIVES
The study entails the following objectivesi)
To find out the factors which are responsible for low enrolment of science of
higher secondary level students.
ii)
To assess the nature of science fearness among the rural and urban students.
iii)
To analyse the nature of science fearness among the male and female students
iv)
To find out the nature of science fearness among the poor and non-poor students
2. HYPOTHESES
2.1 NULL HYPOTHESES
The null hypotheses are the following
H01: There is no difference in knowledge of science between boys and girls.
H02: There is no variation of science fearness between rural and urban students.
H03: There is no variation of science fearness between male and female students.
Ho4: There is no variation of science fearness between poor and non-poor students.
2.2 ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES
The alternative hypotheses are
H11: Boys have more knowledge in science than girls.
H12: Urban students have less science fearness than rural students.
H13: Male students have less science fearness than female students.
H14: Non-poor or well-off students have less science fearness than poor students.
3. DATA SOURCE AND METHODOLOGY
The study is mainly empirical in nature. The primary data has been collected during 20102011 from 160 Higher Secondary school students both in urban as well as in rural areas of
both boys and girls students belongs to poor and non-poor families of Burdwan district in
West Bengal. A self made structured questionnaire was prepared by considering different
socio-economic and schools infrastructural factors like teaching aids, practical equipments in
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the school, availability of qualified teachers, parents economic status and motivation of
teachers as well as the parents.
A binary logit model has been used in order to analyse the effect of some selected factors on
science fearness of the students. Again, multiple response analysis of teachers, guardians and
authorities is used to obtain opinion regarding science fearness of students from different
personnel associated in education. Moreover, median test and studentst-test have been used
to examine the hypotheses formulated in our study.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 FEARNESS OF SCIENCE OF HIGHER SECONDARY STUDENTS: BINARY
LOGIT REGRESSION MODEL
Several factors are responsible for low enrolment in science of students in higher secondary
level. These are the following:
Infrastructural facilities in school
Competent and qualified teachers
Parents economic status
Motivation and inspiration regarding science
Low knowledge in science
Since fearness of science of students is a multi-dimensional analysis, so it depends on

several socio-economic of the family and infrastructural factors of the schools. Now an
attempt has been made to explain the determinants of fearness in science of the higher
secondary level students on the basis of a set of selected variables by using a binary logit
model.
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TABLE-1: LOGIT ANALYSIS EXPLAINING FEARNESS OF SCIENCE OF

HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL STUDENTS
FS = C0 +C1* INFRAS + C2* COMPT+ C3*PECOS + C4*MSCIEN +C5*LKNOS
Variable
Coefficient
Std. Error
Z-Stat
Prob.
-21.62331
1.518853
-6.167593
0.0000
INFRAS
-0.001445
0.002277
-5.217079
0.0300
COMPT
-0.321029
0.521990
-0.475440
0.5273
PECOS
-4.428259
0.329745
-6.228389
0.6100
MSCIEN
-5.461873
1.165355
-5.130781
0.0000
LKNOS
2.287411
0.236548
4.392832
0.0000
Mean dependent var
0.731126
SD dependent var
0.374951
S.E. of regression
0.166959
Akaike info criterion
0.139808
Sum squared resid
15.91491
Log Likelihood
-35.28212
Hannan-Quinn criter
0.153832
Restr. Log liklelihood
-244.2743
Avg. log likelihood
-0.034970
LR statistic(5df)
327.9844
McFaddenR- squared
0.544902
Probability (LR stat)
0.000000
Schwarz criterion
0.253552
Source: Authors calculation based on field survey, 2010-2011

Dependent Variable = Fearness in science
Total number of observations = 160
N.B.- INFRAS = Infrastructural facilities in school; COMPT = Competent and qualified

teachers; PECOS = Parents economic status; MSCIEN = Motivation and inspiration
regarding science; LKNOS = Low knowledge in science.
It is evident from the results (vide table 1) that the factor i.e., motivation of students
regarding science has been found to be negatively associated with fearness of science which
is highly significant. This implies that the higher the motivation and inspiration of students
both by the parents and the teachers, the lower will be the level of fearness in science of the
students. The co-efficients of other factors except low knowledge of science affecting
fearness in science are also estimated to be negative but not significant. All that it means,
although infrastructural facilities, competent and qualified teachers and economic statuts of
parents influence on fearness in science of students but these have no significant impact of
fearness in science. This suggests one important view that in order to reduce students
fearness in science, proper motivation and inspiration of parents and teachers, are very much
crucial. Again, the sign of the co-efficient i.e., low knowledge in science is estimated to be
positive which is highly significant as per our expectation. This indicates that proper attention
is needed for forming the basic knowledge as well as awareness of science of students from
the elementary stage (Kishor, 1997).
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4.2 MEASURING FEARNESS OF SCIENCE THROUGH RESPONSE ANALYSIS

We have analysed the fearness of science of higher secondary level students by considering
the response given by the respondents ( i.e. school teachers, guardians and authorities of
school as follows.
TABLE-2: ANALYSIS OF FEARNESS OF SCIENCE IN TERMS OF MULTIPLE
RESPONSES OF THE RESPONDENTS
Number
of
Respondents
Respondents
Teachers
100
Yes
80(80)
Uncertain
5(5)
No
15(15)
Guardians
100
72(72)
7(7)
21(21)
Authorities
50
37(74)
6(12)
7(14)
Total
250
189(75.6)
18(7.2)
43(17.2)
Source: Field Survey, 2010-11

The analysis (vide table 2) shows that out of 604 respondents the highest number of members
give positive response in favour of fearness in science of students (i.e., 75.6 % or 189) and
only 17.2 % or 43 respondents give negative response against it. This means that most of the
students think science as a dreadful and difficult subject which has turned into a panic in their
mind. Although, this kinds of dreadfulness and difficulties varies among sex, area, socioeconomic status of the students (Daniel, 1995).
TABLE -3 : MEDIAN TEST FOR BOYS AND GIRLS EXPLAINING THE EXTENT
OF SCIENCE FEARNESS
Significance level
Total
Value of
Students
5%
1%
P< 0.05
P< 0.01
Chisquare
Boys
50 (A)
30 (B)
80 (A+B)
Girls
30 (C)
50 (D)
80 (C+D)
Total
80 (A+C)
80 (B+D)
160 (A+B+C+D) 0.9025
Source: Authors calculation based on field level data, 2010-2011

Note: X = No of students whose marks are equal to or less than median values.
Y = No of students whose marks are more than median values.
It is evident from table 3 that the estimated value of Chi-square is less than the
tabulated values of both 5% and 1% level of significance. Therefore the null hypothesis is
accepted and the alternative hypothesis is rejected. This means that there is no significant
difference between the boys and girls about the knowledge of science (Durant, 1995).
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TABLE 4: ATTITUDES OF URBAN AND RURAL STUDENTS TOWARDS

SCIENCE IN TERMS OF CALCULATED MEAN, S.D., T VALUES AND LEVEL OF
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCES
Significant level
Students
Mean
S.D.
Urban
80
31.06
7.53
Rural
80
30.31
5.12
t Value
5%
1%
P>0.05
P>0.01
3.05
Table 4 depicts that there exists little variation among the urban and rural boys in terms
of mean and S. D. The calculated value of t (i.e., 3.05) is greater than the tabulated value of t
at 158 d.f. both at 5% and 1% level of significance. Therefore the null hypothesis is rejected
and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. This implies that urban students have less fearness
in science than the rural students. This finding is consistent with the study of Banu (1986)
which reveals that rural students are feeling more anxiety about science than the urban
students. This happens because that most of the urban schools are well equipped in
infrastructures than the rural schools. Moreover, the guardians of the urban areas are very
much conscious about their children which help as a supporting factor for relieving science
fearness.
TABLE 5: ATTITUDES OF BOYS AND GIRLS STUDENTS TOWARDS SCIENCE
IN TERMS OF CALCULATED MEAN, S.D., T VALUES AND LEVEL OF
Significant level
Students
Mean
S.D.
Boys
80
29.36
5.53
Girls
80
31.16
3.12
t Value
5%
1%
P>0.05
P>0.01
2.94
It has been found (vide table- 5) that there exists little variation among the boys and girls in
terms of mean and S. D. The calculated value of t (i.e., 2.94) is greater than the tabulated
value of t at 158 d.f. both at 5% and 1% level of significance. Therefore the null hypothesis is
rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. This implies that boys have less feraness
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in science than the girls. This is due to the fact that most of the girls feel nervousness and it
becomes acute when a severe problem occurs unlike the boys.
TABLE 6: ATTITUDES OF POOR AND NON-POOR STUDENTS TOWARDS
SCIENCE IN TERMS OF CALCULATED MEAN, S.D., T VALUES AND LEVEL OF
Significant level
Students
Mean
S.D.
Poor
80
28.26
4.50
Non-Poor
80
25.16
3.12
t Value
5%
1%
P>0.05
P>0.01
2.79
It has been found (vide table- 6) that there exists little variation among the poor and non-poor
students in terms of mean and S. D. The calculated value of t (i.e., 2.79) is greater than the
tabulated value of t at 158 d.f. both at 5% and 1% level of significance. Therefore the null
hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted. This implies that students
belong to well-off families have less fearness of science than the poor students. This is due to
the fact that expenditure in science based course (i.e. lab based subjects) is comparatively
higher than the humanities (non-lab based subjects). The poor boys have to suffer a lot in this
respect. The rich students have no problem to purchase the valuable books and practical
equipments along with tuition fees to diminish their fearness in science subjects. (Dey, 2010).
CONCLUSION
This article highlights the role of factors affecting degree of science fearness among the
students of higher secondary level school of Burdwan district in the state of West Bengal.
The results revealed that there has been significant positive influence on science fearness of
the factor like low knowledge in science of students while the other factors like adequacy of
schools infrastructure, availability of qualified and competent teachers, proper motivation
and inspiration of teachers and good economic condition of guardians act as conducive
factors for relieving science fearness of students. Although there exists some variation
regarding the degree of impact of the factors associated in science fearness among the
students. Finally it can be concluded that in order to reduce the science fearness among the
students congenial environment both at the home and the school must be ensured.
NOTES
AVAILABILITY1 Education is free and government-funded and that there is adequate
infrastructure and trained teachers able to support education delivery.
AJRSH
ACCESSIBILITY2 The system of education is non- discriminatory and accessible to all,

and that positive steps are taken to include the most marginalised.
ACCEPTABILITY3 The content of education is relevant, non-discriminatory and
culturally appropriate, and of quality; that the school itself is safe and teachers are
professional.
ADAPTABILITY4 Education can evolve with the changing needs of society and
contribute to challenging inequalities, such as gender discrimination, and that it can be
adapted locally to suit specific contexts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Daniel P. Banu (1986). Secondary School students Attitudes towards Science. Research in
science & Technological Education, 4(2), 1986, pp. 195-202.
Geoffrey Evans, John Durant (1995). The relationship between knowledge and attitudes in
the public understanding of science in Britain. Public Understanding of science, Vol.4, No. 1.
pp. 57-74
Swetman, Daniel (1995). Rural Elementary students attitudes towards Mathematics, Rural
Educator, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 20-22
Xin Ma and Nand Kishor (1997). Assessing the relationship between attitude toward
Mathematics and achievement in Mathematics: A Meta-analysis. Journal for research in
Mathematics education, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 26-47
Marjorie W. Stienkamp and Martin L. Maehr (1983). Affect, ability and Science
Achievement: A Quantitative Synthesis of Co-relational research Review of educational
Research, Vol.53, No. 3, pp. 369-396
Arti Dershanesi (2008). Pupils attitude towards science, a case of Turkey. World Applied
Science Journal, 3(1), pp. 102-109
Dey, Indrani (2010). An Investigation for feraness in science in higher secondary education
Project paper submitted for fulfillment in M.Ed. course in University of Burdwan, W.B.,
India.
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Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
WATER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
(ISSUES AND CHALLENGES)
KRISHAN DUTT*; ANAND S. KODAN**; ASHWANI KUMAR***
*Research Scholar,
Department of Geography,
MD University Rohtak.
**Research Scholar,
Department of Commerce,
MD University, Rohtak.
***Research Scholar,
Department of Commerce,
MD University, Rohtak.
ABSTRACT
Water not only a basic need of human life it is also important for survival of life
for all human being. Therefore, qualitative and adequate supply of water is
important. But, both the qualitative and adequate supply of water is biggest
problems in front of policy makers across the world including India. In this study
we have analysed the issues and challenges of water management in India and
we found that the water demand will we exceed the usable water in India by
2050. Thus, GOI should ensure at large scale people participation in water
management without any delay with the help of all groups of community.
__________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Water is the basic need for life for survival. It is a gift of nature, which is essential for
survival of man, animal and vegetation but its sources are now being irrationally exploited by
men for their vested interests (C.P. Singh 2002). So, sustainable development of water as
well as efficient management of water is an increasingly complex challenge in India.
Increasing population, growing urbanization, and industrialization, combined with the need
for raising agriculture production generates competing for water (11th FYP). India with 2.4
per cent of the worlds total area has 16 per cent of the worlds population, but only 4 per
cent available water has fresh (Yogi, A.K. 2008). India is the largest user of ground water in
the world. Presently, it is using estimated 230 cubic kilometres of groundwater per year. The
country is using over 25 per cent of the total global use of ground water. India has more than
AJRSH
20 million bore wells in comparison to 0.2 million in USA. Over 25 per cent of the blocks in
the country are categorized as either grey or dark zones where the rate of eater extraction is
higher than the rate of water recharge. And further, according to the report of World Bank if
the present trend of ground water exploration continuous, then, in 20 years, about 60 per cent
of all aquifers in India will be critical condition. Thus, it is clearly indicates that the need
for water resources development, conservation and optimum use. Fortunately, at a micro
level India is not short of water. The problems that seem to loom large over the sector are
manageable and the challenges facing it are not insurmountable.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS OF WATER IN INDIA
In the constitution of India, water and power development is a State activity subject to
Central control. Water supplies, irrigation and cannels, drainage and embankments, water
storage and water power belong to the State vide Entry 17 in State List (List II) in the
Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. But these are subject to the provisions of the
Entry 56 in Union List (List I) in the same Schedule which deals with the regulation and
development of inter-state rivers and river valleys. Since electricity belongs to Concurrent
List (List III) [Entry 38], the Centres Concurrent jurisdiction on water power is automatic.
WATER RESOURCE IN INDIA
The water resource potential of the country has been assessed from time to time by
different agencies. The different estimates are show in table-1. It may be seen that since
1954, the estimates have stabilized and are within the proximity of the currently accepted
estimates of 1869 billion cubic metres which includes replenish able ground water which gets
charged on annual basis.
TABLE 1
WATER RESOURCE POTENTIAL IN INDIA

S.NO
Agencies
Deviation from
1869 BCM
First Irrigation Commission (1902-03)
1443
-23%
Dr. A.N. Khosla (1949)
1673
-10%
Central Water and Power Commission

(1954-66)
1881
+0.6%
National Commission on Agriculture
1850
-1%
Central Water Commission (1988)
1880
+0.6%
Central Water Commission (1993)
1869
--------
Source: 11th Five Year Plan, Note: BCM: Billion cubic metres
Estimate in BCM
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RSH

Volumee2,Issue1
CH
HART 1
WATE
ER RESOU
URCE ESTIM
MATED BY
Y THE DIF
FFERENT A
AGENCIES
S IN INDIA
A
According
too Eleventh Five Yearr Plan (20
007/12), W
Within the limitation
l
o
of
physiographic condiitions, socioo-political ennvironment, legal and cconstitutionaal constraintts
a
at hand,
h
the utillizable wateer resources oof the counttry have beeen
and the teechnology available
assessed at 1123 BCM
M, of whichh 690 BCM is
i form surfaace water annd 433 BCM
M from grounnd
ources. Harnnessing of 690
6
BCM oof utilizablee surface w
water is possible only if
water so
matching
g storages and
a built. Trrans-basin transfer
t
of water,
w
if takken up to full
f
extent as
a
proposedd under the National
N
Perrspective Plaan, would fuurther increaase the utilizzable quantitty
by approoximately 2220 BCM. The irrigation potential
p
of the country has been esstimated to bbe
139.9 miillion hectarre without innter-basin shharing of water, and 1775 m/ha. witth inter-basiin
sharing.
WATER
R REQUIRE
EMENT FO
OR VARIOU
US SECTOR
RS IN INDIIA
Inndia has worrlds 16 per cent
c
of popuulation, 2.5 per
p cent of land resourcees and 25 peer
cent of water
w
resourcces. Of the total
t
water rresources in India, aboutt 1123 km is
i the useablle
water forr industrial, domestic
d
and other usess but the dem
mand of wateer is increasee day-by-dayy.
The wateer demand will
w estimated to rise to 813 km in 2010 to 19993 cm3 in 20
025 and 14447
km in 20050. Thus, thhe demand of
o water would be exceeed the usablee water in Inndia by 20500.
Another estimated by
b National Commission on Integrrated Water Resources Developmennt
RD) in the year
y
2000. This
T
requirem
ment is baseed on the assumption that
t
irrigatioon
(NCIWR
efficiencyy will increaase to 60 perr cent from tthe present level
l
of 35-440 per cent. The Standinng
Committtee of MoW
WR also estim
mate water requirement
r
periodicallyy. Accordingg to Nationaal
Commisssion on In
ntegrated Water
W
Resouurces Devellopment (N
NCIWRD) and
a
Standinng
Committtee of MoWR
R water estim
mate shown in table-2.
AJRSH
TABLE 2
WATER REQUIREMENT FOR VARIOUS SECTORS IN INDIA
(2010 TO 2050)
S.No
Sectors
Water Demand km3 (BCM)

Standing Committee of MoWR
NCIWRD
2010
2025
2050
2010
2025
2050
Irrigation
688
910
1072
557
611
807
Drinking
water
56
73
102
43
62
111
Industry
12
23
63
37
67
81
Energy
15
130
19
33
70
Other
52
72
80
54
70
111
813
1093
1447
710
843
1180
Total
Source: 11th Five Year Plan
TABLE 3
WATER CONSUMPTION PATTERN IN INDIA (SECTOR-WISE)

(IN PER CENT)
S. No
Sector
Per cent Water Consumption
Agriculture
76.0
Power Generation
6.2
Industries
5.7
Domestic sector
4.3
Transport and other
7.8
Source: The Infrastructure Report (1996)
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RSH

Volumee2,Issue1
CH
HART 1
WATER CONSUMP
C
PTION PAT
TTERN IN INDIA
I
(SEC
CTOR-WIS
SE)
CH
HART 1
COMP
POSITION OF EARTH
H WATER
Charts 1 indicate thaat only 3 perr cent water has been freesh out of tootal availablee water in thhe
world. Thhe chart furtther reveals that 68.7 peer cent water to total freesh water haas an Ice capps
and Glacciers. Thus, we can say that the Icee caps and Glaciers
G
bothh are the impportant stockks
of our freesh water. Itt does not onnly help in sstocking of extra
e
water it
i is also help
p in adequatte
flow of water acrosss the worldd with the hhelp of diffferent ways such as raain, river etcc.
I
and Glaciers booth should bee our first prriority in conntext of wateer
Thereforee, safety of Icecaps
managem
ment.
AJRSH
WATER MANAGEMENT ISSUES IN INDIA

1. WATER USE EFFICIENCY: a basin wise study was conduct by A. Vaidyanathan and
K. Sivasubramaniam of the Madras Institute of Developing Studies (MIDS) using
potential evapotranspiration data and gross water withdrawals reports the overall
irrigation efficiency in the country has been found 38 per cent. The study reveals that the
Krishna, Godavari, Cauvery, and Mahanadi system have been a very low efficiency
around 27 per cent while the Indus and Ganga system are doing batter (efficiency in the
range of 43-47 per cent).
2. WEAK ADMINISTRATION: Operation and Maintenance (O&M) activity is

insufficient. So, that only 30-40 per cent of the water entering the canals reaches to the
plants (the normal rate is 60 per cent). The gap between the potential created and actual
irrigation amounts to about nine million ha. Because minor canals and field channels
have not been timely completed. In 2006 for instance it is very poor district
Mayurbhanj in Orissa was still waiting for the arrival of canals of the Subarnarekha
Project which was decided in 1978 and the construction work on this site was start in
1982. More than 3.5 million hand pumps and over 100000 pipes water supplies schemes
have been installed in the country under the Rural Water Supply Programmes. The total
estimated cost for operation and maintenance (O&M) of this, at the present value, would
be around Rs. 2000 Cr. per year (10-15 per cent of the capital cost). A majority of the
schemes remain non-functional and many others become permanently defunct due to lack
of proper maintenance and repair for want of funds.
3. DECLINING INVESTMENT IN IRRIGATION: Declining trend in irrigation
investment during the post-liberalisation period and has resulted in slow growth of
irrigated area in the country. The funding for irrigation sector as a proportion to total
State Plan Size from the Fifth Plan on ward has been declining. It fell from 23.25 per cent
of total State Plan Outlay in the Fifth Plan to only 15.9 per cent in the Ninth Plan and is
anticipated to fall to only 11.6 per cent during the Tenth Plan.
4. INEFFICIENT WATER PRICE POLICY: although during the British period and
early after independence many irrigation projects yielded a surplus, over the years the
water charges from the users have been inadequate even to meet the operation and
maintenance (O&M) charges. Canal water rates in most States are, however, very low.
Water rates in many states have not been revised for decades. Most Northern-Eastern
States (except Assam and Manipur), do not even charge any irrigation water rates.
Maharashtra is the only state where the irrigation water rates are announced for a 5 per
cent year period at a time with a provision for 10 per cent increase per annum so as to
cover the full operation and maintenance (O&M) and as well as interest payable on the
public deposits raised through irrigation bonds.
5. SAFE DRINKING WATER: Provision of safe drinking water in the rural areas is the
responsibility of the state. No doubt India has been performing batter in context of supply
of safe water to its people, but gross disparity in coverage (supply of good water) exists
across the country. Although the access of drinking water has improved in the country.
The World Bank estimates that 21 per cent of communicable diseases in India are related
to unsafe water. In India, diarrhea alone causes more than 1,600 deaths daily.
AJRSH
6. DECLINING PER CAPITA WATER AVAILABILITY: the per capita availability of

water has been steadily declining since 1951 due to population growth. The twin
indicators of water scarcity are per capita availability and storage. A per capita
availability of less than 1700 cubic meters (m) is termed a water stressed condition while
if it falls below 1000 cubic meters, it is termed as water scarcity condition. While on an
average we may be near to water stressed condition, on an individual river basin-wise
situation, 9 out of our 20 river basins with 200 million populations are already facing a
water scarcity condition. Even after constructing 4525 large and small dams, the per
capita storage in the country is 213 m as against 6103 m in Russia, 4733 m in
Australia, 1964 m in USA and 111 m of China. It touches 400 m in India only after the
completion of all the ongoing and proposed dams. [ 11th FYP]
WATER MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES IN INDIA
1. To ensure the access of safe drinking water for all peoples. Because, the per capita
availability of fresh water in the country has dropped from an acceptable 5180 cubic
meters in 1951 to 1820 cubic meters in 2001. It is estimated that it would dropped to
1340 by 2025 and 1140 cubic meters by 2050.
2. To ensure the adequate quality and quantity of water for agriculture, industry and urban
centres.
3. To find the appropriate answers for drought-prone areas /zones.
4. Foster consciousnesses of scarcity promote conservation and minimize waste.
5. Improve and maintain water quality, control pollution and protect water sources.
6. To protect and preserve the natural environment/ecological system, preserve integrity of

rivers and maintain river regime.
7. To ensure the equity- between groups, between generations and between species.
8. In particular, reduce burden on women and give them a voice in water planning and
management.
9. To minimize the conflicts and hardships and provide means of resolutions/redress.
10. To help the people for cope with floods and minimize damage.
SUGGESTIONS
The following steps should be taken for augmentation of water availability and its efficient
use:
1. Public Private Partner Ship should introduce in irrigation, drinking water supply and
water development. for:
i) Encourage innovation.
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ii) Better access to finance.

iii) Latest knowledge of technologies.
iv) Better management efficiency and entrepreneurial spirit.
v) Improved operation of infrastructure services.
vi) Rationalized or cost based tariffs for services and
vii) More responsiveness to consumer needs and satisfaction.
2 Literacy Movement: A water literacy movement should launch and regulate should put in
the place for the sustainable use of ground water.
3 In water-scarce areas, the land-use system should emphasise the cultivations of crops of
high value and requiring less water such as pulses and oilseeds.
4 Rain water harvesting and aquifer recharge should given priority for ensuring the stability
of supply. Necessary legislative measure to regulate and control the development and
management of ground water would be taken up simultaneously.
5 Low cost green houses can be promoted in areas where evaporation exceeds precipitation
in a year. Therefore, water users are required to participate in conserving and allocating
water resources optimally. Hence, participation of farmers in irrigation and water
management should be encouraging.
CONCLUSION
Water is the basic need for life. It is a gift of nature, which is essential for survival of man,
animal and vegetation but its sources are now being irrationally exploited by men for their
vested interests (C.P. Singh 2002). Over the last 50 years, irrigated agriculture has been vital
to meet fast-rising food demand. In the coming years the strong demographic demand for
food is expected to continue, and intensified irrigated agriculture will have to provide close
to 60 per cent of the extra food. However, in recent years, the pace of irrigation expansion
has been slowing, there has been less improvement in productivity, and water availability for
irrigation is increasingly constrained. Governments have long led the expansion of largescale irrigation, but performance has been suboptimal, and reforms that have been introduced
have proved slow to improve efficiency and water service (Water Sector Board Discussion
paper No. 10, May 2007, The World Bank, Washington, DC). So, efficiently water
management is a matter of concern to the whole globe and particular in India. Because, 60
per cent Indian agriculture is depends on rain fail and further, agriculture is the mainstay of
the Indian economy. According to NSS round 2001 the workforce dependent on agriculture
is 54.3 per cent and out of this ratio 50.3 per cent depend on crop production and 4 per cent
on livestock production. Agriculture and allied sectors contribute nearly 16 per cent of Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of India and further, 9.93 per cent contribution in total export in
India (March,2006). Agriculture sector play a vital role in Indian economy i.e., livelihood
and export. Agriculture is the most important sector of the Indian Economy from the
perspective of poverty alleviation, and employment generation.
AJRSH
REFERENCES
Mishra, K.C. and Mishra, R.C. (2009) Watershed Development Key to Agriculture
Development in Rural India. January, 2009.
Kaur, Gursharan Jeet (2010) Public Private Partner Ship in Urban Infrastructure
Management.
Abraham Anshu (2009) E-Governance: A Tool to Reduce Corruption
Government of India, Planning Commission, Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002).
Government of India, Planning Commission, Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007).
Government of India, Planning Commission, Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012).
Parshad, Shaker Chander (2009) Agriculture and Rural Development in India since
1947 By New Century Publications New Delhi.
Gilbret, Etienne (2009) Agriculture Prospects and the Rural Economy in China and
India. May 1-7, Main Stream.
Reddy, Koti T (2009) Indian Agriculture- An Overview. Journal of Rural

Development, Vol 28, No. (3), Pp. 327-341.
Lukand, S.K. and Singh, C.P. (2002) Need for Revival of Traditional Rural Water
Harvesting Structures in Eastern Haryana. Paper Present at National Water
Conference on 5-6 March, New Delhi, Organized by Tarun Bharat Singh, The Times
Foundation and Oxfam India Trust.
Yogi, A.K. (2008) Use of Drip and Sprinkler Irrigation in India: An Analysis is
based on Third Minor Irrigation Census. Agriculture Situation in India. June-2008.
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
PRIMARY EDUCATION IN TEA GARDENS OF ASSAM:
A STUDY OF SIVASAGAR DISTRICT
DR. RIPU KR. GOGOI*
*Assistant Professor,
Dr. A.B.S. College of Education.
ABSTRACT
Tea is one of the most important industries in Assam. Apart from the fact that it is
the biggest cash crop in the state, the tea industry is also a major source of
revenue and employment. More than 20 laks of people are involved directly or
indirectly in this sector. But the literacy among the garden labourers is less than
20 percent. After the independence many act has been made to eradicate the
educational scenario from the tea gardens of Assam. For human resource
development education has made a unique role in the society. Various steps have
been taken by Government of India to make primary education free and
compulsory through Government and Non Governmental agencies. Apart from
the activities of SSA, recently RTE-2009 has been passed by Parliament for free
and compulsory education to every child from 6-14 years.
This paper will try to focus the various problems of imparting primary education
in tea garden areas as well as the enrollment and major factors that influence
school drop-outs of school going children in Sivasagar district of Assam where
most of the primary schools are run by SSA.
___________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Primary schools were first setup in 1938 in tea gardens of Assam.1 Most of the schools were
established by various voluntary organization under the guidance of Mahatma Gandhi,
apparently to unite the workers through education against the British Government as a part of
Freedom Movement.1917-18 not even 2% of a total of two hundred thousand children of
school going age of the workers community attended any kind of Primary School.
After independence, Government of India laid considerable emphasis on the
development of education in the country and provisions were made in Plantation Labour Act.
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1951, to empower the State Government to formulate laws in this regard. Accordingly the
Government of Assam, with the approval of the Central Government in the exercise of power
of section 43(i) of the Plantation Act, formulated The Assam Plantation Labour Rules,
1956 (amendment 1983), which contain details provisions regarding education in Tea
Estates. Significantly, it includes a clause providing free education between 6 and 12 years
children. In1959, the state Government constituted a state level Advisory Board for
Education under Labour Department. In 1984, the State Government created a Tea Garden
Cell.2 Under the Directorate of Elementary Education Assam, for better supervision,
administrative and imparting the educational facilities to the children of tea and ex-tea garden
people of Assam. For the improvement of educational facilities, the State Government has
took over 300 primary schools (Cachar and Sivasagar) from the tea garden management
during the years 1973-78. Certain steps have been taken to improve the condition of Primary
Education in tea garden areas in Assam. Section 55 of the Assam Plantation Labour Act,
1956 (amended) laid down that the teacher student ratio in garden schools be 1:4.
The Directive Principles of state policy casts a duty upon the state to provide free and
compulsory education to all children up to age of fourteen years. In 2002, a new Article21 A
was inserted in the Constitution which made free and compulsory education a fundamental
right to all children in the age group of fourteen years. Accordingly RTE-2009 has been
passed by Parliament for free and compulsory education for all children from 6-14 years.
In Sivsagar district, all primary schools have been taken by Government of Assam
and at present run by the Sarva Siksha Avijan Mission. For making an all round educational
atmosphere, school buildings, urinels, latrines etc. have been newly built with the assistance
from Central Government funds. Despite the provisions of Plantation Labour Act 1951 and
Assam Labour Plantation Act, education facilities in the gardens are still below the national
standard.
OBJECTIVE
The main objective is to highlight some problems pertaining to primary education and
various factors which influence the dropout rate of students in Sivasagar District.
METHODOLOGY
A survey method was used on the basis of secondary data conducted during the period
of 2009-10 to collect the relevant information in relation to the current issues of primary
education.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The datas were collected from six blocks under Sivasagar District where most of the
Tea Gardens schools has been run by Sarba Siksha Abhijan Mission. The following table
shows the breakup of primary and middle school in Sivasagar District.
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TABLE-1
BLOCK WISE BREAKUP OF PRIMARY AND MIDDLE SCHOOL IN
SIAVSAGAR DISTRICT
Sl No
Block
Tea estates
Primary School
Middle
School
1.
Amguri
05
05
Khelua
11
13
01
Nazira
17
39
Sapekhati
24
31
Sonari
42
52
06
Dimow
16
45
05
Total
115
185
12
Source: Surva Sikha Avijan, Sivasagar
Table shows Block wise breakup of L.P/M.E schools in the tea gardens of Sivasagar district.
Table reveals the number of primary and middle schools under the coverage of Sarva
Siksha Avijan. Out of the six blocks,there are 115 no of Tea Estates in Sivasagar district,
Amguri block shows only 5 tea estates where only 05 primary schools and not a single
middle school established till date. Middle school in comparision to primary school was
found very low in the above six blocks.Under Sapekhati block, three gardens i.e.
Aideopukhuri, Aideobari and Bimalapur has no primary or middle school in tea garden area.
ENROLMENT OF CHILDREN IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS
The total enrollment of students in schools of Sivasagar District is decreasing
gradually due to lack of parental motivation, lack of academic environment at home, lack of
infrastructure facilities at home and school campus, good communication system, proper
dresses etc. Moreover, the most important factor responsible for school dropouts in the
garden schools is economic. Most families cannot afford to send their children to school due
to their poor economic conditions. The following data shows the real picture of tea garden
educational status of children.
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TABLE: 2
GENDER WISE ENROLLMENT OF CHILDREN FOR THE YEAR 2009-10
Class
Enrollment of Boys
Enrollment of Girls
2011
2010
II
1855
1810
III
1707
1519
IV
1535
1345
845
787
VI
759
686
VII
757
590
* Data collected from SSA, Sivasagar
Table shows Gender wise Enrollment of Children for the year 2009-10
The table reveals that, the enrollment of Boys is higher than that the girls. After
completing primary level, the enrollment of students decreases. During the peak plucking
season, (July to December), most of the school going children are either engaged as child
labour or are seen looking after their younger siblings at home when both their parents or
elders are busy at garden work. The number of girls in schools is less primarily because of
various socio religious factors like early marriages. Many young girls are also sent out to
urban households to work as maid.
Due to good efforts of Sarva Siksha Avijan, the education scenario of Garden.
Children has slightly improved. The total no teachers appointed under the Mission in 1114
where 643 female and 471 male.3 At present the teacher student ratio in primary level is 1:8
and in upper primary level is 1:10 in general of Sivasagar district where most of the teachers
have no pre or in-service training.4
DROPOUT RATE IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS
The Indian School system has a single point entry and consists of a sequential and full
time format of institutional instruction by full time and professional teachers. The child who
is unable to enter school at class I at the age of 6 years remains outside it, forever. Though in
AJRSH
principle the same child could enter class at the age of 11 years he would have to learn at the
same speed. Most likely he would become a dropout.5
TABLE: 3
DROPOUT CHILDREN FOR THE YEAR (2008-09)6 IN SIVASAGAR
DISTRICT
Sl. No.
Name of Block
Boys
Girls
Total
Sapekhati
141
124
269
Dimow
22
16
38
Amguri
Khelua
37
46
Sonari
432
435
867
Nazira
141
141
282
*Sarva Siksha Avijan, Sivasagar
Table shows the dropout children for the year (2008-09 in Sivasagar district.
The table reveals the position of dropout students of the tea gardens under six blocks.
Among the blocks, Sonari shows highest dropout comprising of total 269 children, while
Dimow has the lowest number of school dropouts.
Apart from the schemes like midday meal launched by the Central Government and
free textbook up to class VII, the rate of enrollment is still not encouraging. The Anganwadi
Centres in the garden areas also still show low enrollment. The lack of enrollment in schools
is the basic hindrance for the development of educating which has direct impact on health
consciousness among garden population.
Our investigation revealed the main reason for low enrollment in garden schools were the
following:
The above mentioned factors are the root causes for low enrollment in schools and
drop out. Therefore, looking towards the scenario of primary education in tea estates
especially in the Sivasagar District, some suggestions may offer for the development of
primary education.
AJRSH
SUGGESTIONS
a) Implementation of Adult education in tea garden areas to literate the people.
b) Stable economic condition is most essential for the labourers to run their family.
c) The implementation of PLA1951 and Assam Plantation Act 1956 is most important as
these are in papers only in some extant. Management and Government should prepare a
plan with the help of NGO and other agencies for spread of education.
d) Motivation and Awareness programme in garden areas should be launched against
various issues like Child marriage, family planning, Nutrition, black magic, addiction
etc.
e) Proper implementation of SSA through Meena Club, Sanjugi Siksha Kendra etc..
f)
Renovation of Crches through incentive and support materials.
g) Teachers to be appointed those who are well acquainted with Sadri language
h) Training for Tea Garden Education Committee members regarding various issues related
to primary education.
i)
Life skill development training and learning visit for children.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion we may say that to eradicate illiteracy from the tea garden areas and
fulfillment of universelisation of primary education, apart from SSA, the Management,
ACMS and other stake holders should come forward and work for the deprived children by
giving their right to education. Because children is a crucial input to human resource
development & consequently economic growth of a country.
REFERENCES
1. Souvenier, ACMS, 1992, p-32
2. Kakati R., Gandhiji, Asom aru Asomor Chha Mazdoor, p-73-74, ghy-1989, ACMS,
Dibrugarh
3. Reports of Govt. of Assam, Labour & Employment Deptt.,Dispur, No.-GIR
(RC)89/91/165 dtd.26-02-96
4.
Report on SSA, Sivsagar, 2008-09
5. The Assam Tribune , 6th September 2009

6. Baruah , Neera : (1998) : Born to work, Child labour in India, Delhi, p-22
7. Report of the SSA, Sivasagar, 2008-09, p-5
8. The Hindu, Feb.12,2012
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
A STUDY OF SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS OF SUPERSTITIONS
DR. SAFIOLLAH SAFAEI*; DR. AKBAR KHODABAKHSHI**
*Department of Sociology,
Payam Noor University,
Tehran, Iran.
**Faculty of Economics and Social Science,
Bu Ali Sina University,
Hamedan, Iran.
ABSTRACT
The current paper draws on a study conducted about reasons of inclination to
superstition and its related factors among citizens in Hamadan city, in Iran. The
instrument used to gather data for this research was a questionnaire, which
collected data from among 321 Hamadanian citizens via a clustering multistage
sampling technique. The major findings of this study (racial group) were: women
are more superstitious than men. As one grows older, the sense of inequality,
alienation from the self and inclination to superstition increases. People who are
involved in metal jobs and those who speak Persian language (Fars) are less
inclined to superstitions; farmers, those involved in agricultural jobs and those
who speak Kurdish and Lorish languages are more inclined to superstitious
beliefs. As the education level, income, knowledge, rational action, sense of
security and the life satisfaction increase, the tendency for superstitions
decreases. In multivariate regression analysis, in order to specify an equation
through which one can predict the superstition phenomenon, education, rational
action, and isolation, sense of security and meaninglessness factors were sign.
This equation accounted for 30% of variance In superstitious beliefs as measured
in this study.
KEYWORDS: Superstitions, sense of security, alienation, rational action.
________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
In the 1980s, rationality and empiricism increased in such a way that era is called decade of
empiricism. Following this decade, 1990s and 20s were called the era of the evaluation of
enlightenment, and it was in this period that the search for the cause and effect relationships
in phenomena was placed on the agenda of the scholars. Rationality and reasoning are useful
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tools through which a human being can navigate and specify his location and place in the
universe. If a human being could not utilize these tools efficiently, he would inevitably turn
to metaphysical and supernatural forces which are beyond imagination and the superstitious
phenomena built by his own hand and imagination (Harampanahi, 2007). Thus, it can be said
that the advance of knowledge in different aspects of social life decreases the tendency for
superstitious beliefs and thereby elevates the barriers of personal and social development. In
underdeveloped and poor countries, in which there are more poverty and estrangement,
superstitious beliefs have much deeper roots than rich and advanced countries.
Nevertheless, one should never think that there are no superstitious beliefs in developed
countries. For example, England is one of the most superstitious countries of the world
(Azemzaheh, 2005). Some indigenous beliefs and attitudes in Iran are the result of daily,
family, religious and individual trails, and are remains and the heritage of the indo- Iranian
race. Even some of them has survives and remained from the primitive period of human
civilization (immigration of Aryan Family to Iran Plateau). For example, the existing beliefs
and legends about sun, moon, dragon, speaking to animals, plants etc. some of the other
Iranian superstitious beliefs are a result of the invasion of Iran's ancient neighbors like
Chaldea and Assyria which have been called " the mother of superstition and magic" in that
era. These alien tribes along with their scary gods, their beliefs about malevolence and
benevolence of days and hours, and the effect of the stars on human destiny etc have had a
great effect on the Iranian beliefs. Nowadays, superstitions are among the problems of human
community. Superstitions as phenomena created by the man himself may be the sole and only
problem which has continued to live and survived the passage of time despite the progress,
advance and development of the societies. Not only they are not diminished and weakened in
the 21century, but also they are increasingly gaining support. Nowadays, we come across
people who claim to be fortune tellers, soothsayer, diviner, foreseer, seer, or astrologists, in
the streets. These jobs are still visible in Iranian society in some occupations like fortune
telling, divination, prophecy, horoscopy, etc. Thus, the researcher set off to study this
phenomenon and its related factors in Hamadan city.
1-1: STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The most obvious example of distracted and false ideas are what called "superstitions".
Superstitions are among the "social understanding" categories in the spiritual culture of the
society. Regarding the roots, they are the remains of the previous ancient people and tribes
(Chaldeans, Babylonians and Arabs) which are considered as social problems nowadays.
Thus, they have a bad effect on society , and they limit the development of the society; these
beliefs are more common among traditional and static societies. Superstition means legend
and baseless story (Fazaei,2005) false, baseless talk (Ameed, 1987), legendary and
imaginary talk (Ameed, ) In another more comprehensive definition it is said that:
"superstition means considering an effect for something which is not considered real by the
basics of wisdom, experimental sciences. For example, in Middle Ages, Europe was involved
with some false ideas which are considered superstitious nowadays (Jahoda,1971) The real
base of the superstition is the widespread beliefs and ideas of the individuals in the society.
The common attributes of such beliefs are: a- method and extension of these ideas are public
and widespread in society. B- They have full power and force, meaning that some of the
societies are active and working based on the belief in these superstitions. C- the externality
aspect of the superstitions, meaning that basic beliefs of every person is not time and person-
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specific, but it seems as if they are imposed on individuals from an unknown world (Naseh,
2001).
Sometimes the superstitious beliefs traveled from one country to another. The Hamadanian
people along with the other people in the world considered number 13 as malevolent , and
they even changed the number of their addresses to 12+1 instead of 13. Besides these
examples, some other cases can be considered as signs of superstitious beliefs in Hamedan
city throughout history. The Stony Lion statue (Sheer Sangei) .Was considered as a talisman
and was believed to be protective against some destructive natural forces (Jahanpoor, 1999)
Also, for a very long time, Hamadanian people believed in "AL". With a close look, one can
see that the belief in AL is the result of some unknown diseases which infect the pregnant
women and that because of ignorance and in order to explain a phenomenon which occurred
regularly people invented the legend of AL (Ghobadi,2008). Nowadays, seeking help in the
superstition and super natural powers is manifested in fortune-telling, divination, horoscopy
etc. These people use books, birds, paper, coffee and crystal balls as their primary tools.
These people and these tools are visible in Hamedan city especially in historical and cultural
centers which have many visitors and tourists from inside and outside Iran. This fortunetellers make a very ugly and improper appearance out of the city. Unfortunately, because of
ignorance and inability of the people to solve their own problems, these fortune-tellers are
enjoying a good and profitable business and income. These fortune-tellers not only do not
solve the problems of the people who refer to them, but also worsen their problems. In
addition, some people having studied the horoscopy books, horoscopy learning books and
books which talk about the malevolence and benevolence of affairs turn to superstition in
their daily affaires in one way or another. Omens and soothsaying give peace and hope to a
person and entertain him for a while and show him a mirage which distracts him from the
true path and deprives him of true thinking and reasoning.
Sociologists believe that in a superstitious society people tend to superstition and divination
in order to reach their goals. It must be noted even a portion of horoscopy which lacks
scientific basis also considered superstition. The scientific astrology predicts the movement
of the heavenly spheres using mathematics and physics; e.g.| the occurrence of lunar eclipse,
however, non-scientific astrology or horoscopy claims to predict the future of a human being
based on the movement of the heavenly shapes, which places horoscopy in the superstition
domain( khaledy khademe,1996.35 .Since superstitions include a variety of subjects, the
researcher tries to focus on the cases of belief in malevolence and benevolence and omen
(soothsaying) and luck. The researcher tries to answer the following questions:
How much is the extent of Hamadanian people's tendency for superstition?
What are the related factors in this inclination?
1-2: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Every social phenomenon needs some cognitive and concrete requirements to exist and to
come into being. Development is a social phenomenon; reaching the goals of development is
among the primary goals of every society and reaching development needs concrete and
cognitive requirements. If these requirements are not met and fulfilled, the manifestation
development will be impossible. During the 1960s, some thinkers focused much on culture
and believed that if we do not change people's attitudes and beliefs, we can not reach
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development. We should modernize the culture. The cognitive and the cultural elements of
the society are the infrastructure for any kind of economic growth and development. In order
for our country to survive, it must reach the level of other developed and industrial society in
the shortest time possible from technical and economical point of view. Such a movement
requires highly motivated people with a high level of knowledge and high cultural growth.
Those people who just wait for the invisible and heavenly hands, magicians and sorcerers for
help and consider the diligent attempts useless could not be good soldiers for the
development of a nation. Regarding the cognitive and cultural factors for the development of
the society, it can be said that when a society is entangled in superstitions, it does not have
necessary cognitive requirements for the true development (Sepehr, 2005). From a functional
point of view, it can be said that superstitious beliefs create negative functions which, in turn,
limit the accomplishment of the development. These negative factions are as follows:
A- Superstitious ideas and beliefs impose incorrect behavioral norms and patterns on the
society. If the people of the society are involved in superstitions, the rulers of the society can
rule them based on these superstitions and false imagination and pursue their own benefits
and the people will be just a useless mass for them.
B- Development of superstitious ideas draws and shows a very bad picture of our society to
the world. C- Social problems; by following the track of many social problems, we can see
the role of superstitious beliefs in their occurrence. So it can be said that if a human being
places his life on nil and nihilism, instead of reality and truth, his self-confidence will
decrease , and he will rely in superstitious beliefs, and as a result he will get far and away
from research and finally this will be a barrier for development and growth of the society as a
whole. This is one of the negative effects of the inclination to superstition on individuals and
society.
1-3: THE AIMS OF THE STUDY

Finding the degree of a tendency for superstitious beliefs in Hamedanian citizens Comparing
the inclination to superstitious belief between men and women Identifying the role of
different variables (cultural, social and economical) in inclination to superstition between the
citizens
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Sepehr et al in a study called "the study of examples, elements and the reasons for the
occurrence of superstitions and false beliefs" tried to study the issue of superstition. The
findings of the study showed that women believed much more in such beliefs and an
educated person believes in such issues less than an uneducated person. Regarding the
relationship between superstitious beliefs and people's jobs, the highest level of superstitious
beliefs is related to nonurban jobs and housewives. The lowest level of superstitious beliefs is
related to clerks, government employees and people involved with mental jobs. In addition,
as age increases, tendency to superstitious beliefs increases either and it shows that as time
goes by and people grow older the level superstitious beliefs increases too. The level of
income increases and the economic situation improves the tendency of the people to
superstition decreases. Passage and transformation through traditional way of life to an
industrial way of life decreases the level of superstitious beliefs, though this tendency never
stops (Sepehr, 2005). Ghobadi in his paper the Hamadanian folklore beliefs about Al has
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studied this superstitious belief. AL is the name of an evil elf in women's superstitious beliefs
who takes away the baby's liver in the womb of a pregnant woman in the sixth night and kills
the baby. Thus, Al is a humanmade entity , and it is folklore and belief in it is the result of the
occurrence of some unknown diseases in the pregnancy period, which has resulted in the
creation of Al legend through time as a phenomenon which always happens (Ghobadi,2008)
.Fazaei in his paper the sociology of the superstitious beliefs" considers superstitions as
some news, attitudes, ideas, habits and non- scientific and unreasonable behaviors and actions
which are withholding in nature and keep the less literate and less experienced people
ignorant. In this paper he discusses some superstitious actions and beliefs which include:
divination, fortunetelling, predicting the future, exorcism, connection through mediums,
horoscopy, omens, use of magic, use of talisman, belief in the inevitability of the destiny or
determinism, and belief in luck and predefined destiny (Fazaei, 2005). Oikeh in his study
superstitions between guidance school teachers in the south of Nigeria comes up with the
following findings:
The undergraduate students in the south of Nigeria believe more in superstitious than
graduate students.
The average score of belief in superstition for graduates of humanities was higher than art
graduates.
There was no significant difference between the scores (regardless of sex, age, social class,
place of birth and the course of study).
About 40% of the teachers believed in 54.83 % of superstitious statements.
Answering 17 items, more that 335 teachers had no idea about 27.41% of the superstitious
statements
About 60% of the teachers were quite against 10 items (16.12% of the superstitious
statements).
More than 70% of the teachers agreed with 4 items from 13 areas of superstitious beliefs
(oikeh, 1997).
Purcell in his research " horoscopy and determinism between the female factory workers"
tried to gather data from the female workers of a factory in south of England through
cooperative observation. His findings revealed that women, as it is manifested in their belief
in spirits, horoscopy and other superstitious beliefs and supernatural events, are more
concerned about the future. They believe in many of the actions, attitudes and events which
are formally called destiny or luck. These beliefs reveal the belief in determinism (Purcell,
1989)
HYPOTHESES
Tendency for superstition is different between men and women.
There is a relationship between age and the tendency for superstition.
There is a relationship between the income of the families and tendency for superstition.
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There is a relationship between rational action and tendency and inclination to superstition.
There is a relationship between the level of knowledge and tendency for superstition.
There is a relationship between the sense of inequality and tendency for superstition.
There is a relationship between level of life satisfaction and tendency for superstition.
There is a relationship between alienation and tendency for superstition.
3- METHODOLOGY
This study is a cross-sectional descriptive-analytic survey. The sampling population of this
research included all the people, who were between 15 to 79 years old. The volume of the
samples with 0.05 error and was 321(using Lin's table). The unit of observation and analysis
was all the Hamedanian people who are between 15 to 69 years old.
3-1: SAMPLING METHOD

One of the methods of probability sampling is the clustering multistage sampling. In this
method, first, an area or a few areas are selected in a city and from among those areas some
smaller areas are selected. Later some blocks are selected from those smaller areas and finally
some families are selected for interview in those blocks. In all these stages in this study, the
selection was performed quite randomly. In order to cover all the areas in Hamedan city, in
the first stage all the four districts of Hamedan city were divided into four clusters and from
each area, for smaller areas were selected. Later from each selected area two blocks were
selected randomly (32 blocks totally). From among these, 321 people were chosen as samples
of the society with specified starting points and different distances from each other. Since the
populations of the blocks were not the same, number of the subjects selected from each block
was considered proportional to its population. This method is called the Probability
proportional to Size or PPS.
3-2: THE METHODOLOGY FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF THE DEPENDENT
VARIABLE
In order to measure the tendency for superstition (which was the dependent variable of this
study) three indexes were designed (luck, malevolence, benevolence and omens or
soothsaying) on Likert scale and were used after their validity and reliability was determined.
3-2-1: RELIABILITY
In order to measure the reliability of the measurement tool, the Cronbach alpha was utilized.
Cronbach alpha is used to calculate the internal reliability of the measurement tools such as
questionnaires or those tests which measure different traits (Delavarei,2004). In this study,
the Cronbach alpha was used. In this method, is the index of reliability of total
measurement which must be at least 70%. In this study, coefficient for knowledge was
91%, rational action 71%, sense of security 71%, sense of inequality 75%, life satisfaction
76%, alienation 79% and tendency for superstition was 87%..
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3-2-2: VALIDITY
Validity measures the extent to which the measurement tool measures the given trait. The
researcher can not be sure about the accuracy of the collected data and their results unless he
ensures the validity of the measurement tool (sarmad, 2001) The measurement tool in this
study was a questionnaire and its questions (which have been designed to measure the
tendency for superstitious beliefs and its related factors and were designed consulting with
the experts in the field) fulfilled the researcher's goal. In order to determine the validity of the
measurement tool, the factor analysis which is kind of constructing validity was used.
3-2-3: FACTOR ANALYSIS
18 sentences or statements were considered to measure the tendency for superstitious beliefs.
Since these 18 sentences measure three indexes (luck, malevolence and benevolence and
omen or soothsaying), the experimental correlation between the sentences and the given
index was determined as a factor using exploratory factor analysis. The procedure was as
follows:
The researcher applied the 18 chosen sentences in factor analysis to determine the common
causes which are the core of the answers to the questions in every individual. In order to
answer the question of whether the number of the chosen factors (3 factors) is confirmed for
18 sentences, the researcher used KMO test which confirms the factor analysis. 0.9 for KMO
test reveals a very good factor analysis, about 0.8 is good, 0.7 is normal, 0.6 is average, 0.5 is
a little and less than 0.5 for this quantity means improper factor analysis (Moghdas Jafare&
Bagherzadeh 2003)
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TABLE -1: THE ROTATED MATRIX OF THE SENTENCES RELATED TO

TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION
Quantity
of the
sentence
0.748
sentence
Factor 1
Luck is very influential in human life

Whenever I couldn't tackle my tasks , I get along with it and assign
0.668
my failure to bad luck
0.717
Belief in good and bad luck is true most of the times
Luck
0/699
In every task I also believe in luck for accomplishment
0.793
Luck is inseparable from human life as a whole
0.590
Nowadays luck has no place in human life
Total percentage of the
Eigen Value: 3. 765
Total percentage: 20.918
variations: 20.918
Quantity
of the
sentence
Factor 2
sentence
Some days like the 13th of the new year in Iran are malevolent
0.763
days and one shouldn't do important things in these days
0.649
I dont want to live in a house whose address number is 13
When I want to do a task, and one of my family members sneeze, Malevolence
0.708
I dont do that task.
and
benevolence
0.798
One shouldn't manicure at night because it is malevolent
Plying with car or door keys or plying with scissors blades is not
0.809
benevolent
0.637
Some days and hours are malevolent and some are benevolent
Eigen Value:3.194
Total percentage:36.662
variations:17.744
Quantity
of the
sentence
Factor 3
sentence
Sometimes man reaches to a dead end and then a soothsayer or a
0.675
fortuneteller can be of help
0.666
One must rely on his own efforts
0.623
Sometimes it is reasonable to get help from a soothsayer
omen
0.633
One calms down when he goes to a soothsayer or fortuneteller
0.610
I have never thought of going to a soothsayer
I think that only weak-hearted people go to soothsayers and
0.745
fortunetellers
Eigen Value l:2/822
Total percentage:54.341
variations:15.679
The KMO value for this study was 0.867. Thus, we can use factor analysis with 3 factors.
Barthlet or Kromit test with value of 2229.801 in at least 95% was significant (sig= 0.000).
This test shows that the variables are not independent of each other, but they are dependent to
each other. The Eigen Value of the three determined factors was more that 1 and this
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indicates that the chosen factors are the best factors possible. The Eigen Value is a value
which shows the extent of variance in a set of the primary variables. It is explained with one
factor. The greater this value is, that factor explains greater variance (vaus, 2002). The factor
analysis of the 18 chosen sentences was performed using principal component method, with
vertical rotation and Varimax rotation method for the three main factors. The results are
presented in table 1. To sum up, it can be said that the found and extracted factors were those
expected by the researcher. As a result, these constructs are confirmed from theoretical and
experimental points of view. Therefore, it can be said that sentences which are related to the
inclination for superstition have constructed validity.
ANALYSIS
TABLE 2: DISTRIBUTION OF THE SUBJECTS BASED OF THE POPULATION
VARIABLES
%
21.5
69
Variable
Primary
school
and
belowless than 5
grades
181
High
school- 5
to 15
grades
22/1
71
Higher
educationmore than
14 grades
100
321
61.7
197
Fars
6.27
88
Turk
7.10
34
Kurd and
Lor
100
319
56.4
NO
NO
50.2
161
Variable
male
sex
Education
level
total
ethnicity
total
8.49
160
100
321
19
61
Below
23
62.9
202
23-50
18/1
58
Above
50
100
321
30.4
97
69.2
222
Marriage
status
married
100
319
total
female
total
age
total
single
According to table 2, 50.2% of the samples were male, and 49.8% were female. In fact, the
distribution is equal between men and women. 62.9% were 23 to 59, 19% were below 20 ,
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and 18.1% were above 50 years old. In other words, most of the subjects were 23 to 50. The
average age of the subjects was 36 to 75 and the standard deviation was 14. 36 years. 69.2%
of the subjects were married, and 30.4% were single. In fact, most of the subjects were
married. Regarding the level of education, 56.4% of the subjects were on high school, 22.1%
were on higher education level , and 21.5% were at primary school level or below that. In
other words, the average education level was 9.46 grades and the standard deviation was
5.77. 61.7% of the subjects spoke Persian language (Fars), 27.6% spoke Turkish (Turk) and
10.7% spoke Lorish ( Lor). In other words most of the subjects had Fars ethnicity.
TABLE 3: DISTRIBUTION OF THE SUBJECTS BASED ON THEIR TENDENCY

FOR SUPERSTITION AND ITS INDEXES
%
Number
26.5
85
Variable
Low
51.7
166
21.8
70
Inclination
average to omens or
soothsaying
high
100
321
Total
19.9
64
62
199
18.1
58
100
321
Number
21.5
69
low
variable
6.57
185
average
20.9
67
high
100
321
20.8
Tendency
58.6
for
average
superstition
20.6
high
67
low
188
average
66
high
100
321
Low
total
Inclination
to luck
total
Tendency for
malevolence
and
benevolence
total
Regarding the tendency for superstition, Table 3 reveals that most of the subjects (57.6%) had
normal and average tendency for luck ; 21.5% had low tendency for luck and 20.9% of them
had a high tendency for luck. The average tendency for belief in luck was 18.54 scores, and
the standard deviation for it was 4.77. Regarding the tendency for the malevolence and
benevolence of the affairs, most of the subjects (58.6%) had normal and average tendency for
the malevolence and benevolence of the affaires; 20.8% had low tendency for it and 20.6%
highly believed in malevolence and benevolence of the affairs. The average tendency for
malevolence and benevolence of affairs was 14.18 scores, and the standard deviation for it
was 5.85. Regarding the inclination to omens or soothsaying, most of the subjects (57.7) had
a normal and average inclination to omens or soothsaying; 26.5% of the subjects had a low
tendency for it and 21.8% highly believed in it. The average inclination to omens and
soothsaying is 11.02 scores and its standard deviation score are 4/28%. Most of the subjects
(62%) had an average tendency for superstition; 19.9% of them had a low tendency for it, and
18.15 were highly inclined to superstitious beliefs. The average tendency for superstition was
43.73 scores, and standard deviation was 11.33.
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3-4: FACTORS OF A TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION AND ITS INDEXES:

The relationship between sex of the subjects and tendency for superstition and its indexes:
TABLE 4: THE TEST OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN IN
TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION AND ITS INDEXES
Level of
significance
T
score
0.001
41.3
0.007
2.72
0.001
Standard
deviation
average
abundance
sex
4.55
19.43
160
woman
4.84
17.65
161
man
5.81
15.06
160
woman
5.82
13.30
161
man
11.01
45.84
160
woman
11.28
41.63
161
man
3.38
Dependent
variable
luck
malevolence
and
benevolence
superstition
Table 4 shows that the average tendency for luck, malevolence and benevolence and
superstition for the female subjects are more than male subjects. Regarding the obtained T
score and the level of significance, the observed differences are meaningful in 95% form
statistical point of view. Thus, based on the given statistics, it can be said that women are
more inclined to superstitious beliefs than men.
3-5: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
SUPERSTITION AND ITS INDEXES
AGE
AND
TENDENCY
FOR
TABLE 5: CORRELATION OF AGE AND TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION AND

ITS INDEXES
Level of
significance
Pearson's correlation
coefficient
variable
0/004
0/161
Age- tendency for malevolence and

benevolence
0/039
0/115
Age- tendency for superstition
Table 5 shows that there is a positive and significant correlation between age and belief in the
malevolence and benevolence of the affairs with 95% confidence level. The greater is the
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age, the greater is the tendency for superstition and the malevolence and benevolence of the
affairs.
3-6: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MONTHLY
TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION AND ITS INDEXES
INCOME
AND
TABLE 6: CORRELATION OF MONTHLY INCOME AND TENDENCY FOR

LUCK
Level of
significance
Pearson's correlation
coefficient
Variable
0/000
-0/226
Monthly income / tendency for luck
0/000
-0/239
Monthly income / tendency for malevolence

and benevolence
0/000
-0/246
Monthly income/ tendency for superstition
Table 6 shows that there is negative and meaningful correlation between monthly income and
tendency for luck and belief in the malevolence and benevolence in 95%. It means that: the
higher the monthly income, the lower are tendency for such beliefs and vice versa.
3-7: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETHNICITY AND TENDENCY FOR
SUPERSTITION
TABLE 7: DIFFERENCES IN TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION ACCORDING TO

THE ETHNICITY FACTOR
Level of
significance
0/000
8/28
Standard
deviation
Average tendency for

superstition
number
10/92
41/76
197
Fars
10/90
46/63
88
Turk
12/66
47/71
34
Kurd and Lor
11/36
43/73
319
total
ethnicity
As it can be seen in Table 7, the average tendency for superstition for those subjects who are
in one of the mentioned ethnicities is 46.72, 46.63 and 41.76 respectively. Regarding the
value of F (8.28) and the level of significance (sig: 0.000), the observed difference between
these ethnicities is meaningful. Therefore, Kurd and Lor people have the highest tendency for
the superstitious beliefs and Fars people have the lowest tendency.
AJRSH
3-8: THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSONAL AND INDIVIDUAL

VARIABLES AND TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION AND ITS RELATED
INDEXES
TABLE 8: CORRELATION OF PERSONAL AND INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES AND
TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION AND ITS RELATED INDEXES
significance
0/000
0/000
0/000
0/000
Pearson's
correlation
coefficient
-0/288
Variable
Rational
action/
tendency for
luck
Rational
action/
tendency for
malevolence
and
benevolence
Rational
action/
tendency for
omen and
soothsaying
Rational
action/
tendency for
superstition
Life
satisfaction /
tendency for
luck
alienation /
tendency for
luck
alienation /
tendency for
omens and
soothsaying
-0/222
-0/289
-0/346
0/007
-0/150
0/002
0/176
0/005
0/158
0/011
0/142
alienation /
tendency for
superstition
significance
Pearson's
correlation
coefficient
0/000
-0/335
Education level/
tendency for luck
-0/439
Education level/
tendency for
malevolence and
benevolence
0/000
-0/410
Education level/
tendency for
superstition
0/000
-0/287
0/000
Variable
Knowledge level/
tendency for luck
0/000
-0/376
0/000
-0/339
0/028
-0/122
0/023
0/127
Knowledge level/
tendency for
malevolence and
benevolence
Knowledge level/
tendency for
superstition
Sense of security/
tendency for
malevolence and
benevolence
Sense of
inequality/
tendency for
malevolence and
benevolence
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Table 8 shows that there is negative and significant correlation between level of education
and tendency for luck with 95% of confidence. It means that the higher the educational level
of an individual is, the greater his inclination to luck, malevolence and benevolence and
superstitions will be as a whole and vice versa.There is negative and significant correlation
between knowledge level and tendency for luck with 95% of confidence. It means that the
lower the knowledge level of an individual is, the greater his inclination to superstition and its
two indexes, malevolence and benevolence, and vice versa. There is negative and significant
correlation between sense of security and only one of the indexes of superstition (tendency
for malevolence and benevolence) with 95% of confidence. It means that the lower the sense
of security of an individual, the greater his inclination to malevolence and benevolence and
vice versa. There is positive and significant correlation between sense of inequality and only
one of the indexes of superstition (tendency for malevolence and benevolence) with 95% of
confidence. It means that the greater sense of security of an individual is, the greater the
inclination to malevolence and benevolence of the affairs and vice versa. There is negative
and significant correlation between rational action and tendency for superstition and its three
indexes (luck, belief in malevolence and benevolence of the affairs and omens or
soothsaying). It means that the lower the rational action, the greater is the inclination to
superstition and its three indexes and vice versa. There is negative and significant correlation
between life satisfaction and only one of the indexes of superstition (tendency for luck). It
means that the less the life satisfaction, the more the tendency for luck and vice versa. There
is a positive and significant correlation between alienation and tendency for superstition and
its two indexes (luck and soothsaying). This means that the more a person is alienated from
the self, the more he is inclined to superstition and its two indexes (luck and soothsaying) and
vice versa.
3-9: THE PREDICTION OF AN EQUATION FOR LUCK TENDENCY VIA A STEP

BY STEP APPROACH
TABLE 9: THE MAIN ELEMENTS OF THE MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS USING
A STEP BY STEP APPROACHED. STEP 1 TO 5 FOR THE PREDICTION OF
TENDENCY FOR SUPERSTITION
Standard
Error
0/000
10/44
-7/08 -0/348 -0/687
0/16 0/40
Education level
1st
0/000
9/95
-5/27 -0/263 -0/778 0/08 0/24 0/49
Rational action
2nd
0/001
9/79
3/22
0/161
0/732
0/03 0/27 0/52
isolation
3rd
0/001
9/69
3/23
0/163
0/482
0/02 0/29 0/53 Sense
of
security
4th
0/032
9/63
2/15
0/110
0/436
0/01 0/30 0/54 meaninglessness
5th
R =0/54
F =25/82
R2 =0/30
Sig F =0/000
R2
Sig.
R2
variable
a =49/71
step
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The result of the multivariate regression for the final dependent variable (tendency for
superstition) using step by step approach in table 9 indicates that our perdition equation has
2
five stages. Based on this table the multivariate correlation coefficient ( R ) in the fifth step
2
is 0.54. The determination coefficient( R ) obtained in the 5th step shows that at the end all
the five variables of the equation (i.e. education level, rational action, isolation, sense of
security and meaninglessness) can explain 0.3 of the variance of the tendency for
2
superstition. The( R ) coefficient obtained in the all the five steps with reliability of 95% is
significant from a statistical point of view. The remaining statistical indexes for the variables
of the equation like regression coefficient ( ) for non- standardized scores and for the
standard scores and T test can be seen. T-test shows that ( ) for each five variables with
reliability of 95% is meaningful from a statistical point of view.
Therefore, the equation for the prediction of belief in superstition is:
y = a + 1 ( x1 ) + 2 ( x2 ) + 3 ( x3 ) + 4 ( x4 ) + 5 ( x5 )
Finally, the equation is like follows:

(x5)
(0/110) + (x4) (0/163) + ( x3 ) (0/161) + ( x 2 ) (-0/263 ) + ( x1 ) (-0/348) + = 49/71 y
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Superstition has its own place in every nation and ethnicity. Even, today, that we can predict
most of the events and happenings, and look into them from a scientific point of view, there
are still some people who believe in the superstitious beliefs remaining from their ancestors
and transfer these beliefs using the process of cultural acceptance and socialization to their
children. For this purpose, the true understanding of this issue can be very useful for the
process of socialization. In this study, different variables, which are based on different
theories and models, were studied in relation with a tendency for superstition and different
results were found. In the previously performed studies, it was determined that women are
more superstitious than men. In this study, in all the indexes, except tendency for omens and
soothsaying, women believed more in the superstition than men. Regarding the tendency for
omens and soothsaying, there is not a meaningful difference between men and women and
this indicates that men have involved themselves in this belief through women. Regarding the
different types of omens and soothsaying, the people who are propagating these ideas has
penetrated the minds of both men and women in society. These fortunetelling people are
showing a mirage to their clients. The socialization process in the previous generations was
accompanied with some superstitious legends, while in the new generation this process does
not care a lot for the supernatural and superstitious issues and ideas. The impact of this issue
was made clear when the age of the subjects of the study was considered and analyzed
carefully. It was found that older people believe in all the indexes of superstition, except
omens and soothsaying, more positively in comparison with the younger subjects. The root of
the superstition is the ignorance and the lack of knowledge in the human being. The mind of
the ignorant and less educated people does not have enough ability to analyze the
encountered problems and usually these people are looking for the easiest way, which is not
AJRSH
necessarily the most accurate solution, to solve the problems. Superstitions are among these
solutions. Therefore, as the knowledge and the education of the people in the society
increase, their tendency to superstition and help from such solution decreases. The findings of
this study also shows that as the education level and knowledge of the people in the society
goes higher, their inclination to superstition and its indexes (except omens or soothsaying)
increase. As it was mentioned earlier in this paper, soothsaying and belief in omens has
extended far into the society , and that is why it has involved and absorbed different classes
of society. Nowadays, even educated people face with the modern soothsaying methods
which are propagated through different media like Internet, magazines, newspapers and
books. These modern media which must be used in the way of education and improving the
understanding of the people are involved with soothsaying and superstition themselves.
One of the indexes of the public welfare is high income level for the people of the society.
The findings of this study revealed that rich people are less inclined to the superstition than
poor people. So, as the social class gap, the income gap and the poor class of the society
increase, the superstitious beliefs are more likely to increase. In a cultural system, there are
some different subcultures or micro-cultures which create dynamism for the main cultural
system because of their interactions. Some of these subcultures have some elements taken
from their previous ancestors in their interactions. They have some legends which they
transfer from one generation to the next orally. These subcultures, which are traditional and
most of their population are from nonurban context, tend to do some behaviors called
superstitions. In this study, this issue was revealed in the study of the different ethnicities. It
was shown that Kurd and Lor people are more inclined to the superstition and its indexes,
while Fars people had the least tendency for the superstitious phenomenon.
Social action is one of the important issues in the social sciences in general and sociology in
particular. Max Weber categorized social actions into rational, traditional and emotional
actions. From among these actions, the thing which is important in the contemporary world is
the notion of rational action. In rational action people behave rationally and thoughtfully, and
do not care about those issues which are not in line with the rational mind. The findings of
the present study support this idea. The more rational one's actions are, the less is his
tendency for superstition and all its indexes. The results of this study showed that those
people who are not satisfied with their lives are more inclined to the notion of luck , and they
seek help in the notion of luck, and they do not know that this supposed help is nothing but a
false imagination and mirage. It is nothing but a temporary tranquilizer for their old agonies.
Although alienation is one of the concepts of capitalist society, its roots go back to primary
activities of the first human civilizations. The alienation phenomenon is among the
anomalous phenomena which have produced lots of problems in social activities. If people
feel meaningless or purposeless, they feel more inclined to the Luck and the more sense of
normlessness in an individual; he will believe more in omens and soothsaying. The more
isolated an individual is, the more inclined he will be to luck, malevolence and benevolence
of the affaires and omens. Thus, if people are more alienated from themselves, they will
believe more in superstitions. Therefore, it can be said that belief in superstition is an
anomalous social phenomenon which can pave the way for many of the social disorders.
AJRSH
SUGGESTIONS
Promotion and propagation of cultural self-confidence in order to reduce the causes of the
alienation form the self.
We should try to decrease the causes the sense of powerlessness. This can be achieved with
the participation of the people in decision making. Their ideas and votes must be considered
important.
We should try to give meaning to people's life using some programs to improve their selfconfidence and illicit people's creativity.
Creating and promoting some programs about group activities in order to tackle isolation and
self-alienation.
Improve people's knowledge level with the promotion of study and participation in scientific
and research activities.
Promotion of the rational action and the deletion of the emotional and traditional action as
much as possible in the social domains
Reviewing and reconsidering the way of interaction with audiences and gain their trust and
identifying the domains of the sense of insecurity and improving the sense of security through
group activities.
Prorogation of the practical, equal and just behaviors in micro level and short term between
different classes of society
We should try to identify the causes and reason of the lack of sense of satisfaction in life
using practical programs and workshops with the aim of rationalizing the people's demands
from the social system and vice versa.
The promotion of the studying culture and habit and the use of cultural goods as important
priorities in the family environment
Teaching and training of the sociability in the family environment through which people will
be less responsible for the distribution of the superstitious beliefs
Fighting against the media which are propagating the superstitious beliefs
Promotion of the subcultures to interact with their own cultural elements and try to refine
them
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REFERENCES
Ameed
hassan(1987).
Persian
Dictionary(culture).
Tehran:
Ameer
kabeer,
Vol,1.p,1001&1802. Azemzaheh Asad (2005). Back to Beliefs in Middle Centuries . Tehran:
Chesta NO, 4 . p,405 Delavarei Ali (2004). Theoretical and Practical Research in the
Humanities and Social Sciences . Tehran:Rooshed publisher .P,2 .
Fazaei Yosef (2005). Sociology Illusions & Superstitions. Tehran: Chesta, No
6&7.P,482&483.
Ghobadi alireza(2008. Hamadanian Folk beliefs (AL), Farhang Andisheh, No, 13-14.p,11.
Harampanahi Rahaneh (2007). Superstition, Folk beliefs, Mental Health, Tehran: Hadees
khnevadeh No, 9.P, 2.
khalede khademe ( 1996) .astrology from reality up to superstition, Tehran,abresham rood.
Jahanpoor Ali (1999). Opinion and Beliefs of People in Hamadan Sheer Sangei (stone loin)
Sculpture. Kerman:chesta No, 3-2.P,177.
Jahoda Gustav(1971). The Psychology of Superstition. penquin books .P,10.
Moghadas Jafarei, Mohamad&Bagherzadeh, Ferooz(2003). A study of student culture
partrnership in kerman university. Tehran:Culture researchers quarterly. No1.p,174 .
Naseh Mohamad Mehde(2001). Footprint in the Superstition Route. Mashhad: Mashhad
University Magazan .P,177.
Oikeh, John Abiodun (1980). Health Superstitions Among Southern Nigerian Post- Primary
School Teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International, Vol. 40, No.8, pp.4425-A.
Purcell, Kate (1989). More in Hope Than in Anticipation: Fortune Telling and Fatalism
among Female Factory Workers. Sociological Abstracts, No.46.
Sadri Ghlamhossan, (2005). Modern Persian Culture. Tehran :Nasher agah.P,413 Sarmad
zohreh (2001). Research methods in Behavioral Sciences. Tehran: Nasher Agah. Vol, 4.
P,175.
Sepehr Masood (2005). Ways to Combat Superstition & Calcification. Tehran,Rsheed.P,2
Vaus de david (2002). Surveys in social research. Allen & Unwin. P,169.
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
SOCIO-POLITICAL CHANGES FOR DEPRESSED CLASSES IN
COLONIAL ERA
MR. RAMSHARAN*; MR. YASHPAL**
*Research Scholar,
Central University of Haryana.
**Assistant Professor,
Bharat Vidya Peeth College of Education.
ABSTRACT
The paper examines the temporal dimension of the cause-effect relationship of

socio-political changes which have taken place during different successive
periods during colonial rule. The main thrust areas of this study has been impact
of western education and culture, laws and policies during British rule, social
movements and the notions of various contemporary thinkers who have been
associated with this change.
_________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Colonial rule brought some important change in both the social and economic share for
depressed classes. In ancient time and in medical period the conditions of depressed classes
were very critical. Then social status was at low level and their economic conditions were
very critical because in this period brahminism, caste system, and Hinduism is at the very
high level. So the social and economic position of the depressed society is at the low level in
the society. And it was continued in various forms till the 18th century.
During the 19th century darning British rule the condition of depressed class was not
as worse as it was in ancient time and during Bhakti period. The emergence of British power
made a lot of difference for down trodden people. They brought a sense of Liberty for the
marginalized communities. The British strongly opposed the rituals as Sati Partha and
unsociability. During this period, the depressed were known as untouchables and they were
officially called as scheduled Castes. After independence the position of dalits has improved
considerably due to constitutional provisions and after undertaken by the government spread
of education and awareness. In colonial rule it led to some opportunities for education
including English education for the lower caste it led to access to historical writings and to
their own history but the efforts of the radical Bahujan and Dalit reformers from phule to
periyan and Ambedekar remained a subordinate one.
AJRSH
EFFECTS FOR SOCIAL-POLITICAL UP LIFTMENT IN BRITISH RULE

Renaissance in India appeared during the beginning of nineteenth century. During this
period, several efforts were made to liberate the people from the clutches of religious
orthodoxy and to eradicate social and cultural evils. Several movements were launched
especially by those who got western liberal education. Besides, the British government also
undertook several measures to remove the prevailing evil practices. They also introduced the
western education system which was based on western democratic ideas. Several of these
efforts were directly aimed at improving the lot of the dalits while several others had
indirectly contributed to improve their condition. Some of the important efforts during the
pre-independence period are discussed in this section.
IMPACT OF WESTERN EDUCATION AND CULTURE
In 19th century, English education which was imparted with the view to popularize the
western way of living and thinking transformed the mind of Indians. The spread of western
liberal education triggered the process of social and cultural reforms and helped develop
scientific and rational attitude, which was due to the study of English literature, philosophy
and science. The British observed that in India brahmins alone were the custodians of
imparting education, learning and knowledge and that the system of education in this country
had become redundant. Therefore, they introduced the Western system of education in India.
Although amongst the untouchables education came very late, but the spread of education
changed their way of living and thinking. It also changed their socio-economic conditions.
In the earlier 19th century Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj and
acknowledged the virtues of Western education, liberal outlook and legal institutions. Dr.
Ambedkar also admired the English education and held that Untouchability can be removed
by education alone, yet he was greatly committed to the cause of education. He founded the
peoples Education Society at Bombay in July 1945. He started the Siddharth College,
Bombay in 1946. Hence English education and Western values benefited all parts of the
Indian society and it improved the socio-cultural, economic condition of untouchable or dalits
also.
LAWS AND POLICIES DURING BRITISH RULE
During the British rule in India, downtrodden people started getting some relief and it
brought a sense of liberty for the marginalized communities. The main source of the sociocultural oppress of scheduled castes is the practice of untouchability. The first governmental
step to legislate against untouchability was taken in 1858 when an untouchable boy was
refused admission in a government school in Dharwar, a small town in the then Mysore state
southern India. In 1858 Government of India declared that educational institutions of
government will be open to all classes. From 1858 in theory all government schools and
colleges were open to untouchables but in practice, admission was often refused to them in
rural areas. But over the period of time, the situation was changed and untouchables also got
admission in schools and colleges.
After 1920 the non-Brahmin movement took a political colour. The political reforms
announced by the Montague-Chelmsford Commission of British Government in 1918 and the
subsequent grant of adult suffrage brought the non-Brahmins movement in to political arena.
AJRSH
During the elections held in 1920, 1923, and 1926, several Non-Brahmins were elected to
provincial councils and a separate Non-Brahmin political party was constituted. In 1930,
Gandhi viewed the dalit problem as social one, whereas Ambedkar saw it a political and
economic problem created by upper castes. When Dr. Ambedkar becomes the first law
minister in colonial India, he brought some legal reforms, which later on got incorporated
into the Constitution.
It is critical to see that constitutional reservation for the dalits was not an idea of
equality, but was a historic compromise. The British Government announced in 1932, the
creation of communal electorates, i.e., separate seats and extra votes for Dalits and Muslims.
An agitated Gandhi went on a fast unto death against separate electorates for Dalits. Faced
with intense pressure from popular sympathy for an ailing Gandhi, Ambedkar compromised,
giving up on the demand that Dalit voters be kept separate, but gaining reserved
constituencies for the depressed classes. This Poona Pact of 1932 became the basis for
providing reservations to the depressed classes in the Government of India Act, 1935 which
in turn, became the template for the Constitution of India.
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
In terms of this paradigm the anti-caste social movements were began in the 19th
century under the inspiration of Jyotiba-Phule and was carried on during 1920s by the NonBrahmins movements in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu and then developed under the
leadership of Dr. Ambedkar. Jotiba Phule (1826-1890) was himself not a dalit, but a man of
backward classes, a malis (gardener) by occupation and classed with the Maratha kunbes as
people of middle status. While he developed a strong dalit movement, his main
organizational work was in fact among the middle to low. Non-Brahmin castes of
Maharashtra, traditionally classed as sudra and known till today as the Bahujan Samaj. He
began as a first social reformers who established schools for both girls and untouchable boys.
Mahatma Jotiba Phule founded first Non-Brahmin organization named Satya Shodhak Samaj
in 1873 at Pune. The early Satya Shodhak Samaj movement stressed only two things, first
education of the masses and second was reduction of rituals power. Phule himself was a
creative pioneer in education. After Jotiba Phule, Shahu Ji Maharaj of Kohlapur kept the
movement alive from the turn of the century until his death in 1923. He was first King of
India, who implemented reservation policy in his province. He constructed many schools and
colleges for the dalit people. He opposed caste system and untouchability.
By the 1920s a new militant mass oriented movement arose in Tamil Nadu. Its leader
was E.V. Rama Sawami Periyar from a merchant family. In the early 1920s, he took part in
the Vaikom Temple Satyagrah, reportedly clashing with Gandhi while taking a militant
position. In 1925 Periyar left the Congress and formed the Self-Respect League in 1926 and
its focus was similar to that of Phule for the abolition of caste and supporting the liberation of
women. He attacked all religions more than Phule did. In 1944 he revived the Justice Party
and changed its name to Dravida Kazhagham (DK). He launched a number of vigorous antiuntouchability movements that not only claimed a higher social, economic and political
recognition to the untouchables, but also some sort of reverse adverse treatment to the
hitherto dominant upper caste communities.
Some Brahmins also took up the work of educating the untouchables. Pandurang
Mahadeo, Bapat (1880-1967) popularly known as Senapati Bapat, a revolutionary who was
AJRSH
the first Indian to study in Paris. In August 1913, he began teaching children of untouchables
at Partner, a small Town in the Ahmadnagar district. He gave them books and taught them
how to read and write. He regularly visited the hutments of the untouchables and to persuade
them to send their children to his school. Bapat invited the untouchables for dinner at his
house when he celebrated the birth of his son Vaman.
Bhauro Paigonda Patil who dropped out education from the Raja Ram High school
while he was studying in matriculation, followed the ideas of Shahu Chhatrapati in the field
of education. He established a study center at Dudhgaon in Satara District of Maharashtra.
Education, Bhaurao believed, was a way to the solution of many of the problems of poor
depressed class people in the rural areas. He made it a mission of his life.
A significant anti-untouchability movement appeared in Punjab during this time
known as Adi-dharam movement. It was led by a prominent untouchable of the state named
Mangoo Ram, with the aim of throwing out the customs and rituals of untouchables in the
state. The Adi-dharam movement under the direction and leadership of Mangoo Ram also
sought to uplift scheduled castes. The Adi-dharam movement began with the belief that the
untouchables in Punjab existed as a distinct socio-religious entity or quam like those of
Hindu, Muslims or Sikhs since ages and with a conviction to remove it.
They should, therefore demand for distinct set of patterns of treatment which may
lead to the amelioration of their socio-religious and political condition in the society. Hence,
many social activists of the 19th century and in the early 20th century made efforts to
organize the non-Brahmin movements and dalits were drawn to an anti-caste, anti-Brahmin
and anti-Hindu ideology of the kind that Phule formulate. The non-brahmin movements in
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab and Karnataka, all argued in terms of the Aryan conquest
and brahmin exploitation through religion.
Drawing his descent from the untouchable caste of mahar, Dr. Ambedkar began the
Mahar movement in 1926 with the aim of eradicating untouchability from Maharashtra.
Though the Mahar movement attained fair degree of success, its experiences convinced
Ambedkar that for the holistic advancement of the plight of his fellow brethren, the
movement must be rooted in the political mould.
Dr. Ambedkar made efforts to transform the hierarchical structure of Indian society
for the restoration of equal rights and justice to the neglected lot by building up a critique
from within the structure of Indian society. His was not a theoretical attempt but a practical
approach to the problems of untouchability. Ambedkar took as his basic goal the ending of
exploitation and oppression and the achievement of equality, liberty and fraternity.
CONCLUSION
After independence the position of dalits has improved considerably due to
constitutional provisions and after undertaken by the government spread of education and
awareness. In colonial rule it led to some opportunities for education including English
education for the lower caste it led to access to historical writings and to their own history but
the efforts of the radical Bahujan and Dalit reformers from Phule to Periyan and Ambedekar
remained a subordinate one. Hence the study reflect that the social and political condition of
the Dalits was very critical before colonial rule. The emergence of British power made many
AJRSH
attempts and create many rules and regulations for improvement and upliftment their social
condition and political upliftment.
REFERENCES
1. Bhardwaj R.K., Democracy in India, National Publisher 1980, p.62
2. Oommen, T.K., Scheduled Castes, Encyclopedia Britannica India, Vol. 6, p.139.
3. Chanchreek, K.L., Dalits in India, Vol.2, Shree Publishers 2010, p.76.
4. Chabra Barty, Bidgut, Pandey Rajendra Kumar, Modern Political Thought, SAGE2009, p.321.
5. Ravat, V.B. Dalit movement at the Gross Road, Countercurrent Org.,09 Aug,2005.
6.
Kathineni Sesha, Humiston Gail Diane, Dalits, The oppressed People of India, (War
Crimes, Genocide and crimes against Humanity), vol. 4, 2010, p. 99-140.
7. Sitapati Vinay, The Dalit Contract with India, Seminar 615, Nov.2010
8. Zolliot, Eleaner, From Untouchable to Dalit Manohar 2001, p-39.
9. Gail Omvedt, Dalitvision, Black Sawan 2010, p.55
AJRSH

Research Consortium
AJRSH:
ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
DYNAMICS OF P SORPTION AND SOLUBILISING ACTIVITY IN
TERMITE NEST MATERIAL
P. SATHIYA BAMA*; DR. A. DAVID RAVINDRAN**
*Department of Biology,
Gandhigram Rural Institute,
Gandhigram, Dindigul (Dt), Tamilnadu, India.
**Department of Biology,
Gandhigram Rural Institute,
Gandhigram, Dindigul (Dt), Tamilnadu, India.
ABSTRACT
Soil microorganisms play an important role in soil processes that determine plant
productivity. Phosphate solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) is the important microbial
group associated with plant nutrition. They are capable of hydrolysing organic
and inorganic phosphorus from insoluble compounds. P-solubilization ability of
the microorganisms is considered to be one of the important characteristic
features for soil fertility, plant growth and potential yield. PSMs include different
groups of microorganisms, which not only assimilate phosphorus from insoluble
forms of phosphates, but they also cause a large portion of soluble phosphates to
be released in quantities in excess of their requirements. Termite soil contains
microbial population which are capable of mobilizing important nutritional
elements in the soil. This group covers bacteria, fungi and some actinomycetes.
These organisms solubilize the unavailable forms of inorganic-P like tricalcium,
iron, and aluminum into soluble forms by release of a variety of organic acids.
Termite mound material is used as an ecofriendly approach to minimize the use
of chemical fertilizers, for enhancement of crop production by their biological
activity.
KEYWORDS: PSM, Biofertilisers, Plant Nutrition.
_________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Soil biota is one among the most diverse communities in the world. Soil organisms regulate a
number of processes in terrestrial ecosystems that are critical for productivity and essential
for maintaining ecosystem health. Biofertilizers are commonly called microbial inoculants
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which are capable of mobilizing important nutritional elements in the soil from non-usable to
usable form through biological processes (Selvakumar, 2009). Termites thrive in great
abundance in arid ecosystems and play important roles in biorecycling of organic matter.
They are recognized as indicators of land recovery, as their activity increase nutrient levels,
especially nitrogen, and phosphorus, due to transport and decomposition of fresh material by
their enzymatic system .Together with their microbial symbionts, they efficiently solubilise
phosphorus with the release of low molecular weight organic acids and production of extra
cellular enzymes as phosphates. Phosphorus is an essential element for plant development
and growth making up about 0.2 % of plant dry weight; however a large portion is
immobilized because of intrinsic characteristics of soils such as pH that affects the
availability of nutrients and the activity of enzymes, altering the equilibrium of the soil solid
phase. Turner and Haygarth (2005), evaluated phosphatase activity in arid ecosystems, and
found a strong correlation between enzyme activity and soil properties such as total N,
organic P and clay content. But termites augment the solubility of phosphorus by their
solubilizers and increase the nutritional availability in land ecosystems.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Isolation of Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB)
Plants acquire P from soil solution as phosphate anions. However, phosphate anions are
extremely reactive and may be immobilized through chemical precipitation with cations such
as Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+ and Al3+, depending on the particular properties of a soil. (Tilak et al,
2005). Although phosphorus uptake by plants is less compared to nitrogen and potassium,
normal plant growth cannot be achieved without it (Bin Zakaria, 2009).
Detection and estimation of the phosphate solublization ability of microorganisms have been
possible by using plate screening methods. Phosphate solubilizers produce clearing zones
around the microbial colonies in media. Pikovskayss medium is a general medium for
selection of phosphate solubilizer. .Insoluble mineral phosphates such as tricalcium
phosphate or hydroxyapatite are contained in the media.
1 g of the termite nest material (TMM ) were collected in Dindigul district and transferred to
the 250 ml conical flask containing 99 ml of sterile distilled water and mixed well using
magnetic stirrer. The sample was serially diluted up to 10-6 dilution. About 0.1 ml of the
sample from the 10-5 and 10-6 dilution was added to the plate containing sterile Pikovskayas
medium. Then, the Petri plates were incubated at 37Cfor 2 to 5 days. After incubation the
total colonies were counted and the predominant colonies which form clearing zone were
isolated and diameter of the solubilising activity was recorded.
B) ISOLATION OF PHOSPHATE SOLUBILIZING FUNGI:
The medium and procedure used for bacterial isolation was also used for the isolation
of phosphate solubilizing fungi. Predominant fungal colonies which form zone of clearance
in Rose Bengal medium were also noted.
The results were expressed as solubilization efficiency (SE)
SE = Solubilization diameter 100 / Growth diameter
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Also the bromophenol blue method that produce yellow halos following pH drop
through the release of organic acids is more reproducible and has greater correlation in
comparison with the simple halo method. However, clearing zones on agar plate method is
generally used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Most agronomic soils contain large reserves of total phosphorus ,but the fixation and
precipitation of P cause P deficiency, and in turn, restrict the growth of crops severely. The
concentration of soluble phosphorus in tropical soil is usually very low, phosphorus is only
available in micro molar quantities or less (Henri et al, 2006). The P-content in average soils
is about 0.05% but only 0.1% of the total P is available to plants. Deficiency of soil P is one
of the most important chemical factors restricting plant growth in soils.
Phosphorus replenishment especially in sustainable production systems, remains a major

challenge as it is mainly fertilizer-dependent. Though the use of chemical P fertilizers is
obviously the best means to circumvent P deficiency in different agro-ecosystems, their use is
always limited due to its spiraling cost. A greater interest has, therefore, been generated to
find an alternative yet inexpensive technology that could provide sufficient P to plants while
reducing the dependence on expensive chemical P fertilizers. Among the heterogeneous and
naturally abundant microbes the phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (PSM) including
bacteria have provided an alternative. (Hong et al, 2006).
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) are used as biofertilizer since 1950.s. These
microorganisms secrete different types of organic acids thus altering the pH consequently
dissociate the bound forms of phosphate like Ca3 (PO4)2 in calcareous soils. Production of
organic acids results in acidification of the microbial cell and its surroundings. Consequently,
P may be released from a mineral phosphate by proton substitution for Ca2. Among them,
gluconic acid is the principal organic acid produced by PSB such as Pseudomonas sp.
Erwinia herbicola and strains of Bacillus were found to produce mixtures of lactic,
isovaleric, isobutyric, and acetic acids
The termite nest material contains PSM which help in the plant nutrition . Species of
Aspergillus Trichoderma and Penicillium are among the fungal isolates identified to have
phosphate solubilizing capacities. (Whitelaw et al., 1999). Among the bacterial genera strains
such as Pseudomonas, Bacillus and Enterobacter are among the most powerful phosphate
solubilizers (Rodriguez et al. 1999) . The solubilising efficiency was high in the fungal
isolates like aAspergillus and Penicillum .Using TCP as substrate the solubilising activity of
the isolates was significant at 100 mg , 50 mg than at 200 mg .
The variation in phosphate-phosphorus activity was due to changes in soil fauna.. The
interaction between phosphate solubilisers and sites bring forth a positive reactions . The
phosphate solubilizing activity is significantly affected by material input. High positive
correlation was observed between the phosphate solubilizing bacteria and organic matter
contents in soils .The introduction of these microbes along with good quality organic matter
makes phosphorus available to the plants for easy uptake. Abundant and inexpensive, these
microorganisms provide a sustainable solution to meet the phosphorous demands of the
agricultural industry. Microorganisms with phosphate solubilizing potential increase the
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availability of soluble phosphate and enhance the plant growth by improving biological
nitrogen fixation (Kucey et al., 1989; Ponmurugan and Gopi, 2006).
Individual or co-inoculation of PSB with other groups of microorganisms enhanced the plant
growth by increasing the efficiency of biological nitrogen fixation or the availability of other
trace elements and by the production of plant growth promoting (PGP) substances
(Poonguzhali, S et al. 2005) . Combined inoculation of these three organisms showed
increased germination, nutrient uptake,plant height, number of branches, nodulation, pea
yield, and total biomass of chickpea compared to either individual inoculations or an
uninoculated control (Rudresh et. al, 2004.). Pseudomonas spp. enhanced the number of
nodules, dry weight of nodules, yield components, grain yield, nutrient availability and
uptake in soybean crop (Son et al., 2006). Despite their different ecological niches and
multiple functional properties, P-solubilizing bacteria have yet to fulfill their promise as
commercial bio-inoculants
From scientific stand point of view, nest material has wider implications in biological
research. It is most optimized and alternative specialized field to work, yet still evolving.
However, positive interactions between termite and microbes can be used for agricultural and
industrial purposes after proper identification of strains, substrate utilized and synthesis of
metabolic end products
CONCLUSION
Application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers may replace the nutrients in the soil, but
the use of microorganisms may not only reduce the need for these chemically based
solutions, but also offers an ecologically friendly method of pest control. PSB mainly
Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Enterobacter are very effective for increasing the plant available
P in soil as well as the growth and yield of crops. So, exploitation of phosphate solubilizing
bacteria through biofertilization has enormous potential for making use of ever increasing
fixed P in the soil, and natural reserves of phosphate .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bin Zakaria A. A., (2009). Growth optimization of potassium solubilizing bacteria isolated
from biofertilizer. Eng D thesis, Universiti Malaysia Pahang.
Frossard E, Brossard M, Hedley MJ, Metherell A (1995) Reactions controlling the cycling of
P in soils. In: Tiessen H (ed) Phosphorus in the global environment. Transfers, cycles and
management SCOPE 54. Wiley, New York, pp 107137
Henri Fankem, Dieudonn Nwaga, Annette Deubel, Lamine Dieng, Wolfgang Merbach and
Francois Xavier Etoa (2006). Occurrence and functioning of phosphate solubilizing
microorganisms from oil palm tree (Elaeis guineensis) rhizosphere in Cameroon. African
Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 5 (24), p: 2450-2460.
Hong-Joo Son, Geun-Tae Park, Mi-Sun Cha, Moon-Soo Heo, (2006). Solubilization
ofinsoluble inorganic phosphates by a novel salt- and pH-tolerant Pantoea agglomeransR-42
isolated from soybean rhizosphere. Bioresource Technology 97, p: 204.210.
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Kucey, R. M. N., H. H. Janzen and M. E. Legget. (1989). Microbial mediated increases in

plant available phosphorus. Adv. Agron. 42:199 - 228.
Morel et al. 1994; Fardeau 1996; Sinaj et al.( 2001) Morel C, Tiessen H, Moir J, Stewart
JWB (1994) Phosphorus transformations and availability due to crop rotations and mineral
fertilization assessed by an isotopic exchange method. Soil Sci Soc Am J 58:14391445
Pikovskaya RI (1948) Mobilization of phosphorus in soil in connection with vital activity of
some microbial species. Microbiology 17: 362-370.
Poonguzhali S., Madhaiyan M., Thangaraju M., Ryu J.H., Chung K.Y., Sa T.M. (2005)
J.Microbiol. Biotechnol. 15, 903-908.
Rdresh D.L., M.K. Shivaprakash, R.D. Prasad. (2004). Effect of combined application of
Rhizobium, phosphate solubilizing bacterium and Trichoderma spp. on growth, nutrient
uptake and yield of chickpea (Cicer aritenium L.). Applied Soil Ecology 28:139-146
Selvakumar, G. , Lenin, M. , Thamizhiniyan, P., and Ravimycin, T., (2009). Response of
biofertilizers on the growth and yield of blackgram (vigna mungo L.). Recent Research in
Science and Technology, 1(4), p: 169.175.
Son, T. T. N., C. N. Diep and T. T. M. Giang. (2006). Effect of bradyrhizobia and phosphate
solubilizing bacteria application on Soybean in rotational system in the Mekong
delta.Omonrice. 14:48-57.
Suh, J. S., S. K. Lee, K. S. Kim, and K. Y. Seong. (1995). Solubilization of Insoluble

Phosphates by Pseudomonas putida, Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus niger Isolated from
Korean Soils.JKSSF, 28:3. 278-286.
Tilak, K. V. B. R., Ranganayaki, N., Pal, K. K., De, R., Saxena, A. K., Shekhar Nautiyal, C.,
Shilpi Mittal, Tripathi, A. K., and Johri, B. N., (2005). Diversity of plant growth and soil
health supporting bacteria. current science, vol. 89, p:136-143.
Turner, B.L., Haygarth, P.M.,( 2005). Phosphatase activity in pasture soils: Potential
regulation of labile organic phosphorus turnover by phosphodiesterase activity. Science of the
Total Environment 344 (13), 2736.
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TABLE 1: SOLUBILISING EFFICIENCY % OF THE 11 PHOSPHATE

SOLUBILISERS ISOLATED FROM TERMITE MOUND MATERIAL
Isolates
Solubilising zone Colony

(cm)
(cm)
diameter solubilising
efficiency %
Bacillus spp. 1
0.5
1.1
45.45
Bacillus spp 2
0.4
1.2
33.33
Proteus spp 3
0.3
0.6
50.00
Pseudomonas
0.4
0.8
50.00
Enterobacter spp 1
0.5
1.4
35.71
Enterobacter spp 2
0.6
1.7
35.29
Aspergillus niger
0.7
2.1
33.33
Aspergillus niduam
0.6
2.2
27.27
Aspergillus spp.
0.5
1.8
27.77
Penicillum spp
0.6
1.5
40.00
Trichoderma
0.4
1.4
28.57
FIG 1 : EFFECT OF COLONY DIAMETER AND SOLUBILISING ZONE OF THE

ISOLATES
solubilising efficiency (%) of the isolates
2.5
2
Solubilising
zone (cm)
colony diameter(cm)1.5
Colony
diameter (cm)
1
0.5
0
1
solubilising zone (cm0
11
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TABLE 2 : SCREENING OF PSM USING TCP AS SUBSTRATE AND

EVALUATING THEIR SOLUBILISING EFFICIENCY
TCP / 100 ml
Isolates
200mg
100 mg
50 mg
CD
SE
SZD
CD
SE
SZD
CD
SE
Bacillus spp. 1
0.5
1.1
45.45
1.1
1.6
68.75
1.3
1.6
81.25
Bacillus spp 2
0.4
1.2
33.33
1.2
1.5
80.00
1.2
2.0
60.00
Proteus spp 3
0.3
0.6
50.00
0.8
1.4
57.14
1.4
1.9
73.68
Pseudomonas
0.4
0.8
50.00
0.9
1.6
56.25
1.5
2.2
68.18
Enterobacter spp 1
0.5
1.4
35.71
1.2
1.8
66.66
1.4
2.1
66.66
Enterobacter spp 2
0.6
1.7
35.29
1.3
1.8
72.22
1.6
2.3
69.56
Aspergillus niger
0.7
2.1
33.33
1.2
1.9
63.15
1.1
1.8
61.11
Aspergillus niduam
0.6
2.2
27.27
1.0
1.5
66.66
1.4
2.2
63.63
Aspergillus spp.
0.5
1.8
27.77
0.8
1.7
47.05
0.9
1.9
47.36
Penicillum spp
0.6
1.5
40.00
1.1
1.6
68.75
1.6
2.0
80.00
Trichoderma
0.4
1.4
28.57
0.8
1.5
53.33
1.3
2.3
56.52
SZD
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
A STUDY OF THE COMPREHENSION SKILLS IN ENGLISH OF

CLASS VII STANDARD IN FEW SELECTED DISTRICTS OF ASSAM
SONALI BORAH SAHARIAH
Assistant Professor
Dr. A.B. S. College of Education
Guwahati, Assam-781024
ABSTRACT
The scope of English language has been widened over the years across the globe and no
societies, languages are free from its impact. Assam which experienced exposure to English
language in 1826, however made very slow progress in terms of spread of English Language.
Keeping the current trend of English language use it is very much necessary that the new
generation learn to speak read and write English besides their own mother tongue. While
understanding the need of English language it is also need to be study the present status of
English learning in the state. The present study is an attempt to study the comprehension
skills in English of Class VII standard in few selected districts of Assam. Sufficient
representative sample schools from each district were selected and primary data were
collected using different tools and techniques. Collected information was then processes
using necessary statistical tools and computer programmes. It is expected that this study will
help in planning curriculum and content of the elementary level because the findings would
provide perspectives based on ground realities.
Key words: English learning, spread of English language, English learning
techniques
_________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
Language and human life are closely related to each other. The scope of language is widened
with the widening scope of human activities. Without the help of language we never
expressed ourselves in front of others. There are at least 5000 living languages in the world,
about 140 of them are spoken by a million or more people. But it is quite natural that one
feels his mother-tongue the most important one. However, for wider communicative and
educative purposes one needs to learn another language.
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English is said to be the worlds most important language having communicative and
educative values .It is a dynamic language that nearly half of the world speaks and
understands it. The Christian missionaries from England came to India around 1813 and they
also built schools at primary level for Indians in which the language of instruction was local
language. Later on the missionaries built high schools with English as the language of
instruction which obliged the Indians, who wanted to study to have a good knowledge of
English. The British rulers began building their universities in India from 1857. English
became the first language in Indian education. The modern leaders of that era in India also
supported English language and claimed it to be the main key towards success. Even after
Indias independence, English remained the main language of India. Officially it was given a
status of an assistant language and was supposed to terminate officially after 15 years of
Indias independence, but it still remains the important language of India (Shermila 1999).
Assam is one of the states of North East India. English was introduced in Assam under the
East India Companys rule in 1826 according to the treaty of Yandabo (Sultana, 2012). The
American Baptist mission foreign society sent a mission under reverend Nathan Brown and
Oliver Cutter to Assam to spread Education, especially Christianity through English. The
Christian Missionaries were the pioneer in the field of modern English education in Assam.
However formal English language teaching was started in Assam since 1858 in a slow pace
(Devi ,1978).After the independence the scenario of ELT in Assam has changed drastically.
After the 1960,the communicative approach to language teaching has been felt more vigorous
than the any other approaches in the classroom practices.(Richards andRodger,1985).English
was introduced in Assam in regional medium schools from the LP level since the academic
year 2000. Available studies and survey works related to Teaching-Learning of English
(TLE) in schools of Assam is very scanty and in the absence (or nearly so) of baseline work,
the need for generating field-based studies on the status and effectiveness of TLE can hardly
be overstated. This situation prevails, the importance of evaluation and feedback pertaining to
the functioning and operational attributes of English learning/teaching notwithstanding.
While there can be little doubt regarding the immense importance of English learning by
students of Assam at various levels considering that in the contemporary era of globalization
the importance of students being comfortable in the lingua franca beyond their mother
tongue, of no less importance is deriving a strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
(SWOT) analysis of learners and teachers in schools of Assam.
While the aggregate national level picture is definitely encouraging, there are large variations
between states, between districts within a state and between blocks within a district with
respect to availability of schools, especially upper primary schools, physical infrastructure of
schools and the availability of teachers (Jingran and Shankar, 2007) and it is not
inconceivable that such differences have been translated into English language competencies
in Assam.
This study aims at providing, by means of a representative sample survey from across 120
schools in 6 districts of Assam, a realistic snapshot of the trials and tribulations of learners
and teachers of the Queens own language. The objective is to improve the system and the
delivery mechanism so that our students can perform better in this important area of
education.
Assam if faced with unique problems arising out of unplanned growth of educational
facilities, as habitations of some over 5000 in number were left without primary schools and
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some 2600 without upper primary schools coupled with unique constraints of topography,
floods and riverine areas completed the scenario ( Anon, 2003).
It is expected that this study will help in planning curriculum and content of the elementary
level because the findings would provide perspectives based on ground realities on whether
the processes related to development of curriculum and textbooks and mode of teachers
training need any change or not; and/or how best the difficulties faced by the instructors and
the instructed can best be met and these constraints overcome.
The areas that are the main hurdles to smooth functioning of English learning will be sought,
and identified, as to whether these lie in the domain of motivation (Kormos et al. 2008;
Drnyei, 2005) or constraints such as amplification of disparities among the better and/ or
weaker students in a class (weaker or better in terms of overall academic performance in
other subjects taken together)or whether attributes such as economic background of students
becomes a factor in receptivity to or comprehension of English, will be sought.
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To assess the comprehension competencies of class VII students.
2. To identify constraints related to acquiring comprehension competencies.
3. To assess the role of teachers in achieving comprehension competencies amongst the
students.
4. To assess whether there are significant district or block level disparities in acquiring
competence in English among class VII students
METHODOLOGY
The descriptive survey method of study has been undertaken to interpret, describe and
analyze collected data of the present study. The present study necessitated that the districts of
Goalpara, Nalbari, Cachar, Dhemaji, Kamrup and Golaghat are the sample districts which
were selected with simple random technique. In general schools in these districts catered to
the needs of Assamese, Garo, Bengali, Boro, Hindi and other communities. Schools from
urban, rural, hilly, tea-garden, char areas in the districts of Goalpara, Nalbari, Cachar,
Dhemaji, Kamrup and Golaghat were chosen to derive a truly representative sample. The end
is to understand from the representative sample ground realities from a cross section of the
districts, regarding the difficulties in learning English.
The sample size was 10 % of the students of Class VII in the 20 schools in each of the 6
districts. The said sample was spread across various schools based on the medium of
instruction, viz., Assamese, Garo, Bengali, Boro, Hindi and others.
Following tools and techniques were adopted for the present study:
administering questionnaire(s),
observations of QA-mediated lessons
administering a comprehension passage and
Interviews with the students and teachers.
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Primary data was collected by means of a structured / semi-structured questionnaire with the
head master, other teachers, students, members of the community and other stakeholders
being the respondents.
The questionnaires consisted of questions pertaining to questions related to : the grey areas
identified by teachers, the portions or sections teacher(s) found difficult (if at all) to explain
to pupils and why, specific chapters students tended to find easy/difficult and what the
possible underlying reasons. These questionnaires are attached in the appendices.
The secondary data comprising the list of schools was collected from the SSA, Guwahati.
During the observation of all QA-mediated lessons, a record of events were kept by the
researcher(s) based on an observation checklist that included lesson objectives, lesson
sequences, interactions among participants, interactions between participants and QA, and the
learning engagement of students in the QA-mediated lessons. Observation of QA-mediated
lessons were undertaken in addition to the comprehension passage was conducted on a
sample basis and not in all the schools covered by the study considering the time constraints
involved.
STATISTICS USED: Standard statistical techniques, charts and tables were used to analyze
and interpret the data. The data collected from 120 schools were then entered into a
spreadsheet programme MS Excel to facilitate data analysis.
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Analysis
As part of the exercise to generate information and feedbacks regarding the operation of
schools, with reference to English language learners of Class VII Principals/Headmasters of
sample schools were interviewed to ascertain their views. Generally principals tended to hold
that the English teachers required some sort of training from the SSA to enhance their
English teaching skills and abilities. The constraints to English learners, the principals felt
could be listed as follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
lack of English speaking (traditions) in the locality

lack of a conducive environment
lack of practice
poor students (poor in monetary/ economic terms)
due to shyness and inhibitions on the part of students to speak English
uneducated family (background) being a retarding factor.
Similarly Principals felt that parents failed to give sufficient importance to their
wards/children speaking English and this was another stumbling block. There is no doubt that
family atmosphere was a retarding factor and this is often linked with income levels and there
is quite often a fatalistic tendency among parents; almost a sort of helplessness or verging on
the hopelessness of their situation. These are linked to the overall socio-economic
development levels prevailing in Assamese society, and it is indeed difficult to offer
prescriptive that would be guaranteed against failure. However ways and means in which
pupils should be encouraged to acquire a working knowledge of English must be sought.
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The issue here is not of overcoming myriad hurdles, but to overcome initial hesitation and
issues such as practice in English speaking, that would act as an initial catalyst, but not as a
substitute or replacement to English learning in schools.
In Kamrup district, 13 of the 18 Principals tended to hold that their schools compared
favourably in comparison to other schools in the area/ block in terms of English teaching. The
remaining 5 principals went so far as to hold that their schools were better off than other
schools. Thus the overall impression that these principals tended to portray was that their
schools were performing better or slightly above par vis--vis other schools in the area;
however this was not in conformity with other questions, the principals responded to. Thus,
while all principals of schools in Kamrup district held the view that their Class VII students
could both read and write in English, only 2 of the 18 principals included in our sample felt
that their students (of Class VII) could speak in English. Notably, both these schools were
located with Guwahati, one at Bhangagarh- Rajgarh Road and the other at Gorchuk,
Guwahati - thus the effect of the urban centre of Guwahati has obvious effects on English
speaking abilities of students of Class VII.
The schools in Kamrup were notable in that 6 of the 18 principals observed that their schools
were providing special care and help to facilitate English learning for Class VII students.
This study could not follow up what exactly these special cares comprised of, however it
appeared that Principals did not give much importance to English language learning.
In Nalbari, Headmasters of 6 schools interviewed felt that lack of proper environment and the
medium of instruction not being English (and being either Assamese or Bodo) was a
constraint. They also stated that students needed to have extra classes to improve their
English usage skills. 5 of the 6 Principals stated that students of their schools were able to
read English (it should be noted that 1 principal agree that his/her wards could not read
English. Only 1 of 6 principals felt his/her students could speak English. In terms of writing
English, 50%, principals stated that their wards could write in English.
A similar picture emerged in Dhemaji, wherein 11 of 13 Principals stated that students of
their schools were able to read English (note that 2 principals agree that their wards could not
read English. In terms of writing English, 92.3% principals stated that their wards could write
in English. None of the principals stated that their wards could speak English. The districts of
Cachar, Nalbari and Golaghat followed the same pattern. Thus from the feedback of
Principals of the 6 sample districts it can be observed that spoken, written and reading skills
were the weakest in ascending order of competence.
Leave aside the position of students facing difficulties in English usage; we felt that certain
obstacles existed even among principals and certain teachers. Is this inevitable in Assams
context? Or it is something that institutional agencies need to seek to rectify? Some principals
could not speak in English and hence the question of their aiding English usage among
students was impossible. During the survey, on several occasions not specific to Kamrup
district, but as a generalization when researcher approached the principal of a school at the
initiation of the survey, when confronted with a questionnaire written in English, it was not
uncommon for a principal to call upon the English teacher to decipher the intricacies of the
questionnaire. This sums up, in many ways, the standard of English in Assams schools.
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Teacher training is another area of concern, voiced by nearly all principals on behalf of their
English teachers. In fact this is also an observation made by the NCF 2005. Our survey found
that not a single school was following any of the methodologies listed by the NCF 2005.
None of the 120 schools visited provided a print-rich classroom environment. Nor was any
school found to be providing additional reading material. On the contrary, certain students
were without the basic text being provided free of cost by SSA, Assam.
This is indeed a sorry state of affairs prevailing, unfortunately, that is the reality of Assams
schools. There is no doubt that much needs to be done, from veritably the A to Z of it.
4.2 Analysis based on feedback from students in the study areas
58 students from 20 schools in Kamrup district were covered in the sample. From among
these 46.5 % were male students and 53.5 % were female students. The proportion of
students that found specific portions of the textbook difficult along with what specificities
were found difficult are shown in the pie diagram below:
TABLE 1: DISTRICT-WISE PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS ACCORDING

PROBLEMATIC AREAS
Districts
Reading
Verbal
Dictation
Sentence
Comprehension Language
Construction
writing
Skills
Kamrup
53
95
68
39
Goalpara
43
84
45
95
87
91
Nalbari
24
47
71
94
94
100
Golaghat
28
28
95
94
64
22
Cachar
83
87
91
94
65
98
Dhemaji
84
94
95
96
96
99
For Kamrups students sentence construction and verbal skills were the major hindrances
followed by difficulties in comprehension. Reading skills was the area with minimal
difficulty reported by Kamrups school students.
Dhemaji school students, in contrast to Kamrups students found all areas (sentence
construction, verbal skills, writing, comprehension etc) difficult. Reading was the only area
that a small section of the students were able to manage. In general the position of Dhemajis
students was quite discouraging. The situation of Cachars students was hardly better. Cachar
and Dhemaji occupy the bottom of the ladder in terms of students difficulties in different
areas of English usage. In terms of difficulties faced by students the remaining districts of
Golaghat, Goalpara and Nalbari occupied an intermediate position, with students reporting
difficulties in 3 to 4 areas.
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Another way of deciphering difficulties in English usage was to disaggregate usage into three
core areas: speaking, reading and writing.The proportion of respondents that expressed
difficulties in speaking, reading and writing English are shown below:
TABLE 2: THE PROPORTION OF RESPONDENTS THAT EXPRESSED
DIFFICULTIES IN SPEAKING, READING AND WRITING ENGLISH
Districts
Speak
Read
Write
Kamrup
Goalpara
22
19
15
Nalbari
11
17
23
Golaghat
Cachar
10
Dhemaji
31
37
26
The proportion that could speak English was quite high and encouraging in Dhemaji and
Goalpara moderate in Nalbari and very low in the remaining districts).Thus unlike the
previous analysis in which Kamrup had fared better, in this perspective, the districts of
Dhemaji and Goalpara fared better -in relative terms. Table 2 shows a comparative view of
all the districts.
We next looked at students reading ability. Here as well, the districts of Dhemaji Goalpara
and Nalbari fared relatively better; while the remaining 3 districts fared rather poorly.
Students English writing ability declined in the following order : Dhemaji, Nalbari, Goalpara,
Cachar, Golaghat and Kamrup. Dhemaji and Nalbari performed reasonably well, Goalpara
and Cachar moderately well and Golaghat and Kamrup poorly.
In addition to the prescribed textbook, 31 % of students in Kamrup read through or had
access to reading other English books. Unfortunately we found encouraging results only in
Kamrup and school students in the remaining 5 districts barely read other books written in
English.
The importance of reading other books written in English can hardly be overemphasized.
Much like TV viewing of English programmes, reading books other than the prescribed text
has an important role to play in students English acquisition skills. Here the researcher is
unable to offer a foolproof formula with which to overcome this hurdle, however researcher
re-emphasize the importance of this aspect - at the same time do not deny the fact that low
income levels constitute a hurdle to access of such books/reading material. Estimating a cost
benefit analysis (CBA) of starting small school libraries is an exercise that might not be
undesirable on the part of an institutional actor such as the SSA-Assam.
Another aspect was viewing of English programmes on TV, which had an effect on
enhancing English usage skills, though this was an activity outside the classroom
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environment. As with other assessment criteria used in this study Kamrup students fared
better, plausibly based on a combination of factors such as proximity to an urban centre,
higher income levels of guardians/parents of the students etc.
Thus, 40 % of students in Kamrup districts 21 schools we surveyed viewed English
programs such as News (in English, as well as the local vernacular language), certain English
program such as Cartoon Network programmes (such as Tom and Jerry), Discovery channel
programmes and so on. Kamrup was followed by Golaghat (28%) and Nalbari (13%); the
remaining three districts lagging woefully behind in this respect.
In general a larger proportion of students did not prefer to view TV programmes in English.
The Myrdallian clich seems to operate here: much like the poor that remain poor because
they are poor in a country-wide context, students do not watch English program because they
do not understand English and because they do not watch English programs (among other
reasons) they fail to improve English language skills. That affluence levels are stunted, adds
salt to the wound, reinforcing a vicious circle.
Preference to view English programs on TV was one dimension we considered; another

aspect tangential to the issue was access to viewing TV programs - whether students
possessed a TV set at home, or viewed it at a neighbours residence or whether a community
TV set served such a purpose. In Kamrup district for instance, it was found that 81% of
students viewed TV programs, while the remaining 19% had no access to viewing a TV. This
statistic is important as it reflects the socio-economic background of the students. In Kamrup
while 80 % of students viewed TV programs in their own homes, 17 % of students watch TV
programs on a neighbours TV set. Kamrup was closely followed by Goalpara district (72%
of students viewed TV programs in their own homes) Golaghat (62 % of students viewed TV
programs in their own homes), Nalbari and Dhemaji (62% and 58% of students viewed TV
programs in their own homes respectively). Cachar represented the lower end of the spectrum
with no students watching (owning TV sets) TV at home .
However the students of schools in different parts of the Kamrup district displayed an
enthusiastic approach to learning English; the influence of globalization and proximity to the
city of Guwahati can be seen as being positive influences on the 21 schools covered under the
study.
Such enthusiasm notwithstanding, during school hours nearly all students did not use English
to converse during school hours - a trend that was uniform without exception throughout the
122 odd schools surveyed across 6 districts.
This is an area of concern, and as much as possible, students must be encouraged (perhaps
even insisted upon) to speak in English during school hours - a step that would go a long
way in improving English usage skills. This can certainly be applied in schools of Kamrup
district where most students could read and write English, but have difficulties with
conversing and English usage.
At least students should be compulsorily made to speak in English during the English class;
an occurrence we noted the near complete absence during the question-answer (QA)
mediated sessions in certain schools.
The insufficient usage of English was apparent in the proportion of students that spoke
English with others (outside of the school environment), which varied from 3% in Kamrup to
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6 % in Goalpara, and 1% (Dhemaji). In the remaining 3 districts (Cachar, Golaghat and

Nalbari) this statistic was - a discouraging 0%.
In general, among all the districts covered in this survey, the district of Dhemaji was by far
the worst off. Its schools students were completely at a loss to handle English at Class VII.
These helpless students found the entire textbook too difficult and apart from a small section
of students that could read, none of the students found verbal, sentence construction,
comprehension etc manageable - 100% students expressed difficulties in these areas . Thus if
students of Kamrup District fared the best of the lot, those of Dhemaji occupied the bottom
rung of the ladder.
Clearly unique solutions (or very different solutions) are necessary for the diverse scenarios
of the 6 sample districts and that of Dhemajis present the most difficult scenario as far as
difficulties of English learners go.
4.3 Quality of students vis--vis the prescribed textbook
The basic aim of the New English Reader III (for Class VII), as the book states, is to develop
in learners the ability to listen, speak, read and write English as a second language.
In our assessment based on the survey of 120 schools spread across 6 districts, much of these
objectives (set out by the New English Reader III -Class VII) have not been achieved to a
significant level.
There are two possible reasons why this situation operates. The first possibility is that the
standard of the textbook could be far too high for the vast majority of Class VII students.
Going by this possibility the textbook, put simply, can be deemed to be an over the top
scenario for the students in question.
The second possibility is that the textbook could be of the requisite standard, but that the
quality of students that one encounters in schools of Class VII is far too low to be able to
come to grips with the textbook. After all, the students, given the questionable quality of
teaching available to them, coupled with their home environment and their economic
background & income level of their parents, may not be receiving necessary support to a
level that is necessary to understand and use the New English Reader III for Class VII.
There is no doubt that the New English Reader III is a well crafted textbook put together by a
team of scholars with excellent credentials. However with students that struggle to write very
many words (many students could not even write their names correctly in English) and
students almost uniformly across the study area stating that they found all sections of the
textbook difficult, we believe that the second possibility seems to be operating. In other
words, the level or standard of the textbook New English Reader III was not too high, but that
the quality of students coupled with the quality of teaching being imparted to them was too
low to make optimal use of the said textbook.
4.4 Comprehension test and observations of QA-mediated lessons
Further the quality of the Class VII students surveyed can be gauged from the fact that all of
them (barring a small proportion of students based in schools located in Kamrup district)
were hard pressed to handle a comprehension passage that was administered as a lesson to
them. The authors of this study were unable to find a comprehension passage of a suitable
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standard and ultimately made use of a comprehension lesson from a Class 4 book used by an
English medium school in Guwahati (operating under the aegis of CBSE, New Delhi).
The comprehension passage comprised of a 350 word passage followed by 5 questions based
on the comprehension passage. Of the 5 questions, the fifth comprised of matching the words
given in one column with those of the meanings given in another column. No student could
answer all the five questions. Nor were all the five questions attempted by any student, even
if with in-correct responses. Most students tended to fill in only 1 or 2 answers and the
structure of the sentence constructed in writing such answers indicated that basic rules of
grammar were not known to them.
Comprehending the question asked was very rudimentary, and again reflected the abysmal
level of English the students had been equipped with thus far. The students were awarded
grades based on their performance which show a very dismal picture of English learning in
the surveyed schools (Fig.-1).
Results of comprehension test in six surveyed districts
70
No of students
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Kamrup
Dhemaji
Goalpara
Cachar
Nalbari
Golaghat
Districts
Fig. 1: Results of the comprehension test in six surveyed districts.

Based on our observations of question-answer mediated (QA-mediated) lessons, it would
seem that the ability and English speaking /understanding level of Class VII students are
indeed poor. That vernacular medium is used mostly does not help the English learning
ability of the student.
While this assessment is by no means an indictment, it does drive home one point: that there
is a huge gap between what Class VII students can manage and what the textbook given to
them requires of them. Given current scholastic aptitude levels in English, which range from
very low (where a student mixes up between capital and small letters while writing his/her
name) to moderate (where a grammatically incorrect sentence can be constructed by a
student), a more realistic standard (read lower standard text, that is more simple and more
easily understood by students) seems to be necessary.
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TABLE-3: MEDIUM WISE COMPREHENSION SKILLS OF THE STUDENTS.
Medium of instruction
Read
write
speak
Assamese
44
50
Bodo
45
45
10
Bengali
49
49
Hindi
48
47
Another important point of enquiry throughout the period of study was to know how the level
of learning of the students varies according to the medium of instruction. Although it is little
difficult to generalize based on small samples Bodo, Garo medium students are better placed
in this context. However their socio-cultural background plays a substantial role in this regard
(Table- 3)
FINDINGS
The major findings of the study can be summarized as follows
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Many students in interior rural schools had not received the textbooks is a matter
that needs to be assessed. The issue could be logistic, administrative or purely one
in which laid-back staff does not ensure that books are collected from the
available collection point/centre.
Teacher assessment and teacher training particularly for English teachers that need
attention. Based on the survey undertaken in 6 districts it was uniformly opined by
teachers across the study sites that teacher training was a necessity that had not
been adequately addressed thus far some of the teachers in Kamrup District had
received training, however, this was not the case with teachers in other districts.
This issue along with the duration of training is perhaps an issue that SSA-Assam
needs to examine closely.
It transpired from the survey and informal interaction with the English teachers
that many were not comfortable in handling English as a language and also as the
medium of instruction in classes. Some teacher admitted using vernacular
language(s) to teach English in Class VII. Partly this may arise from the
abysmally low competence levels of many students (in relation to English usage)
and hence to teachers being left with no option but to use vernacular language to
teach English.
While, we appreciate that the textbook is of sufficient standard for Class VII
students, the textbooks standard must be contextualized, given the economic
background of the students, the availability of guidance in English outside the
school (in nearly all cases this was non-existent) and the quality of teachers
instructing the students.
Most students watched some TV programmes , a finding that was uniform across
the six districts. However it was found that mostly preferred not to watch English
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(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
programmes and were more comfortable viewing Assamese or Hindi based

programmes. Thus they lost out on the opportunity of listening to English and
absorbing certain words and sentences while viewing TV. The difficulty in
understanding such programmes was very apparent and without having an adult
who did understand what was going on in an English programme was quite
genuine. Perhaps the SSA-Assam could explore the possibility of providing TV
sets and encouraging watching / viewing of short duration programmes during
school hours itself. Such an exercise could be initiated on a pilot basis.
Alternatively in schools where desktop computers had been provided (but where
computer teachers were noticeably missing) playing of basic English stories or
documentaries of short duration could be explored. If necessary external agencies
such as the British Council could be approached for copies of CDs/DVDs with
educational material for non native English teachers.
The overall standard of English skills are very low throughout the study areas ~
and this is consistent across rural , urban, char and hilly areas. If at all any edge
exists, it is the schools in some areas of the urban fringe of Guwahati that fare
marginally better: this is what we find based on the response to the comprehension
passage administered to select students.
Similarly, irrespective of the medium of instruction used in the school, English
usage skills were low across the sample schools surveyed. We did not find any
particular association between a specific medium of instruction and low English
usage skills per se. On the contrary, such skills were consistently poor throughout
the universe (i.e. the sample surveyed).
Teacher quality needs to be assessed. Where teacher quality is questionable and
inordinately low, no quantum of training will help. At the same time, it needs to
be assessed as to what proportion of English teachers possesses what background
in English themselves. Is it that non-English teachers (i.e. teachers who do not
have any education/training in the subject English) are being used as English
teachers in schools of Assam? If so, what is the proportion of such English
teachers?
Teachers training offered by SSA-Assam have not been fruitful as the basic
qualities of the trainees are very poor with a few exceptions. Instead of training
those already appointed teachers with minimum exposure to English, SSA-Assam
may consider appointing graduates with English honors at degree level. Perhaps
SSA-Assam could think of this at pilot level in select districts if fund crunch
hinders them in applying such moves throughout the state.
Based on samples it can be summarized that Bodo, Garo medium students are
better placed in the context of English learning.
CONCLUSION
All is not well in schools of Assam, as far as English language learning and teaching is
concerned. The survey based on 6 districts of Assam seemed to indicate that class 7 students
could hardly speak, read and write English. The district of Kamrup was slightly better off
than those students in the remaining areas, plausibly due to the proximity of the urban centre
of Guwahati. SSA school students in other districts of Assam were lagging behind, an already
poor level of English usage.
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The observations here are not new, nor unique to the context of Assam. In fact the NCF 2005
notes that the difficulties faced by children from disadvantaged backgrounds, especially
first-generation learners, do not feel accepted by the teacher, and cannot relate to the textbook
(NCF, 2005) are indeed genuine and hardly society-centric. We are unable and indeed illequipped to offer a panacea. In more ways than one, addressing the difficulties of children
from disadvantaged backgrounds are linked up with broader issues of development,
disparities and exclusion. However, these are tough issues that need the attention of planners
and even the SSA-,Assam, if any real achievements are to be made.
Or else the SSA, Assam will be at best a white elephant realizing deliverables for a minority
of its catchment students population located in urban fringes or those with better income and
home-support levels.
Unfortunately we live in a world of exclusion and in learning English language skills,
children in rural areas of Assam can make small but consequential steps towards moving
away from such an exclusion. A recent report by BBC refers to the new report on the future
internet and observes that the internet will grow and that English would become the lingua
franca of the internet by 2020. If exclusion is to be nipped in the bud, greater participation by
our rural schoolchildren is required.
References
1. Anon. (2003) Different Approaches for Achieving EFA: Indian Experience.NEIPA &
UNESCO: New Delhi.
2. Devi, Renu, Education in Assam during 19th century, Guwahati: Bani Prakashan, 1978.
3. Drnyei, Z. (2005) The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in
Second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
4. Jingran, D. and Shankar,D. (2007) Orienting Outlays toward Needs: An evidence-based,

equity-focused approach for Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan World Bank WP No.42116: Washington
DC
5. Kormos Judit; Csizr Kata; Menyhrt Adrienn; Torok Dra (2008) 'Great Expectations': The
motivational profile of Hungarian English language students. Arts and Humanities in Higher
Education. Vol. 7 (1) Pp: 65-82
6. NCF, 2005.(2005) National Curriculum Framework. NCERT, New Delhi.
7. Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodger, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching,
2nd edition, Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
8. Shermila, A. J. (1999) A study of the skills of reading comprehension in English Developed
by students of Standard ix in the schools in Tuticorin District, Unpublished PhD Thesis,
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli 627 012, Tamilnadu
9. Sultana, P. (2012): A Survey on the Annual Progress Report of English during 2008-2010 in
the Degree Colleges of Nagaon Town, Assam, LANGUAGE IN INDIA Volume 12 : 2, ISSN
1930-2940
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Research Consortium
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ASIAN JOURNAL OF
RESEARCH IN SOCIAL
BANK EROSION OF SOUTHERN PART OF BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER
AND ITS SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT ON THE POPULACE.
SWARUP JYOTI BAISHYA

Research Scholar
Dept. of Geography
Gauhati University
ABSTRACT
Bank erosion is a geomorphic process. It has assumed an alarming proportion due to
the braiding nature of the river Brahmaputra. The morphology and behaviour of river
Brahmaputra undergo drastic changes in response to various flow regime and pattern of
Sediment transportation. The river itself is a braided one with multiple channels as well as
sand chars. Due to braided nature oblique channel gets developed between the sand chars
which changes their magnitude and orientation after each flood. Their oblique channel are
found to be largely responsible for intensive bank erosion. The river Brahmaputra after
crossing the Saraighat Bridge flanges out into two main channels-southern channel and
northern channel. As the southern channel has become more active after the great
earthquake in the year 1950, the major part of the palasbari town had been eroded away.
Erosion has been a part and parcel of the flood hazard that gives rise to a miserable situation
particularly in western riverine areas extending from Palasbari to Gumi. The villages
affected due to erosion is the west of Palasbari are Dakhala, Nahira, Guimara, Phuturi,
Chulikata, Roumari, Bejartrai, Singimari, Panikhaiti, Biturtari and Gumi. Few villages on
the eastern side are also not spared from the grip of erosion. They are Sadilapur, Majirgaon,
Kendukuchi, Dharapur. It would be worth mentioning that erosion has become a chronic
feature mainly after the 1950 earthquake. Being a part of the southern bank of the
southernmost channel of Brahmaputra, the study area too, suffers from devastating flood.
Here flood and erosion are like the inseparable sides of the same coin. Moreover due to
bankline recession, large scale displacement of populace is still going on in the area. As a
result of flooding and erosion, deposition of coarser sediments have damaged large tracts of
productive cropland, human habitats and infrastructural facilities causing enormous loss and
misery to the public and huge cost to the exchequer.
Key Words: Bank Erosion, Flood, Socio-economic Impact
_________________________________________________________________________
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INTRODUCTION
For a riverine location flood and bank erosion is a common phenomena. But it
becomes (turns) to be a matter of serious concern when it takes the form of disaster. Even
though erosion, transportation and deposition are the three main functions of a river through
which it creates different landforms to thereby bringing about changes in it course. But when
it overflows its bank it creates natural calamities like flood, erosion and sedimentation,
adversely affecting human occupance of the floodplain. The degree of damage depends upon
the degree of its magnitude, intensity and duration.
In different parts of the world efforts have been made to cope with such problems by
applying various technical know-how. But despite of these efforts, damages are increasing
year by year.The principal cause behind this are increasing human activities on the flood
plains thereby upsetting their ecological balance.
In spite of the great loss and sufferings, people are attracted more and more to the
floodplain. Occupance of such plain is always dangerous and insecure. As the stream process
is one of the most dynamic phenomena in nature, therefore the study area provides a typical
example of this dynamicity and devastation where large tracts fertile arable land and densely
settled villages have been eroded away, thousands of people are rendered homeless and
forced to migrate to other safer area-both in the immediate neighbourhood and quite a far.
Bank Erosion is a geomorphic process through which villages in channel dimensions
takes place by lateral widening (Bank Erosion).It is a process commonly associated migrating
meandering streams or laterally shifting streams. Such migrating streams tend to erode the
banks and widen their channels by undercutting and bank caving and the eroded material is
washed away by the flow.
Bank erosion may also occur when streams shifting laterally along the dip of the rock
leading to concentrated erosion on one of the channel banks. The textural and stratigraphical
characteristics of the material as well as the presence of vegetation determine the bank
resistance and stability.
In spite of the hazardous affect people are always attracted to the riverine location.
The pattern of human occupancy of a flood plain is thereof heavily dependant on the
magnitude, extent and frequency of flood and erosion of a particular river. Enquiries
pertaining to river-human relationship as depicted on settlements and land use patterns are
thereof are of great interest to the social scientists as well as planners and engineers. A major
step in selecting the topic for the present study is to make a systematic study of bank erosion
and also associated water shifting courses of the river Brahmaputra. This study, therefore,
examines and analyses, a cynosural problem plagues this region. The shifting bank line of the
Brahmaputra basically controls the location and distribution of settlement as well as the land
use of the study area.
The magnitude of the erosion hazard possesses great influence on the pattern of
occupancy of the floodplain.
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study area is situated along the southern bank of the southern channel of the river
Brahmaputra in the kamrup district. As it is highly erosion prone area , it is selected to
examine effects of river erosion on human populace of the flood plain its settlement and
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land use. The study is confined mainly to the period from 1971-2009. Principal objectives of
the present study are:
i)
To study the migration of Brahmaputra bankline.
ii)
To examine the effect of erosion in an around Palashbari.
iii)
To analyze the pattern and process of erosion hazard.
iv)
To review the protection measures adopted by the government.
METHODOLOGY AND DATABASE
Both empirical and field survey is done for collecting various types of data. Data
collection was done from two principal sources.
i)
Primary data obtained from direct field observation and survey.
ii)
Secondary data comprises maps, statistics, official reports etc.Both primary and
secondary sources data are then processed, tabulated, analysed and interpreted.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

River bank erosion, though literally a geomorphic process adversely affects the
settlements, land use, culture and economy of the flood plain occupance, since the great
earthquake of 1950, accelerated bank erosion have resulted in loss of arable land and settled
areas. The suffering and insecurity of the populace knows no bound. The rational behind
selecting this particular area for the present area is find a generalized conclusions regarding
the intensity of the hazard and human adjustments to the problem of erosion in the flood plain
areas along the Brahmaputra river in Assam.
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING OF THE STUDY AREA
The study area lies between latitudes 261N to 264N and longitudes 9120E to
9135E, stretching in an around Palasbari. It is about 15km in length and 5 to 10km in width
on the south bank of the river Brahmaputra in the Kamrup district, Assam(Fig.1).It is
bordered by the Brahmaputra river on the north and the National Highway No.37 connecting
Gauhati to Goalpara in the south. It covers an area of 11654 hectares with a population of
29792. The area is a riverine tract along the Brahmaputra hence the most conspicuous feature
in the topography of this region is the course of the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries with
in the channel of the river Brahmaputra there are many sanbars or chars. The monotony of the
floodplain is broken by the five hillocks viz, the Dakhala, Hill, the Gumi hill, the Alukhunda
hill, the Buragohain hill and the Kujimara. The hillocks are detached portion of the
Meghalaya Plateau consisting mainly of granites and gneisses. The area contains numerous
bils and swampy areas. Important among the bills are Dora bil, Barmia Bil and Nichanta
bil(Fig 2). The Area is flat in nature with a gentle slope in towards the west. In this part, the
gradient of the valley is about 0.09 meter/Km.Among the five hills already mentioned
Dakhala is the highest having a height of 440meter. This hill is divided into two parts
forming a great syncline. The hill was at one time thickly covered with natural vegetation
even with valuable trees like Sal.
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Fig 1: Study Area, Palasbari to Gumi.
Fig 2: Physiography and Drainage of the study area

EROSION PRONE SITES AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION
The morphology and behaviour of river Brahmaputra undergo drastic changes in
response to various flow regime and pattern of sediment transportation. The river
Brahmaputra is a braided one with multiple channels as well as sand chars. Due to its braided
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nature oblique channel gets developed between the sand chars which changes their magnitude
and orientation after each flood. These oblique channels are found to be largely responsible
for bank erosion. The river Brahmaputra after crossing Saraighat Bridge, flanges out into two
major channels that is Southern channel and Northern channel. The Southern channel became
more active after the great earthquake in the year 1950. The major part of Palasbari township
had been eroded away. Erosion has been a part and parcel of the flood hazard that gives rise
to a miserable situation particularly in the western part extending from Palasbari. The villages
affected due to erosion in and around Palasbari are Dakhala, Nahira, Roumari, Sadilapur,
Majirgaon, Kendukuchi and Dharapur. High flood and Southward shifting of the
Brahmaputra channel has became a regular phenomena in the area since the great earthquakes
of 1897 and 1950.It is thereafter that erosion has become a chronic problem mainly after the
1950 earthquake. Moreover due to erosion ,number of times engulfing a vast agricultural and
homestead land. The entire reach from Palasbari to Gumi was under the grip of erosion of
river Brahmaputra.
EXTENT AND MAGNITUDE OF EROSION
Being a part of the Brahmaputra valley, the study area also suffers from devastating
flood. But the situation in this reach of the river is becoming more grave due to severe
erosion along with flood. Here flood and erosion are like the inseparable sides of the same
coin. The area is situated along the south bank of the river and the Brahmaputra has a
tendency for a lateral shift towards the south bank because of the heavy silt changes of the
northern tributaries. The bankline of the Brahmaputra forms the northern boundary of the
area stretching from Palasbari with a length of about 15km. This part of the bankline is quite
unstable. After passing through a deep narrow throat upstream of Palasbari town, the
Brahmaputra enters the study area which is a wide, flat alluvial zone. The study area lies on
the southern bank of the southernmost channel. So, the physiography of the area is largely
dependent on the location & transformation of the nearby chars. During the winter season,
numerous sandbars and sub-channels are seen but in summer the entire channel area becomes
full of water and looks like a sea. The erosion in this reach is quite intensive. Large scale
displacement of people due to bankline recession is still going on in the area. From 1911 to
the present i.e.,2009, as many as 120 villages have been completely eroded away and at least
10 villages are partly eroded away from this region. It is also found from the study of the
bank positions within this period that nearly 2 to 6.5 kms of fertile land had been eroded
away in this area. The heavy erosion started in the area mainly after the great earthquake of
1950. The estimated rate of erosion per year is 40m. River bank migrate at the above rate and
depth of erosion in 50yrs is 40m x 50=200m.Length of protected reach is 80m.
Eroded in 50 yr = 2000 x 800 =1600000 sq m.
= 160 hectares.
Total cultivable land eroded is 90 hectares = 672 bigha
Homestead land =70 hectares = 523 bigha.
In 2000, the breach in the sub-embankment over a stretch of 2km in the left bank in
Alikash under Chhayagaon constituency has been severly hit by the erosion .Over 120
families are falling prey to the erosion at Bardia char under Palasbari Constituency
(Palasbari-Gumi, Flood Control division)Erosion hit Simina area under Palasbari-Gumi
Project.
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Over 10,000 families of Faturi, Simina, Bartari, Kendurtol, Dhalipar, Ziakur,

Panikhaiti, have been badly affected. On the eastern part of palasbari, upto August 14, 2004
water level of the mighty Brahmaputra is receding, and river erodes 300 meter area of
Majirgaon-Dakhala(Palasbari) dyke at Sadilapur (Ward No.1).
EROSION IN TEMPORAL PERSPECTIVE:
Coleman (1969) discussed in detail the nature and intensity of channel change of the
Brahmaputra river in Bangladesh. Channel migration of the river in the Assam section is also
drastic which has annual rates of several hundred metres in many (Goswami, 1985).
Generally during the ultimate river stage bank line erosion becomes heavy.
Fig.3: Bankline migration of the Brahmaputra river at Palasbari during the period
1911-1988.
The important factor of river migration is that the soil forming the bank of the
Brahmaputra in the study area is mostly fine sand and silt, that cannot resist erosion.
However the most important reason responsible for heavy erosion in the study area is that
before entering this area the river Brahmaputra passes through a deep narrow throat produced
by granite hills on either side of the river near Gauhati. The present bankline of the
Brahmaputra forming the northern boundary of the study area is about 30km long stretching
from Dakhala in the east to Alikash in the west. The Brahmaputra channel is constricted near
Palasbari due to the presence of the Dakhala hills on the south bank and the Hatimura hill on
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the north bank. After passing through this neck, the river enters an almost flat alluvial zone
and fans out to a width about 19kms as against about 2kms in the narrow section.
Here the channel of the Brahmaputra bifurcates and produces a braided pattern. The
study area for the most part stands on the southern bank of the southernmost channel and is
thus very much dependent on the location and transformation of the nearby chars. Severe
erosion as well as migration of the channel starts at a distance of about 4km from the
downstream and of the narrow section near Dakhala. It is interesting to see that though in
winter season there are several sandbars and sub-channel, in summer the entire channel area
is full of water.
In palasbari town about 172 hectares of area was eroded away. In the study area the bankline
has shifted to the south during 1911-1997 by different extents at different locations, the
highest being 7.6km. The low shear strength of bank materials and the vigorously dynamic
flow of the Brahmaputra have rendered its channel width highly variable. In the year 2000,
the breach in the sub-embankment over a stretch of 2km in the left bank in Alikash under
Chhayagaon Constituency has been severly hit by the erosion. On the eastern part of
Palasbari, upto August 14, 2004 water level of the mighty Brahmaputra is receding, and the
river erodes 300 meter area of Majirgaon-Dakhala (Palasbari) dyke at Sadilapur(Ward No.1).
Table1:List of Villages eroded away during the period 1911 to 2007

Sl.
No.
Name of the
Villages
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Palasbari
Majirgaon
Garal
Sadilapur
Kukuria
Guimara
Dakhala
Gumi
Chimina
Futuri No 1
Futuri No 2
Futuri No 3
Chulikata
Roumari
Bartari
Singimari
Panikhaiti
Biturtari
Area (in hectares) of the village eroded away during

1911-61
1961-71
1971-95
1995-00
20002003
---------172.0
250.0
200.0
150.0
59.5
---------143.6
---------170.0
---------------------------244.1
110.0
------------------225.5
170.8
150.0
---------170.8
---------214.1
---------------------------288.2
314.5
250.0
------------------273.2
---------210.0
---------340.0
------------------225.0
------------------256.6
---------------------------125.0
------------------------------------138.0
------------------------------------114.0
------------------125.5
------------------188.8
210.0
------------------230.0
---------178.5
------------------227.5
------------------232.0
---------170.5
------------------125.0
---------245.7
---------207.3
---------------------------168.8
-------------------
2003-07
---------100.0
---------150.0
---------250.0
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Table 2: Affected Population Of the Eroded Village during the period 1911 to2007
Afffected Population of the erodedVillages during the period 1911 to 2007
Sl. No.
Population of the village eroded away during

1911-61
1961-71
1971-95 1995-00
Palasbari
Majirgaon
Garal
Sadilapur
Kukuria
Guimara
Dakhala
Gumi
Chimina
Futuri No 1
Futuri No 2
Futuri No 3
Chulikata
Roumari
Bartari
Singimari
Panikhaiti
Biturtari
---------43.3
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Name of the
Villages
1272
---------------------------497
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
250.0
143.6
---------225.5
---------288.2
273.2
---------256.6
---------------------------188.8
------------------------------------168.8
700
37
---------100
---------1479
1401
---------309
---------------------------784
------------------------------------386
20002003
134
90
---------89
1120
1090
---------1325
205
137
---------1234
------------------394
---------435
402
2003-07
---------80
---------60
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Fig 4: Bankline of the study area in 2004
IMPACT AND CAUSES OF BANK EROSION:

Hazard implies the probability of a destructive phenomenon occurring at a particular place. If
the destructive phenomena is a product of nature such as a landslide, a flood, erosion and a
volcanic eruption, it is a natural hazard. The most conspicuous factor revealed by this
investigation is that heavy erosion has for long been acting as a festering sore for the area
erosion has been a part and parcel of the flood hazard that gives rise to a miserable situation
particularly in the study area i.e., from Palasbari to Gumi. High flood and Southward shifting
of the Brahmaputra channel has become a regular phenomena in the area since the great
earthquake of 1897 and 1950. Generally, the sudden reduction in the gradient of the river
drastically reduces the flow velocity causing massive aggradation of the river bed, extensive
undercutting of river bank and frequent shifting of river channels. (Bandapadhyaya and
Gyawali, 1994). After the earthquake of 1950, the river Brahmaputra had, in fact, lost its
balance or equilibrium. In the downstream of Dakhala and Hatimura hills, the river enters a
flat alluvial zone that comprises the study area. This area is subject to annual inundation by
the Brahmaputra. Of course, the occurrences of heavy flood do not show any regularity.
Some of the devastating floods, for example, occurred during 1931, 1933, 1946, 1954, 1962,
1973, 1988 and 2004 in this region. These floods caused great damage to crop lands and
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settlement areas of this region and triggered heavy erosion of the river bank. Thousands of
people have been rendered homeless, thousands of acres of fertile croplands were destroyed
and scores of cattle and even human lifes were lost. Acute shortages of food stuff famine and
diseases have grippled this region and forced many people to moves out of the area in their
quest for survival .The large majority who are still clinging to their fast vanishing and highly
unreliable little chunks of land have hardly anything as their own except the terrible hunger
and the grinding poverty.
EFFECTS OF BANK EROSION
The erosion in the study area is quite intensive and its effects on the people of the area
is quite severe. From the study of bank position of 1911 and the present one i.e., of 2007, it is
found out that 2 to 10km width of fertile land had been eroded away in this area. This area is
nearly half the area covered by the present study. Actually the heavy erosion started in the
area after the 1950 earthquake. This part of the Brahmaputra was first embanked in 1955 at a
distance of 2km from the bank to protect the area from flood. In 1958, this embankment had
been eroded away and a new one was constructed. Again in 1968, this dyke had also been
eroded away. Erosion took a serious turn since 1975 and two embankments had been eroded
since then, again one being in the year 1983.
The area eroded away by the river was thickly populated and higly fertile. It is worth
mentioning that the area was in fact a granary of food crops. According to 1971census the
area was inhabited by 29792 people. It is impossible to estimate exactly the number of people
that are rendered homeless due to erosion.
Fig 5: Places of Resettlement of Erosion-affected people of the study area

For empirical observation as well as from personal experience in the field, it is seen that a
heavy influx of population is taking place in the neighbouring erosion-free villages.
Thousands of people are rendered homeless most of whom have moved out of this locality to
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resettle in different villages both far and near, such as Makei, Maloibari, Bamunigaon,
Barduar etc and in the reserve lands allocated by the government. Bankline migration of the
Brahmaputra has thus created an acute socio-economic problem in the study area affecting
thousands of people. The socio-economic dimension of the bank-erosion problem is therefore
need a fairly thorough treatment.
Table:3- Severely Erosion Affected Village(2007)
Name of the village
Categories
Guimara
Nahira
(Kaivartapara
Satrapara)
Nil
29
53.7
30
56.6
Less than 1 bigha
5
9.3
5
9.4
1 bigha-2.5 bigha
10
18.5
10
18.9
2.5 bigha-5 bigha
7
13.0
2
3.8
5 bigha 7.5 bigha 1
1.8
1
1.9
7.5 bigha- 10 bigha 1
1.8
2
3.8
Above 10 bigha
1
1.8
3
5.6
Dakhala
and
16
4
10
5
4
3
5
34.1
8.5
21.3
10.6
8.5
6.4
10.6
It is noteworthy that devastating floods are always accompanied by severe erosion. Since
time immemorial, the southward shifting of the river Brahmaputra continues. The seismic
instability of the Himalayas, tremendous volume of detritus deposited on the northern part of
its channel bed by the more active and powerful north bank tributaries,large volume of water
from the Himalayan tributaries are together responsible for the southward shifting of the river
Brahmaputra (Bankline migration during the period 1911 through 2007 are shown in
Figure).The possible causes of bankline migration may be summarized as follows:
d)
e)
f)
g)
a) Rate of rise and fall of waterlevel in the river.

b) Number and position of major channels active during floodstage.
c) Rate of scour and deposition that occurs during flood.
Formation and movement of large bedforms.
Cohesion and variability in composition of bank materials.
Intensity of bank slumping.
Relationship of abandoned river courses to the present day channels.
MEASURES TAKEN TO CHECK BANK EROSION

The study area which is an extremely flood and erosion prone reach of the
Brahmaputra river demands urgent remedies. The measures taken to protect the area from the
hazard are not seems to be adequate at all. Unabated erosion is going on still which makes
adjustment meaningless for the poor erosion affected people. Although the embankments
represent the sole measure adopted by the government to protect the area from flood and
erosion, they are proved to be not truly effective in most of the cases. Revetment,
impermeable spurs, are used at various vulnerable point but most of them are eroded away by
the flood water.A ring bund was also constructed near Santoli to protect the area 1962-63
with a length of 2.67 km. The Brahmaputra dyke from Palasbari to Gumi was constructed in
the year 1953-54. The entire reach from Palashbari to Gumi was under the grip of erosion if
river Brahmaputra.
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Landspur was constructed as anti-erosion measure. Construction and maintenance is

very high. Also additional protection is necessary to protect the shank against outflanking by
embayment. The land spur constructed earlier at Kakilamukh in the bank of the Brahmaputra
yielded result.
Another important measures to check erosion is floodplain joining. The study area
which is frequently visited by devastating flood and erosion cause tremendous damage to
crop is a regular feature. So, floodplain zoning is very important which includes regulation of
landuse, changing of crop pattern etc.
The ravaging flood and erosion hazard always causes great damage to standing crops.
The changing in the cropping pattern and proper land use regulation may be a suitable
strategy to adjust with hazard. The area may be divided into some regions according to
hazard intensity.
1) Erosion free area.

2) Slightly erosion affected area.
3) Moderately erosion affected area
4) Severely erosion affected area.
Besides these other measures used to check bank erosion are boulder protection, solid
stone spurs, timber pile spurs, river revetment, marginal embankments, porcupine made of
bamboos and other short term devices.
Fig 6: Future Anti-Erosion Scheme in the study area.
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FUTURE GOVERNMENT PLAN TO CHECK BANK EROSION

The Water Resources Department, Govt. of Assam has been adopting a policy to take
up flood control measures such as construction of embankment, anti-erosion measures etc. in
the state. No central agencies or aid are playing any role so far in construction of the
embankment, anti-erosion measures etc which probably are the most important aspect to be
attended for backward and flood prone state like Assam. The state Govt. of Assam and
Central Govt. of India are the only agencies involved in the process of embankment
activities.The present proposed scheme will fit the overall requirement of the master plan for
flood control pertaining to the Brahmaputra river by the Brahmaputra Board.
The main objective of the project is to closed the breach portion by constructing a
short retirement connecting land spur no.6 and 7 from ch. 17300m to18600m to save the
existing B/dyke from Palasbari to Gumi along with anti-erosion measures in the same reach
in the form of continuous revetment and apron in cage.
CONCLUSION
The foregoing study concludes that the position of the study are is severe. Erosion
here is quite intensive and thousands of people are rendered homeless. Bankline migration of
the Brahmaputra has thus created an acute socio-economic problem in the study area. Antierosion measures adopted by the government are proved to be not truly effective.
Some suggestions may therefore be forwarded along with the concluding remarks.
The first and foremost strategy is develop strong awareness programme about importance of
trees, afforestation and reforestation. Afforestation reduces soil erosion and as a result
accumulation of sediment on the river bed reduce, which lessen the effects of flood and bank
erosion. Adequate attention must be paid while taking up developmental activities so that
natural catchments areas and drainage systems, including wetlands, are not disturbed.
Haphazard development must be replaced by power planning. Approximate soil conservation
measures to check bank erosion need to be intensified .Involvement of the community will
help in achieving success in such measures. Although embankments/bunds have led to more
problems than solutions, yet it would be helpful if embankments are made stronger. The most
plausible measure for control of floods and bank erosion stated to be the construction of dams
and taming of rivers. Studies are needed on the rivers and the tributary systems in the state for
taking up such projects.
The suggestion discussed above in Assam alone will not solve the problems. The cost
involved will be enormous. The Central Government will have to take the major initiative
and tackle these issues. It must be treated as a crucial national problem. A rational cooperation among general people, N.G.Os and the Government is very much needful for a cohesive as well as integrated development of the study area.
REFERENCES
Bora, A.K.(2001) : Drainage and Floods of Assam: In Bhagabati, A.K.Bora, A.K.and Kar,
B.K. Geography of Assam, Rajesh Publications, New Delhi, India, PP.36-51.
Bora, A.K (2001): Physical Background of Assam: In Bhagabati, A.K.Bora, A.K. and Kar,
B.K.eds., Geography of Assam, Rajesh Publications, New Delhi, India, PP.18-35.
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Bordaloi, N (1986): Effect of the Brahmaputra Channel Migration on Flood Plain

Occupance : A Case study of the Palasbari-Garaimari Tract in South Kamrup, M-Phil
Dissertation, Guahati University, Guwahati, PP. 25-37.
Brahma, J.N. (1995): Regimes of Flow, Beload and Suspended load of Brahamputra River
at Pandu Investigation site, Dissertation, Assam Engineering College, Jalukbari, Assam:
PP.63-67.
Dutta, Arup Kumar(2001): The Brahmaputra, National Book Trust, New Delhi, India, PP.
51-86, 216-233.
Goswami, D.C.(1996): Annual Mayhem in Assam: In Floods, Floodplains and
Environmental Myths, Centre for Science and Environment , New Delhi, PP.71-82.
Statistical handbook of Assam (2003): Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Assam.
Census of India Report, 1971, 1991, 2001

Profitability Analysis of Steel Companies

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A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian

TRAGEDY OF MACBETH: OVERAMBITION TO

KRISHAN DUTT, ANAND S. KODAN, ASHWANI KUMAR

DR. RIPU KR. GOGOI

P.K. PAUL, N. K. MONDAL

DR. SAFIOLLAH SAFAEI, DR. AKBAR KHODABAKHSHI

MR. RAMSHARAN, MR. YASHPAL

P. SATHIYA BAMA, DR. A. DAVID RAVINDRAN

A STUDY OF THE COMPREHENSION SKILLS IN

A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian

Underground movement in Sukabumi cannot be separated from political

FIGHTING IN THE PARLIAMENT

Sejarah Gedung Juang 45

Hanifah, Abu, Tales Of Revolution,

Modern Indonesian History and Politics No. 1

Kemerdekaan: Diplomasi Sambil

Nagazumi, Akira ( penyunting ), Pemberontakan Indonesia Di Masa Pendudukan Jepang,

Pringgodigdo, Sedjarah Pergerakan Rakjat Indonesia, Dian Rakjat, Djakarta, 1949

A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian

To evaluate the profitability related to sales of selected steel companies.

To study the profitability related to investment of selected steel companies.

To analyze the profitability related to equity share of selected steel companies.

Availability of data at least for the period of 6 years.

Those companies had earned profit for last three years

Sales volume were more than 50 cr

The above criteria has fulfilled by following company

STATISTICAL TOOLS USED

Mean, Standard Deviation, Coefficient of Variations

Correlation Analysis and Student t-Test

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Frederick H. De B. Harris (1994) A higher, firm-specific, predicted cost of capital (COC)

Gross Profit / Net Sales x 100

Source: Secondary Data

Source: Secondary Data

TABLE: 3. MEAN, S.D, C.V OF OPERATING PROFIT RATIO FOR SELECT

Source: Secondary Data

OPERATING EXPENSES RATIO

/ Net Sales x 100

TABLE: 4 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF OPERATING EXPENSES RATIO FOR SELECT

Source: Secondary Data

Operating ratio = Operating cost/ Net Sales x 100

Source: Secondary Data

TABLE: 6 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF RETURN ON ASSET FOR SELECT STEEL

Source: Secondary Data

TABLE: 7 MEAN, S.D, C.V OF RETURN ON INVESTMENT FOR SELECT STEEL

Source: Secondary Data

Source: Secondary Data

Sources: Secondary Data

Source: Secondary Data

Source: secondary Data

Source: Secondary Data

Source: Secondary Data

TABLE NO:14 SIGNIFICANCE OF COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION R AND

Sources: Secondary Data

FINDINDS FROM THE STUDY

THE FINDINGS FROM CORRELATION ANALYSIS AND ARE AS FOLLOWS

THE FINDINGS FROM STUDENTS T TEST ARE FOLLOWS

Students t test at 5% significant level showed showed significance in NP of sail to

Saravanan, Working Capital Management in Non-Banking Financing Companies,

A Peer Reviewed International Journal of Asian

DOWRY SYSTEM IN INDIA: AN OVERVIEW

DATA BASE AND METHODOLOGY

, , are significant at 1, 5 and 10 percent respectively.

, , are significant at 1, 5 and 10 percent respectively.

, , are significant at 1, 5 and 10 percent respectively.