Guideline On Structural Fire Engineering Part I - Fire Scenarios and Calculation of Temperature Under Fire Struct

SEB GUIDELINES
SEBGL OTH6
Guideline on Structural Fire Engineering

Part I: Fire Scenarios and Calculation of Temperature under Fire
Structural Engineering Branch

Architectural Services Department
Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

Revision No. : 0
First Issue Date : December 2011
Page 1 of 87
File code : SEBGL-OTH6

CTW/MKL/CHL/CHM/SCF
Current Issue Date : December 2011
CONTENTS
Content Page
1.
Introduction ..... 1
2.
Fire Safety Codes in Hong Kong 8
3.
Fire Safety Engineering and Structural Fire Engineering .. 10
4.
Prescriptive and Alternative Approaches ..... 12
5.
General Principles of Structural Fire Engineering Approach .... 17
6.
Applicability of Structural Fire Engineering Approach ...... 18
7.
Typical Fire Scenarios .... 23
8.
Fire Modelling ..... 26
9.
Design Fire ... 29
10.
Temperature of Structural Elements .... 48
11.
Thermal Actions for External Member ..... 49
12.
Engaging Fire Engineering Consultants ... 61
13.
Design Examples ...... 62
14.
References .... 85
Annex A
Sample Clauses in Engaging Structural Fire Engineering Consultant
Copyright and Disclaimer of Liability

This Guideline or any part of it shall not be reproduced, copied or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission from
Architectural Services Department. Moreover, this Guideline is intended for the internal
use of the staff in Architectural Services Department only, and should not be relied on by
any third party. No liability is therefore undertaken to any third party. While every effort
has been made to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the information contained in
this Guideline at the time of publication, no guarantee is given nor responsibility taken by
Architectural Services Department for errors or omissions in it. The information is
provided solely on the basis that readers will be responsible for making their own
assessment or interpretation of the information. Readers are advised to verify all relevant
representation, statements and information with their own professional knowledge.
Architectural Services Department accepts no liability for any use of the said information
and data or reliance placed on it (including the formulae and data). Compliance with
this Guideline does not itself confer immunity from legal obligations.

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1.
Introduction
1.1
There has been a large body of work written on the subject of performance
based structural fire engineering. Unfortunately, most of this information is
scattered throughout technical journals from different countries and
organizations, and not easily accessible to the practicing engineer. The
purposes of this Guideline are therefore to provide project officers in our
Department:
a)
b)
c)
d)
background information on the behaviour of fire;

the structural behaviour of structural steel, reinforced concrete,
composite structure and timber at elevated temperature;
list of design references; and
design examples,
when a structural fire engineering study is required for the design of

structural members under fire.
1.2
1.3
This set of Guideline is divided into two parts:

a)
Part I will describe the fire scenarios development in a fire, the

techniques in fire modelling and the procedures to calculate the
maximum gas temperature and duration of a fire. Design examples
will be given to demonstrate the techniques. The gas temperature is an
important parameter in deciding whether a structural fire engineering
study is required. For example, if the computed gas temperature is
high enough such that the temperature of the structural steel exceeds
550oC, passive fire protection will likely be required, and hence a
structural fire engineering study may not be warranted in the detail
design stage.
b)
Part II will first describe the heat transfer mechanisms from the fire to
the structural members, and the procedures to obtain the temperature
of the members during a fire. It will then focus on the structural
design of steel structure, reinforced concrete, composite structure and
timber exposed to fire, which will again be followed by design
examples.
Resources on Fire Safety Engineering

Project officers should note that this set of Guideline only provides an
overview on analysis and design of structural elements exposed to fire, and
are therefore advised to conduct their own research on the details and
updated information. The following list the resources that may be helpful:
Hong Kong SAR Government Publications
For private buildings, approval of fire safety designs and inspection of the
buildings upon completion are held responsible by two Government
departments Buildings Department and Fire Services Department. The
building design shall be submitted to the Buildings Department to check

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against all fire aspects for approval. As government buildings are exempted
from the Buildings Ordinance, the design of these government buildings in
theory are not necessary submitted to Buildings Department; yet, our
Department is always required to submit to Fire Services Department. The
requirements and installation of fire protection systems are monitored by the
Fire Services Department. Buildings Department has issued the following
codes governing different aspects for fire safety:
1. Buildings Department (1996), Code of Practice for the Provision of
Means of Escape 1996 (Hong Kong: Building Authority).
2. Buildings Department (1996), Code of Practice for Fire Resisting
Construction 1996 (Hong Kong: Building Authority).
3. Buildings Department (2004), Code of Practice for Means of Access for
Firefighting and Rescue 2004 (Hong Kong: Buildings Department).
These three codes have just been replaced by the following unified code:
Buildings Department (2011), Code of Practice for Fire Safety in Buildings
2011 (Hong Kong: Buildings Department).
This unified code consists of the following parts:
Part A
- Introduction
Part B
- Means of Escape
Part C
- Fire Resisting Construction
Part D
- Means of Access
Part E
- Fire Properties of Building Elements and Components
Part F
- Fire Safety Maintenance and Management
Part G
- Fire Safety Guidelines
There is an annex Guidelines from Licensing Authorities to the unified
code.
Fire Services Department issued the following two codes on active fire
protection system or fire services installation:
1.
Fire Services Department (2005), Code of Practice for Minimum Fire

Service Installations and Equipment (Hong Kong: Fire Services
Department).
2.
Fire Services Department (2005), Code of Practice for Inspection and

Testing and Maintenance of Installations and Equipment (Hong Kong:
Fire Services Department).
Professional Associations
1. The Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE) (www.sfpe.org/) is the
professional association of the US for fire protection engineering, and
published the following comprehensive text describing the fire science
that underpins fire protection engineering, and providing information in
the areas of the fundamental science and engineering concepts that are
applied in fire protection engineering, fire dynamics, fire hazard
calculations, design calculations, and fire risk analysis:
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DiNenno, P J et al (eds.) (2002), SFPE Handbook of Fire

Protection Engineering (Bethesda, Maryland: Society of Fire
Protection Engineers, 3rd ed).
2. British Standards Institution (www.bsi.org.uk) published the following
standards on the principles of structural fire engineering and the design
of structural members for different materials:
BSI (2003), BS 5950-8: Structural Use of Steelwork in Building
Part 8: Code of Practice for Fire Resistant Design (London: British
Standards Institution).
BSI (2002), Eurocode 1: Basis of Design and Actions on Structures,
Part 1.2: Actions on Structures Actions on Structures Exposed to
Fire (BS EN 1991-1-2) (London: British Standards Institution).
BSI (2005), Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures, Part 1.2:
General Rules, Structural Fire Design (BS EN 1992-1-2) (London:
British Standards Institution).
BSI (2003), Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures, Part 1.2:
General Rules, Structural Fire Design (BS EN1993-1-2) (London:
British Standards Institution)
BSI (2005), Eurocode 4: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete
Structures, Part 1.2: Structural Fire Design (BS EN 1994-1-2)
(London: British Standards Institution).
BSI (2004), Eurocode 5: Design of Timber Structures, Part 1.2:
General Rules, Structural Fire Design (BS EN 1995-1-2) (London:
BSI (2001), BS 7974: Application of Fire Safety Engineering
Principles to the Design of Buildings Code of Practice (London:
BS 7974 only gives a framework for the application of fire safety
engineering principles to the design of buildings. It is supported by
the PD 7974-0 to -7 series of Published Documents that contain
guidance and information on how to undertake detailed analysis of
specific aspects of fire safety engineering in buildings. The
following parts are relevant to structural fire engineering:
a) Part 0: Guide to design framework and fire safety engineering
procedures
b) Part 1: Initiation and development of fire within the enclosure
of origin;
c) Part 3: Structural response and fire spread beyond theenclosure
of origin.
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3. The Institution of Structural Engineers (www.istructe.org.uk) published

the following two comprehensive texts providing guidance on the
behaviour and structural design of structural elements of all the principal
construction materials:
IStructE (2003), Introduction to the Fire Safety Engineering of
Structures (London: IStructE).
IStructE (2007), Guide to the Advanced Fire Safety Engineering of
Structures (London: IStructE).
4. The Association for Specialist Fire Protection (www.asfp.org.uk) is a
trade association representing UKs manufacturers and installers of
passive fire protection products, and published the following book
(commonly known as the Yellow Book) on common proprietary
materials and systems as passive fire protection products:
ASFP (2004), Fire Protection for Structural Steel in Buildings
(Aldershot: Association for Specialist Fire Protection, 3rd ed).
Publications and Reference Books
1. Lennon, T (2011), Structural Fire Engineering (London : Thomas
Telford) - This updated book provides comprehensive but concise
summary of the principles of structural fire engineering and summarizes
EN1991 Part 1.2, EN1992 Part 1.2, EN1993 Part 1.2 and EN1994 Part
1.2 on structural design of concrete, steel, composite structures under
fire. The book also provides examples on the structural design.
2. Lennon, T et al (2007), Designers Guide to EN 1991-1-2, 1992-1-2,
1993-1-2 and EN 1994-1-2 (London : Thomas Telford) - This book
provides guide to EN1991 Part 1.2, EN1992 Part 1.2, EN1993 Part 1.2
and EN1994 Part 1.2 on structural design examples of concrete, steel,
composite structures under fire.
3. Wang, Y C (2002), Steel and Composite Structures, Behaviour and
Design for Fire Safety (London: Spon Press) This book explains the
fire behaviour, heat transfer in construction elements and structural
analysis, and describes the behaviour of steel and composite structures
in fire.
4. Franssen, J M and Real, P V (2010), Fire Design of Steel Structures
(Berlin: ECCS) - This updated text explains and illustrates the rules that
are given in the Eurocode 1 for designing steel structures subjected to
fire by describing the design process together with worked examples.
5. Law, M and OBrien, T (1989), Fire Safety of Bare External Structural
Steel (Ascot: SCI) Although this book is old, it is a classic in
structural fire engineering. This book examines flame projection from
openings in building facades and heat transfer calculation methods of
fires to external unprotected steel columns.
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6. Newman, G M (1990), Fire and Steel Construction: the Behaviour of

Steel Portal Frames in Boundary Conditions (Ascot: The Steel
Construction Institute, 2nd ed) This book describes the behaviour of
structural steel portal frames in fire.
Design and Analysis Tools
There are computer softwares available that can be used to simulate fires in
buildings. Common available sofwares (some being free for use) include:
SAFIR (www.argenco.ulg.ac.be/logiciels/SAFIR/), a computer
software developed at the University of Liege for the simulation of the
behaviour of building structures subjected to fire.
Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) (www.fire.nist.gov/fds/index.html), a
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of fire-driven fluid flow
for heat transport from fires developed by National Institute of
Standards and Technology, the US Department of Commerce.
PyroSim (www.thunderheadeng.com/pyrosim/), a computer software
that can simulate temperature of a building during a fire.
Consolidated Model of Fire and Smoke Transport (CFAST)
(www.nist.gov/el/fire_research/cfast.cfm), a computer developed by
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) of the US
Department of Commerce, and is free software that use a two-zone
fire model used to calculate the evolving distribution of smoke, fire
gases and temperature throughout compartments of a building during a
fire.
OZONE (www.ulg.ac.be), a free computer software that combines a
two zone model and a one zone model to predict the temperature and
time relationship before and after flashover in a compartment. It can
also calculate the temperature of a steel section under that
compartment fire, and evaluate the fire resistance of simple steel
elements according to Eurocode 3.
Academic Institutions
The University of Manchester holds the following site providing free
information on structural fire engineering (including the theories,
prescriptive and alternative measures in fire protection, fire behaviour, fire
modeling, and structural design):
http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/project/research/structures/strucfire/
This site was developed under the direction of a Steering Group with
representatives from the Institution of Structural Engineers, Building
Control of the City of London, Arup Fire, the Concrete Centre, Corus,
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British Constructional Steelwork Association, Concrete Block Association,

BRE, etc.
Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering of the University of
Canterbury, NZ also develops the following site publishing their research
findings and containing links to the various sofwares for fire modeling:
http://www.civil.canterbury.ac.nz/fire/firehome.shtml
2.
Fire Safety Codes in Hong Kong
2.1
A properly designed fire safety system of a building greatly reduces the loss
of life and property during a fire, or in the neighborhood of the building.
Nearly all building regulations and/or codes specify requirements for
buildings to be designed in such a way that they exhibit an acceptable level
of performance in the event of fire. Similar requirements have been
specified as Regulations 41(1), 41A, 41B, 41C and 41D in the Building
(Planning) Regulations and Regulation 90 of the Building (Construction)
Regulations. Over the years, Buildings Department and Fire Services
Department have issued the following codes on the performance
requirements complying the statutory requirements:
a) the Code of Practice for the Provision of Means of Escape 1996 (the
MOE Code);
b) the Code of Practice for Fire Resisting Construction 1996 (the FRC
Code);
c) the Code of Practice for Means of Access for Firefighting and Rescue
2004 (the MOA Code);
d) the Code of Practice for Minimum Fire Service Installations and
Equipment; and
e) the Code of Practice for Inspection and Testing and Maintenance of
Installations and Equipment.
2.2
The MOE Code sets out the requirements on the provisions for the
protection of buildings from the effect of fire by providing adequate means
of escape in the event of fire and other emergency. This is achieved by
recommending the assessment of population density of floor, the type of
usage, the minimum number of escape routes and their widths, the
maximum travel distance, the construction of escape routes and appropriate
signage etc. The MOA Code seeks to achieve the objective of assisting in
firefighting and in saving life of people in buildings by ensuring adequate
access for firefighting personnel in case of fire and other emergencies. This
is achieved by recommending adequate emergency vehiclur access, access
staircases, firemans lifts as well as fire fighting and rescue stairways
according to the area, use and height of buildings. The FRC Code provides
guidance on compliance with the requirements for fire resisting construction
stipulated in Part XV of the Building (Construction) Regulations. It sets out
the provisions on protection of buildings from effects of fire by inhibiting
the spread of fire and by ensuring the integrity of structural elements and the
overall stability of buildings. This is achieved by specifying a minimum fire
resistance period (or fire resistance rating in the FS Code) in accordance

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with the type of use, the maximum compartmentation area or volume and
requirements on protection of adjoining buildings and separation between
different uses and occupancies (Table 1).
Table 1 Fire Resistance Rating for Premises of Different Occupancies
Class
1
2
3
4
Use
Domestic
Hotel bedroom
Institutional
Commercial
Fire Resistance
Rating
Compartment Volume
No limit
60 mins.
2
Not exceeding 2500 m

Not exceeding 10500 m2
60 mins.
Place of public
entertainment
Not exceeding 2500 m2
60 mins.
Educational
establishments
Exceeding 2500 m2
but not exceeding 10500 m2
120 mins.
6b
7
2.2
Bulk storage and Not exceeding 28000 m3 and

warehouse
10500 m2
Car parking
Not exceeding 10,500 m3
(Source: modified from FS Code Part C)
120 mins
60 mins.
FS Code
Buildings Department has just issued the Code of Practice for Fire Safety in
Buildings 2011 (the FS Code), which consolidates and replaces the
requirements of the MOE Code (now Part B of the FS Code), the FRC Code
(now Part C of the FS Code) and the MOA Code (now Part D of the FS
Code). As the FS Code has already replaced these three codes, reference in
this set of Guideline will be based on the FS Code. The objectives of the FS
Code are:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
2.3
to allow occupants to escape during fire;

to ensure that the fire and smoke would not spread beyond the room of
origin;
to ensure structural integrity of the structural elements for a specific
period of time;
to prevent the outbreak of fire, to abate fire hazards, to suppress fire,
to prevent loss of property; and
to ensure structural integrity for fire fighters to perform their duties.
The Code of Practice for Minimum Fire Service Installations and

Equipment and the Code of Practice for Inspection and Testing and
Maintenance of Installations and Equipment are enforced by the Fire
Services Department. The first one provides the minimum fire protection
systems required for different types of premises and the specifications for
various fire service installations and equipment for meeting the statutory
requirements. The second one is to indicate the type and nature of

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inspections and tests which installations and equipment must normally pass,
and provides guidance on administrative procedures for application and for
inspection and testing and how these systems can be appropriately
maintained and inspected throughout the building life.
3.
Fire Safety Engineering and Structural Fire Engineering
3.1
The Institution of Fire Engineers of the UK (www.ife.org.uk/) defines fire

engineering (or sometimes termed as fire safety engineering) as:
the application of scientific and engineering principles, rules (Codes),
and expert judgment, based on an understanding of the phenomena
and effects of fire and of the reaction and behaviour of people to fire,
to protect people, property and the environment from the destructive
effects of fire.
Similarly, the Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering of the
University of Canterbury, NZ (http://www.canterbury.ac.nz/) defines fire
engineering as:
the art and science of designing buildings and facilities for life safety
and property protection in the event of an unwanted fire.
Fire engineering is, therefore, a broad term embracing a multi-disciplinary
approach (involving architects, building services engineers, structural
engineers, insurance companies, etc) to determine fire safety strategy for
buildings under fire conditions, including the control of fire spread and
addressing structural stability.
3.2
There are two broad aspects in the fire engineering: fire prevention
(designed to reduce the chance of a fire occurring) and fire protection
(designed to mitigate the effects of a fire should it nevertheless occur). Fire
prevention includes eliminating or protecting possible ignition sources in
order to prevent a fire from occurring. Fire protection measures may be
passive or active. Active measures include detection and alarm, fire
extinction, and smoke control. Passive measures include structural fire
protection, layout of escape routes, fire brigade access routes, and control of
combustible materials of construction.
The term fire protection
engineering therefore comprises active and passive ways of providing
satisfactory protection level to buildings and/or its contents from fires.
Figure 1 shows the role of active and passive fire protection measures
during a fire.

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Figure 1 Role of active and passive fire protection in a fire

3.3
Structural fire engineering is a special branch within the fire protection

engineering, and addresses the specific aspects of passive fire protection in
terms of analyzing the thermal effects of fires on buildings and designing
members for adequate load bearing resistance and to control the spread of
fire. Figure 2 shows the interrelationship of fire engineering, fire protection
engineering, and structural fire engineering.
Figure 2 Relationship among various branches in fire engineering

3.4
Project officers should therefore note that the term fire engineering (or
fire safety engineering) embraces all aspects of fire prevention and fire
protection. Besides predicting the performance of structural elements under
fire, it also involves the study of the means of escape, smoke control, fire
spread control, design of sprinkler, alarm, fire-fighting systems, etc.
Structural engineering design mainly concerns passive fire protection. This
Guideline will focus on the structural fire engineering, rather than on the
architectural or BS aspects.

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3.5
IStructE (2007: 1) states that [t]raditionally, structural engineers did not

venture into fire design, due to their lack of knowledge of fire behavior .
Structural fire design brings together the disciplines of structural
engineering and fire engineering, to allow a performance-based design
approaches to be carried out which can allow more economic, robust,
innovative and complex buildings to be constructed. Professor D. J.
OConnor of the Fire Engineering Research Centre of the University of
Ulster in the ordinary meeting of IStructE of 9 March 1995, once said: in
this developing field of [fire] engineering, structural engineers have a unique
opportunity to provide leadership to other building professionals.so that
structural engineers do not restrict their expertise simply to the provision of
safety based on passive fire protection, but understand the full complexities
of the life safety and the structural safety issues pertaining to total fire
engineering design.
4.
Prescriptive and Alternative Approaches
4.1
There are two approaches for complying with the statutory requirements for
fire safety, namely: Prescriptive Provisions and Alternative Approach.
4.2
Prescriptive Provisions
4.2.1 The simplest approach to satisfy the statutory requirements is to follow

Prescriptive Provisions in the FS Code, which includes the provisions on
means of escape, emergency vehiclur access, firemans lifts, passive
protection, etc based on required fire resistance rating. These provisions
aim at providing adequate fire resisting construction to the elements of
construction of the buildings, providing adequate means of escape,
maximum travel distances, and specifying compartmentation within the
building and measures for protection of adjoining buildings. However, as
these provisions have to account for a wide range of buildings, they cannot
provide the optimum solution in terms of life safety, property protection,
cost-effective fire protection and operational requirements (PD 7974-0).
Perhaps, the main deficiency of Prescriptive Provisions is that they do not
meet the fire safety for complex buildings. BS PD 7974-0 quotes the
following conclusion of the Cullen report into the Pier Alpha offshore
disaster (in which 167 of the 229 people onboard on the oil platform in
North Sea were killed) for the Prescriptive Provisions:
Many regulations are unduly restrictive in that they are of a type that
impose solutions rather than objectives and are out of date in
relation to technological advances.
There is a danger that
compliance takes precedence over wider safety considerations.
The conclusion highlights the main deficiency of Prescriptive Provisions.
Other disadvantages include: unable to anticipate all eventualities, unable to
provide an optimum solutions, and unable to meet with the current design
practice (BS PD 7974-0). However, project officers should note though
with such limitations, Prescriptive Provisions provide an acceptable solution
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for most buildings with straightforward construction, layout and use, and are
therefore adopted in the majority of cases.
4.2.2 The FRC Code (or the FS Code Part C), which applies to elements of
construction (including structural frame, fire barriers, fixed lights, fire doors,
fire shutters or other components, etc) specifies that one or more of the
following three criteria to be satisfied (details being specified in Table C2 of
the FS Code) in a fire:
1)
2)
3)
stability, i.e. to avoid collapse of load-bearing elements (Figure 3(a)),

integrity, i.e. to resist fire penetration and inhibit spreading (Figure
3(b)); and
insulation, i.e. to prevent transfer of excessive heat such that the
unexposed surface of a fire resistant construction should not be heated
excessively and cause further ignition (Figure 3(c)).
Figure 3 Failure modes of construction elements during fire

(Source: Wang 2002)
Similar provisions have been specified in the Code of Practice for Structural
Use of Concrete 2004 (the HK Concrete Code) and Code of Practice for
Structural Use of Steel 2005 (the HK Steel Code) issued by Buildings
Department.
4.2.3 To meet the stability criterion, a building element must perform its load
bearing function and carry the applied loads for the duration of the fire
without any structural collapse. The integrity and insulation criteria are the
ability of the building element to contain a fire in order to prevent fire
spreads from the room of origin. For structural elements (including
structural frame, beam and column), stability criterion must be satisfied, and
the other criteria may be required for specific structural element. For
example, for floor slab, integrity and insulation criteria must also be
satisfied in order to prevent fore spreads through floors. Table 2 lists the
criterion or criteria to be satisfied for main types of structural elements.
Table 2 Criteria for Different Elements of Construction
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Criteria to the satisfied1
Elements of
construction
Method of
Insulation Exposure
Stability
Integrity
Structural frame,
beam or column
Exposed faces
only
Floor including
compartment floor
Each side
separately
Roof forming part of

an exit route or
performing the
function of the floor2
From
underside
Loadbearing wall not

forming a separating
wall or fire
compartment wall
Each side
separately
External wall
Each side
separately
Notes: 1 Y = required and N = not required

2
Project officers should also refer to Section 4.2.7 below, or SEBGL-OTH1
Guidelines on the Fire Resisting Construction for Roof Structures for roof not
forming part of an exit route and not performing the function of the floor.
(Source: FS Code Part C Table C2)

4.2.4 For structural elements, Prescriptive Provisions specify the material, shape
and size, thickness of fire protection materials and construction details to be
used in order to satisfy the statutory requirements. Compliance of these
provisions is deemed to satisfy the statutory requirements laid down for fire
resisting construction for buildings in Part XV of the Building (Construction)
Regulations. The following paragraphs provides brief summary of these
provisions.
4.2.5 Prescriptive Provisions for structural steel
4.2.5.1 For structural steelwork, Clause 12.2 of the HK Steel Code specifies the
quantitative requirements for the insulation and stability. For insulation
(e.g. for the floor slabs), it is specified that the mean and maximum
unexposed face temperatures should not be increased by more than 140oC
and 180oC respectively above the initial value. For stability, it is specified
that it should be able to carry the load without excessive deflection.
4.2.5.2 The FS Code contains Prescriptive Provisions for the required fire
protection to structural steel by encasing the members with concrete. The
main disadvantage of such method is that encasing increases the dead
weight of the structure resulting in enlarged member sizes and foundations.
Alternate materials in the form of sprayed mineral coating, intumescent
paint and proprietary fire protection board have therefore been used.
These alternate materials are permitted as prescriptive measures, provided
that appropriate test reports on their performance can be demonstrated.
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4.2.5.3 The required thickness of the alternate materials for fire protection of
structural steelwork can be determined from the performance data sheets,
published in Fire Protection for Structural Steel in Buildings (ASFP 2002),
which is commonly referred to as the Yellow Book. The Yellow Book
provides a comprehensive guide of proprietary materials and systems of
fire protection to structural steelwork. For each type of fire protection
system, the thickness of fire protection is usually based on the Section
Factor (denoted by A/V (surface area divided by cross sectional area) or
Hp/A (heated perimeter divided by cross sectional area)) of the structural
member, since the rate at which the structural element will heat up is
proportional to the surface area of steel exposed to the fire and inversely
proportional to the mass or volume of the section. In a fire, a member with
low section factor will be heated up at a slower rate than one with high
section factor.
4.2.5.4 Detailed specification on the submittals, the alternate materials and the
workmanship has been included in the Clauses 15.66 15.72 of the
General Specification for Building 2007 of our Department. Project
officer are required to specify the type(s) of material and the fire resistance
ratings to suit his project.
4.2.5.5 In the choice of the appropriate type of material, project officer should note
that sprayed mineral coating is the cheapest option, and can be rapidly
applied. Sprayed mineral coating is therefore a preferred option. However
due to its undulating finish and hence aesthetically unpleasant, it is usually
preferred in surfaces which are hidden from the view (e.g. concealed
behind false ceiling). The properties of the sprayed material shall also
cope with the use of the structure. For example, where vibration or large
deflection is expected, more demanding sprayed material with higher dry
density and cohesion properties should be used. Moreover if the
environment is moist (e.g. exterior steel stair or above a swimming pool),
then the sprayed mineral coating option is not advisable, as there is the
possibility of water seeping into it (because of the porous nature of sprayed
mineral). Proprietary fire protection board is an expensive method, and
may also susceptible to the effect of moisture. Hence, its application is
also restricted to indoor steelwork with dry environment. Intumescent
fireproofing is a layer of paint which is applied along with the coating
system on the structural steel members. Intumescent coating is applied as
an intermediate coat in a coating system (primer, intermediate, and
top/finish coat). Because of the relatively low thickness of this
intumescent coating (350-700 micrometers), nice finish, and anti-corrosive
nature, intumescent coating is a preferred option when aesthetical
appearance is required. Moreover, intumescent coating is the option that
can be applied to steelwork in moist environment.
4.2.6 Prescriptive Provisions for reinforced concrete and timber
For reinforced concrete, fire protection is typically achieved by the
minimum dimensions and concrete covers to reinforcement for a given
standard fire resistance rating. Clause 4.3 of the HK Concrete Code states
that the covers to steel reinforcement for fire protection shall follow the FRC
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Code. The FS Code Part E specifies the minimum dimensions of structural

members and covers to steel reinforcement for specified fire resistance
rating in Tables E2, E4, E6 and E7. The minimum covers and dimensions
have been derived to ensure that the temperature of steel reinforcements
does not exceed a specified critical temperature.
For timber construction, the prescriptive protection is normally to protect the
elements from fire by fire resistant cladding materials.
4.2.7 Prescriptive Provisions for roof structure
A particular Prescriptive Provision for roof structure is that it is not
classified as an element of construction under the definition in the FS
Code Part A, and hence there is no need to provide fire resisting
construction requirement for it, although there are special exceptional
circumstances (e.g. an exit route, performing the function of the floor, or
essential for the stability of an external wall) where roof elements require
fire resisting construction. Detailed discussion on fire protection to roof
structure can be referred to SEBGL-OTH1 Guidelines on the Fire Resisting
Construction for Roof Structures (available: http://asdiis/sebiis/2k/
resource_centre/).
4.3
Alternative Approach
4.3.1 Alternative Approach (or more commonly called fire engineering

approach) is a performance based method. There has been a trend around
the world adopting of performance based method due to the well-publicized
benefits in fire safety, design flexibility, cost, and quality that can be
achieved. The use of performance-based approach should ensure an
equivalent level of safety of the building environment is not eroded.
4.3.2 In 1998, Buildings Department has issued APP-87: Guide to Fire
Engineering Approach (available: http://www.bd.gov.hk/; accessed: 4
September 2011) providing further guidance on fire engineering approach.
Under APP-87, the aim of fire engineering approach is stated to provide for
an overall level of safety that is equivalent to that which would result if fire
safety was achieved through full compliance with the prescriptive provisions
of the relevant codes of practices, even though the full prescriptive
provisions in the Code cannot be provided. The FS Code Part G now
replaces APP-87 and dedicates a full section providing guidance and
methods on using the fire engineering approach. Pang (2006) further stated
that the Alternative Approach provides a framework for engineers to
demonstrate that the performance requirements of legislations are met, or in
some cases bettered, to compensate for the deviation or shortfalls of the
prescriptive codes.
4.3.3 Similar to Prescriptive Provisions, Alternative Approach is available for
other aspects of fire protection engineering, e.g. in the provision of means of
escape and sprinkler system. BSB issued the Report on the Study on
Performance
Based
Fire
Engineering
Approach
(available:
http://bsbiis/main/bsbiis/4.3.3.asp) in 2001 providing a summary these
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different aspects. The focus of this set of SEB Guideline will be, however,
on application of Alternative Approach to assess the actual performance of
the structural members under fire. This set of Guideline will particularly
stress on such the application of Alternative Approach on structural steel, as
one of the distinct advantages of Alternative Approach for structural steel is
that it may be unprotected, provided that the performance of the structural
steelwork can demonstrate to meet the statutory requirements of fire
resisting construction.
5.
General Principles of Structural Fire Engineering Approach
5.1
A full performance-based approach to fire engineering in buildings should

consider active and passive measures, movement of smoke and fire,
detection systems, fire safety management, structural response and risk
analysis. Instead of carrying out a full performance-based study, it is
usually to carry out a simplified performance-based approach, which is
sufficient for structural engineer to understand and explain how the structure
performs should it be subjected to severe fires. The main objective of a
structural fire engineering study is to verify for all structural members
essential for maintaining stability of the structure that:
Rf Ef
where Rf is the load carrying capacity of the structural member in a fire till
the end of the required fire resistance rating; and
and
Ef is required load carrying capacity by loads in the fire till the end of
the required fire resistance rating.
5.2
The process of such performance-based approach is therefore similar to the

process of designing structures to withstand wind (which requires an
estimate of the wind pressures over the building and an estimate of the
structural response). For a structural fire engineering performance-based
approach, the assessment involves three basic components namely: the
likely fire behaviour, heat transfer to structure, and the structural response.
The steps in a typical structural fire engineering study are shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4 Steps in Structural Fire Engineering Study

(Source: Modified from Kirby 2004)
6.
Applicability of Structural Fire Engineering Approach
6.1
As stated above, one of the main reasons for the research and rapid advances
on structural fire engineering is to eliminate fire protection to steelwork.
That is, structural steel members can be unprotected, as fire protection to
steelwork can represent a significant part of the total steel structural cost and
the elimination of fire protection to steelwork therefore represents a
significant saving in construction cost to the client. Another benefit of
unprotected steel is to have more choices of architectural
finishes/appearance of the steel thus enhancing the aesthetic effects. In a
structural fire engineering study, it is therefore required to predict the
structural performance of unprotected steel members under a real fire, so
that an equivalent level of fire safety can still be maintained.
6.2
Project officers should, however, note that in a small compartment with the
usual design fire load, the fire will likely to be fully developed. In such
circumstance, it may be safely assumed that the results from a structural fire
engineering study will not eliminate the fire protection to steelwork, and
project officers are advised to adopt Prescriptive Provisions for the structural

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elements. Example 2 in Section 13 will show that the room temperature

will rise up rapidly with time in a small compartment.
6.3
Project officers should further note that roof structure is not classified as an
element of construction as briefly discussed above, and hence no
structural fire engineering study is required to eliminate fire protection to
such steelwork.
6.4
In summary, under the current statutory requirements, structural fire

engineering is particularly applicable for the following situations:
a)
b)
c)
6.5
large compartments (especially with high headroom and limited fire

load) or open-sided buildings, as a fire is unlikely to fully develop in
these compartments/buildings. Examples of such structures include:
open-sided car park, sports stadium, indoor swimming pool, public
transport concourse in the projects of our Department, and casino or
cinemas in the private sector projects;
external structural steelwork located outside the facade of the building;
and
localised fire which is unlikely to flash over.
Sports stadium, indoor swimming pool, transport concourse, casino and

cinemas
For sports stadium and indoor swimming pool, fire load is low and
headroom is high, whilst in transport concourse, casino and cinema, the
headroom is high. In these venues, the resulting gas temperature in a fire is
low. The significant fire loads in sports stadium, swimming pool and
transport concourse include the seating, the air ducts or the vehicles, which
will seldom lead to flashover of a localised fire. In our Department, fire
engineering study was employed in the project of Tin Shui Wai Public
Library cum IRC, in which the structural steelwork above the swimming
pool in the IRC was left unprotected.
6.6
Open-sided car parks

Similarly, for open-sided car parks, they have very high levels of ventilation
combined with a low fire load. Accordingly, UK Building Regulations 1991
(now Approved Document B Fire Safety Volume 2 issued under UK
Building Regulations 2000) allows that in open-sided car parks less than
30m high, 15 minutes fire resistance rating is normally sufficient, though no
similar provisions have been provided in the corresponding regulations in
Hong Kong. Structural fire engineering study can therefore be utilized to
find the temperature of the structural members under fire.
6.6
External steelwork
A structural fire engineering study is also warranted for external structural
steelwork or other load bearing members located outside the facade of the
building. There may be flames coming through windows and doors or heat

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transfer due to internal radiation of the compartment fire. However, the

temperature of such steelwork will be less than the gas temperature within
the building due to the comparatively low net rate of heat transfer. However,
the location of these members relative to the windows is important, as
members placed directly opposite openings will receive more heat than
members shielded by a wall or faade. Heat transfer calculations are
therefore required to check that the members remain below its critical
temperature for the compartment fire and flame projection considered. In
our Department, such studies were employed in the projects of Dr Sun Yatsen Museum (Photo 1), Improvement Works to Lei Yue Mun Park and
Holiday Village (Photo 2(a) and (b)), and International Wetland Park and
Visitor Centre at Tin Shui Wai (Photo 2(c)), in which structural steelwork
of the external staircases located just outside the faade of the development
were left unprotected.
Photo 1 External Stair in Dr Sun Yat-sen Museum
Photo 2(a) External Stair in Lei Yue Mun Park

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Photo 2(b) Steel Beams in External Corridor in Lei Yue Mun Park
Photo 2(c) External Stair in International Wetland Park

6.7
Localised fire
Localised fire may be caused by vandals or disposal of lit cigarette, resulting
the burning of an isolated item in an area with plentiful supply of oxygen,
where flashover is unlikely because of the limited fire load. Structural fire
engineering study will usually show that the structural integrity of the
building will not be affected by such localised fires. Effects of such
localised fires have been studied in the projects of Improvement Works to
Lei Yue Mun Park and Holiday Village (Photo 3) (for the burning of carton
exhibit and a/c unit).

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Photo 3 Items for Localised Fire on the Verandah Lei Yue Mun Park
6.8
Figure 5 illustrates the applicability and inapplicability of structural fire

engineering in the project Tin Shui Wai Public Library cum IRC, in which:
a) structural fire engineering was applied to study the effect of fire on the
unprotected steel trusses above the swimming pool (further details of the
study having been reported in Ho et al (2011));
b) Prescriptive Provisions by providing a 2-hour fire-resistance rating
passive protection were followed for the steel trusses above the multipurpose rooms; and
c) the roof steel trusses were left unprotected as they were not classified as
elements of construction.
Figure 5 Combination of Prescriptive Provisions and Alternative

Approaches in Tin Shui Wai Public Library cum IRC
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Typical Fire Scenarios
7.1
Typically, a fire in a residential, commercial, or institutional building starts

in a single compartment, commonly known as compartment fire.
Compartments are typically rectangular in shape and not overly large with
small aspect ratios. The fire grows and decays in accordance with the mass
and energy balance within the compartment in which it occurs. The energy
released depends upon the quantity and type of fuel available and upon the
ventilation conditions. The different stages of fire development in a
compartment have been studied extensively (e.g. Cox 1995; Buchanan 2001;
Karlsson and Quintiere 2000; Drysdale 2000). Following ignition, fires in
compartment typically have three distinct phases: the growth or preflashover, the fully developed or post-flashover, and the decay, which are
represented graphically in Figure 6. There is a rapid transition stage called
flashover between the pre-flashover and fully developed fire. NIST of the
US Department of Commerce uploads a video in the following URL
(accessed: 26 September 2011) showing the fire development in a
compartment:
http://www.fire.nist.gov/tree_fire.htm
Figure 6 Typical Compartment Fire Time-temperature Curve

7.2
Growth or Pre-flashover Phase
7.2.1 Figure 7 shows a typical compartment fire before flashover phase. During
this period the fire begins as either a smoldering or flaming fire depending
on availability of oxygen for combustion. During this stage, the fire is
localised and temperature distribution inside the enclosure is highly nonuniform. If this fire is promptly discovered and/or effective fire fighting is
activated, it can be easily controlled. Even if there is no intervention, but
the first burning item is sufficiently far away from other combustible
materials, the fire may die out due to the difficulty of igniting other
combustible materials.

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7.2.2 The connective plume of hot gases above the burning object will rise to the
ceiling and spread horizontally to form an upper hot layer, called the
ceiling jet. At this stage, the enclosure may be approximately divided into
two zones: an upper zone of hot smoke, and a lower zone of cold air. The
division between the upper and lower zones is the neutral plane, above
which smoke flows out of the enclosure and below which fresh air is
supplied into the enclosure. As the fire continues to burn, the volume of
smoke and hot gases in the upper layer increases, reducing the height of the
interface between the two layers. As this happens, the temperature of the
hot gas layer increases further. The rate of burning may also be significantly
enhanced by radiant feedback from this hot upper layer. Over time the
combustion products will start to flow out the door opening when the
interface drops below the door soffit or open window of the compartment
(Figure 7). Hot gases will then leave the room through the openings, and
fresh air from the surrounding spaces will rush into the compartment to
make up for the air leaving the hot gas layer and continue to feed the fire. If
there are insufficient openings in a typical compartment, the rate of burning
will decrease, and it may self-extinguish even the fuel is not fully consumed.
However, it may grow again if fresh air is supplied into the enclosure. In
more dramatic situations, a sudden fresh air supply to an under-ventilated
fire may lead to the so-called back draught ( ) phenomenon,
posing serious hazards for fire fighting.
Figure 7 Typical compartment fire before pre-flashover phase

(Source: Parkinson and Kodur 2006)
7.2.3 Pre-flashover fire does have very significant influence of life safety since
toxic products of combustion can quickly give rise to untenable conditions.
This period is therefore critical for evacuation and fire-fighting. As such,
the majority of studies in fire dynamics have concentrated on the preflashover fire so as to develop an understanding of the production and
spread of smoke and toxic gases. Structural engineers may consider that
pre-flashover fire does not have a significant impact on the strength and
stiffness of structural members because of the low temperature when
compared with post-flashover fire. However, being able to predict the preflashover fire behaviour enables structural engineer to investigate structural
behaviour under localised fires in such buildings as car parks, stadia and
airports, where due to large spaces, flashover is not possible.
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7.3
Flashover
As the fire grows in size and the layer of gases develops, owing to a lack of
oxygen in the smoke layer, a large quantity of partially burnt fuel will also
accumulate in the smoke layer. Meanwhile, the burning flame will become
larger and penetrate the smoke layer. Flame spread becomes quicker when
it is aided by the partially burnt fuels in the smoke layer. The radiation from
the burning flames and the high temperature smoke layer will increase the
burning rate of the existing fire. All this will accelerate a positive burning
loop. A point will be reached when the incident radiation on the unburned
combustible materials in the enclosure becomes so high that objects distant
from the seat of the fire become ignited at almost the same time. If there is a
sufficient supply of air, this will result in full involvement of all combustible
materials in the fire. The transition from localised to fully developed fire
tends to be rapid and is known as flashover () (Figure 8).
Figure 8 Flashover during fire

(Source: Wang 2002)
Flashover lasts an extremely short duration, often seconds, and was held to
result in the death of a 27-year-old fireman on a fire on an industrial
building in Tsuen Wan in 2007 (China Daily, 8 September 2011) and was
reported in the fire of 20 December 2011 in Po On Building on Mongkok
Road (Ming Pao, 21 December 2011). TVB has recorded the latter flashover
in his news, and the video can be found in the following URL (accessed: 21
December 2011):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jtDsaGgAZIc
NIST of the US Department of Commerce has also uploaded a video in the
following URL (accessed: 26 September 2011) showing the flashover in
compartment fire:
http://www.nist.gov/fire/upload/NS_multi.wmv
Another video showing flashover at a real fire is in the following URL
(accessed: 26 September 2011):
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_8btCZmrJzI&feature=related
Whether flashover will occurs and the time to flashover are both very
important for evacuation and fire-fighting, though is usually ignored in
structural fire engineering study. The conditions necessary for flashover to
occur depend on:
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1)
2)
3)
sufficient fuel and ventilation for fire to develop to a significant size;

sufficient hot gases trapped in the ceiling; and
geometry of the room that must allow the radiant heat flux from the
hot layer to reach critical ignition levels at the level of the fuel items
Various analytical and experimental methods have been derived to estimate

the critical value of the heat release and the time to flashover. The usual
consensus is that flashover occurs when the upper layer temperature reaches
approximately 600C and the radiant heat flux to the floor is about 20kW/m
(Peacock et al 1999).
7.4
Fully developed or Post-flashover Phase

During the post-flashover phase, the very high temperature and radiant heat
flux in the compartment would cause all combustible fuel to burn when
there is sufficient oxygen supplied. Large amount of combustible gases are
produced at this stage, which burns when mixed with oxygen. The fire
severity will be controlled by the rate of supply of air through openings such
as doors and windows. This is a ventilation controlled fire and in
sufficiently small compartments will result in fairly uniform temperatures at
any level within the compartment. For such ventilation controlled fire, it is
normal to witness flames burning out through the openings, as any unburnt
gases, which leave through the opening will be able to burn due to the new
supply of outside oxygen. It is only during post-flashover phase, the highest
temperature, the largest flame and the highest rate of heating occur, leading
to fire spread and direct impact upon the structural integrity of the
compartment. The structural design of member in a post-flashover phase is
therefore critical, and is the focus of structural fire engineering.
7.5
Decay phase
The production rate of volatile gases is decreased as the fuel content in the
compartment is depleted (typically occurs when 70% of the fuel has been
consumed), and the decay phase of the fire will then begin. During this
period the temperature in the room decreases as the fire intensity decreases.
With burning thermoplastics and liquid hydrocarbon fuels, the decay phase
can be extremely short. However, with cellulosic materials, such as wood,
which chars, the decay stage is much longer and is of primary interest when
examining the fire resistance of structural elements of a building.
Ultimately, the decay rate will be a function of the quantity and physical
arrangement of combustible contents (such as the size and shape of openings)
within the compartment, and the thermal properties of the room boundaries.
Typically, as a fire enters the decay period it begins to change from a
ventilation-controlled fire to a fuel-controlled fire.
Fire Modelling
8.1
The above paragraph describes the various phases of a fully developed

compartment fire. The factors influencing the temperature, magnitude, and
distribution of a fire can be summarized as follows (Petterson 1973;
Roytman 1975; Subramanian and Venugopal 1984):

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1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
fire load type, density and distribution;

combustion behaviour of fire load;
compartment size and geometry;
ventilation conditions of compartment (especially the window opening
area);
thermal properties of compartment boundary;
thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the construction material;
radiation levels from both within the compartment and through the
windows.
8.2
When dealing with post-flashover fire, the ignition phase is generally

neglected, because although this stage is generally the most critical for
human life, ignition phase is assumed to be dealt with active fire fighting
measures (e.g. sprinklers), which, if effective, will suppress the fire before it
becomes a fully-developed fire (Figure 1). Upon entering the postflashover phase, structural fire engineering will be useful to check the
stability of the structures. The temperature distribution insider the structure
must therefore be calculated.
8.3
The temperature distribution inside the structure is usually calculated based

on the gas temperature from many alternative methods, e.g. nominal fire
curves, parametric fire curves, the zone or fluid dynamics models, using heat
transfer analysis. Table 3 lists various options for fire modelling.
Simplified and advanced models of fire may be distinguished. The first four
fire models can be considered as simple models, whereas the zone and CFD
models are advanced models.
Table 3 Various Fire Models
Fire model
Complexity
1. Nominal
fires
Compartment fire
2. Time
equivalence 3. parametric 4. localised
Simple
Intermediate
Fire behavior
Post-flashover fires
Pre-flashover
Temperature
distribution
Uniform in whole compartment
Non-uniform
along plume
Input
parameters
Design
methods
Fire type,
no physical
parameters
Fire load,
ventilation conditions,
thermal properties of
boundary,
compartment size
Fire load
and size,
height of
ceiling
Spreadsheet
Simple
equations
Simple equations
5. Zone models
6. CFD
Two-zone/
models
multi-zone
Advanced
Complete
Pre-flashover or
timelocalised
temperature
relationship
Time and
Uniform in each
space
layer
dependence
(varying)
Fire load,
ventilation
conditions,
Detail input
thermal
for solving
properties of
the
boundary,
fundamental
compartment
equations of
size,
the fluid
detailed input
flow
for heat & mass
balance of the
system
Computer model
(Source: Modified from IStructE 2007)

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8.4
The simplified models of fire are based on fundamental physical parameters,

which allow temperature prediction, the design density of fire load and the
conditions of the ventilation. Nominal fires are used in the testing of
construction members in the standard fire resistance. Time equivalent
method is also used to relate the exposure of a structural element in a real
fire to an equivalent period of heating in the nominal time-temperature curve
in the standard fire resistance test. In a parametric model, it is assumed that
the whole compartment is burning at the same time and attains the same
temperature throughout a single zone model. Eurocode 1 provides
simplified expressions for calculating the single zone post-flashover fires
using parametric expressions that describe the entire heating and cooling
cycle by including the fire load, ventilation characteristics, compartment
geometry, and the thermal properties of the surrounding walls floor and
ceiling. Localised fires are important in structural fire engineering, when
flashover is unlikely and the structure is subject to localised burning. These
four simplified models will further be described in Section 9.
8.5
Advanced models take into account properties of gas and the exchange of
mass and energy. Zone models are simple computer models that divide the
considered fire compartment into separate zones, where the condition in
each zone is assumed to be uniform. Two zone models exist in which the
height of the compartment is separated into two gaseous layers each with
their own temperature cycle. Three zone models exist in which there is a
mixed gas layer separating the upper and lower gas levels. Two-zone or
multi-zone models are used for pre-flashover fires. When a pre-flashover
fire develops into a post-flashover fire, and the two-zone model will become
a one-zone model. A number of zone models have been programmed and
are available via the internet. The most commonly used ones are CFAST
(available: http://www.nist.gov/) and OZONE (www.ulg.ac.be).
8.6
The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models forecast the temperature

and pressure growth in the finite elements of space in time. CFD has been
shown to be successful in the modelling of smoke movement in large spaces
and atria, and has therefore been applied to the modelling of fires. CFD
modelling is a numerical approach to representing fluids that divides a fluid
domain into small volumes and considers conservation of mass, energy etc.
within each volume. CFD analysis is suitable for very large compartments.
Software exists that can represent the very wide range of physical
phenomena known to affect fire behaviour including compartment geometry,
heat release rates of burning fuel, complex ventilation conditions, turbulent
gas flow, soot production and many others. Figure 9 shows the gas
temperature in fire compartment during fire from different models.

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Figure 9 Time-Temperature Curves from Different Fire Models

(Source: Modified from Ghoreishi et al 2009)
9.
Design Fire
9.1
In order to carry out structural design under fire, the selection of a suitable
fire of assumed characteristics, which is referred to as the design fire, is
one of the most important steps in this process. A design fire is generally
considered to be a quantitative description of temperature of a fire with time
based on reasonable assumptions about the type and quantity of
combustibles, ignition method, growth of the fire and its spread from the
first item ignited to subsequent items, and the decay and extinction of the
fire.
9.2
There are two types of design fire for a compartment fire:

a)
a
9.3
a nominal time-temperature curve uniform in space, and

a real fire either specified in terms of parametric time exposure (the
parametric fire), or obtained by computer modelling.
Nominal time-temperature Curves
9.3.1 The nominal time-temperature curves are a set of curves with no physical
parameters taken into account. That is, these curves are independent of
various parameters known to affect fire intensity including fire load,
ventilation areas, building thermal properties, etc. The standard timetemperature curves were originally derived from measurements of tests
taken early in the 20th century, and involves an ever-increasing air
temperature inside the compartment, even when all combustible fuel is used
up. The standard fire is primarily used in experimental fire tests, as
although it does not resemble a real fire, it can be replicated in a controlled
environment. By using a standard fire, manufacturers can test their building
product and find a fire resistance time that can be compared to other
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building products. Since all products are tested and exposed to the same fire
they can be compared due to the consistency in the tests.
9.3.2 Most internationally recognized codes (including the Eurocode 1 and ISO
834) contain defining equations for three distinct fire curves: standard,
external and hydrocarbon (Figure 10). The formula describing the standard
time-temperature curve for the ISO 834 fire is:
T = 345 log (8t+1) + To --- (1)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.4.1)
where T is the temperature (in oC) at time t (in minutes), and To is the
ambient temperature (taken as 20 oC in Eurocode 1).
The standard fire curve represents a typical fire based upon a cellulosic fire
in which the fuel source is wood, paper, fabric, etc. This form of timetemperature relationship has, however, a limited similarity to the
temperatures in real compartment fires, and was indeed not intended to be
representative of a real fire scenario, but instead it is an envelope that
represents maximal values of temperature during fire that may occur in
buildings. It is conservative for long duration fires, as it has no decay phase,
whereas in a real fire compartment temperature will reduce with the duration
of the decay phase. However, for shorter duration fires, particularly where
upholstered furniture and thermoplastics may be involved in a real fire, the
standard curve may be non-conservative. Such a realistic fire can be more
severe than the standard fire in the early stages of fire development, when
evacuation and rescue activities are required to be undertaken. This point
should be considered together with the trend that the wood furnishing used
in the old days have been replaced by high fuel loads from polyurethane
furniture, plastics and other synthetic materials nowadays resulting in large
and fast growing fires.
Nevertheless, although this curve does not really represent the temperature
build-up in a real fire, this has become the standard design curve used in the
furnace test of components. Most European countries have standard fire
curves similar to that in ISO 834 standard fire, and across the Atlantic, the
US and Canada also use the standard fire curve in ASTM E119 which is
similar to those in ISO 834.
9.3.3 External and Hydrocarbon Fire Curves
Where the structure for which the fire resistance is being considered as
external, Eurocode 1 gives a similar external fire curve. This is the nominal
time-temperature curve to be used for structural members located in a faade
outside the main structure but can be exposed to external plume of a fire
coming either from the inside fire compartment, i.e. from a compartment
situated below or adjacent to the external wall. The formula describing the
external fire curve is:
T = 660(1 - 0.687e-0.32t 0.313e-3.8t)+20 --- (2) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.6)
In situations where petrochemicals or plastics form a significant part of the
overall fire load, Eurocode 1 gives a hydrocarbon fire curve, representing a
fuel load of 200kW/m2. The formula describing the hydrocarbon fire curve
is:
T = 1080(1- 0.325e-0.617t 0.675e-2.5t)+20 --- (3)(Eurocode 1 Eqt. 3.7)
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The external and hydrocarbon fires are similar in shape but the hydrocarbon
fire curve has temperatures 75% higher temperature due to the higher
calorific values of petrochemicals or plastics.
Figure 10 Nominal Fire Curves

9.3.4 Time equivalent
Eurocode 1 provides for t-equivalent fire models. Law (1997) defines tequivalent as the exposure time in the standard fire resistance test which
gives the same heating effect on a structure as a given compartment fire.
Time equivalent is to relate the exposure of a structural element in a real fire
to an equivalent period of heating in the standard fire resistance test (Figure
11). Hence, it is applicable to calculate the fire resistance rating required for
the elements of construction within the building.
Figure 11 Graphical representation of time equivalence

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Eurocode 1 gives the following expression to calculate the time equivalent:

te,d= (qf,d kb wf)kc --- (4)
where qf,d = design fire load density (MJ/m2) (Table 5);
wf = ventilation factor to take into account vertical and horizontal
openings=(6/H)0.3[0.62+90(0.4-v)4] in the absence of horizontal
openings;
kc = factor dependent on material=1.0 for protected steel and
reinforced concrete;
H = the height of the compartment (m);
v = Av/Af ;
Av = the total area of the opening;
Af = the total floor area;
and kb = factor to take into account the thermal properties of the
enclosure
= 0.7 when there are no horizontal openings and bounding
surfaces are unknown, or when the bounding surfaces (and
hence the thermal inertia b (= c )) are known:
kb (min. m/MJ)
Thermal inertia b (= c ) (J/msK)
2500
720 to 2500
<720
0.04 (0.055)
0.055 (0.07)
0.07 (0.09)
Note: Values in brackets are those given in the UK National Annex to Eurocode 1.
Example 1 in Section 13 shows how to employ the time-equivalence to

obtain the fire resistance rating for a building.
9.4
Parametric Fires
9.4.1 Parametric fire model is a simple means to take into account the most
important physical factors that may influence the development of the fire.
The parameters that are required to represent the time-temperature
relationship in the model include:
1)
the fire load present in compartment;
2)
the ventilation condition (including ventilation area) of the
compartment;
3)
compartment size; and
4)
the thermal conductivity and diffusivity of the construction material.
9.4.2 However, it should be noted that the temperature in the compartment of the
model is assumed to be uniform which limits the application to postflashover fires. Figure 12 shows the typical behaviour of a compartment
fire with highlights at points of flashover and the decaying point, and the
parametric fire model only gives the time-temperature relationship from the
point of flashover onward.

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Figure 12 Typical Time-Temperature Behaviour

in a Compartment Fire
Eurocode 1 divides the fire development of a parametric fire into two phases:
the heating phase, and the decay phase, and Figure 13 shows the typical
parametric fire curve in Eurocode 1. As only the post-flashover and decay
phases of a fire will be taken into account in the parametric fire model, the
parametric time-temperature curve obtained using in the Eurocode 1 only
describes the fully-developed phase of the fire without considering the
growth phase of the fire, although results of fire tests with ordinary
furnishings reveal that even in small fire compartments it can take some
minutes to reach the fully developed fire from the initial fire.
9.4.3 Eurocode 1 further states that the design equations for the parametric timetemperature curve derived using the formulae in Eurocode 1 are only valid
for compartments with the following conditions:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
with floor areas up to 500m2 and heights up to 4m;

no openings through the ceiling;
with mainly cellulosic-type fire loads;
with thermal inertia 400 b 2,000 J/m2s0.5K; and
with opening factor 0.02 O 0.2.

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Figure 13 Typical Parametric Curve in Eurocode 1

9.4.4 Derivation of Parametric Fire using Eurocode 1
9.4.4.1 In Eurocode 1, the design fire load for floor area, qf,d is given by:
qf,d = qf,k m q1 q2 n --- (5)(Eurocode 1 Annex E)
where
qf,k
m
q1
q2
is characteristic fire load density per unit floor area (MJ/m2)

is the combustion factor
is the factor taking into account the fire activation risk due
to the size of the compartment (Table 4(a))
is the factor taking into account the fire activation risk due
to the type of occupancy (Table 4(b))
10
and
= ni is a factor taking into account the different active

i =1
fire fighting measures i (Table 4(c)).

The combustion factor m is a function of the spatial properties of the fuel
and location of the fuel relative to the fires ignition source and is a
measure of the influenced of the compartment on the burnability of the
fuel source. Usually, it is assumed to be 1. However, value of 0.8 has
been suggested, although Babrauskas and Williamson (1978) suggests that
the value can actually be lower than 0.7.

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Table 4(a) Fire activation risk factor due to compartment size

Compartment floor
Danger of fire
area Af (m2)
activation q1
25
1.10
250
1.15
2,500
1.90
5,000
2.00
10,000
2.13
(Source: Eurocode 1 Annex E)
Table 4(b) Fire activation risk factor due to occupancy use
Danger of fire activation q2
Examples of Occupancies
Art gallery, museum, swimming
0.78
pool
Offices, residence hotel, paper
1.00
industry
Manufactory for machinery &
1.22
engines
Chemical laboratory, painting
1.44
workshop
Manufactory of fireworks or
1.66
paints
(Source: Eurocode 1 Annex E)
Table 4(c) Fire activation risk factor due to fire fighting measures
ni Function of Active Fire Fighting Measures
Automatic Fire Suppression
Automatic
water
extinguishing
system
Independent Automatic fire

water supplies detection alarm
n1
0.61
Automatic Fire Detection
n2
1.
0
0.87
0.
7
By
heat
By
smoke
n3
n4
0.87 or 0.73
Automatic
alarm
transmission
to fire
brigade
Manual Fire Suppression
Work Off site Safe

Fire
Smoke
fire
fire access fighting exhaust
brigade brigade routes devices system
n5
0.87
n6
n7
0.61 or 0.78
n8
0.9 or
1.0 or
1.5
n9
n10
1.0 or
1.5
1.0 or
1.5
(Source: Eurocode 1 Annex E.1)

9.4.4.2 Characteristic Fire Load Density qf,k
In the above equation, it is necessary to obtain the characteristic fire load
density per unit floor area qf,k. The term fire load refers to the quantity
of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to
the structure during a fire. Fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel
per unit area, and is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2. Sometimes, it
is expressed in terms of kg/m2 of wood equivalent (1 kg wood = 18MJ). It
is an indication of the quantity of heat energy (in joules), which can be
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liberated by the complete combustion of all combustible materials in a

room. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (including offices,
retail, hospitals, warehouses, etc) have been undertaken and the fire load
densities have been available. However, as the fire load density is highly
variable, fire load data are usually given in terms of the mean and 80th
percentile, i.e. the value that is not exceeded in 80% of the rooms or
occupancy of the survey data. The latter level of fire load density is usually
taken as the characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being
distributed according to a Gumbel distribution. Typical fire load densities
for different occupancy uses are shown in Table 5.
Table 5 Fire Load Densities for Different Occupancy Uses
Occupancy
Dwelling
Hospital (room)
Hotel (room)
Library
Office
Classroom of a school
Shopping centre
Manufacturing
Manufacturing and storage
Hospital (storage)
Notes:
2
3
Average Fire
Load Density
(MJ/m2)
780
230
310
1500
420
285
600
(300)
(1180)
(2000)
80th Percentile Fire

Load Density
(MJ/m2)
948 (870)
280 (350)
377 (400)
1824 (2250)
511 (570)
347 (360)
730 (900)
(470)
(1800)
(3000)
Fire load densities for other occupancies can be found in Table 3.4.1a of
International Fire Engineering Guidelines (ABCB 2005). Project officers should
note that average values are given in International Fire Engineering Guidelines,
and a multiplier should be applied to get the 80th percentile fire load values.
Values in bracket are given in PD 7974-1.
Gumbel distribution is assumed for the 80% percentile values.
(Source: Eurocode 1 Annex E.4)

Alternatively, the fire load density may be calculated by:
where

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qf,k
Af
Mv
Hv
qf,k = Mv Hv/Af --- (6)

(Eurocode 1 Eqt. E.2)
is the fire load density (MJ/m2)
is the floor area (m2)
is the total mass of the vth combustible material
is the calorific value of the vth combustible material
(MJ/kg).
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Table 6 Net calorific value Hv (MJ/kg) of common combustible materials
Other products
Chemicals
Solids
Combustible Materials
Wood
Other cellulosic materials
Clothes
Cork
Cotton
Paper, cardboard
Silk
Straw
Wool
Carbon
Anthracit
Charcoal
Coal
Paraffin series
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Olefin series
Ethylene
Propylen
Butane
Aromatic series
Benzene
Toluene
Alcohols
Methanol
Ethanol
Ethyl alcohol
Fuels
Gasoline, petroleum
Diesel
Pure hydrocarbons plastics
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
Polypropylene
ABS (Plastic)
Polyester (plastic)
Polyisocyanerat and polyurethane (plastics)
Polyvinylchloride, PVC (plastic)
Bitumen, asphalt
Leather
Linoleum
Rubber tyre
Value of Hv (MJ/kg)
17.5
20
30
50
45
40
30
45
40
35
30
25
20
40
20
20
30
(Source: Eurocode 1)
Hv, the calorific value or heat of combustion, is the amount of heat released
during complete combustion per unit mass of fuel. The net calorific values,
denoted by Hv (in unit MJ/kg) for a range of common fuels are shown in
Table 6.
9.4.4.3 The fire load density for total area qt,d (MJ/m2) is then obtained from the
fire load density for floor area qf,d by the following equation:

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where
and
qt,d = qf,d Af / At --- (7)

Af is the floor area of the fire compartment
At is the total internal surface area of the fire compartment
including the openings
9.4.4.4 Ventilation Condition

The ventilation condition of a fire scenario is one of the major factors
which affect the time-temperature curve for the fire safety design. As
described above, a fire can be described as ventilation-controlled when
the burning rate is controlled by the available supply of oxygen necessary
condition. There is insufficient air flow for all the combustible gases to
burn inside the room, and hence the flames extend out the windows and
additional combustion takes place where the hot unburned gaseous fuels
mix with outside air. A fire can be described as fuel-controlled when the
burning rate is controlled by the availability of fuel, under a fully
ventilated condition. In this case, the rate of burning will be similar to that
which would occur for the fuel item burning in the open air, with
enhancement from radiant feedback from the hot upper layer of gases or
hot wall and ceiling surfaces. In fuel-controlled burning, all of the heat is
released inside the room, with no flames projecting out of the windows.
The larger the ventilation opening(s), the hotter and faster becomes the
burning of fire. Such fires tend to have shorter durations compared with
fires in compartments with fewer or smaller openings, which experience
cooler, slower fires of long burning duration. Such time effects are
significant especially in structural fire engineering. A hot, short fire may
not burn for sufficient time for heat to penetrate a structure, despite high
gas temperatures. However a long, cool fire may have time for heat to
penetrate, despite lower temperatures, and may therefore be more severe.
Figure 14 shows a comparison of the analytical time-temperature curves
with different ventilation factor.
Figure 14 Effects of Ventilation on the Time-Temperature Curves

After Flashover
(Source: Parkinson and Kodur 2006)

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9.4.4.5 Ventilation factor

Buchanan (2001) overviews the various burning rate empirical
relationships of openings and air flow and shows that the rate of burning,
in many empirical equations, tends to be a function of the ventilation
factor Av heq . For compartment fires a variation of the ventilation factor
is also used, known as the opening factor O (in m0.5) given by:
heq
O= Av
--- (8)
(Eurocode 1 Annex A)
At
where heq is the height of the opening,
Av is the total area of the opening (Figure 15),
At is the total surface area of the compartment (Figure 15).
and
Figure 15 Definitions of heq, Av and At

For a compartment with multiple openings, the value of heq shall be
calculated according to the weighted average of all opening height and given
by:
n
Ah
i i
heq =
i =1
Av
where Av = Ai
i =1
9.4.4.6 Time to reach maximum temperature tmax

The time to reach the maximum temperature tmax determines whether the
compartment fire is ventilation controlled or fuel controlled. If the time to
reach the maximum temperature calculated is less than the tlim specified,
the fire is ventilation controlled; otherwise the fire is fuel controlled.
Eurocode 1 suggests that in case of slow fire growth rate, tlim = 25 min;
medium fire growth rate, tlim = 20 min, and fast fire growth rate, tlim = 15
min. The fire growth rate is be related to the occupancy use of the
compartment, and Table 7 gives typical examples of fire growth rate.

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Table 7 Typical examples of fire growth rate

Occupancy
Fire Growth Rate
Max Rate of Heat

Release (kW/m2)
Dwelling
Medium
250
Hospital (room)
Medium
250
Hotel (room)
Medium
250
Library
Fast
500
Office
Medium
250
Classroom of a school
Medium
250
Shopping centre
Fast
250
Theatre (cinema)
Fast
500
Transport (public space)
Slow
250
(Source: Eurocode 1 Table E.5)
The time to reach maximum temperature tmax in hour is then given by:
0.2 10 3 qt ,d
tmax = max
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.7)
, t lim --- (9)
O
9.4.4.7 Equivalent Thermal Inertia of Material

The thermal inertia of materials of the enclosure b (in J/m2s0.5K) of the
compartment affects the heating and cooling phases of the compartment
fire. The thermal inertia of material b is related to the density , the
specific heat c and the thermal conductivity of the material by the
following equation:
b = c --- (10)
No information is given in the Eurocode 1 on the values of thermal inertia
of common construction materials. CIB W14 Workshop Report suggests
the following values for construction materials:
Material
Concrete
Structural steel
Timber
Brick
Thermal inertia b (J/m2s0.5K)

2280
15000
600
1200
If the enclosure surface consists of two different layers of materials b1 on

b2 (e.g. a layer of screed on rc slab), the value of b can be calculated as
follows:
If b1 < b2, b = b1. --- (11)
If b1 > b2, a limit thickness slim is calculated
using:
3600t max 1
slim =
--- (12)
c1 1
If s1 > slim then b = b1. --- (13)
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for the exposed material
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.4a)
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s
s1
b1 + 1 1 b2 --- (14) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.4b)
slim
s lim
is the thickness of layer i
= i ci i
is the density of the layer i
is the specific heat of layer i
is the thermal conductivity of layer i
If s1 < slim then b =

where
si
bi
i
ci
i
To account for different b factors in walls, ceiling and floor, equivalent

thermal inertia of material b can be calculated as:
b= [ (bjAj)] / (At Av) --- (15)
9.4.4.8 Heating Phase of Parametric Fire Curve
The equation of the heating phase of a parametric fire curve is given by:
where
g = 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2t* 0.204e-1.7t* 0.472e-19t*) --- (16)

g is the temperature in the fire compartment;
t for ventilation controlled fire
t* =
;--- (17)
lim t for fuel controlled fire
= a scaling parameter =
(O / 0.04 )2 ;--- (18)

(b / 1160 )2
t = fire exposure time (in hr);

2
0.1 10 3 q t ,d 1160 2

and
lim=
--- (19)
0.04
t lim b
The fire exposure time (t) is to be scaled by a parameter () to create a

parametric time factor (t*). The scaling parameter () is a function of the
relative opening factor and relative compartment thermal inertia, in
comparison with standard values of ventilation factor O = 0.04 and thermal
inertia parameter b = 1160 which combined, give a value of = 1, in
which case parametric time (t*) equals real time (t), and the temperature
growth follows the ISO 834 curve. For compartments with > 1,
temperature growth rate is greater than that of the ISO 834 standard fire.
For compartments with < 1, the temperature growth rate is slower than
that of the ISO 834 standard fire.
If O > 0.04m0.5 and qt,d < 75MJ/m2 and b < 1160J/m2s0.5K, then lim should
be further multiplied by k as given by:
O 0.04 q t ,d 75 1160 b
k= 1 +
--- (20) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.10)

0.04 75 1160

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9.4.4.9 Cooling Phase of Parametric Fire Curve

During the cooling phase, the temperature of the parametric fire curve in
cooling phase, g is assumed to decrease linearly at one of three rates
between 625 and 250 oC hr-1, and is given by (Eurocode 1 Eqt. A.11a, 11b
and 11c):
g = max 625 (t t*max . x) for t*max 0.5
g = max 250 (3 t*max)(t* t*max . x) for 0.5 < t*max
g = max 250 (t t*max . x) for t*max 2
where
t*max=
0.2 10 3 qt ,d
O
<2
1.0 if t *max> tlim

and x=
*
*
t lim / t max if t max = t lim
--- (21)
Examples 2 and 3 in Section 13 will give examples to derive parametric

time-temperature curve using the methods detailed above.
9.4.5 Derivation of Parametric Fire using Law (1983)s method
Other approaches (e.g. Magnusson and Thelandersson 1970) to derive the
parametric time-temperature curve for a compartment fire have been
developed, and they are similar to the procedure in Eurocode 1.
For example, Law (1983) gave the following equation to calculate the
maximum temperature for the heating phase:1
max = 6000 (1 - e-0.l) -0.5 --- (22)
A Av
where = t
and heq is the window height.
Av / heq
Law (1983) commented that this maximum temperature must be modified to
take into account of the fuel available for combustion, and can be reduced
by the following factor:
(1 - e-0.05) --- (23)
L
where =
and L is the fire load (in kg wood equivalent).
Aw ( At Aw )
The time to reach maximum temperature tmax in hour is simply given by:
tmax (hr) = L/3600R (sec)
where R(in kg/s)is the rate of burning, and Law (1983) gave the following
equation to find R:
heqW
R= 0.18 1 e 0.036 Aw
--- (24)
D
where D and W are respectively the depth and width of the compartment.
1
Ms Margaret Law MBE is the pioneer in structural fire engineering field and her method is a
classic in the field and also forms the basis for that in Eurocodes.

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9.5
Fire in large compartments and travelling fires
9.5.1 In the previous discussion, it has been assumed that there would be uniform
temperatures at any level within the compartment. Eurocode 1 states that
the design equations for the parametric time-temperature curve are only
valid for compartments with floor area up to 500m2 and headroom up to 4m.
In addition, the enclosure must have no openings through the ceiling and the
thermal properties of the compartment linings must be within a limited
range. As a result, common architectural layout in our Department, such as
large enclosures, high ceilings, atria, large open spaces, multiple floors
connected by voids, and glass faades, are excluded from its range of
applicability.
9.5.2 PD 6688-1-2:2007: Background paper to the UK National Annex to BS EN
1991-1-2 suggests that designers can ignore the Eurocode 1 limitations on
floor area and compartment height, and can expand the range of the
compartment lining values. However, fires in such large compartments will
tend to travel within the compartment as fuel is consumed at a rate governed
by the available ventilation. This causes variation in gas temperatures
within such compartments. The compartment is too large for a condition
right for a flashover to develop and so the fire remains a localised fire which
is moving throughout the entire compartment with different speeds and areas
engulfed at the same time depending on how much fire load is available and
how fast the fire load is consumed. These fires have been labelled
travelling fires. Such a fire could be a critical design case for the structure
as the heating and cooling of the structures occurs at the same time
relatively close to each other. Such travelling fires include the infamous
ones in the World Trade Center Towers in New York in September 2001
and the Windsor Tower in Madrid, Spain in February 2005.
9.5.3 Cooke (1998) conducted a series of fire tests with uniform fire loads in a
4.58.752.75m high compartment in which ventilation was provided at one
end. He found that there had been a progression of temperature within the
compartment. Peak values occurred near the source of ventilation early in
the fire and then progressed away from the opening as fuel was consumed.
Non-uniform heating across a compartment floor can cause a failure
mechanism in the structure, which may not occur if uniform temperatures
were applied to the structure. An example was quoted by Rein and SternGottfried (2011), when a cool, unheated bay in a multi-bay structure can
produce high axial restraint forces, which can result in failure of a heated
element. However, there has not yet been any suggested new approach to
deal with the design fire for structural fire engineering in such fire scenarios.
In such large compartment, probably a CFD model should be used.
9.6
Localised Fire
9.6.1 Localised fire is the burning of an individual fire load in a localised area and
transfer the heat energy to the structural member by conduction, convection,
or radiation. Scenarios where localised fires are most likely to occur include
(IStructE 2007):
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a)
b)
c)
large high spaces with relatively limited fire load (e.g. in atria,
shopping malls);
areas where there are high levels of ventilation (e.g. hotel entrances);
areas where fire load is relatively of low levels or spaced such that fire
cannot readily spread from one area to another.
Eurocode 1 Annex C gives the procedures to predict the gas temperature for
a localised fire using fire plume models.
9.6.2 In a localised fire, it is assumed that the fire is well ventilated and fuelcontrolled similar to the fire that occurs in open space. The rate of burning
is therefore characterized by the type, amount and configuration of the fuel.
Eurocode 1 gives two methods to calculate the temperature effects of a
localised fire depending on the relative height of the flame and of the ceiling,
i.e. whether the flame impinges the ceiling or not.
9.6.3 Flame not impacting the ceiling
Figure 16 Typical Localised Fire impacting the ceiling

For flame not impacting the ceiling (Figure 16), the flame height Lf (m) is
calculated by:
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.1)
Lf = 0.0148Q0.4 1.02D --- (25)
where Q (W) is the heat release rate of the localised fire source, and D (m)
is the characteristic length of the fire (usually taken as the diameter of the
flame). The calculation of these two parameters (Q and D) will be
discussed in the latter paragraphs.
When the flame is not impacting the ceiling, the temperature at height z
along the symmetrical axis from the fire is given by:
2
= 20 + 0.25 Qc3 ( z z 0 ) 3 900 --- (26) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.2)

where Qc is the convective part of the rate of heat release Q and can be
taken as 0.8Q, and z0 is the virtual origin and is calculated by:
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z0 = 0.00524Q0.4 1.02D --- (27)
Note that the values of z0 are negative because the virtual origin is lower
than the fire source.
9.6.4 Flame impacting the ceiling
Figure 17 Localised Fire Impacting Ceiling

In case of a localised fire with the flame tip impinging on the ceiling
.
(Figure 17), the net heat flux h net (W/m2) received by the structural
elements at the level of the ceiling is given by the difference between the
.
flux received by the member h and the heat energy lost by the member to
the environment by convection and radiation,
.
h net = h c ( m ,t 293) m ( m4 ,t 293 4 ) --- (28) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. C.9)

where m.t is the temperature of the structural member at time t;
100000 when y 0.30

.
z '+ H + r
;
h = 136300 121000 y when 0.30 y 1.0 and y =
z '+ H + Lh
1.7
150000 y
when 1.0 y
--- (29)
r = the horizontal distance between the vertical axis of the fire and
the point along the ceiling where the thermal flux is calculated;
H = the distance between the fire source and the ceiling;
2
2
*
*
*
Q
2.4 D (QD 5 Q D 3 ) when Q D < 1.0
z' =
and Q D* =
;
2
1.11 10 6 D 2.5
2.4 D (1.0 QD* 5 ) when Q D* > 1.0
and
--- (30)
* 0.33
Lh = the horizontal flame length = 2.9H( QH ) H;
--- (31)
Q
Q H* =
--- (32)
1.11 10 6 H 2.5

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The maximum temperature of the structural member is obtained by setting

.
h net =0, such that the flux received by the member h is the same as the heat
energy lost by the member to the environment by convection and radiation,
i.e.
.
4
0 = h c ( max 293) m ( max
293 4 )
9.6.5 Simplified method in PD 7974-1

The UK National Annex to Eurocode 1 specifically states that the method in
Eurocode 1 is not applicable to localised fires, and directs designers instead
to refer to the method in PD 7974-1. PD 7974-1 gives the following
equation derived from experimental data by McCaffrey et al (1981) to
calculate the rise in temperature above the localised fire:
1
Q2
= 6.85(
) 3 --- (33)
Aw he2 hk At
where (oC) is the rise in temperature above the ambient;
Q (kW) is the rate of heat release;
Aw (m2) is the area of the ventilation opening;
he (m) is the height of the ventilation opening;
and
At (m2) is the total surface area of the compartment;
hk (kW/m2K) is the effective heat transfer coefficient, and depends on the

thermal penetration time tp (s) given by:
c
t p = ( )( ) 2 --- (34)
2
where (m) is the thickness of the enclosure boundaries;
(kgm-3) is the density of enclosure boundaries;
c (kJkg-1K-1) is the specific heat of enclosure boundaries;
and (kWm-1K-1) is the thermal conductivity of the enclosure boundaries.
If tp is greater than the fire exposure time, i.e. heat transfer is transient or
non-steady, hk (kW/m2K) is given by:
c 0.5
hk = (
) --- (35)
tp
If tp is less than the fire exposure time, i.e. heat transfer is steady hk
(kW/m2K) is given by:
hk =
--- (36)
9.6.6 Heat Release Rate Q

The total heat content of the combustible materials E is given by Mv Hv,
and reference can be made to Table 6 for the calorific values Hv of common
combustible materials. However, it is necessary to convert E into the rate of
heat release Q.

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The heat release rate Q in the pre-flashover stage of a fire has been
empirically derived, and has been found to be proportional to the square of
the time (the t-squared fire) as follows:
t
Q = ( ) 2 --- (37)
k
where k (sMW-0.5) is the fire growth constant and t is the time (s). Hence,
the relationship between E and Q is given by:
2
3E
Q = ( ) 3 --- (38)
k
Figure 18 shows the times t to reach Q=1050kW for typical t-squared fires
together with examples of combustible materials as given in National Fire
Codes NFPA 92B (NFPA, 2000), and Table 8 therefore gives the typical
values of fire growth constant k. Once E and k are found, Q can be derived.
Figure 18 Relationship between Q and t in t-squared fires

(Source: National Fire Codes NFPA 92B)
Table 8 Values of fire growth rate k for typical fires
Fire
Typical examples
Value of k
characteristics
Slow
Densely packed wood products
600
Medium
Solid wood furniture
300
Furniture with small account of
plastic
Fast
Some upholstered furniture
150
High stacked wood pallets
Cartons on pallets
Ultrafast
Most upholstered furniture
75
High stacked plastic materials
Thin wood furniture
(Source: Modified from National Fire Codes NFPA 92B)
Instead of deriving Q from the total heat content of the combustible
materials for localised burning, Table 9 gives the typical values of Q for
common commodities given in National Fire Codes NFPA 92B.
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Table 9 Heat release rate Q of common commodities

Commodity
Heat Release Rate Q (kW)
Waste paper baskets
4-18
Medium wastebasket with milk
106
cartons
Large barrel with milk cartons
148
TV sets
120-290
Curtains, velvet, cotton
160-240
Arm chair
160
Upholstered chair with polyurethane
369
foam
Christmas trees
500-650
(Source: Modified from National Fire Codes NFPA 92B)
9.6.7 Characteristic length of the fire D
Another parameter required is the characteristic length of the flame. By
assuming that the flame to be circular in shape, the diameter of the flame D
is given by:
4Q
D=(
) 0.5 --- (39)
RHR
where RHR (kW/m2) is the rate of heat release densities.
Eurocode 1 gives the different RHR values for different occupancies. An
RHR value of 250 kW/m2 is recommended for t-squared fires in dwellings,
hospital and hotel rooms, offices, classrooms, shopping centres and public
spaces in transport buildings, and an RHR value of 500 kW/m2 is
recommended in libraries and theatres (cinema).
Examples 4 and 5 in Section 13 will give examples respectively to derive

time-temperature curves of localised fires not impacting and impacting the
ceiling.
10.
Temperature of Structural Elements

The above paragraphs summarize the procedures to obtain the timetemperature curve for a compartment fire. This curve gives the gas
temperature in the compartment. However, the structural elements will not
have the same temperature as the gas, since heat has to be transmitted to the
structural elements through conduction, convection and radiation (Figure 6).
In Part II of this set of Guideline, the mechanism of heat transfer will be
further discussed.

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Figure 19 Relationship of Gas Temperature and Member Temperature

11.
Thermal Actions for External Member
11.1 External structural members can be exposed to fire through the windows or
openings of the compartment. The temperature of the external members
depends on:
the maximum compartment temperatures;
a)
b)
the size and temperature of flame from openings;
c)
the heat transfer parameters of radiation and convection;
The direction of the fire flame from the opening can also be deflected by
wind. Eurocode 1 Annex B provides procedures for the determination of
the size and temperatures of the flames emerging from the openings to
calculate the temperature of external members located outside a
compartment. The method is based on the original derivation by Law and
OBrien (1989). The procedure is first to determine the shape of the
emerging or venting flame, then centre-line temperatures and finally heat
transfer effects to the structural members.
11.2 Ventilation Condition
11.2.1 As a plume vents from an opening, its shape is affected by the enclosure's
ventilation conditions as well as the window shape. The plume often
surges out of the window, curling back to make contact with the external
wall some distance above the opening, depending on its aspect ratio. The
overall height and width of the venting flame will depend on the window
aspect ratio, as well as whether there are any horizontal or vertical
projections above or beside the window. Fire behaviour is also influenced
by the amount of air that can reach and take part in the fire. In most
common situations, the entry of air for combustion takes place through
windows from which the flames are emerging. This is called a nothrough draught (or no-forced draught) condition. If there are windows
on opposite sides of a compartment, such that a through-draught (or
forced draught) condition is possible, or if additional air is being fed to
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the fire from another source, the flames will tend to emerge from the whole
area of window. In this through- or forced- draught condition, not only
does the flame shape tend to be different, but also other relationships (e.g.
the fire temperature and the temperature distribution along the flame axis)
are found to change.
11.2.2 Law and OBrien (1989) investigated the effect of no-forced and forceddraught conditions on flame shape and behaviour. Correlations of flame
height and width were developed for both of these ventilation conditions as
a function of compartment and window size, and burning rate. Generally,
the flame for a forced-draught condition was found to emerge from the
entire window area, its width being slightly wider than the window width
and at an upward angle. Project officers should further note that the
compartment may initially be in no-forced draught condition when some or
all windows are close; but will change to through-draught condition when
some of the windows break at elevated temperature. Such possibilities
should be considered in the structural fire engineering study.
11.2.3 The following paragraphs will be divided into two parts: forced-draught,
and no-forced draught conditions, in which the flame dimensions and the
temperature of the flame for each condition will be calculated.
11.3 No-Forced Draught Condition
11.3.1 Temperature of the Fire Compartment
The rate of burning or the rate of heat release Q (MW) is given by:
A f q f,d
heq
Q = min
; 3.15 ( 1 - e - 0.036 /O )Av
D/W
F
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.4)
--- (40)
where F is free burning fire duration (which may be taken as 1200s for
free burning of most types of furniture found in buildings).
The temperature of the fire compartment Tf (K) is given by:
Tf = 6000 (1 - e-0.1/O) O0.5(1-e-0.00286) + To
--- (41)
A f q f,d
where is given by =
and To (K) is initial temperature (= 293 K).
Av At
11.3.2 External Flame Shape
Eurocode 1 gives the following expressions to calculate the flame
dimensions (Figure 20):

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(a)
(b) wall above window
(c) no wall above or

heq > 1.25wt
Figure 20 Flame Dimensions under No-Forced Draught

The flame height, LL (m) is given by:
Q 2/3
LL = 1.9 (
) - heq --- (42)
wt
The flame depth is taken as 2/3 of the window height (=2/3 heq).
The horizontal projection of flames LH depends on whether there is wall
above the window and the width of the window as follows:
The horizontal projection of flames LH (m) with a wall existing above the
window (Figure 20(b)) is given by (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.8, B.9 and B.10)
(43a):
LH = heq /3
if heq 1.25wt
0.54
LH = 0.3 heq (heq / wt)
if heq > 1.25wt and distance to any other
window > 4wt
0.54
LH = 0.454 heq (heq /2wt)
in other cases
The horizontal projection of flames LH (m) with a wall not existing above
the window (Figure 20(c)) is given by:
LH = 0.6 heq (LL/ heq)1/3 --- (43b)
The flame length along axis Lf (m) is given by (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.11, B.12
and B.13) (44):
when LL > 0,
Lf = LL + heq /2 if wall exist above window or if heq 1.25wt
Lf = (LL2 + (LH - heq /3)2)1/2 + heq /2 if no wall exist above
window or if heq > 1.25wt

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11.3.3 Centre-Line Temperature

The flame axis is the centre-line of the venting plume, beginning at the
widow opening and extending vertically up the external wall, in the middle
of the plume as shown as the dashed line in Figure 20.
The flame temperature at the window Tw (K) is given by:
520
+ To --- (45)
Tw =
1 0.4725( L f wt / Q)
The flame temperature along the flame axis Tz (K) is given by:
Tz = (Tw - To) (1-0.4725(Lx . wt / Q)) + To --- (46) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.15)
where Lx is the axis length from the window to the point where the
calculation is made.
11.3.4 Convective and Radiative Heat Transfer
The convective heat transfer coefficient c (kW/m2K) is given by:
c = 4.67 (1 / d eq ) 0.4 (Q / Av ) 0.6 --- (47)
where deq is the geometrical characteristic of an external structure element
(diameter or side).
The emissivity of the flame with respect to face i of the column z,i is given
by:
z,i = 1 e 0.3i --- (48)
For column engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
taken at the level of the top of the opening (Figure 21(a)(1)).
Figure 21(a)(1) i for No-Forced draught condition for column

For beam engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
taken at the level of the top of the opening (Figure 21(a)(2)), and a
distinction should be made between a beam that is parallel to the external
wall of the fire compartment and a beam that is perpendicular to the
external wall of the fire compartment.

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Beam Perpendicular to Wall
Beam Parallel to Wall
Top of Flame below Top of Beam Beam Immediately Adjacent to Wall

Figure 21(a)(2) i for No-Forced draught condition for beam
11.4 Forced Draught Condition

11.4.1 Temperature of the Fire Compartment
The rate of burning or the rate of heat release Q (MW) is given by:
A f q f,d
Q=
--- (49)
F
where F is free burning fire duration (which may be taken as 1200s for
free burning of most types of furniture found in buildings).
The temperature of the fire compartment Tf (K) is given by:
Tf = 1200 [ (Af qf,d)/17.5 - e-0.00228] + To --- (50) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.19)
A f q f,d
where is given by =
and To (K) is initial temperature (= 293 K).
Av At
11.4.2 External Flame Shape
Eurocode 1 gives the following expressions to calculate the flame
dimensions (Figure 22(a)):
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Figure 22(a) Flame Dimensions under Forced Draught

The flame height, LL (m) is given by:
1
Q
LL = [1366( ) 0.43 1 / 2 ] heq --- (51)
u
Av
where u is the wind speed and may be taken as 6 m/s. Therefore,

Q
LL 0.628 1/ 2 - heq
Av
The horizontal projection of flames LH (m) with a wall existing above the
window is given by:
LH = 0.605 (u2 / Hv)0.22 (LL + Hv ) --- (52)
with u = 6 m/s, LH is given by:
LH = 1.33 (LL + Hv ) / Hv0.22
The flame width wf (m) is given by:
wf = wt + 0.4 LH --- (53)
The flame length along axis, Lf (m) is given by:

Lf = (LL2 + LH 2)1/2 --- (54)
11.4.3 Centre-Line Temperature

The flame temperature at the window Tw (K) is given by:
520
Tw =
+ To --- (55)
1 0.3325L f ( Av )1 / 2 / Q)
The flame temperature along the axis Tz (K) is given by:
Lx ( Av )1 / 2
)(Tw T0 ) + T0 --- (56) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.25)
Q
where Lx is the axis length from the window to the point where the
calculation is made.
Tz= (1 0.3325

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11.4.4 Convective and Radiative Heat Transfer

The convective heat transfer coefficient c (kW/m2K) is given by:
c= 9.8(1 / d eq ) 0.4 (Q /(17.5 Av ) + u / 1.6) 0.6 --(57) (Eurocode 1 Eqt. B.27)
where deq is the geometrical characteristic of an external structure element
(diameter or side).
Taking wind speed u = 6 m/s, c is given by:
c = 9.8(1 / d eq ) 0.4 (Q /(17.5 Av ) + 3.75) 0.6
The emissivity of the flame with respect to face i of the column z,i is given
by:
z,i = 1 e 0.3i
For column engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
determined as follows:
a) if the level of the intersection of the flame axis and the column
centerline is below the level of the top of the opening, the value of i
shall be taken at the level of the intersection (Figure 22(b)(1));
b) otherwise, the value of i shall be taken at the level of the top of the
opening (Figure 22(b)(2)), except that if 4 < 0 at this level, the values
at the level where 4 = 0 should be used.
(1) Flame axis intersects column axis below top of opening

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(2) Flame axis intersects column axis above top of opening

Figure 22(b) i for Forced draught condition
(Source: Eurocode 3 Figure B.6)
For beam engulfed in flame, the value of the flame thickness i should be
determined as Figure 22(c) depending on whether the beam is located
adjacent to wall.
(1) Beam nor adjacent to wall
(2) Beam immediately adjacent to wall
Figure 22(c) i for Forced draught condition

(Source: Eurocode 3 Figure B.7)
11.5 Heat Transfer to External Steelwork

11.5.1 Heat transfer to external steelwork can be classified to two different cases:
namely where a member is not engulfed in flame, or where a member is
engulfed in flame. A member that is not engulfed in flame receives
radiative heat transfer from all the openings in that side of the fire
compartment and from the flames projecting from all these openings,
whilst a member that is engulfed in flame can receive convective heat
transfer from the engulfing flame, plus radiative heat transfer from the
engulfing flame and from the fire compartment opening from which it
projects. As member engulfed in flame is the conservative case in the
assessment of heat transfer to external steelwork, only this case will be
discussed as follows.
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Two further cases need to be distinguished, namely: a vertical column

member, and a horizontal beam member being engulfed. For a horizontal
beam member, if the beam is parallel to the external wall of the fire
compartment, its average temperature Tm should be determined for a point
in the length of the beam directly above the centre of the opening. For the
case of the beam perpendicular to the external wall of the fire compartment,
the value of the average temperature should be determined at a series of
points every 100mm along the length of the beam. The maximum of these
values should then be adopted as the average temperature of the steel
member Tm.
11.5.2 Radiative Heat Flux from the Flames
11.5.2.1 Column Engulfed in Flame
The radiative heat flux from the flames Iz (kW/m2) is given by:
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 ) d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
Iz =
--- (58)
2( d 1 + d 2 )
and
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tz4
Iz,2 = C2z,2Tz4
Iz,3 = C3z,3Tw4
Iz,4 = C4z,4Tz4
Iz,i is the radiative heat flux from the flame to column face i;
z,i is the emissivity of the flames with respect to face i of the
column;
i is the column face indicator (1), (2), (3) or (4) (Figure 23);
Ci is the protection coefficient of member face i.
where
and
The emissivity of the flames z,i for each of the faces (1), (2), (3) and (4)
of the column should be determined from the expression for z,i given
above.
11.5.2.2 Beam Engulfed in Flame
The radiative heat flux from the flames Iz (kW/m2) is given by:
Iz =
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 )d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
where
and
2(d1 + d 2 )
--- (59)
Iz,i is the radiative heat flux from the flame to beam face i;
i is the beam face indicator (1), (2), (3) or (4) (Figure 23);
Four cases are to be distinguished to calculate Iz,1, Iz,2, Iz,3 and Iz,4.
Case1 (no forced draught with top of flame above the top of the beam):
Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.22 (60) gives:

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and
where
and
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4
Iz,2 = C2z,2Tz,24
Iz,3 = C3z,3(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
Iz,4 = C4z,4(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
z,i is the emissivity of the flames with respect to face i of the
beam;
Tz,1 is the flame temperature (in K) at level with the bottom of
the beam;
Tz,2 is the flame temperature (in K) at level with the top of the
beam.
C4 may be taken as zero if the beam is immediately adjacent to the wall

and the beam is parallel to the external wall of the fire compartment.
Case 2 (no forced draught with top of flame below the top of the beam):

Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4
Iz,2 = 0
Iz,3 = (hz/d2)C3z,3(Tz,14-Tx4)/2
and
Iz,4 = (hz/d2)C4z,4(Tz,14-Tx4)/2
where
Tx is the flame temperature at the flame tip (can be taken as 813K);

hz is the height of the top of the flame above the bottom of the
beam.
Case 3 (forced draught with beam parallel to the wall, but not
immediately adjacent to it, or with beam perpendicular to the wall):

Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4
Iz,2 = C2z,2Tz,24
Iz,3 = C3z,3(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
and
Iz,4 = C4z,4(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
Case 4 (forced draught with beam parallel to the wall and immediately
adjacent to it):
If the beam is parallel to the wall and immediately adjacent to it, only the
bottom face should be taken as engulfed in flame but one side and the top
should be taken as exposed to radiative heat transfer from the upper
surface of the flame. Thus, Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.25 (63) gives:
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4
Iz,2 = z,2C2z,2Tz,24
Iz,3 = z,3C3z,3(Tz,14-Tz,24)/2
and
Iz,4 = 0
where is the configuration factor relative to the upper surface of the
flame for face i of the beam in Section 11.5.4.

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11.5.3 Radiative Heat Flux from Opening

The radiative heat flux from an opening If (kW/m2) is given by:
If = f f (1- az)Tf4 --- (64)
where f is the overall configuration factor of the member for radiative
heat transfer from that opening;
f is the emissivity of the opening (may be taken as 1);
and
az is the absorptivity of the flames.
11.5.4 Overall Configuration Factor f from the Window
In calculating the configuration factor f for a given situation, a
rectangular envelope should first be drawn around the cross-section of the
member receiving the radiative heat transfer. The configuration factor
should then be determined for the mid-point P of each face of this
rectangle (Figures 23 and 24).
The configuration factor for each receiving surface should be determined
as the sum of the contributions from each of the zones on the radiating
surface (normally four) that are visible on the receiving surface. These
zones should be defined relatively to the point X where a horizontal line
perpendicular to the receiving surface meets the plane containing the
radiating surface. No contribution should be taken from zones that are not
visible from the point P.
If the point X lies outside the radiating surface, the effective configuration
factor should be determined by adding the contributions of the two
rectangles extending from X to the farther side of the radiating surface,
then subtracting the contributions of the two rectangles extending from X
to the nearer side of the radiating surface.
11.5.4.1 Receiving Surface Parallel to Radiating Surface
The configuration factor i of zone i which is facing the radiating
surface is given by:
ai
bi
bi
ai
1
[
tan 1 (
)+
tan 1 (
)]
i =
2 0.5
2 0.5
2 0.5
2
2 (1 + a i )
(1 + a i )
(1 + bi )
(1 + bi ) 0.5
--- (65)
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. G.2)
where ai = hi /s;
bi = wi/s;
s (m) is the distance from P to X;
hi (m) is the height of the zone i on the radiating surface; and
wi (m) is the width of that zone i.
Figure 23 shows the demarcations of zone i of the receiving surface in a

plane parallel to that of the radiating surface.

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Figure 23 Receiving surface in a plane parallel to

that of the radiating surface
11.5.4.2 Receiving Surface Perpendicular to Radiating Surface
The configuration factor i of zone i which is perpendicular to the
radiating surface is given by:
ai
1
1
[tan 1 (a i )
tan 1 (
)]
i =
2 0.5
2
2
(1 + bi )
(1 + bi ) 0.5
(Eurocode 1 Eqt. G.3)
--- (66)
Figure 24 shows the demarcations of zone i of the receiving surface in a
plane perpendicular to that of the radiating surface.
Figure 24 Receiving surface in a plane perpendicular to

that of the radiating surface
11.5.5 Absorptivity of the Flames az
For column engulfed in flame, the absorptivity az of the flame should be
determined from:

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az =
z,1 + z,2 + z,3
--- (67)
3
where z,1, z,2 and z,3 are the emissivities of the flame for column faces (1),
(2) and (3).
For beam engulfed in flame, the absorptivity az of the flame should be
determined from
az = 1 e 0.3 h --- (68)
where h is the height of the window.
11.5.6 Average Temperature of Steel Member Engulfed in Flame
After obtaining Tz, Iz, If, and c, the average temperature of the engulfed
steel column Tm (K) is given by equating the flux received by the member
with the heat energy lost by the member to the environment by convection
and radiation, i.e.
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz --- (69) (Eurocode 3 Eqt. B.2)
where Tz (K) is the flame temperature;
Iz (kW/m2) is the radiative heat flux from the flame;
and
If (kW/m2) is the radiative heat flux from the corresponding
opening.
This is an equation involving the 4th order of Tm, and in order to solve for it,
iterative method may be used. Example 6 and Example 7 in Section 13
shows how to employ the above procedures to get the temperature of a
steel member on the external faade of a compartment.
12.
Engaging Fire Engineering Consultants
12.1 When it is determined to engage fire engineering consultant to carry out a

fire engineering study, project officers should note that fire safety
engineering is a multi-disciplinary field of study applying scientific and
engineering principles to the effects of fire and of the reaction and behaviour
of people to fire, and structural fire engineering is a special branch
addressing the specific aspects of passive fire protection in terms of
analyzing the thermal effects of fires on buildings and designing members
for adequate load bearing resistance.
12.2 Many fire engineering experts are mainly involved in the study of the means
of escape, smoke control, fire spread control, design of sprinkler, alarm, firefighting systems, etc, and may not be able to carry out structural fire
engineering study. Hence, if structural fire engineering is involved in the
fire engineering study, project officers need to specifically state in the brief
of the consultancy agreement that the consultant shall have professional(s)
with both fire engineering and structural engineering experiences so as to
carry out computational studies, such as computational fluid dynamic
analysis, fire scenarios, heat transfer modeling, structural analysis and
design at elevated temperatures to determine their structural responses
(including the adequacy of the members and the connections at elevated
temperature).
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12.3 SEB has engaged structural fire engineering experts to carry out structural
fire engineering study for a number of projects, including Tin Shui Wai
Public Library cum IRC, Improvement Works to Lei Yue Mun Park and
Holiday Village, and A Permanent Planning and Infrastructure Exhibition
Gallery at City Hall Annex. Annex A contains a sample brief showing
clauses that may be included in the invitation documents, and project
officers may also approach the office of Chief Structural Engineer/1 for
advice.
13.
Design Examples
13.1 Example 1 Time Equivalence

This example aims at calculating the time equivalence for a protected
structural steel member to check whether the 1 hour protection is adequate
for the member in a standard fire test. Consider a compartment of size 6m
(B) 6m(W) 3.4m(H) within an office building with the following data:
Fire load density: qf,k = 511 MJ/m2 (80% fractile value for offices)
(Table 5)
Floor area: Af = 6m6m = 36m2
Ventilation area: Av = 3.6m2m = 7.2m2
Window height: heq = 2m
Height of compartment: H = 3.4m
Fire resistance rating of the office building = 60 mins.
Total area of enclosure: At = (266) + (43.46) = 153.6m2
Using (8), opening factor: O = Av heq /At = 7.2 2 /153.6 = 0.0663m1/2
Using (5), characteristic fire load density
qf,d = qf,k m q1q2n = 5110.81.111 = 449.7 MJ/m2
Ventilation factor
v = Av / Af = 7.2 / 36 = 0.2
h = 0
wf = (6 / H)0.3[0.62 + 90(0.4 v)4 / (1 + bv h)]
= (6 / 3.4)0.3[0.62 + 90(0.4 0.2)4]
= 0.906 0.5
Using (4) with kb = 0.07min m2/MJ and kc = 1.0 for protected steel, the
equivalent time of standard fire exposure
te,d = (qf,d kb wf) kc
= (449.70.9060.07)1.0
= 28.5 minutes
Since te,d<tfi,d = 60 mins, fire protection of 60 minutes would be
appropriate for this structural member in an office building.
13.2 Example 2 Compartment Fire (High Fire Load)

This example will determine the parametric fire curve for a compartment in
a library which is of relatively high fire load level. The walls, ceiling and
floor of the compartment are constructed of reinforced concrete. The walls
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have two openings in total, each of 2m (B)2m(W). A layer of plaster of 15

mm thick has been applied to all surfaces of the walls. The floor area of the
compartment is 1015m2 and the height of the compartment is 3m. The
thermal properties of the materials are:
Reinforced concrete
= 2400 kg/m3; cp = 750 J/kgK; k = 1.70 W/mK
Plaster:
= 2700 kg/m3; cp = 900 J/kgK; k = 0.48 W/mK
Automatic water extinguishing system, automatic smoke detector and
excellent safe access route are provided. For combustion factor, m = 1.0.
Area of Compartment:
Area of opening, Av
Area of floor, Af
Total surface area, At
=222
= 8 m2;
= 10 15
= 150 m2;
= 2 (10 3 + 15 3 + 10 15)
= 450 m2
Fire load:
The characteristic fire load densities, qf,k is 1824 MJ/m2.
For a total of 150 m2 floor area, using Table 4(a) the factor for taking into
account the fire activation risk due to size of compartment,
q1 = 1.1 +
x (150 - 25) = 1.322.
The factor taking into account the fire activation risk due to the type of
occupancy, q2 is given as 0.78 (Table 4(b)).
Using Table 4(c), the factor taking into account the different active fire
fighting measures, for the provision of automatic water extinguishing system,
automatic smoke detector and excellent safe access route is:
n = n1 n4 n8 = 0.61 0.73 0.9 = 0.4
Using (5), the design fire load is given by,
qf,d = qf,k m q1 q2 n = 1824 1.0 1.322 0.78 0.4
= 753 MJ/m2
Using (7), the design fire load densities for total area is given by,
qt,d = qf,d (Af / At) = 753 (150/450) = 251 MJ/m2
Ventilation factor:
Using (8), the ventilation factor O is given by:
he
2
O = Av
=8
= 0.025 m0.5
At
450
Time to reach maximum temperature
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Using (9), the time to reach maximum temperature, tmax for tmin = 25 min. is
given by,
0.2 10 3 q t,d
0.2 10 3 251
max
, 0.416
tmax = max
=
, 0.416
0.025
Fv
= max [2.008, 0.416]= 2.008 hr

Therefore the fire is ventilation control.
Equivalent thermal inertia of material:
Using (10), for floor, walls and ceiling,
bfloor = bwall = bceiling
conc c p k
=
=
= 1749 J/m2s0.5K
For plaster layer of wall,
plaster c p k
bplaster =
=
2 0.5
= 1080 J/m s K
2400 750 1.7
2700 900 0.48
Since bplaster is less than bwall, bwall = bplaster = 1080 J/m2s0.5K, using (15),
b=
(b
(1749 2 150) + [1080 ( 450 2 150 8)]

At Av
450 8
524700 + 153360
= 1534.07 J/m2s0.5K
=
442
j
Aj )
Heating phase of the parametric fire curve:

The fictitious time t* is given by t* = .t, and since the fire is ventilation
control, using (17) and (18),
(O / 0.04) 2 (0.025 / 0.04) 2
=
=
= 0.223
(b / 1160) 2
(1534 / 1160) 2
t*max = .tmax = 0.223 2.008 = 0.448 hr
Using (16), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in heating phase, T
is given by,
T = 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2t* 0.204e-1.7t* 0.472e-19t*)
where t* is 0.223t (in hour)
The maximum temperature of the parametric fire curve in heating phase,
Tmax is then given by:
Tmax= 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2t*max 0.204e-1.7t*max 0.472e-19t*max)
= 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2x0.448 0.204e-1.7x0.448 0.472e-19x0.448)
= 826.2 C
Cooling phase of the parametric fire curve:
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For t*max < 0.5, using (20), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in
cooling phase T is given by:
T = Tmax 625 (t* t*max. x), where x = 1 for tmax > tlim
= 826.2 625 (0.223t 0.448) = 1106.2 139.4t
Time when temperature drops to 20 C
Since
T = 1106.2 139.4t and when T=20,

20 = 1106.2 139.4t
t = 7.79 hr
The parametric fire curve of the compartment in fire condition is shown in

the following figure.
Part II of this set of Guidelines will show that the steel temperature
follows more or less the gas temperature for unprotected steel, and
hence there is no advantage from the fire engineering study.
13.3 Example 3 Compartment Fire (Low Fire Load)
This example will determine the parametric fire curve for a fire
compartment in an office which is of relatively low fire load level. The
walls have two openings in total, each of 2m(B)2m(D). A layer of plaster
of 15mm thick has been applied to all surfaces of the walls. The floor area
of the compartment is 2020 m2 and the height of the compartment is 2.5m.
The thermal properties of the materials are:
Reinforced concrete
= 2400 kg/m3; cp = 750 J/kgK; k = 1.70 W/mK
Plaster:
= 2700 kg/m3; cp = 900 J/kgK; k = 0.48 W/mK
excellent safe access route are provided. For combustion factor, m = 1.0.
Area of opening Av= 2 2 2 = 8 m2;
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Area of floor Af = 20 20 = 400 m2;

Total surface area At= 2 (20 2.5 + 20 2.5 + 20 20) = 1000 m2
Fire load:
For the use of compartment as office, the characteristic fire load density qf,k
is 511 MJ/m2 (Table 5).
For a total of 400 m2 floor area, using Table 4(a), the factor for taking into
account the fire activation risk due to size of compartment
q1 = 1.5 +
x (400 - 250) = 1.527.
Using Table 4(b), the factor taking into account the fire activation risk due
to the type of occupancy, q2 is given as 1.00.
Using Table 4(c), the factor taking into account the different active fire
fighting measures, for the provision of automatic water extinguishing system,
automatic smoke detector and excellent safe access route is:
n = n1 n4 n8 = 0.61 0.73 0.9 = 0.4
Using (5), the design fire load is given by,
qf,d = qf,k m q1 q2 n = 511 1.0 1.527 1.0 0.4
= 312 MJ/m2
Using (7), the design fire load densities for total area is given by,
qt,d = qf,d (Af / At) = 312 (400/1000) = 125 MJ/m2
Ventilation factor:
Using (8), the ventilation factor O is given by,
he
2
= 0.011 m0.5
O
= Av
=8
At
1000
Time to reach maximum temperature
Using (9), the time to reach maximum temperature tmax for tmin = 25 min. is
given by
0.2 10 3 q t,d
0.2 10 3 125
, 0.416
tmax = max
, 0.416 = max
0.011
O
= max [2.27, 0.416]= 2.27 hr

Therefore the fire is ventilation control.
Equivalent thermal inertia of material:
Using (10), for floor, walls and ceiling,
bfloor = bwall = bceiling
=
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conc c p k
2400 750 1.7 = 1749 J/m2s0.5K
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For plaster layer of wall,
bplaster =
plaster c p k
2700 900 0.48 = 1080 J/m2s0.5K
Since bplaster is less than bwall, bwall = bplaster = 1080 J/m2s0.5K, using (15),
(b
(1749 2 400) + [1080 (1000 2 400 8)]

=
At Av
1000 8
1399200 + 207360
= 1620 J/m2s0.5K
=
992
b=
Aj )
Heating phase of the parametric fire curve:

The fictitious time t* is given by t* = . t, and since the fire is ventilation
control, using (17) and (18),
(O / 0.04) 2 (0.011 / 0.04) 2
=
=
= 0.0388
(b / 1160) 2 (1620 / 1160) 2
t*max = . tmax = 0.0388 2.27 = 0.0881 hr
Using (16), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in heating phase T is
given by:
T = 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2t* 0.204e-1.7t* 0.472e-19t*)
where t* is 0.0388t (in hour).
The maximum temperature of the parametric fire curve in heating phase,
Tmax is then given by:
Tmax = 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2t*max 0.204e-1.7t*max 0.472e-19t*max)
= 20 + 1325 (1 0.324e-0.2x0.0881 0.204e-1.7x0.0881 0.472e-19x0.0881)
= 573 C
Cooling phase of the parametric fire curve:
For t*max < 0.5, using (21), the temperature of the parametric fire curve in
cooling phase, T is given by:
T = Tmax 625 (t* t*max. x), where x = 1 for tmax > tlim
= 573 625 (0.0388t 0.0881) = 628 24.25t
Time when temperature drops to 20 C
Since
T = 628 24.25t, and when T=20,

20 = 628 24.25t
t = 25.07 hr
The parametric fire curve of the compartment in fire condition is shown in
the following figure:

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13.4 Example 4 Localised Fire

This example is to calculate the temperature of the flame at a distance of
0.43 meters above the fire source for the case developed above of a localised
fire of:
a)
a wastepaper basket in an office;
b)
a Christmas tree in a library.
This example shows the case where the fire cannot reach the ceiling of the
floor.
Wastepaper basket in an office
Using Table 9, the rate of heat release of the fire of a wastepaper basket is:
Q = 0.018 MW
Using Table 7, a heat release rate density of 250kW/m2 is used for office.
The area of the fire surface required to release a power of 0.018MW is thus
given by:
Afire = 0.018/0.25 = 0.072 m2
Assuming a circular shape of the fire yields a diameter, using (39),
D = (4 0.072 / ) 0.5 = 0.303 m
Using (25), the length of the flame
Lf = 0.0148 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.0148 (0.018 106)0.4 1.02(0.303)
= 0.436 m
Using (27), virtual origin of the fire source
z0 = 0.00524 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.00524 (0.018 106)0.4 1.02(0.303)
= -0.0452 m
Using (26), temperature on the flame axis
(z) = 20 + 0.25 Qc2/3 (z-z0)-5/3
= 20 + 0.25 (0.8 0.018 106)2/3 (0.43 + 0.0452)-5/3
= 531C
Christmas tree in a library
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Using Table 9, the rate of heat release of the fire of a Christmas tree is:
Q = 0.65 MW
Using Table 7, a heat release rate density of 500kW/m2 is used for library.
The fire surface required to release a power of 0.65MW is thus given by:
Afire = 0.65/0.5 = 1.3 m2
D = (4 1.3 / ) 0.5 = 1.29 m
Lf = 0.0148 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.0148 (0.65 106)0.4 1.02(1.29) = 1.81 m
Using (27), virtual origin of the fire source
z0 = 0.00524 Q0.4 1.02D = 0.00524 (0.65 106)0.4 1.02(1.29)
= -0.208 m
Using (26), temperature on the flame axis
(z) = 20 + 0.25 Qc2/3 (z-z0)-5/3
= 20 + 0.25 (0.8 0.65 106)2/3 (1.8 + 0.208)-5/3
= 526C
In Section 9.6.5, it has been noted that the UK National Annex to Eurocode
1 specifically states that the method in Eurocode 1 is not applicable to
localised fires, and directs designers instead to refer to the method in PD
7974-1. Hence, the example of a Christmas tree in a library will be
calculated using PD 7974-1as follows:
Using Table 9, rate of heat release of fire of a Christmas tree is:
Q = 0.65 MW
The geometric data of the library are as follows:
H = 3.4 m, W = 2.9 m, L = 3.75 m, = 0.15 m
with opening size of he = 1.3 m and b = 1.2 m
The thermal properties of reinforced concrete as wall materials are as
follows:
= 2450 kg/m3, c = 0.75 kJ/kgK, = 0.0017 kW/mK
Using (34), the thermal penetration time
2
c
2450 0.75 0.15
tp = =
= 6080 s
2
0.0017 2
As tp is greater than the fire exposure time of a library, using (35), the
effective heat transfer coefficient
0.5
hk
0.5
c
= 0.0017 2450 0.75
=
t
6080
= 0.02267 kW/m2K
Using (33), the rise in temperature above the localized fire
1
Q2
= 6.85
A h 2h A
w e k t
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3
650 2
= 6.85
2
(1.3 1.2 ) 1.3 0.02267 (2.9 3.75)
= 593 C
The temperature of the flame
T = 593 + 20 = 613 C
The results are then checked using the computer software CFAST, which is
free for downloaded. The compartment is simulated using the data from the
above case. CFAST is a two-zone fire model that can be used to calculate
the evolving distribution of temperature throughout compartments of a
building during a fire. These can range from very small containment vessels,
on the order of 1 m3 to large spaces on the order of 1000 m3. A
compartment is divided into two control volumes, a relatively hot upper
layer and a relatively cool lower layer, each of which is internally uniform in
temperature and composition. The modelling equations used in CFAST take
the mathematical form of an initial value problem for a system of ordinary
differential equations (ODEs). These equations are derived using the
conservation of mass, the conservation of energy (equivalently the first law
of thermodynamics), the ideal gas law and relations for density and internal
energy. These equations predict as functions of time quantities such as
pressure, layer height and temperatures given the accumulation of mass and
enthalpy in the two layers. The user need to input data about the building
geometry (compartment sizes, materials of construction, and material
properties), connections between compartments (horizontal flow openings
such as doors, windows, vertical flow openings in floors and ceilings, and
mechanical ventilation connections), fire properties (fire size and species
production rates as a function of time), and specifications for detectors,
sprinklers, and targets (position, size, heat transfer characteristics). The
model of the compartment used in this example is shown as follows:
The time-temperature graph of the fire of the Christmas tree at the ceiling of
the compartment from the software is plotted as follows, and the peak
temperature is at 623C.

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623
13.5 Example 5 Localised Fire

This example shows the case where the fire can reach the ceiling of the floor.
Consider the maximum flux received at the level of the ceiling by a
localised fire in a stack of paper. The paper weighs 10kg and the vertical
distance from the fire source to the ceiling is 2.6 m.
From Table 6 and using (6) with the net calorific value of paper is 20MJ/kg,
the total heat content
E=1020 = 200 MJ
From Table 8, take a fire growth rate between fast and medium, i.e. k =
200sMW-0.5.
Using (38), the heat release rate of the fire
2
3E 3
3 200 3
) =(
) = 2.08 MW
k
200
Using Table 7, a heat release rate density of 500kW/m2 is used.
The fire surface required to release a power of 2.08MW is thus given by:
Afire = 2.08/0.5 = 4.16 m2
D = (44.16 /) 0.5 = 2.30 m
Lf = 0.0148 (2.17106)0.4 1.02(2.30) = 2.67 m
Using (32),
QH* = Q / (1.11106 H2.5) = 2.17106/(1.111062.62.5) = 0.179
Using (30),
QD* = 2.17 106 / (1.11 106 2.302.5)= 0.231
Using (31), horizontal flame length
Lh = (2.9 H (QH*) 0.33) - H = (2.9 2.6 (0.179) 0.33) 2.6 = 1.67 m
Q=(

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For QD*<1.0, using (30), virtual position of the fire source

z = 2.4D (QD*2/5 - QD*2/3) = 2.4 2.30 (0.2312/5 0.2312/3)
= 1.02 m
The maximum flux occurs just above the fire source, where r = 0.
Using (29), at r = 0,
r + H + z'
y=
= (2.6 + 1.02) / (1.67 + 2.6 + 1.02) = 0.684
Lh + H + z '
and for 0.30<y<1.0, the heat flux received
h = 136 121y = 136 121(0.684) = 53.2kW/m2

Using (28), the temperature that can be reached in an unprotected steel
section subjected to the flux obtained in the above case.
h net = h c (m,t 20) m f [(m,t + 273)4 2934]
In order to find the maximum temperature, it is necessary to set h net =0 and
find m at h =53.2 as follows:
0 = h 35 (m 20) (1 0.7 1 5.67 10-8) [(m + 273)4 2934]

This is an equation of 4th order for m, and in order to solve for m, and it is
therefore necessary to plot h against m as follows:
The maximum temperature of the steel member can be read out from the
above graph with a flux h of 53.2kW/m2 and the maximum steel

temperature of 666C.
13.6 Example 6 External Steelwork subjected to Compartment Fire

Consider Example 2 again with a fire in a compartment of a library with
plan dimensions 10x15 m2 and the height of the compartment being 2.5 m.
One single opening, 2m(B)2(H) m on the wall is assumed in this example.
excellent safe access route are provided.
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From Table 4(c), q2 = 0.78

The combustion factor m = 1.0.
From Table 5, the design fire load density for floor area, qf,d is 753 MJ/m2.
A steel unprotected column is at a distance of 1.0 m from the library edge,
right in the centre of the window as shown in the following figure. It is
made of a 250 x 250 mm square hollow section.
There is no core in the fire compartment, no effect of wind as well as no

opening on opposite side of the compartment.
The resulting temperature in the steel column under steady state situation
will be calculated in this example.
Area of opening Av = 22 = 4 m2;
Area of floor Af = 1015 = 150 m2;
Total surface area, At = 2 (10 2.5 + 15 2.5 + 10 15) = 425 m2
Ventilation factor:
Using (8), the ventilation factor O = Av
he
At
=4
2
= 0.013 m0.5
425
Rate of Heat Release

Since there is a opening only in one wall and there is no core in the fire
compartment, the ratio of D/W is given by:
D/W = W2/wt = 15/2 = 7.5
For there is no opening on opposite sides of the compartment, no forced
draught ventilation is considered.
Using (29), the rate of heat release is given by:
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A q
he
Q = min f f,d ; 3.15 (1 - e -0.036/O )A v
D / W
F
150(753)
2
= min
; 3.15 (1 - e -0.036/0.013 )4
7. 5
1200
= min[94 ; 6] = 6 MW
Temperature of the Fire Compartment
Using (41), the temperature of the fire compartment is given by:
Tf = 6000 (1 - e-0.1/O) O0.5(1-e-0.00286) + To
A f q f,d
150(753)
where To = 20 oC, =
=
= 2739 MJ/m2
Av At
4( 425)
-0.1/0.013
Tf = 6000 (1 - e
) (0.013)0.5(1-e-0.00286(2739)) + 20
o
= 704 C (977 K)
Flame Length
Using (42), the flame height is given by:
6
Q
LL = 1.9 ( ) 2 / 3 - he = 1.9 ( ) 2 / 3 - 2 = 1.95 m
wt
2
Flame width = window width, wt = 2 m
Flame depth = 2/3 he = 1.33 m
There is a wall above the window, and he = 2 m < 1.25 wt = 2.5 m.
Therefore, using (43a), horizontal projection of flames, LH = he / 3 = 2 / 3 =
0.67 m
Since LL > 0, and he = 2 m < 1.25 wt = 2.5 m, using (44), the flame length
along axis is given by:
Lf = LL + he/2 = 1.95 + 2/2 = 2.95 m
Flame Temperature at the Window
Using (45), The flame temperature at the window is given by:
520
Tw =
+ To
1 0.4725( L f wt / Q)
=
520
+ 20 = 991 oC (1264 K)
1 0.4725(2.95)(2) / 6)
Flame Temperature along the Axis

Axis length from the window to the point A is given by:
Lx = 12 + (1.33 / 2) 2 = 1.2 m

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Using (46), the flame temperature is given by:

Tz = (Tw - To) (1-0.4725(Lx . wt / Q)) + To
= (991 - 20) (1-0.4725(1.2 . 2/6)) + 20 = 807 oC (1080 K)
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
Using (47), the convective heat transfer coefficient is given by:
c = 4.67 (1 / d eq ) 0.4 (Q / Av ) 0.6 = 4.67 (1 /( 250 / 1000)) 0.4 (6 / 4) 0.6
= 10 W/m2K
Emissivity of Flames on Each Side of the Member
Using (48), the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 1 of the column
is given by:
z,1 = 1 e 0.31 = 1 e 0.3( 0.875 ) =0.231
As 1 = 3 = 3, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 2 and face 3
of the column is as that of face 1 of the column, i.e. z,2 = z,3 = 0.231
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Using (48), the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 4 of the column
is given by:
z,4 = 1 e 0.34 = 1 e 0.3( 0.205 ) =0.06
Radiative Heat Flux from the Flame
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 1 is given by:
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tz4 = 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (1080)4 = 17.82 kW/m2
The radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 2 is same as that of
column face 1 i.e. Iz,2 = 17.82 kW/m2
Iz,3 = C3z,3Tw4 = 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (1264)4 = 33.43 kW/m2
Iz,4 = C4z,4Tz4 = 1.0 (0.06) (5.67x10-8) (1080)4 = 4.63 kW/m2
Using (58), the radiative heat flux from the flames
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 ) d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
Iz =
2( d 1 + d 2 )
(17.82 + 17.82)(250 / 1000) + (33.43 + 4.63)(250 / 1000)
=
2(250 / 1000 + 250 / 1000)
2
= 18.43 kW/m
Overall Configuration Factor from the Window
Face 3:
Two zones (zone 1 and 2) may be defined for face 3 of the member.
a Window (Radiating surface)
b Column (Receiving surface)
For zone 1:
Distance to the window s = 0.875 m;

Height on the radiating surface h = 2.0 m;
Width w = 1.0 m.
Therefore, factor a and factor b are given by:
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a = h/s = 2.0 / 0.875 = 2.29

b = w/s = 1.0 / 0.875 = 1.14
Using (65), the configuration factor of zone 1, which is facing the window,
is given by:
1
a
b
b
a
[
tan 1 (
)+
tan 1 (
)]
f,3,1 =
2 0.5
2 0.5
2 0.5
2 (1 + a )
(1 + a )
(1 + b )
(1 + b 2 ) 0.5
1
2.29
1.14
1.14
2.29
= [
tan 1 (
)+
tan 1 (
)]
2 0.5
2 0.5
2 0.5
2 (1 + 2.29 )
(1 + 2.29 )
(1 + 1.14 )
(1 + 1.14 2 ) 0.5
= 0.18
Owing to symmetry, the configuration factor f,3,2 of zone 2 is same as that
of zone 1.
Therefore, the configuration factor f,3 of face 3 is given by:
f,3= (f,3,1 + f,3,2) = (0.18 + 0.18) = 0.36
Face 1:
One zone may be defined for face 1 of the member.

Width w = 0.875 m.
a = h/s = 2.0 / 1.0 = 2.0
b = w/s = 0.875 / 1.0 = 0.875
Using (66), the configuration factor of face 1, which is perpendicular to the
plane of the window, is given by:
a
1
1
[tan 1 (a)
tan 1 (
)]
f,1 =
2 0.5
2
(1 + b )
(1 + b 2 ) 0.5
1
1
2
[tan 1 (2)
tan 1 (
)] = 0.058
=
2 0.5
2
(1 + 0.875 )
(1 + 0.8752 ) 0.5
Face 2:
Owing to the symmetry, f,2 = f,1 = 0.058
Therefore, the overall configuration factor from the window, f is given by:
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f =
(C1 f ,1 + C 2 f , 2 )d 1 + (C 3 f ,3 + C 4 f , 4 ) d 2
(C1 + C 2 ) d1 + (C 3 + C 4 )d 2
(0.058 + 0.058)( 250 / 1000) + 0.36( 250 / 1000)
=
(1 + 1)(250 / 1000) + (1 + 1)( 250 / 1000)
0.476
=
= 0.119
4
Absorptivity of the Flames
The absorptivity of the flames is given by:
z,1 + z,2 + z,3 0.231 + 0.231 + 0.231
=
az =
3
3
= 0.231
Radiative Heat Flux from the Opening
Using (67), the radiative heat flux from the window is given by:
If = f f (1- az)Tf4 = 0.119(1)(1- 0.231)(5.67x10-8)(977)4
= 4.73 kW/m2
Average Temperature of Steel Column
Using (69), the average temperature of the engulfed steel column is given by:
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz
-8
(5.67x10 )Tm4 + 10Tm = (18.43x1000) + (4.73x1000) + 10(1080)
(5.67x10-8)Tm4 + 10Tm = 33960
Tm = 821 K (548 oC)
13.7 Example 7 External Steelwork subjected to Compartment Fire

Consider Example 6 again with a fire in a compartment of a library with
plan dimensions 1015 m2 and the height of the compartment being 2.5 m.
One single opening, 2m(B)2(H) m on the wall is assumed in this example.
excellent safe access route are provided.
From Table 4(c), q2 = 0.78
The combustion factor m = 1.0.
From Table 5, the design fire load densities for floor area, qf,d is 753 MJ/m2.
Instead of a steel unprotected column, a steel unprotected beam is located
perpendicular to the library edge, right in the centre of the window as shown
in the following figure. It is also assumed that the member is also made of a
250mm250 mm square hollow section.

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As the beam is perpendicular to the external wall of the fire compartment,

the value of the average temperature of the beam shall be determined at a
series of points every 100mm along the length of the beam. The maximum
of these values shall then be adopted as the average temperature of the beam.
In this example, only the assessment of the beam temperature at the
intersection point between flame axis and beam member is demonstrated.
Temperature of the Fire Compartment
The temperature of the fire compartment Tf = 704 oC (977 K), which is same
as Example 6.
Flame dimension
The flame dimension is same as Example 6, and it is summarized as follows:
Flame height LL = 1.95m.
Flame width = window width wt = 2 m.
Flame depth = 2/3 Hv = 1.33 m.
Horizontal projection of flames LH = Hv / 3 = 2 / 3 = 0.67 m.
Flame length along axis Lf = 2.95 m
Flame Temperature at the Window
The flame temperature at the window is same as Example 6, and is given as
follows:
Tw = 991 oC (1264 K)
Flame Temperature along the Axis
Length from the window, Lx is given by:
Lx =
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Therefore, length from the window to point A (intersection of flame axis

and bottom chord of beam), LA is given by:
LA = L1 + 0.25 = 1.2 + 0.25 = 1.45m
Length from the window to point B (intersection of flame axis and top chord
of beam), LB is given by:
LB = L1 + 0.25 + 0.25 = 1.2 + 0.25 + 0.25 = 1.7m
Using (46), the flame temperature at point A is given by:

Tz,A = (Tw - To) (1-0.4725(LA . wt / Q)) + To
= (991 - 20) (1-0.4725(1.45 . 2 / 6)) + 20
= 769 oC (1042 K)
Using (46), the flame temperature at point B is given by:
Tz,B = (Tw - To) (1-0.4725(LB . wt / Q)) + To
= (991 - 20) (1-0.4725(1.7 . 2 / 6)) + 20
= 731 oC (1004 K)
Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient
Using (47), the convective heat transfer coefficient is given by:
c = 4.67(1 / d eq ) 0.4 (Q / Av ) 0.6 = 4.67 (1 /( 250 / 1000 )) 0.4 (6 / 4) 0.6
= 10 W/m2K
Emissivity of Flames on Each Side of the Member

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Using (48), the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 1 of the beam is
given by:
z,1 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 ( 0.25 ) = 0.0723
Similarly, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 2 of the beam is
given by:
z,2 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 (1.45 ) = 0.353
and, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 3 of the beam is given
by:
z,3 = 1 e 0.3 = 1 e 0.3 ( 0.875 ) =0.231
As 3 = 4, the emissivity of the flames with respect to face 4 of the beam is
as that of face 3 of the beam, i.e. z,4 = z,3 = 0.231
1
Radiative Heat Flux from the Flame

For the top of the flame is above the level of the top of the beam, the
radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 1 is given by:
Iz,1 = C1z,1Tw4 = 1.0 (0.0723) (5.67x10-8) (1264)4
= 10.46 kW/m2
Iz,2 = C2z,2Tz,24 = 1.0 (0.353) (5.67x10-8) (1004)4
= 20.34 kW/m2
Iz,3 = C3z,3(Tz,14 + Tz,24) / 2
= 1.0 (0.231) (5.67x10-8) (10424 + 10044) / 2
= 14.37 kW/m2

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As z,4 = z,3, the radiative heat flux from the flame to column face 4 is same
as that to column face 3, i.e. Iz,4 = Iz,3 = 14.37 kW/m2
Using (59), the radiative heat flux from the flames
( I z ,1 + I z , 2 )d1 + ( I z ,3 + I z , 4 )d 2
Iz =
2(d1 + d 2 )
(10.46 + 20.34)(250 / 1000) + (14.37 + 14.37)(250 / 1000)
=
2(250 / 1000 + 250 / 1000)
= 14.89 kW/m2
Overall Configuration Factor from the Window
Face 1:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2, may be defined for face 1 of the member.
For zone 1:

Height on the radiating surface h = 2.0 + 0.25 = 2.25 m;
Width w = 1.0 m.

a = h / s = 2.25 / 0.67 = 3.36
b = w / s = 1.0 / 0.67 = 1.49
Using (66), the configuration factor of zone 1, which is perpendicular to the
flame, is given by:
1
1
a
[tan 1 (a)
tan 1 (
)]
f,1,1 =
2 0.5
2
(1 + b )
(1 + b 2 ) 0.5
1
1
3.36
[tan 1 (3.36)
tan 1 (
)]
=
2 0.5
2
(1 + 1.49 )
(1 + 1.49 2 ) 0.5
= 0.108
Owing to symmetry, the configuration factor of zone 2, f,1,2 is same as that
of zone 1.
Therefore, the configuration factor of face 1 f,1 is given by:
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f,1
= (f,1,1 + f,1,2) = (0.108 + 0.108) = 0.216
Face 2:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2, may be defined for face 2 of the member.
For zone 1:

Width w = 1.0 m.

a = h / s = 1.45 / 0.67 = 2.16
b = w / s = 1.0 / 0.67 = 1.49
flame, is given by:
1
1
a
[tan 1 (a)
tan 1 (
)]
f,2,1 =
2 0.5
2
(1 + b )
(1 + b 2 ) 0.5
1
1
2.16
[tan 1 (2.16)
tan 1 (
)]
=
2 0.5
2
(1 + 1.49 )
(1 + 1.49 2 ) 0.5
= 0.103
Owing to symmetry, the configuration factor of zone 2, f,2,2 is same as that
of zone 1.
Therefore, the configuration factor of face 1 f,2 is given by:
f,2 = (f,2,1 + f,2,2) = (0.103 + 0.103) = 0.206
Face 3:
Two zones, named zone 1 and 2. may be defined for face 3 of the member.

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For zone 1:

Height on the radiating surface h = 2.0 + 0.25 + 0.25/2
= 2.375 m;
Width w = 0.875 m.
a = h / s = 2.375 / 0.67 = 3.54
b = w / s = 0.875 / 0.67 = 1.31
flame, is given by:
1
1
a
[tan 1 (a)
tan 1 (
)]
f,3,1 =
2 0.5
2
(1 + b )
(1 + b 2 ) 0.5
1
1
3.54
[tan 1 (3.54)
tan 1 (
)]
=
2 0.5
2
(1 + 1.31 )
(1 + 1.312 ) 0.5
= 0.0966
For zone 2:

Height on the radiating surface h = 0.25/2 + 1.45 = 1.575 m;
Width w = 0.875 m.
a = h / s = 1.575 / 0.67 = 2.35
b = w / s = 0.875 / 0.67 = 1.31
flame, is given by:
1
1
a
[tan 1 (a)
tan 1 (
)]
f,3,2 =
2 0.5
2
(1 + b )
(1 + b 2 ) 0.5
1
1
2.35
[tan 1 (2.35)
tan 1 (
)]
=
2 0.5
2
(1 + 1.31 )
(1 + 1.312 ) 0.5
= 0.0933
Therefore, the configuration factor of face 1, f,3 is given by:
f,3 = (f,3,1 + f,3,2) = (0.0966 + 0.0933) = 0.1899
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Face 4:
Owing to the symmetry, f,4 = f,3 = 0.1899
Therefore, the overall configuration factor from the window, f is given by:
(C1 f ,1 + C 2 f , 2 )d1 + (C3 f ,3 + C 4 f , 4 )d 2
f =
(C1 + C 2 )d1 + (C3 + C 4 )d 2
(0.216 + 0.206)(250 / 1000) + (0.1899 + 0.1899)(250 / 1000)
=
(1 + 1)(250 / 1000) + (1 + 1)(250 / 1000)
0.8018
=
= 0.2
4
Absorptivity of the Flames
Using (68), the absorptivity of the flames is given by:
az = 1 e 0.3 h , where h is the height of the window
= 1 e 0.3 ( 2 )
= 0.451
Radiative Heat Flux from the Opening
Using (64), the radiative heat flux from the window is given by:
If = f f (1- az)Tf4
= 0.2(1)(1- 0.451)(5.67x10-8)(977)4
= 5.67 kW/m2
Average Temperature of Steel Column
Using (69), the average temperature of the engulfed steel beam is given by:
Tm4 + cTm = Iz + If + cTz
-8
(5.67x10 )Tm4 + 10Tm = (14.89x1000) + (5.67x1000) + 10(1042)
(5.67x10-8)Tm4 + 10Tm = 30980
Tm = 798 K (525 oC)
14
References
Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB) (2005), International Fire
Engineering Guidelines (Canberra, ACT: Australian Building Codes Board).
ASTM (1998), ASTM E-119: Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building
Construction and Materials (West Conshohocken: ASTM).
Babrauskas, V. (1998), Ensuring the Publics Right to Adequate Fire
Safety Under Performance-Based Building Codes, Proceedings of Pacific
Rim Conference and 2nd International on Performance-Based Building
Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods, Maui, Hawaii, 3-9 May 3-9, p.16775.

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CTW/MKL/CHL/CHM/SCF
Babrauskas V and Williamson R (1978), Post-flashover Compartment Fires:

Basis of a Theoretical Model, Fire and Materials, 2, pp. 3953(available:
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/; accessed: 11 November 2011).
Baily, C (2004), Structural fire design: Core or specialist subject?, The
Structural Engineer, 82 (9), pp. 32-8 (available: www.istructe.org/; accessed:
11 November 2011).
.
Buchanan A H (2001), Structural Design for Fire Safety (New York: John
Wiley and Sons).
Butcher, K (ed) (1995), Relationships for Smoke Control Calculations
(London: CIBSE).
CIB W14 Workshop Report (1986), Design Guide: Structural Fire Safety,
Fire Safety Journal, 10(1), pp. 77-154.
Cooke, G M E (1998), Tests to Determine the Behaviour of Fully Developed
Natural Fires in a Large Compartment (Garston : CRC).
Cox, G (ed.) (1995), Combustion Fundamentals of Fire (London: Academic
Press).
Cullen, The Honourable Lord (1990), The Public Inquiry into the Piper
Alpha Disaster (London: HM Stationery Office).
Drysdale, D (1985), An Introduction to Fire Dynamics (New York: John
Wiley and Sons).
Ghoreishi, M, Bagchi, A and Sutlan, M A (2009), NRCC-51160 - Estimating
the Response of Structural Systems to Fire Exposure: State-of-the-art
Review (Ottawa, Canada: National Research Council Canada) (available:
www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/; accessed: 11 November 2011).
Ho, H C, Chung, K F and Wong, Y (2011), Structural Fire Engineering
Study on Unprotected Long Span Steel Trusses, Proceedings of the Twelfth
East AsiaPacific Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction,
Hong
Kong,
26-28
January,
14,
pp.
1132-9
(available:
www.sciencedirect.com/; accessed: 12 October 2011).
ISO (1999), ISO 834-1-1999: Fire Resistance Tests Elements of building
construction Part 1: General requirements (Geneva: ISO).
Karlsson, B and Quintiere, J G (2000), Enclosure Fire Dynamics (Boca
Raton, Fl: CRC Press).
Kirby, B R (2004), Calibration of Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures Part
1.2: Actions on Structures Exposed to Fire, The Structural Engineer,
82(19), pp. 38-43 (available: www.istructe.org/; accessed: 11 November
2011).
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Law, M (1983), A Basis for the Design of Fire Protection of Building

Structures, The Structural Engineer, 61A(1), pp. 25-33 (available:
www.istructe.org/; accessed: 11 November 2011).
Law, M (1997), Review of Formula for T-Equivalent, Fire Safety Science
Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium, 3-7 March, Melbourne,
Australia, p. 985-96.
Law, M and OBrien, T (1989), Fire Safety of Bare External Structural Steel
(Ascot: SCI).
McCaffrey, B J, Quintiere, J G and Harkleroad, M F (1981), Estimating
Room Temperatures and the Likelihood of Flashover using Fire Test Data
Correlations, Fire Technology, 17(2), pp. 98-119.
NFPA (2000), National Fire Codes NFPA 92B: Guide for Smoke
Management Systems in Malls, Atria, and large Areas (Quincy, MA: NFPA)
Parkinson, D L, Kodur V and Sullivan, D (2008), ASCE Manuals and
Reports on Engineering Practice No. 114: Performance-Based Design of
Structural Steel for Fire Conditions: A Calculation Methodology (Reston,
VA: ASCE).
Pang, P T C (2006), Fire Engineering Design and Post Fire Assessment,
The Structural Engineer, 84(16), pp. 23-9 (available: www.istructe.org/;
accessed: 11 November 2011).
Peacock, R D, Reneke, P A, Bukowski, R W and Babrauskas, V (1999),
Defining Flashover for Fire Hazard Calculations, Fire Safety Journal,
32(4), pp. 331-45 (available: www.fire.nist.gov; accessed: 11 November
2011).
Rein, G and Stern-Gottfried, J (2011), Travelling Fires in large
Compartments, in Wald, F et al (eds), Integrated Fire Engineering and
Response - State of the Art Report (Prague: Czech Technical University), pp.
38-43.
Thomas, I R and Bennetts, I D (1987), Fires in Enclosures with Single
Ventilation Openings: Comparison of Long and Wide Enclosures, Fire
Safety Science, 6, pp. 941-52.
Wang, Y C (2002), Steel and Composite Structures, Behaviour and Design
for Fire Safety (London: Spon Press).
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Sun Yat-sen Museum, The Structural Engineer, 85(20), pp. 31-7 (available:
www.istructe.org/; accessed: 11 November 2011).

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Annex A
Annex A
Sample Clauses in Engaging Structural Fire Engineering Consultant
Annex A
1.
Description of the Project
1.1
A brief description of the scope of project is to be inserted.
1.2
The building is to be designed to comply with all current fire safety standards for its
intended uses.
Thus, a structural fire engineering study (the Study) is now
required to demonstrate that for the structural elements in insert locations, an

overall level of fire safety which is equivalent to the prescriptive provisions of the
relevant Codes specified in Clause 6 could be achieved.
2.
Objectives of the Study
2.1
The Consultant is required to consider all limitations in the Study, and shall
complete the Study in an efficient and cost effective manner in accordance with the
programme specified and relevant Ordinances, Regulations and Codes specified in
Clause 6.
2.2
The objective of the Study is to investigate and outline options that would
demonstrate that the structural elements including connections in insert locations
would achieve an overall level of fire safety that is equivalent to the prescriptive
provisions of the relevant Codes specified in Clause 6.
2.3
The Consultant shall co-ordinate with the project team from the Architectural
Services Department (ArchSD), observe and address all physical or other constraints
for preparing the Study. It is anticipated that the preparation of the Study would
require iterative discussions and revisions between the concerned parties.
The
Consultant shall also incorporate all possible changes in the architectural layouts
and/or structural plans and details during the Study.
3.
Description of the Study
3.1
To meet the purposes set out in Clause 2 above, the Consultant is specifically
required to :(i)
Assess the necessity of application of passive fire protection for the structural
elements in insert locations by carrying out necessary computational studies,
such as computational fluid dynamic analysis, fire scenarios, heat transfer
modeling, structural analysis and design at elevated temperatures to determine
Annex A
their structural responses (including the adequacy of the members and the
connections at elevated temperature) such that the equivalent fire safety
performance can be achieved as the prescriptive provisions of the Ordinances,
Regulations and Codes in Clause 6;
(ii) Recoomend any passive fire protection, if fund necessary, for partial or full
protection to the steel trusses under the Study;
(iii) Liaise with ArchSD Statutory Compliance Checking Unit (SCCU), ArchSD
Structural Checking Unit (SCU), and if necessary, Buildings Department, and
other relevant government authorities or parties. This shall include necessary
submission of the fire engineering reports up to the approval of the abovementioned government authorities;
(iv) Co-ordinate with other consultants appointed by ArchSD and advise the
Project Architect, Project Structural Engineer and Project Building Services
Engineer, and other consultants on matters arising from the Study;
(v) Present the findings of the Study and/or recommendations to relevant parties;
(vi) Submit the report(s) of the Study summarizing the findings of all the proposed
or recommended fire protection systems.
3.2
The Consultant shall ensure that suitably experienced professional(s) with both
fire-engineering and structural engineering experiences are engaged to work on

the Study. A staff structure together with a Technical Proposal complying with
the requirements specified in Clause 4 shall be provided with the quotation.
Subsequent changes in key team members shall be subject to the prior consent of
the Employers Representative.
3.3
The Consultant shall review the objectives, methodology and procedures to be

adopted in this Study from time to time, and propose any changes and
improvements if necessary.
4.
Submission of Technical Proposal

The following shall be submitted with the quotation :-
(a)
(b)
A full curriculum vitae and the past experience on the Consultant

including relevant projects in similar type and size in the last 3 years and
the role involved. Any related experience similar to this Study shall also
be identified and elaborated.
A list of key staff to be assigned for this Study with their individual full
Annex A
curriculum vitae, posts and responsibilities shall also be provided. Key

staff shall also be clearly named to attend client meetings.
(c)
Response to the Brief to show the understanding of the objectives and the
(d)
scope of service.
Methodology to show the preliminary idea about the approach to this
Study. It should also include examples of the Consultants deliverables,
such as drawings and calculation that would show the standard of
services provided by the Consultant.
5.
Deliverables
5.1
The Consultant shall produce the following deliverables as part of the Study to the
Employers Representative.
5.2
Draft Final Report

The Draft Final Report shall consolidate all findings of the Study and make specific
recommendations with particular reference to the specific requirements laid down in
Clause 3. The information should assist the Employers Representative in

undertaking consultation with relevant boards, advisory bodies, and authorities as
required.
5.3
Final Report
The Consultant shall submit the Final Report and incorporate recommendations
from ArchSD SCCU, ArchSD SCU and, if necessary, Buildings Departments Fire
Engineering sub-committee. The Consultant shall respond to any queries having
been raised 6 months after the final submission of the Deliverables required under
the Study.
5.4
Presentation Materials
The Consultant shall, for presentation and consultation purposes, prepare suitable
visual and coloured presentation materials, photographs, slides, plans, sections,
visuals and perspective drawings and sketches with digital files illustrating the
submission proposals as required.
Annex A
5.5
Unless otherwise specified, the numbers of copies of reports to be submitted are as

follows :(a)
Draft Final Report
3 copies
(b)
Final Report
5 copies
(c)
Soft copy of presentation/ report
3 CD-ROMs
5.6
Metric units are to be used in the preparation of the reports.
5.7
At the conclusion of the Study, all documents including reports, technical papers
and supporting notes, presentational materials, sketches, plans, drawings,
photographs, charts for the Study and all related computer tapes/disks shall be
delivered to and shall become the property of the Hong Kong SAR Government
with full copyright.
5.8
The Consultant should draw to the attention of the Employers Representative any
Deliverables that are under licence and any pre-existing copyright or patent on any
Deliverables and any other restriction whatsoever affecting the Employers use of
the same and, if required by the Employers Representative, to establish the
existence of any licence, copyright, patent or restriction.
6.
Ordinances, Regulations and Codes

The following is a list of Ordinances, Regulations and Codes, but not exhaustive, to
be adopted in the Study :1.
Buildings Ordinance, Hong Kong: Government Printer.
2.
Building (Construction) Regulations, Hong Kong: Government Printer.
3.
Buildings Department (2011), Code of Practice for Fire Safety in Buildings

2011, Hong Kong: Buildings Department.
4.
Buildings Department (2005), Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel,
Hong Kong: Buildings Department.

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SEB GUIDELINES

Guideline on Structural Fire Engineering

Structural Engineering Branch

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

Fire Safety Codes in Hong Kong 8

Fire Safety Engineering and Structural Fire Engineering .. 10

Prescriptive and Alternative Approaches ..... 12

General Principles of Structural Fire Engineering Approach .... 17

Applicability of Structural Fire Engineering Approach ...... 18

Typical Fire Scenarios .... 23

Fire Modelling ..... 26

Design Fire ... 29

Temperature of Structural Elements .... 48

Thermal Actions for External Member ..... 49

Engaging Fire Engineering Consultants ... 61

Design Examples ...... 62

Sample Clauses in Engaging Structural Fire Engineering Consultant

Copyright and Disclaimer of Liability

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

background information on the behaviour of fire;

when a structural fire engineering study is required for the design of

This set of Guideline is divided into two parts:

Part I will describe the fire scenarios development in a fire, the

Resources on Fire Safety Engineering

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

Fire Services Department (2005), Code of Practice for Minimum Fire

Fire Services Department (2005), Code of Practice for Inspection and

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

DiNenno, P J et al (eds.) (2002), SFPE Handbook of Fire

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

3. The Institution of Structural Engineers (www.istructe.org.uk) published

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

6. Newman, G M (1990), Fire and Steel Construction: the Behaviour of

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

British Constructional Steelwork Association, Concrete Block Association,

Fire Safety Codes in Hong Kong

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

Not exceeding 2500 m

Not exceeding 2500 m2

Bulk storage and Not exceeding 28000 m3 and

to allow occupants to escape during fire;

The Code of Practice for Minimum Fire Service Installations and

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

Fire Safety Engineering and Structural Fire Engineering

The Institution of Fire Engineers of the UK (www.ife.org.uk/) defines fire

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

Figure 1 Role of active and passive fire protection in a fire

Structural fire engineering is a special branch within the fire protection

Figure 2 Relationship among various branches in fire engineering

Structural Engineering Branch, ArchSD

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IStructE (2007: 1) states that [t]raditionally, structural engineers did not

Prescriptive and Alternative Approaches

4.2.1 The simplest approach to satisfy the statutory requirements is to follow

File code : SEBGL-OTH6

stability, i.e. to avoid collapse of load-bearing elements (Figure 3(a)),

Figure 3 Failure modes of construction elements during fire