ENGINEERING TRIPOS PART IIA

3C7: EXPERIMENTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Experiment takes place in BNB-06 (follow downward stairs opposite Baker Building reception).

OBJECTIVES
To develop an appreciation of two different techniques of experimental stress analysis (i.e.
discrete vs. full field measurements).
To obtain experimental measurements of the stress concentrations induced by the presence
of a circular hole in a thin plate.
To note that the stress concentrations are sensitive to the location of the hole in the plate.
To compare measured concentration factors with simple analytical predictions.
1. INTRODUCTION
Structural failure due to, for example, fracture or fatigue is initiated at the most highly stressed
points in a structure, often near a hole, notch or sharp corner. Hence, estimating the stress
concentrations induced by different types of geometric discontinuities is of great practical importance.
This experiment and its companion, Experiment 3D7, investigate the stress distribution in
the vicinity of a circular hole, in a thin plate loaded in uniaxial tension. The plate is in a state of
plane stress. This experiment constitutes the first stage of the investigation, where measurements
are taken of the stress concentrations induced by the presence of (i) a symmetrically located
hole and (ii) an asymmetric hole. For both cases, the stress components at 16 different points of
the plate are derived from strain measurements at these points, and an overall view of the stress
distribution is obtained by a photoelastic method. These experimental results are compared to
the stress distribution near a circular hole in an infinite plate, for which there exists a simple
analytical solution. The second stage of the investigation will be carried out next term in
Experiment 3D7, where finite element solutions will be obtained.
All plates considered in this experiment are made from Aluminium-alloy and have the following dimensions and elastic properties:

Case (i)
Case (ii)

Length
(mm)
300

Width
(mm)
100

Thickness
(mm)
1.7

Hole radius
(mm)
14.8

Offset from
centre (mm)
0
16

E
(N/mm2 )
70000

0.33

2. APPARATUS
The tests are done in three Hounsfield Tensometers. Tensometers 1 and 2 are used for tests
on strain-gauged plates with symmetric and asymmetric holes, respectively. They are linked
to computers that collect, process and display data. Tensometer 3 is used for tests on plates
coated with photoelastic material. A polariscope produces isochromatic fringes, i.e. contours of
the difference between principal stresses, from which the stress concentration at the most highly
stressed points can be obtained.
1

2.1 Tensometers 1 and 2

The set-up for both Tensometers is the same, only the position of the hole in the plates and
the position and number of the strain gauges changes. The symmetric plate (Tensometer 1)
is fitted with 14 strain gauges and the asymmetric one (Tensometer 2) with 29. The strain
gauges are connected to a computer through a Microlink 3000 strain measurement system and a
National Instruments GPIB board. This system also measures the strain in the loading beam in
each Tensometer, from which the total axial force on the plate is obtained.1 All measurements,
data processing and display are controlled using the National Instruments Labview package.
Thus, each computer displays the current value of the load and either the strains measured by
the strain gauges, at various points on the plate, or the stress components at the same points,
obtained by converting the measured strains. The values of the Youngs Modulus and Poissons
ratio, used to convert strain to stress, are shown in the bottom-right part of the screen. These
values can be changed simply by double-clicking on the current values and typing in new values.
RUN

STOP
Switch from
stress to
micro-strain

Stop &
print

Set
zero

Load (kN)
Plots of stress/micro-strains
load: to change scale,
double-click on limits and
type in new values.

Current readings of stress

(N/mm2) or micro-strain: click
on buttons to plot

Values of E (N/mm2) and

Figure 1: Schematic layout of virtual instrument corresponding to Tensometer 2. The layout is

similar in Tensometer 1.
When the display switch is in strain mode, the current readings from the channels are displayed, in micro-strains, on the right-hand-side of the screen. Each value displayed corresponds
directly to the linear strain measured, at a particular point of the plate, by a particular strain
gauge. The position and numbering system of the gauges are shown in Figures 2 and 3, for the
two plates. Strain gauge rosettes, consisting of 3 gauges going through the same point, have
been used at many internal points. The first two gauges of each rosette are parallel to the x and
y axes, respectively, while the third gauge is parallel to the line y = x. Denoting by a , b , c
the linear strains measured by these 3 gauges, it can be shown that
xx = a

yy = b

xy = 2c + a + b

Cross gauges have been used at points that lie on a symmetry line. Because xy = 0 at these
points, only xx and yy need to be measured. The two gauges are parallel to the x and y axes,
and hence they measure xx and yy , respectively.
Finally, single gauges have been used at points that lie close to a free edge of the plate, where
only the strain parallel to the edge needs to be measured.
When the display switch is in stress mode, the strains measured by the gauges are converted
into stress values and then displayed. The details are as follows. At a general point of the
1

A direct measurement of the load on the plate is provided by the mercury gauge on the Tensometer.

0
13
14

Grid:
8 mm 8 mm

11
12
10
1 2
3

4
5

6
7

R=14.8 mm

x
y

0
100 mm
Figure 2: Plate with symmetric hole (Tensometer 1).
plate, 3 strain components are required to obtain the corresponding 3 stress components. For
an elastic plate in plane stress the stress components are
xx =

E
(xx + yy ) ,
1 2

yy =

E
(yy + xx ) ,
1 2

xy =

E
xy
2 (1 + )

and they are displayed in the order xx , yy , xy . On a symmetry line xy = 0 and hence is
not displayed. At a point lying close to a free edge of the plate it can be assumed that only the
stress in the direction tangent to the edge is non zero
tt = E tt ,

nn = nt = 0

and hence only one stress component is displayed. Therefore, when the virtual instrument of
Tensometer 1 is set to stress mode, channel 1, for example, displays xx at the point with
coordinates (0, 48), while channels 4 and 5 display xx and yy at the point with coordinates
(0, 32), respectively.
3

17
18
19

Grid:
8 mm 8 mm

14
15
16
2
5
6
7
1 43

10
11

22
23
24

13
12

20
21

25
26

27
28

29

y
R=14.8 mm

0
66 mm

34 mm

Figure 3: Plate with asymmetric hole (Tensometer 2).

2.2 Tensometer 3
The third Tensometer is set up to test Al-Alloy plates whose geometry is identical to the plates
tested in Tensometers number 1 and 2. These plates have been coated on one side with a
photoelastic material (Type PS-1-B, manufactured by Measurements Group Inc., NC, USA).
When this material is stressed and exposed to a polarised beam of light, it splits the light beam
into two orthogonally polarised components, each parallel to a principal stress direction, whose
propagation velocity is proportional to the stress magnitude. The two components of the beam
are then passed through another polarizer, in order to produce two sets of fringes, when the
two components are 180 out of phase. The first set of fringes are the isochromatics, which
join points of the plate with the same principal stress difference. The second set of fringes are
the isoclinics, which join points of the plate with the same principal strain directions. In this
experiment the isoclinics are removed by using two additional polarizers, called quarter-wave
plates.
In this experiment a white light source is used, so that a spectrum of colours appears for
the isochromatics. The coating has been calibrated for a wavelength of 575 nm, corresponding
to the red/blue transition, which is known as the tint of passage. The principal stress difference
required to produce one fringe at this wavelength is 63.5 N/mm2 (this value depends on the

sensitivity and thickness of the particular type of photoelastic material used). The second fringe
will correspond to a principal stress difference of 127 N/mm2 , and so on.2 A set of colour
photographs of the fringe patterns in the two plates, corresponding to a load of 10 kN, will be
handed out by the demonstrator.
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Each group of students carries out three tests, one on each Tensometer. Each test should take
about 30 minutes.
3.1 Tensometers 1 and 2
The experimental procedure for Tensometers 1 and 2 is similar.
1. Apply a pre-load of about 2 kN to the tensometer.
2. Check that the virtual instrument is set to STRESS.
3. Initialise the stress measurement.
- Tensometer 1: switch OFF the plotting of all channels, press RUN (), press ZERO
readings and then CLEAR GRAPH.
- Tensometer 2: switch OFF the plotting of all channels, press RUN () and then
RESET.
It may take a few moments until all readings go to zero (they may subsequently drift a
little).
4. Turn ON the plotting of all channels.
5. Slowly increase the load up to approximately 5 kN.
6. Check that the graphs are linear, that all gauges are responding properly, and that the
graphs fit on the screen scales. Turn OFF the plotting of all channels except xx at points
across the section x = 0, PLUS the far-field stress components (13, 14 for the symmetric
hole and 17, 18, 19 for the asymmetric hole).
7. When all other graphs have disappeared press STOP & PRINT.
8. Calculate the far-field uniaxial stress in the plate, 0 .
N.B. The values of ALL stress components are available in the printout, not only xx .
3.2 Tensometer 3
The procedure for the photoelastic test is as follows. Mount the plate with the symmetric hole
on the Tensometer. Switch on the light source and gradually increase the load on the plate.
Observe the fringes as they appear at the edges of the hole and travel across the plate as the
load is increased. Identify the first and second tints-of-passage as blue just appears at the edge
of the hole. Increase the load up to 10 kN, then stop and compare the fringe pattern to that
shown in the photograph handed out by the demonstrator. The zero-order fringe, which is the
locus of points with zero principal stress difference, will remain black. Unload the plate. Then,
gradually increase the load again and record the loads at which the second fringe reaches (i) the
2

Further details on photoelastic methods can be found in Chapter 5 of S.P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier,
Theory of Elasticity, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill 1970, or Chapters 4 and 5 of G.S. Holister, Experimental Stress
Analysis, CUP 1967, or http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/photoelasticity/index.php

most highly stressed point in the plate, and (ii) the point corresponding to strain gauge 8. This
point is marked on the plate.
Repeat this procedure for the asymmetric plate, but record the loads at which the second
fringe reaches (i) the most highly stressed point in the plate, (ii) the point diametrically opposite
to it, (iii) the point corresponding to strain gauge 8, and (iv) the point corresponding to strain
gauge 21. These last two points are marked on the plate.
Use these recorded loads to estimate the stress concentration factors xx /0 at these points.
Recall that two fringes correspond to a principal stress difference of 127 N/mm2 , and yy 0
near the edge of the hole.
N.B. The load on any photoelastic plate should not exceed 10 kN.
4. ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS
There are several analytical solutions for the stress distributions in thin plates with circular
holes. The best known is the solution for a circular hole of radius R in an infinite plate, see
Figure 4, which is obtained in the lectures.3 The stress components on the centre lines are given
by
x-axis:

y - axis:

both axes:

xx
0
yy
0
xx
0
yy
0
xy

5R2 3R4
+
2x2
2x4
4
2
3R
R

2
2x
2x4
2
R
3R4
1+ 2 + 4
2y
2y
 2

3 R
R4
4
2 y2
y
0

= 1

(1)

(2)

=
=
=

(3)
(4)
(5)

0
x
y

0
Figure 4: Infinite plate with a hole.
The stress concentration predicted by Equations (1)-(4) decays rather quickly away from the
hole. Therefore, this solution can be used for non-infinite plates, provided that the edges of the
plate are sufficiently far from the hole that the stresses on the edges are approximately equal
3

S.P. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, p. 90-93.

to the remote stress field. If this is not the case, alternative solutions by Howland and Mindlin
may be used.
Howland4 derived semi-analytical expressions for the stress concentration factors at the edge
of a symmetric hole of radius R in a plate of finite width 2W . These factors have been calculated
for a range of plate geometries and are shown in the table below.

0
Stress concentration factors

R/W

y
A

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

Point A
xx /0
3.00
3.03
3.14
3.36
3.74
4.32

Point B
yy /0
-1.00
-1.03
-1.11
-1.26
-1.44
-1.58

Figure
5: Plate of finite width.
Mindlin5 derived an analytical solution for the stress concentration factors in the vicinity of
a hole near the edge of a semi-infinite plate, Figure 6. For the asymmetric plate used in this
experiment Mindlins theory predicts the following stress concentrations.

0
x
xx
0
xx
0

y
B

= 3.94

at point A

= 0.59

at point B

0
Figure 6: Semi-infinite plate.
5. WRITE-UP
Your report should include:
1. A summary of about 50 words.
2. A short introduction and background (do not repeat everything in the handout, summarize
and refer to the handout as necessary).
3. The two tables of results attached to this handout, complete with the non-dimensional
stress components at the 16 strain-gauged points and at the most highly stressed points
in the plates.
4

Howland, R.C.J. (1930). On the stresses in the neighbourhood of a circular hole in a strip under tension.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A, 229, 49-86.
5
Mindlin, R.D. (1948). Stress distribution around a hole near the edge of a plate under tension. Proceedings
of the Society for Experimental Analysis, 5, 56-68.

4. Sketches of isochromatics, one for each plate, on sheets of tracing paper. Make sure to
label each line traced with the correct stress difference.
5. Plots of measured xx /0 and yy /0 across the sections x = 0 and y = 0, for both plates.
To save time, the predictions for a hole in an infinite plate have been plotted on the
sheets attached to this handout: plot on these sheets your data and any other analytical
predictions that you wish to consider.
6. A short discussion of any discrepancies between the experimental results and the various
theoretical solutions. Where they dont agree, carefully examine the theoretical assumptions; dont assume that the theory is always right! Comment on the effect of strain gauge
size and position.
Notes:
Clear presentation of the results is important.
The discussion should compare results to guide conclusions, and is meant to show critical
thinking and insight.
General marking guidelines can be found on the back side of the experiment report
coversheet.
Submit your report to Miss C Whitaker (cw535@eng), room BE3-39, 3rd floor Baker
Building within 15 days of your lab session.

Dr F Cirak
September 2014

-2

-1

-1

-1

PLATE WITH SYMMETRIC HOLE

Strain Gauge Results

Photoelastic Results

Load =

(stress at 2nd fringe

= 127 N/mm2 )

0 =
Coordinates

Stress
Component

Channel

(mm)

(N/mm2 )

(0,48)

xx

xx

yy

xx

yy

xx

yy

(0,40)

(0,32)

(0,24)
(0,14.8)

xx

(0,16)

xx

(12,12)

tt

(16,0)

yy

10

xx

11

yy

12

xx

13

yy

14

(24,0)

(80,0)

Stress

Stress
Concentration

Load at
2nd
fringe

(N/mm2 )

stress/0

(kN)

Finite
Element
Results

0 at
2nd
fringe

Stress
Concentration

Stress
Concentration

(N/mm2 )

stress/0

stress/0

PLATE WITH ASYMMETRIC HOLE

Strain Gauge Results

Photoelastic Results

Load =

(stress at 2nd fringe

= 127 N/mm2 )

0 =
Coordinates

Stress
Component

Channel

(mm)

(N/mm2 )

(0,32)

xx

(16,32)

xx

xx

yy

xx

yy

xy

(0,24)

(8,24)

(0,14.8)

xx

(0,16)

xx

xx

yy

10

xy

11

(12,12)

tt

12

(16,0)

yy

13

xx

14

yy

15

xy

16

xx

17

yy

18

xy

19

(12,-12)

tt

20

(0,-14.8)

xx

(0,-16)

xx

21

xx

22

yy

23

xy

24

xx

25

yy

26

xx

27

yy

28

xx

29

(16,16)

(32,0)

(48,0)

(16,-16)

(0,-32)

(0,-48)
(0,-64)

Stress

Stress
Concentration

Load at
2nd
fringe

(N/mm2 )

stress/0

(kN)

Finite
Element
Results

0 at
2nd
fringe

Stress
Concentration

Stress
Concentration

(N/mm2 )

stress/0

stress/0