B-8 Aerodynamics SR

Student Resource
Subject B-8:
Aerodynamics
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CONTENTS
Study Resources
Learning Outcomes
Physics of the Atmosphere
B-8.1-1
Aerodynamics
B-8.2-1
Theory of Flight
B-8.3-1
Flight Stability and Dynamics
B-8.4-1
Training Material Only

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STUDY RESOURCES
Jeppesen General
Jeppesen Airframe
Aircraft Engineering Principles Dingle & Tooley.
Mechanics of Flight A. C. Kermode
B-8 Student Resource

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
The purpose of this subject is to familiarise you with basic aerodynamics and the theory
of flight. It also covers flight controls and conditions which affect the aerodynamics of
aircraft.
On completion of the following topics you will be able to:
Topic 8.1
Physics of the Atmosphere

Describe the application of the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) to
aerodynamics.
Describe the following characteristics associated with the atmosphere:
Composition,
Pressure and temperature distribution effects of altitude and
Effects of humidity, temperature and pressure on density.
Topic 8.2
Aerodynamics
Describe airflow around a body in relation to the following terms:
Boundary layer
Laminar and turbulent flow
Free stream flow
Relative airflow
Upwash and downwash
Vortices and stagnation
Describe the following terms and list their interaction with related forces:
Camber
Chord
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
Profile (Parasite) Drag
Induced Drag
Centre of Pressure
Angle of Attack
Wash In and Wash Out
Fineness Ratio
Wing Shape and Aspect Ratio
Describe the relationship between thrust, weight and aerodynamic
resultant.

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Describe how lift and drag are generated and define the following
associated terms:
Angle of Attack
Lift Coefficient
Drag Coefficient
Polar Curve
Stall
Describe aerofoil contamination including ice, snow and frost.
Describe the relationships between:
Ground speed (GS)
True air speed (TAS)
Indicated air speed (IAS)
Topic 8.3
Theory of Flight
Describe the relationship between lift, weight, thrust and drag.
Describe glide ratio.
Describe steady state flight and define performance.
Describe the theory of the turn.
Describe load factor and its influence on stalling, flight envelope and
structural limitations.
Describe methods of lift augmentation.
Topic 8.4
Flight Stability and Dynamics

Describe the following types of flight stability (active and passive):
Longitudinal
Lateral
Directional
In relation to longitudinal, lateral, and directional stability, be able to state:
The axis about which they apply
The aircraft structural features that provide stability about that axis.
Describe flight stability including:
Anhedral
Dihedral
Asymmetric power
Dynamic stability
Longitudinal dihedral
Static stability
Torque effect
Ground effect
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TOPIC 8.1: PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction...................................................................................................................3
Atmosphere Composition ...............................................................................................3
Air Density.....................................................................................................................9
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) .....................................................................13

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Gas composition graph....................................................................................3
Figure 2: Physical composition of atmosphere ................................................................4
Figure 3: Pressure of the atmosphere .............................................................................5
Figure 4: Temperature v Altitude ....................................................................................5
Figure 5: Effects of altitude on temperature....................................................................6
Figure 6: Atmospheric conditions ...................................................................................8
Figure 7: Effects of temperature on air density ...............................................................9
Figure 8: Molecule mass and altitude ...........................................................................10
Figure 9: Air density effect on aircraft in flight ..............................................................10
Figure 10: Water vapour ..............................................................................................11
Figure 11: Morning dew ...............................................................................................12

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INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere is the life giving substance which surrounds our planet earth. We rely
on it to provide adequate gases to sustain life and a climate which is suitable for us to
perform our everyday activities. Most of the atmosphere exists within a height of 10 km
above the earth, and it is within this region that all weather and climatic conditions are
generated.
This topic will discuss in relation to the atmosphere:
Composition.
Pressure and temperature distribution effects of altitude.
Effect of humidity and pressure on density.
ISA standard conditions.
ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION
The atmosphere is a complex and ever changing mixture, commonly called air. The air is
a mixture of gases, but also contains quantities of foreign matter, such as pollen, dust,
bacteria, soot, volcanic ash and dust from outer space.
The proportions of gases in the atmosphere are shown below. (Figure 1)
The remaining 0.003% is made up of microscopic quantities of other gases such as neon,
helium, krypton, ozone etc.
Figure 1: Gas composition graph
The nature of the atmosphere may vary considerably from day to day at any given place,
and may also vary from place to place at any given time. Because of these variations and
because aircraft move from one place to another quickly, they continually experience
changes in the air in which they fly.
The characteristics of the atmosphere have important effects on the operation and
maintenance of aircraft.
Aircraft performance and forces such as lift, drag, and engine power are affected by
changes in densities which result from variations in atmospheric pressure, temperature
or humidity.

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Many maintenance operations are also affected by atmospheric conditions:

Ground running of engines.
Adjusting components.
Adjusting and monitoring instruments.
Applying surface finishes, i.e. paint.
The Physical Composition of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is classified into regions based on the variation of temperature with
altitude. These regions are:
Troposphere.
Tropopause.
Stratosphere.
Mesosphere.
Thermosphere (Ionosphere).
(Figure 2)
Aircraft fly only in the Troposphere and the lowest part of the Stratosphere. Civil aircraft
would rarely exceed altitudes of 45,000 ft (nearly 14 km)
Figure 2: Physical composition of atmosphere

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The Pressure of the Atmosphere

The weight of air above any surface causes pressure at that surface. The average
pressure at sea-level due to the weight of the atmosphere is about 14.7 psi (1013.25 mb
[millibars]). This pressure is referred to as one atmosphere.
The higher we ascend in the atmosphere, the less will be the weight above us. Therefore,
the pressure will be less.
(Figure 3)
Figure 3: Pressure of the atmosphere
Temperature Changes in the Atmosphere

As we ascend in the atmosphere, there is a gradual decrease in temperature. The
temperature drops at a steady rate called the lapse rate.
The lapse rate at a given place varies from day to day and even during each day. The
lapse rate is about minus 6.5 deg C for each 1000m of height up to 11 000m (36,000 ft).
Above 11 000m the temperature remains nearly constant until the outer regions of the
atmosphere is reached.
(Figure 4)
Figure 4: Temperature v Altitude

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The atmosphere is classified into regions based on the variation of temperature with
altitude as shown in Figure 5. Air temperature undergoes considerable change as
altitude increases:
Troposphere -gradual temperature decrease.
Tropopause -temperature approx constant.
Stratosphere -gradual temperature increase.
Mesosphere - gradual temperature decrease.
Thermosphere (ionosphere) - rapid temperature increase.
Figure 5: Effects of altitude on temperature
The composition of the atmosphere (oxygen, nitrogen etc) remains almost constant from
sea level up, but its density diminishes rapidly with altitude. For example, at
approximately 30 000 ft
(10 kms), it is too thin to support respiration and at 60,000 ft there is not enough oxygen
to support combustion.
NOTE: Aircraft altitude is still measured in feet.
Civil aircraft normally fly at altitudes up to 45,000 ft (14km). Although the atmosphere is
divided into several regions, we will only be covering the three closest to the earths
surface, these being:
Troposphere.
Tropopause.
Stratosphere.

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Troposphere
The troposphere is the layer in which we live and in which most aircraft fly. It is
characterised by large changes in temperature, humidity and by generally turbulent
conditions. Nearly all cloud formations are within the troposphere and approximately
three quarters of the total weight of the atmosphere is within it.
It extends from the surface of the earth to where the temperature ceases to decrease with
altitude (roughly 36,000 ft). In the troposphere, for every 1,000 ft increase in altitude, the
temperature drops approximately 2C (lapse rate).
Tropopause
The tropopause is defined as the point in the atmosphere at which the decrease in
temperature (with increasing altitude), abruptly ceases. The tropopause is located at the
top of the troposphere and the start of the stratosphere. The temperature at the
tropopause is around a chilling -57C.
The tropopause is not at a constant altitude above the earth. At the poles it can be as low
as 28,000 ft, while over the equator it can be as high as 55,000 ft. These heights may
vary due to seasonal changes which cause temperature fluctuations. However, the
average of approximately 36,000 ft is taken to be the tropopause. At this height, the
atmospheric pressure is approximately
3 PSI or 15 the sea level pressure.
The troposphere is also characterised by a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure. The
pressure drops from approximately 15 PSI at sea level to 3 PSI at 36,000 ft.
Stratosphere
The atmospheric layer extending from the tropopause up to an average altitude of
between 50 to 55 kilometres is termed the stratosphere. Pressure continues to drop from
3 psi at the tropopause to about 0.015 psi at the top of the stratosphere.
The temperature remains almost constant at -57C, forming an isothermal layer from the
tropopause up to an altitude of 20 kilometres (70,000 ft).
Between 20 kilometres and approximately 32 kilometres the temperature begins to slowly
rise. Above an altitude of 32 kilometres, the temperature starts to increase more rapidly.
The temperature rise ceases at around 0C, between the altitudes of 50 to 55 kilometres.
This point is called the stratopause.
(Refer to Figure 6, next page)

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Figure 6: Atmospheric conditions

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AIR DENSITY
Density is described as mass per unit of volume of a substance. Density is of great
importance when studying aerodynamics because of its effects on an aircraft or aerofoil.
Three factors affect air density:
1. Altitude as altitude increases, density decreases due to decreased atmospheric
pressure.
2. Temperature as temperature increases, density decreases due to the volume of
air expanding.
3. Humidity as humidity increases, density decreases due to a decreased molecular
weight in a given volume (relatively lighter water vapour molecules displace
oxygen, nitrogen etc. molecules).
Air Density with Altitude Changes
In the troposphere, the air is warmest nearest the surface of the Earth.
As altitude increases:
Air temperature decreases.
Air density increases.
Air pressure decreases.
The decrease in air pressure has a greater effect on air density than the decrease in
temperature. Therefore, the air becomes less dense with increasing altitude.
Air is under greater pressure at the earths surface. It is denser because it is compressed.
It becomes less dense with increasing altitude. Aircraft and engine performance is
decreased if air density is decreased.
These effects are illustrated below in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Effects of temperature on air density

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Half of all air molecule mass is found below 5500m (18,000 feet) altitude. (Figure 8)
Figure 8: Molecule mass and altitude
Air density has a major effect on an aircraft in flight. At high altitude (less air density), a
greater speed and distance can be achieved because of reduced resistance (drag).
(Figure 9)
Figure 9: Air density effect on aircraft in flight
Water Vapour
Water vapour makes up only a very small fraction of the total mass of air but it has a
major effect on flight.
Because water vapour is only 63% as heavy as air, it soon mixes with air and lowers air
density.
This less dense air near the Earths surface rises and cools until its temperature drops to
where it can no longer hold the water as a vapour. The water condenses out to become a
liquid, the liquid forms very tiny droplets small enough to be supported by the moving air
currents. This forms clouds.

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Humidity
Humidity is caused by the condition of moisture or dampness. Water vapour is always
present in the atmosphere and is one of the most important factors in human comfort.
The proportion of water vapour in the atmosphere varies widely from place to place, and
time to time.
Travelling around Australia in the summer months you would come across large
fluctuations of humidity, depending on where you were. In Melbourne the temperature
may be 30C with a humidity of 60%, while in Darwin the temperature may be 30C with
a humidity of 95%. If you were to travel into the outback away from the coast the
temperature could fluctuate between 20C and 50C, with almost no humidity (the air is
very dry).
When the proportion of water vapour is small, the air is said to be dry. When the
proportion is significant, the atmosphere is described as moist, damp, wet or humid.
Figure 10 below shows that on a humid day air is less dense for a given volume due to
water vapour displacing some of the dry air.
Figure 10: Water vapour
Humidity can be stated as:

Absolute humidity.
Relative humidity.
Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of water vapour in a mixture of air and
water. The amount of water the air can hold varies with air temperature. The higher the
air temperature the more water vapour the air can hold.
Relative humidity is the ratio between the amount of moisture in the air to the amount
that would be present if the air were saturated. For example, a relative humidity of 75%
means that the air is holding 75% of the total water vapour it is capable of holding.
Relative humidity has a dramatic effect on aircraft performance because of its effect on
air density. In equal volumes, water vapour weighs 62% as much as air. This means that
in high humidity conditions the density of the air is less than that of dry air.

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Dew Point
The amount of water vapour present in the air can be measured by blowing air over a
wet-bulb and a dry-bulb thermometer. The different in readings between the two
thermometers is compared on a chart to find the relative humidity. This measurement is
the ratio of how much water vapour the air will hold at a given temperature. For practical
application in aviation, temperature and dew point are used more often than relative
humidity to measure the amount of water vapour in the air.
Dew point is the temperature to which the air must be lowered before the water vapour
condenses out and becomes liquid water.
Figure 11: Morning dew

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INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

Changing atmospheric conditions cause significant changes in the performance of
aircraft.
As the atmospheres temperature, pressure, and density vary from place to place and
from day to day, it became necessary to develop a standard set of conditions to which
performance of an aircraft could be measured. For this reason, an International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA) was adopted.
The ISA was formulated by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), now
called National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).
The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) now administers the ISA, and you
may therefore find reference to ICAO (SA) Standard Atmosphere in some publications.
Aircraft performance is measured under actual atmospheric conditions. This actual
performance can be compared to an ideal performance by recording parameters and
correcting them to ISA conditions using graphs and charts.
ISA Standard Conditions
The set of standard conditions is known as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
ISA defines precise values of:
Lapse rate.
Tropopause height.
It also defines sea-level values for:
Air pressure.
Air temperature.
Air density.
ISA values for the above are:
Lapse rate is minus 6.49 deg C / I000m.
Tropopause height is at 11 000m (36,000 ft).
Mean sea-level pressure is:
1013.25 millibars (mb).
14.69 pounds per square inch (psi).
29.92 inches mercury (in hg).
Mean sea-level temperature is 15 deg Celsius.
Mean sea level humidity is zero (0%).
Gravity (g) is 9.809m/sec2 (32.174 ft/sec2).
These values are referred to as ISA Standard Day.
The reason 15C (when the air is perfectly dry) is used is because it is the average
condition prevailing at latitude 40 North.

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Changes in atmosphere can effect:

Lift.
Drag.
Engine performance.
Component adjustments.
Instrument adjustment and monitoring.
The application of surface finishes.
Manufacture and repair of composite structures.
Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the altitude in the standard atmosphere corresponding to a
particular value of air pressure. The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive barometer
calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard atmosphere.
With the altimeter of an aircraft set at 1013.2 mb (29.92 inches Hg), the dial will indicate
the number of feet above or below a level where 1013.2 mb exists, not necessarily above
or below sea level, unless standard day conditions exist. In general, the altimeter will
indicate the altitude at which the existing pressure would be considered standard
pressure. The symbol H is used to indicate pressure altitude.

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TOPIC 8.2: AERODYNAMICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Airflow ...........................................................................................................................4
Aerofoils ......................................................................................................................13
Aspect Ratio.................................................................................................................17
Generation of Lift .........................................................................................................20
Drag ............................................................................................................................25
Conditions of Flight......................................................................................................29
Aircraft Speed ..............................................................................................................33
Icing Effects .................................................................................................................37

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Airflow disturbance ..........................................................................................4
Figure 2 Air Flow Resistance ..........................................................................................5
Figure 3 Boundary Layer................................................................................................6
Figure 4 Laminar and Turbulent Airflow.........................................................................7
Figure 5 Transition Point ...............................................................................................8
Figure 6 Airflow Separation ............................................................................................9
Figure 7 Relative Airflow ..............................................................................................10
Figure 8 Coanda Effect.................................................................................................10
Figure 9 Upwash..........................................................................................................11
Figure 10 Cause of vortices ..........................................................................................12
Figure 11 Wing Tip Vortices .........................................................................................12
Figure 12 Aerofoil Nomenclature ..................................................................................13
Figure 13 Chord Line ...................................................................................................13
Figure 14 Camber ........................................................................................................13
Figure 15 Mean Camber...............................................................................................14
Figure 16 Fineness Ratio..............................................................................................14
Figure 17 Aerofoil Shapes ............................................................................................14
Figure 18 High Lift Aerofoil ..........................................................................................15
Figure 19 General Purpose Aerofoil ..............................................................................15
Figure 20 High-Speed Aerofoil ......................................................................................16
Figure 21 Aspect Ratio .................................................................................................17
Figure 22 Aspect Ratio and Maximum Lift Coefficient ...................................................18
Figure 23 Aspect Ratio and Induced Drag.....................................................................18
Figure 24 Wing Planforms ............................................................................................19
Figure 25 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC). .................................................................19
Figure 26 Angle of Incidence ........................................................................................20
Figure 27 Angle of Attack .............................................................................................20
Figure 28 Pressure Distribution ...................................................................................21
Figure 29 Pressure Distribution/Angles of Attack .........................................................22
Figure 30 Lift Coefficient ..............................................................................................23
Figure 31 Resultant Lift ...............................................................................................24
Figure 32 Parasite Drag ...............................................................................................25
Figure 33 Form Drag....................................................................................................25
Figure 34 Skin Friction ................................................................................................26
Figure 35 Interference Drag .........................................................................................26
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Figure 36 Induced Drag ...............................................................................................27

Figure 37 Induced Drag ...............................................................................................27
Figure 38 Lift/Drag Ratio .............................................................................................28
Figure 39 Maximum Coefficient of Lift ..........................................................................29
Figure 40 The Four Aerodynamic Forces ......................................................................29
Figure 41 Drag Curve...................................................................................................30
Figure 42 The Stall ......................................................................................................31
Figure 43 Washin and Washout ...................................................................................32
Figure 44 One nautical mile .........................................................................................33
Figure 45 Airspeed Indicator ........................................................................................34
Figure 46 Flight Computer ...........................................................................................35
Figure 47 True Speed Indicator ....................................................................................35
Figure 48 Ground speed...............................................................................................36
Figure 49 The effects of icing........................................................................................37
Figure 50 Ice build-up..................................................................................................37

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AIRFLOW
Air is a viscous fluid. As you can see in Figure 1, air behaves differently when it moves,
or when a body moves through it, at speeds below the speed of sound and at speeds
above the speed of sound. Because air is invisible, it is difficult to understand what
happens in flight.
Figure 1 Airflow disturbance

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Free Stream Airflow

The free stream airflow around a shape is the clean flow, distant enough to be unaffected
by the body passing through it, and does not change direction.
Lines which show the direction of the flow are called streamlines. A body shaped to
produce the least possible resistance is called a streamline shape.
The amount of free stream air is directly relative to the resistance applied to the airflow
(DRAG). Resistance creates turbulence (Figure 2). The greater the resistance, the greater
the turbulence; therefore the further the locality of the free stream air. The amount of
drag depends on when the airflow separates. The airflow around the ball has remained
attached for longer.
Figure 2 Air Flow Resistance
Friction
Skin friction is caused by the resistance which is set up when relative motion exists
between the surface of a body and the air; contact between the two gives rise to a layer of
retarded air in immediate contact with the surface over which it is passing. This layer is
known as the boundary layer and the amount of drag arising from it is determined by the
nature and thickness of the flow in the layer.

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Boundary Layer
The boundary layer is the layer of air adjacent to the surface of the body. The air velocity
in the boundary layer varies from zero on the surface of the aerofoil to the velocity of the
free stream at the outer edge of the boundary layer (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Boundary Layer
The boundary layer is caused by the viscosity of the air sticking to the surface of the
wing and the succeeding layers of air. The thickness of the boundary layer is relative to
the velocity, and depends on the type of flow.

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Laminar Boundary Layer

The amount of drag produced depends on whether the flow in the boundary layer is
laminar or turbulent.
Laminar flow is an orderly motion in which successive strata of air particles slide past
each other in much the same way as the action of a pack of cards when thrown along a
flat surface.
If we could ensure a laminar boundary layer over the whole surface of a wing the skin
friction would be reduced to about one-tenth of its value on a conventional type of wing.
As the speed increases the boundary layer becomes turbulent and the drag becomes
greater.
The usual tendency is for the boundary layer to start by being laminar over the surface
near the leading edge of a body, but there comes a point, called the transition point,
when the layer tends to break away from the surface and become turbulent and thicker.
The boundary layer differs from the free air stream in that the particles of air are rotating
as they move rearwards. Those on the upper surface in a clockwise direction, and those
below anti-clockwise, in exactly the same way as ball bearings when rolled along a
surface.
Refer Figure 4.
Figure 4 Laminar and Turbulent Airflow

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Transition Point:
That point on the wing at which the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent
flow is called the transition point. Because the increase in drag resulting from a
turbulent boundary layer is considerable, care is taken to preserve laminar flow over as
much of the wing as possible, for example in a true laminar flow wing shown in Figure 5.
Skin friction is a major source of drag at high speeds and it is one of the most difficult to
reduce. It can never be eliminated completely.
Figure 5 Transition Point
As the speed increases the transition point tends to come further forward, so more of the
boundary layer becomes turbulent and the skin friction becomes greater.
If this much is understood it will be obvious that the main purpose of research work has
been to discover why the transition point moves forward, and how its movement can be
controlled so as to maintain laminar flow over as much of the surface as possible.
On examining the flow in the boundary layer closely, it will be seen that it differs from
the free air stream in that the particles of air are rotating as they move rearwards, those
on the upper surface in a clockwise direction, and those below anti-clockwise, in exactly
the same way as ball bearings when rolled along a surface.

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Stagnation point
The stagnation point, as shown below in Figure 6 is that point at which the air is brought
to rest by the leading edge and the point from which the boundary layer originates. The
stagnation point is also the first point of contact of relative airflow, or, the point on the
leading edge of an aerofoil where the airflow divides. Some airflow goes over the wing and
some goes under the wing.
Separation Points
The separation points are the points on the wing at which the boundary layers break
away from the surface.
Wake
The wake consists of the unsteady rotational flow, resulting from separation of the
boundary layers from the wing, and which tends to be dragged behind the trailing edge.
For a chord of seven feet the wake is about four to five inches in depth during flight at
small angles of attack.
Refer Figure 6
Figure 6 Airflow Separation

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Relative Airflow
Relative Airflow (US Relative wind) is the direction of the airflow with respect to the wing.
If a wing moves forward horizontally, the relative airflow moves backward horizontally.
Relative airflow is parallel to and opposite the flight path of the aeroplane. (Figure 7)
Figure 7 Relative Airflow
Coanda Effect
Viscosity is defined as a fluids resistance to flow. One of the consequences of this is the
tendency of a viscous fluid to follow a reasonable curvature of, for example, the back of a
spoon, or the top surface of a wing. (Figure 8)
Figure 8 Coanda Effect

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Upwash
Figure 9 shows that, in advance of the wing, the streamlines of air curve upwards
towards the top surface. Upwash, as this is called, is an inherent feature of any surface
which is giving lift and exists because air always tends to flow towards an area of low
pressure. The deeper the low-pressure region, the greater the amount of upwash.
Figure 9 Upwash
Downwash
Hydrodynamics is similar to aerodynamics except for the fluid used. When a person
water-skis, the towing boat must have enough speed through the water that the ski will
continually force down enough water to equal the weight of the skier. When the rope is
released, the skier slows down sinks into the water.
An aeroplane generates its lift in the same way as the water ski. The aeroplane is
propelled through the air by its powerplant, and as the air passes over the lift-producing
surfaces, called the airfoils, it is deflected downward. This downward deflection or
downwashing of the air has an opposing effect, that of pushing upward on the aeroplane.
There is nothing mysterious about this downwashing action. In fact, any inclined plane
will force air downward, but, the shape of the aeroplane wing makes this downwashing
action more efficient.
This downwash should not be confused with the downwards flow caused be wing tip
vortices

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Vortices
When the airflow over the top surface of a wing meets with the airflow over the lower
surfaces at the trailing edge they are flowing at different angles to each other. This
causes eddies or vortices rotating clockwise (viewed from the rear) from the left wing, and
counter-clockwise from the right wing. (Figure 10)
All the vortices on one side tend to join up and form one large vortex at each wing tip.
These are called Wing-tip Vortices.
Vortices occur continuously while an aeroplane is flying.
The central core of the vortex is made visible by the condensation of moisture caused by
the decrease of pressure and temperature, in the vortex. These visible (and sometimes
audible!) trails from the wing tips should not be confused with the vapour trails caused
by condensation trails left by hot exhaust gases at high altitudes.
This downward flow must not be confused with the ordinary downwash.
Figure 10 Cause of vortices
Wing Tip Vortices

Wingtip vortices are caused by the higher pressure air beneath the wing leaking around
the wingtip and mixing with the low pressure air above the wing. (Figure 11)
This causes a spiral or vortex that trails behind each wingtip whenever lift is being
produced. The influence vortices have on flow extends well beyond their central core,
modifying the whole flow pattern. The trailing vortices have a strong influence on lift,
drag and handling properties of the aircraft. Wake turbulence is mainly due to these
wingtip vortices.
Figure 11 Wing Tip Vortices

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AEROFOILS
Figure 12 shows the names assigned to parts of an aerofoil.
Figure 12 Aerofoil Nomenclature
Chord Line
The chord of the aerofoil is the straight line joining the leading edge to the trailing edge.
(Figure 13) It is used as an arbitrary reference line when measuring the angular position
of the wing in relation to the airflow.
Figure 13 Chord Line
Camber
Camber is defined as the curvature of an aerofoil surface or an aerofoil section from the
leading edge to the trailing edge. (Figure 14) The degree or amount of camber is
expressed as the ratio of the maximum departure of the curve from the chord to the
chord length. An aerofoil having a double convex curvature means that it has camber
above and below the chord line.
Upper camber refers to the curve on the upper surface of an aerofoil, and lower camber
refers to the curve of the lower surface.
Mean camber is the curvature of the mean line of an aerofoil profile from the chord.
Camber is positive, when the departure from the straight line is upward and negative
when it is downward. When the upper and lower cambers of an aerofoil are the same, the
aerofoil is said to be symmetrical.
Figure 14 Camber
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Mean Camber
Mean camber is the curvature of the mean line of an aerofoil profile from the chord.
(Figure 15) Camber is positive, when the departure from the straight line is upward and
negative when it is downward. When the upper and lower cambers of an aerofoil are the
same, the aerofoil is said to be symmetrical.
Figure 15 Mean Camber
Fineness Ratio
The fineness ratio is a measure of the thickness of the aerofoil.
There is also a thickness ratio of
t
c
where t is breadth and c is the length. (Figure 16)
Figure 16 Fineness Ratio
Aerofoil Shapes
The performance of an aerofoil is governed by its contour. Generally, aerofoils can be
divided into three classes:
High lift.
General purpose.
High speed.
Refer Figure 17
Figure 17 Aerofoil Shapes

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High Lift Aerofoils

There sections employ a high
t
c
ratio (15%), a pronounced camber, and a well-rounded
leading edge (Figure 18). Their maximum thickness is at about 25 per cent to 30 per cent
of the chord aft of the leading edge.
The greater the camber, i.e. the amount of curvature of the mean camber line, the
greater the shift of centre of pressure for a given change in the angle of attack. The range
of movement of the Centre of Pressure (CP) is therefore large on a high-lift section. This
movement can be greatly decreased by reflexing upwards the trailing edge of the wing,
but some lift is lost as a result.
Sections of this type are used mainly on sailplanes and other aircraft where a high
Coefficient of Lift (CL) all important and speed a secondary consideration.
Figure 18 High Lift Aerofoil
General Purpose Aerofoils

These sections employ a lower
t
c
ratio (10%), less camber and a sharper leading edge
than those of a high-lift type (Figure 19), but their maximum thickness is still at about
25 per cent to 30 per cent of the chord aft of the leading edge. The lower
t
c
ratio results
in less drag and a lower CL than those of a high-lift aerofoil.

Sections of this type are used on aircraft whose duties require speeds which, although
higher than those previously mentioned, are not high enough to subject the aerofoil to
the effects of compressibility.
Figure 19 General Purpose Aerofoil

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High-Speed Aerofoils
These sections employ a very low
t
c
ratio (7%), no camber, and a sharp leading edge
(Figure 20). Their maximum thickness is at about the 50 per cent chord point.
Most of these sections lie in the 5 per cent to 10 per cent tic ratio band, but even thinner
sections have been used on research aircraft. The reason for this is the overriding
requirement for low drag; naturally the thinner sections have low maximum-lift
coefficients.
High-speed aerofoils are symmetrical about the chord fine; some sections are wedgeshaped whilst others consist of arcs of a circle placed symmetrically about the chord line.
Figure 20 High-Speed Aerofoil

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ASPECT RATIO
Any plan form can be described briefly, but well enough to give a rough idea of its
performance, by its aspect ratio. The aspect ratio of a wing is found by dividing the
square of the wing span by the area of the wing i.e.
Thus, if a wing has an area of 250 square feet and a span of 30 feet, the aspect ratio is
3.6. Another wing with the same span but with an area of 150 square feet would have an
aspect ratio of 6. Aspect ratio can also be found by dividing the span by the mean chord
of the wing. For example, a span of 50 feet with a mean chord of 5 feet gives an aspect
ratio of 10. From the foregoing, it can be concluded that the smaller the mean chord in
relation to the span the higher the aspect ratio.
The dimensions of the wing-Hp vortices and therefore the amount of induced drag can be
reduced considerably by increasing the aspect ratio. Figure 21 shows three wings of the
same area but with different aspect ratios. The wing with the higher aspect ratio forms
smaller wing-tip vortices than the others because a smaller proportion of the total area is
involved in the process of spilling air from the lower to the upper surface. Consequently,
the rate of spilling or circulation around the tips of high aspect ratio wings is less.
The high aspect ratio wing can be said to be more efficient, from the point of view of low
induced drag. Since the total drag of a wing is the sum of the profile and induced drags,
and the induced drag changes with aspect ratio, the total drag also changes with aspect
ratio. The graph shows the effect of aspect ratio on the total drag of two wings of different
aspect ratios over the working range of angles of attack.
Figure 21 Aspect Ratio

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Aspect Ratio and Maximum Lift Coefficient

The maximum lift coefficient (CL) obtained from a given wing area and aerofoil section is
almost unaffected by aspect ratio. However, there is a tendency for the CL max to
decrease as the aspect ratio is reduced, becoming most noticeable at very low aspect
ratios of about 2 to 3 (Figure 22). Therefore, stalling speeds for a given wing loading are
not very seriously affected by a reduction in the aspect ratio.
Figure 22 Aspect Ratio and Maximum Lift Coefficient
Aspect Ratio and Induced Drag

The relationship for the induced drag coefficient emphasises the need for a high aspect
ratio for aircraft which are continually operated at high lift coefficients. On the other
hand, long thin wings increase structural weight and eventually a compromise has to be
reached.
Aircraft developed for very high speed flight operate at relatively low lift coefficients and
require great aerodynamic cleanliness. These aircraft, in consequence, usually have low
aspect ratio planforms.
The limiting factor in the use of high aspect ratio is the difficulty of providing sufficient
strength for the wings without the excessive weight which neutralises the advantage
gained. Broadly, it can be said that the lower the cruising speed of the aircraft the higher
the aspect ratio that can be usefully employed. ReFigure 23 Aspect Ratio and Induced
Dragfer
Figure 23 Aspect Ratio and Induced Drag

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Wing Planforms
Planform refers to the shape of the aeroplanes wing when viewed from above or below:
Rectangular is the cheapest to build.
Elliptical is most efficient.
Tapered is a compromise.
Sweepback is for high speed.
Refer Figure 24
Figure 24 Wing Planforms
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC).

Certain aerodynamic and weight-and-balance characteristics are referenced as a percent
of the wing chord. However, when a wing is tapered, the chord is not uniform across the
entire wing span. For this reason these characteristics are referenced as a percent of the
mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).
The mean aerodynamic chord is the chord drawn through the centre of the area of the
aerofoil; that is, equal amounts of wing area will lie on both sides of the MAC. (Figure 25)
Often, the MAC is confused with the average chord.
As an example, the pointed-tip delta wing would have an average chord equal to one-half
the root chord but a MAC equal to two-thirds of the root chord.
Figure 25 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC).

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GENERATION OF LIFT
Angle of Incidence
The angle of incidence is the acute angle which the wing chord makes with the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft, when the wing is attached to fuselage. (Figure 26)
This angle is fixed in manufacture and does not change.
Figure 26 Angle of Incidence
Angle of Attack
The angle of inclination between the aerofoil chord and the relative airflow is of great
importance. This angle is called the Angle of Attack (A of A; Figure 27).
For most aerofoils, lift increases as angle of attack increases from zero, at a slightly
negative angle, to maximum lift at about 15 degrees.
Above about 15 degrees angle of attack lift will very rapidly drop to zero again, where the
aerofoil is said to have stalled. This applies to wings, propeller blades, helicopter rotor
blades and jet engine fan, compressor and turbine blades.
Figure 27 Angle of Attack
Centre of Pressure CP
The centre of pressure is a point along the wing chord line where lift is considered to be
concentrated. For this reason, the centre of pressure is often referred to as the centre of
lift.
During flight, this point along the chord line changes position with different flight
attitudes. It moves forward as the angle of attack increases and aft as the angle of attack
decreases. As a result, pitching tendencies created by the position of the centre of lift in
relation to the Centre of Gravity (CG) vary.
For example, with a high angle of attack and the centre of lift in a forward position
(closer to the CG) the nose-down pitching tendency is decreased. The position of the
centre of gravity in relation to the centre of lift is a critical factor in longitudinal stability.

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Pressure Distribution
Figure 28 below illustrates the pressure distribution over an aerofoil at an angle of attack
of 4 deg. It shows that the decrease in pressure on the upper surface is greater than the
increase in pressure on the lower surface, also the pressure is not evenly distributed and
both pressures are greater on the forward portion of the aerofoil.
Although both surfaces contribute, it is the upper surface, by means of its lower pressure
which provides the greater part of the lift at some angles of attack as much as 80%.
Figure 28 Pressure Distribution
The location and direction in which the centre of pressure will move depends upon the
shape of the aerofoil section and the angle of attack.
The centre of pressure (CP) is the point at which the resultant force intersects the chord
of an aerofoil. Lift acts from the centre of pressure, or, stated another way, the centre of
pressure is the centre of lift.
The location and direction in which the resultant will point depends upon the shape of
the aerofoil section and the angle at which it is set to the airstream. Throughout most of
the flight range, that is, at the usual angles of attack, the CP moves forward as the angle
of attack increases and backward as the angle of attack decreases.

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As illustrated in Figure 29 the resultant intersects the chord line or centre of pressure at
progressively forward locations as the angle of attack is increased.
Figure 29 Pressure Distribution/Angles of Attack
The centre of pressure is generally located at approximately the 25% chord position for
most aerofoils. On an aerofoil with a 60 inch chord, this would locate the centre of
pressure at 15 inches aft from the leading edge.
Lift Coefficient
When several wings of the same geometrical shape and area, but with different aerofoil
sections, are compared at a given angle of attack and air speed, the lift obtained from
each wing varies the exact amount of lift depending on the aerofoil section used.
Generally, at subsonic speeds at a given angle of attack, the greater the amount of lift
obtained from a given wing; conversely, the flatter the camber and the thinner the wing
the less the lift.
This difference is due to the greater accelerating effect on the air stream of pronounced
camber, resulting in a larger reduction in pressure.
The measure of the lifting effectiveness, or power of wing under a given set of conditions,
is its lift coefficient or CL.
The CL is not constant but varies with the angle of attack. Furthermore, various
aerodynamic aids can be used to increase the CL and thus raise the lifting effectiveness
of a wing.

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All else being equal, the higher the CL the lower is the minimum speed at which a given
wing can produce a required lift. The formula for calculating the lift is:
The graph (Figure 30) shows that as angle of attack increases, so does coefficient in lift
up to a maximum of about 15 degrees.
Figure 30 Lift Coefficient
Since the expression V2S ( Greek letter Rho) applies to all aerodynamic forces, it is
sufficient, when considering increases or decreases of lift under a given set of conditions,
to refer to the increase or decrease of the lift coefficient alone. Thus an increased CL
implies an increased lift, and vice versa.
When a wing aerofoil combination is placed in an air stream at a given angle of attack,
and the speed of this stream is then progressively increased, the lift increases in
proportion to the square of the speed as shown by the lift formula.
At higher subsonic speeds the rate at which the lift has been increasing, in accordance
with the V2 law, begins to fall appreciably.
This effect is caused by the compressible nature of the air which, although negligible at
lower subsonic speeds, begins to play an important part at the higher subsonic speeds.
Compressibility, as this is called, brings with it a reduction in the CL and hence a falling
off in the rate of increase of lift, owing to fundamental changes in the nature of the
airflow.
Summarising: The two math factors affecting co-efficient of lift are:
Aerofoil shape.
Angle of attack.
Note1: Velocity only affects the lift force of the aerofoil not the coefficient of lift.
Note2: Rho (Greek letter ) - air density at standard day (0.02378 slugs per cubic foot).

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Resultant Lift
The resultant lift produced by an aerofoil is the net force produced perpendicular to the
relative airflow.
The resultant drag incurred by an aerofoil is the net force produced parallel to the
relative airflow.
Refer Figure 31
LIFT
TOTAL AERODYNAMIC
REACTION
DRAG
Figure 31 Resultant Lift

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DRAG
Drag is caused by any aircraft surface that deflects or interferes with the smooth airflow
around the aeroplane. A highly cambered, large surface area wing creates more drag (and
lift) than a small, moderately cambered wing.
If you increase airspeed, or angle of attack, you increase drag (and lift).
Drag acts in opposition to the direction of flight, opposes the forward-acting force of
thrust, and limits the forward speed of the aeroplane.
Drag is broadly classified as either parasite or induced.
Parasite Drag
Parasite drag (Figure 32) includes all drag created by the aeroplane, except that drag
directly associated with the production of lift. It is created by the disruption of the flow of
air around the aeroplanes surfaces.
Parasite drag normally is divided into three types:
Form drag.
Skin friction drag.
Interference drag.
Each type of parasite drag varies with the speed of the aeroplane. The combined effect of
all parasite drag varies proportionately to the square of the airspeed. In other words, if
airspeed is doubled, parasite drag increases by a factor of four.
Figure 32 Parasite Drag
Form Drag
Form drag is created by any structure which protrudes into the relative airflow. (Figure
33) The amount of drag created is related to both the size and shape of the structure. For
example, a square strut creates substantially more drag than a smooth or rounded strut.
Streamlining reduces form drag.
Figure 33 Form Drag

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Skin Friction
Skin friction drag is caused by the roughness of the aeroplanes surfaces. Even though
these surfaces may appear smooth, under a microscope they may be quite rough. (Figure
34)
A thin layer of air clings to these rough surfaces and creates small eddies which
contribute to drag.
Figure 34 Skin Friction
Interference Drag
Interference drag occurs when varied currents of air over an aeroplane meet and interact.
This interaction creates additional drag. One example of this type of drag is the mixing of
the air where the wing and fuselage join. (Figure 35)
Each type of parasite drag varies with the speed of the aeroplane.
Figure 35 Interference Drag

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Induced Drag
Induced drag is the main by-product of the production of lift. It is directly related to the
angle of attack of the wing. The greater the angle, the greater the induced drag.
Since the wing usually is at a low angle of attack at high speed, and a high angle of
attack at low speed, the relationship of induced drag to speed also can be plotted.
Refer to Figure 36 and Figure 37 below.
Figure 36 Induced Drag
Figure 37 Induced Drag

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Lift/Drag - The Polar Curve

The polar curve is a name given to mathematical representation of data involving
lift/drag/speed/angle of attack.
The lift/drag ratio increases rapidly up to an angle of attack of about 4. Lift may be
between 12 to 20 times the drag, the exact figure depending on the aerofoil used.
At larger angles the L/D ratio decreases steadily.
At the stall the L/D is about 6.
Refer Figure 38.
Figure 38 Lift/Drag Ratio

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CONDITIONS OF FLIGHT
Straight and Level Flight
For an aeroplane to remain in straight and level flight, the amount of lift is dependant on
airspeed and the angle of attack.
At low airspeed the aircraft has a large angle of attack. At high airspeed the angle of
attack can be reduced.
The graph (Figure 39) shows that at the maximum coefficient of lift, any further increase
in angle of attack will cause a stall, and with that, rapid decrease in coefficient of lift.
Figure 39 Maximum Coefficient of Lift
Aerodynamic Forces
Aircraft flight is controlled by adjusting the relationship between the four aerodynamic
forces (Figure 40):
Lift is the component of the aerodynamic reaction perpendicular to the relative
airflow.
Drag is the component of the aerodynamic reaction parallel to the relative
airflow.
Weight is due to gravity.
Thrust is produced by the power plant.
Figure 40 The Four Aerodynamic Forces

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For constant speed, straight and level flight:

Lift equals Weight.
Thrust equals Drag.
To accelerate or climb, thrust must be added to change the equilibrium. To descend,
thrust is reduced.
Drag Curves
In Figure 41, at low speeds, induced drag is high due to the large vortices created at high
angle of attack.
At high speeds, parasite drag dominates. Total drag starts high, decreases to a
minimum, and then increases towards the aircrafts maximum speed.
Figure 41 Drag Curve

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The Stall
A stall is caused by the separation of airflow from the wings upper surface. (Figure 42)
This results in a rapid decrease in lift. For a given aeroplane, a stall always occurs at the
same angle of attack, regardless of air speed, flight attitude, or weight. This is the stalling
or critical angle of attack. It is important to remember that an aeroplane can stall at any
airspeed, in any flight attitude, or at any weight.
For a specific aerofoil, the stall always occurs at the same angle of attack but can occur
at any speed.
At critical angle of attack (about 15 degrees):
Airflow separates
Wing stalls
Aircraft loses height
Figure 42 The Stall

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Washin and Washout

Many aeroplanes are designed with a greater angle of incidence at the root of the wing
than at the tip; this characteristic of a wing is called washout. The purpose of washout is
to improve the stability of the aircraft as it approaches a stall condition. The section of
the wing near the fuselage will stall before the outer section, thus enabling the pilot to
maintain good control and reducing the tendency of the aircraft to fall off on one wing.
If a wing is designed so that the angle of incidence is greater at the tip than at the root,
the characteristic is called washin. (Figure 43)
A difference in the washout and washin of the right and left wings of an aircraft is used
to compensate for propeller torque. Propeller torque causes the aircraft to roll in a
direction opposite that of the propeller rotation. To compensate for this, the right wing is
rigged or designed with a smaller angle of incidence at the tip than that of the left wing.
Thus, the right wing is washed out more than the left.
Figure 43 Washin and Washout

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AIRCRAFT SPEED
Knot
A knot is a measure of speed, and equates to one nautical mile per hour.
The international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary
Hydrographic Conference, Monaco (1929) as exactly 1852 metres. This is the only
definition in widespread current use, and is the only one accepted by the International
Hydrographic Organisation and by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
(BIPM).
Before 1929, different countries had different definitions, and the Soviet Union, the
United Kingdom and the United States did not immediately accept the international
value.
Both the Imperial and U.S. definitions of the nautical mile were based on the length of
one minute of arc (
1
60
degree) along a great circle of a hypothetical sphere (Figure 44).
The United States nautical mile was defined as 1853.248 metres: It was abandoned in
favour of the international nautical mile in 1954.
The Imperial (UK) nautical mile, also known as the Admiralty mile, was defined in terms
of the knot such that one nautical mile was exactly 6080 feet (1853.184m). It was
abandoned in 1970.
The nautical mile has now been standardised as 1853 metres exactly
Figure 44 One nautical mile
A knot is also a measure of subsonic airspeed.

Multiply knots by 1.15 to find statute miles per hour
Multiply knots by 1.85 to find kilometres per hour
Divide miles per hour by 0.87 to find knots
Divide kilometres per hour by 0.54 to find knots
For example, to find the approximate speed in kilometres/hour of an aircraft flying at
250 knots:
250 knots X 1.85 = 462.5km/hr

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Airspeed Indication
The dynamic pressure of the relative airflow is the most commonly used measure of
aircraft airspeed.
This pressure is used to position the pointer of an airspeed indicator.
As with any other fluid, the dynamic pressure of airflow is V2, where is air density,
and V is velocity.
Since air density () decreases with altitude, then for a constant velocity (V) the indicated
airspeed must also fall off with altitude.
There are several ways of recording aircraft speed. Three common indications are:
Indicated Air Speed (IAS).
Ground Speed (GS).
True Air speed (TAS).
Indicated Airspeed
Airspeed indicators (Figure 45) can be calibrated to read the true airspeed at only one
value of air density. It is universal that they are calibrated to read true airspeed in
standard density air at sea level (ISA). It follows that with increase in altitude, the
indicated airspeed of an aircraft drops below its true airspeed. At 40 000 feet the
indicated airspeed is only half the true airspeed.
Indicated airspeed is important to the pilot because it is a gauge of the lift and other
aerodynamic forces acting on the aircraft. This is because the indicated airspeed is
aerodynamic pressure.
Thus, an aeroplane stalls at the same indicated airspeed close to sea level, or at 40 000
feet, even though at the higher altitude the true airspeed is twice the indicated airspeed.
If an aeroplane stalls at an indicated airspeed of 70 knots, the true airspeed at which it
stalls varies from 70 knots at sea level up to 140 knots at 40 000 feet.
Figure 45 Airspeed Indicator

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True Airspeed
A thorough understanding of true airspeed is absolutely critical for navigational
purposes. In many aircraft pilots have a simple computer (
Figure 46) that calculates true airspeed when they input indicated airspeed, altitude, and
ambient temperature. Altitude and ambient temperature give a close approximation of
density, which the pilot cannot readily determine.
Figure 46 Flight Computer
A few aircraft have true airspeed indicators that automatically compute and display the
true airspeed.
Figure 47 True Speed Indicator

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Ground speed
True airspeed may not be an aircrafts actual speed over the ground. If there is a
headwind of 50 knots, the ground speed is true airspeed minus 50 knots. With a tailwind
of 50 knots, the ground speed is true airspeed plus 50 knots. (Figure 48)
Figure 48 Ground speed

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ICING EFFECTS
Rain, snow, and ice can have a detrimental effect on flight (Figure 49). Under certain
atmospheric conditions, ice can build rapidly on airfoils and engine air inlets.
Ice on an aircraft affects its performance and efficiency in many ways:
Increases drag and reduces lift.
Causes destructive vibration.
Hampers true instrument readings.
Control surfaces become unbalanced or frozen.
Fixed slots are filled and movable slots jammed.
Radio reception is hampered.
Engine performance is affected.
Stalling speed increases.
Figure 49 The effects of icing
Contamination caused by ice, snow and frost can alter the aerofoil shape. Ice build-up
can change the effective chord line. It can also alter the upper and lower camber of the
aerofoil. (Figure 50)
Figure 50 Ice build-up

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TOPIC 8.3: THEORY OF FLIGHT

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Aerodynamic Forces .................................................................................................................... 3
Aerodynamic Forces .................................................................................................................... 3
Straight and Level Flight ............................................................................................................. 6
Forces in a Glide ......................................................................................................................... 8
Theory of the Turn ...................................................................................................................... 9
Wing Loading ............................................................................................................................ 12
Lift Augmentation...................................................................................................................... 14
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Centre of Gravity (CG) and Centre of Pressure (CP) ...........................................3
Figure 2 Adverse Forward CG.........................................................................................4
Figure 3 Adverse Aft CG .................................................................................................5
Figure 4 CG Limits.........................................................................................................5
Figure 5 Four Forces......................................................................................................6
Figure 6 Increasing thrust to climb ................................................................................7
Figure 7 Decreasing thrust to descend ...........................................................................7
Figure 8 Forces in a Glide ..............................................................................................8
Figure 9 Glide L/D Ratio ................................................................................................8
Figure 10 Glide Angle.....................................................................................................9
Figure 11 Centrifugal Force and Centripetal Force..........................................................9
Figure 12 Turning Flight ..............................................................................................10
Figure 13 Sideslip ........................................................................................................10
Figure 14 Skidding.......................................................................................................11
Figure 15 Balanced Turn .............................................................................................11
Figure 16 Wing loading ................................................................................................12
Figure 17 Resultant Lift in a Turn ................................................................................13
Figure 18 High g turn ................................................................................................13
Figure 19 Changing shape of aerofoil............................................................................14
Figure 20 Full flaps approach ......................................................................................14
Figure 21 Slot ..............................................................................................................15
Figure 22 Slat ..............................................................................................................15
Figure 23 The affects of flaps and slats on CL ...............................................................16
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AERODYNAMIC FORCES
Weight
Weight has a definite relationship with lift, and thrust with drag. This relationship is
quite simple, but very important in understanding the aerodynamics of flying. As stated
previously, lift is the upward force on the wing acting perpendicular to the relative
airflow.
Lift is required to counteract the aircrafts weight, caused by the force of gravity acting on
the mass of the aircraft. This weight force acts downward through a point called the
centre of gravity (Figure 1) which is the point at which all the weight of the aircraft is
considered to be concentrated.
Figure 1 Centre of Gravity (CG) and Centre of Pressure (CP)
When the lift force is in equilibrium with the weight force, the aircraft neither gains nor
loses altitude and can be considered to be in straight and level flight at a constant
airspeed. The lift will act through the centre of pressure, which will depend on the
position of the wings; so the designer must be careful to place the wings in the correct
position along the fuselage. But the problem is complicated by the fact that a change in
the angle of attack means a movement of the lift, and usually in the unstable direction. If
the angle of attack is increased the pitching moment about the centre of gravity will
become more nose-up, and tend to increase the angle even further.
Centre of Gravity
Centre of gravity is of major importance in an aircraft for its position has a great bearing
upon stability.
The centre of gravity is determined by the general design of the aircraft. The designer
estimates how far the centre of pressure will travel and will fix the centre of gravity in
front of the centre of pressure for the corresponding flight speed in order to provide an
adequate restoring moment for flight equilibrium. (Figure 1)
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Adverse Forward Centre of Gravity

When too much weight is toward the forward part of the aeroplane, the centre of gravity
(CG) is shifted forward (Figure 2) and any one of the following conditions may exist or
they may occur in combinations at the same time:
Increased fuel consumption.
Increased power for any given speed.
Increased tendency to dive, especially with power off.
Increased difficulty in raising the nose of the aeroplane when landing.
Increased oscillation tendency.
Increased stresses on the nose wheel.
Increased danger during flap operation.
Development of dangerous spin characteristics.
Figure 2 Adverse Forward CG
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Adverse Aft Centre of Gravity

When too much weight is toward the tail of the aeroplane (Figure 3), any one of the
following conditions may exist or they may occur in combination:
Decreased flying speed.
Decreased range.
Increased strain on the pilot during instrument flight.
Increased danger of stall.
Dangerous spin characteristics.
Reduction of long range optimum speed.
Poor stability.
Increased danger if tail assembly is damaged.
Poor landing characteristics.
A study of the above listed conditions will reveal that most of them could lead to an
accident with a resulting loss of life and destruction of the aeroplane.
Figure 3 Adverse Aft CG
Centre of Gravity Limits

Each aeroplane type has its own centre of gravity limits, typically from about 15 per cent
to 40 per cent of the wing chord (Figure 4). These will have been established by design
and from the aircrafts flight handling characteristics. The actual centre of gravity of a
loaded aeroplane varies in flight as fuel is used or as people move along the cabin. The
centre of pressure and the centre of gravity will rarely coincide, resulting in either a nose
up or a nose down pitching moment.
Figure 4 CG Limits
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STRAIGHT AND LEVEL FLIGHT

Lift and drag are components of the total aerodynamic force acting upon the wing. This
total force is called the resultant. Each tiny portion of the wing in flight has a small force
acting upon it. The force acting on one small portion of the wing is different in magnitude
and direction from all the other small forces acting upon all the other portions of the
wing. By considering the magnitude, direction, and location of each of these small forces,
it is possible to add them all together into one resultant force. This resultant force has
magnitude, direction, and location with respect to the wing.
The resultant force on an aerofoil flying at a specified speed and angle of attack can be
shown as a single entity possessing both magnitude and direction. It is also possible to
break the resultant down into two major components (lift and drag), with magnitudes in
two directions. In aerodynamics these forces are discussed as having directions
perpendicular and parallel to the relative airflow. The component of the resultant force
which acts perpendicular to the relative airflow is lift. The component of the resultant
force which acts parallel to the relative airflow is called drag. The resultant forces are
broken down into separate component forces. (Figure 5)
Recall that in straight and level flight at a constant air speed, Lift = Weight and Thrust =
Drag.
To accelerate or climb, thrust must be added to change the equilibrium.
To descend, thrust is reduced.
Figure 5 Four Forces
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Forces in a Climb
In a steady climb, thrust must balance the drag plus a portion of the weight.
Lift is less than weight.
Thrust is greater than drag.
To operate at the maximum angle of climb possible we need the biggest possible value of
thrust minus drag. If the thrust minus the drag is equal to the weight we have vertical
climb. If thrust minus drag is greater than the weight then the aircraft will be in an
accelerating rather than steady climb.
As the climbing angle increases, lift proportionally decreases (w cos
thrust is required. (Figure 6)
), therefore more
Figure 6 Increasing thrust to climb
Forces in a Descent
In a powered descent, thrust may be reduced as gravity supplies some of the energy.
Lift is less than weight.
Drag is balanced by the reduced thrust and a part of the weight.
As the aeroplane descends, weight is once again greater than lift and thrust is reduced to
allow gravity to pull the aircraft towards the Earth. (Figure 7)
Figure 7 Decreasing thrust to descend
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FORCES IN A GLIDE
In a glide there is no thrust, and the pilot adopts the descent angle that gives the best lift
to drag ratio (L/D) and the lowest rate of descent. This occurs at the minimum drag
speed. (Figure 8)
Glide Ratio = L/D.
Gravity provides all of the energy to remain flying. Lift is less than weight.
Figure 8 Forces in a Glide
The Glide
In a glide, thrust is removed from the four forces. In a steady glide the aeroplane must be
kept is a state of equilibrium by lift, drag and weight.
Lift and drag must be exactly opposite to the weight.
Lift is at right angles to the glide path.
Drag acts rearwards, parallel to the glide path.
If an aeroplane is to glide as far as possible, the Angle of Attack (AoA) during the glide
must produce the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/D). If the pilot attempts to glide at an AoA
greater or less than the best L/D ratio the glide path will be steeper. The pilot has to
maintain the best L/D ratio. There is no way that the pilot can extend the glide beyond
the best L/D ratio. (Figure 9)
Figure 9 Glide L/D Ratio
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Glide Angle
If a glider is in a steady (constant velocity and no acceleration) descent, it loses altitude
as it travels. The glider's flight path is a simple straight line, shown as the inclined line in
the figure. The flight path intersects the ground at an angle a, called the glide angle. If
we know the distance flown and the altitude change, we can calculate the glide angle
using trigonometry.
The tangent tan of the glide angle a is equal to the change in height h divided by the
distance flown d:
tan(a) = h / d
Figure 10 Glide Angle
THEORY OF THE TURN

Centrifugal Force and Centripetal Force
Everyone is familiar with the fact that a weight attached to the end of a cord and twirled
around (Figure 11) will produce a force tending to cause the weight to fly outward from
the centre of the circle. This outward pull is called centrifugal force. There is an equal
and opposite force pulling the weight inward and preventing it from flying outward; this
is called centripetal force.
From Newtons first law of motion we know that a body in motion tends to continue in
motion in a straight line. Hence, when we cause a body to move in a circular path, a
continuous force must be applied to keep the body in the circular path. This is
centripetal force.
Figure 11 Centrifugal Force and Centripetal Force
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Turning Flight
Before an aeroplane turns it must overcome inertia; the tendency to continue in a
straight line.
The necessary turning force is created by banking the aeroplane so that the direction of
lift is inclined. Now, one component of lift still acts vertically to oppose weight, just as it
did in straight-and-level flight, while another acts horizontally.
To maintain altitude, lift must be increased by increasing back pressure and, therefore,
the angle of attack, until the vertical component of lift equals weight.
The horizontal component of lift, called centripetal force, is directed inward, toward the
centre of rotation. It is this centre-seeking force which causes the aeroplane to turn.
Centripetal force is opposed by centrifugal force, which acts outward from the centre of
rotation. When the opposing forces are balanced, the aeroplane maintains a constant
rate of turn, without gaining or losing altitude. Refer to Figure 12
Figure 12 Turning Flight
Sideslip
In normal flight and in a correct bank the airflow will come from straight ahead
(neglecting any local effects from the propeller slip-stream). If the bank is too much, the
aeroplane will sideslip inwards and the aeroplane, and pilot if in an open cockpit, will feel
the airflow coming from the inside of the turn. (Figure 13)
Figure 13 Sideslip
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Skidding
In an aeroplane, there is no such thing as a flat turn. If the bank is too small, the
aeroplane will skid outward caused by the centrifugal force generated in the turn. The
pilot will feel the airflow come from the outside of the turn. (Figure 14)
Figure 14 Skidding
Balanced Turn
During a correct bank the pilot will sit without any feeling of sliding either inwards or
outwards. In fact, the pilot will be sitting tighter on the seat than ever, his/her effective
weight being magnified in the same proportions as the lift. If the pilot weighs 70kg in
normal flight, that 70kg will feel like 700 kg when banking at 84 degrees. The relative
airflow will be coming head-on. (Figure 15)
Figure 15 Balanced Turn
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WING LOADING
Wing loading is the all up weight (AUW) of the aircraft divided by the wing area, i.e. the
amount of the total weight carried by unit area of the wing. It is usually given in pounds
per square foot (lb/ft2), or kilograms (kg) per square metre (kg/m2).
An aeroplane with a lower wing loading will have a lower minimum speed than one with a
high wing loading. A light aircraft may have a high wing loading and therefore a high
landing speed. It is not a question of weight, but of weight compared to wing area that
governs minimum speed.
An aeroplane with a lower wing loading will have a lower stalling speed. An aeroplane
with a higher wing loading will have a higher stalling speed. As more weight is added to
the aircraft, e.g. passengers and baggage, its wing loading, minimum speed and stalling
speed will increase. (Figure 16)
Figure 16 Wing loading
Load Factor
In a turn the resultant lift has two components:
Vertical component.
Horizontal component.
It is the horizontal component of lift that provides centripetal force.
Weight will always act vertically towards the centre of the Earth and opposite the vertical
component of lift.
It will be obvious from the calculations below that the lift on the wings during the turn is
greater than the lift which the wings have to supply during straight flight. It is also
noticeable that the lift increases considerably with the angle of bank.
This means that all the lift bracing of the aeroplane, such as the struts and spars, will
have to carry loads considerably greater than those of straight flight.
Minimum speed, the stalling speed, can be determined mathematically by using the
formula: W/L = cos , or L = W/cos .
Where:
L = lift
W = weight
= Angle of bank
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With a stalling speed of 60 MPH in level flight:

At 60 deg angle of bank, lift = 2W, stalling speed 85 MPH
At 70.5 deg angle of bank, lift = 3W, stalling speed 104 MPH
Whatever the angle of bank, the lift on the wings must be provided by CL V2S. It
follows, therefore, that the value of CL V2S must be greater during a turn than during
normal flight, and this must be achieved either by increasing the velocity or increasing
the value of CL. Thus it follows that the stalling speed, which means the speed at the
maximum value of CL must go up in a turn. It will go up in proportion to the square root
of the wing loading. (Figure 17)
Figure 17 Resultant Lift in a Turn
g Limit
As CL increases, the stress on the airframe increases. All aircraft will have a specified g
limit to avoid structural damage. Often the positive g limit is higher than the negative
g limit. (Figure 18)
It is also possible that a particular aircraft could be designed to reach its critical angle of
attack and stall before it reaches a dangerous load factor.
Another structural limitation is gross weight. There will always be a maximum weight
above which the wings cannot provide enough lift for safe flight.
Figure 18 High g turn

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LIFT AUGMENTATION
Trailing edge flaps are designed to increase the lift of the wing (Lift Augmentation) and
decrease the stall speed. This allows the aeroplane to fly at reduced speed while
maintaining sufficient control.
One method of lift augmentation is altering the effective shape of the aerofoil by movable
trailing edge flaps. (Figure 19)
Figure 19 Changing shape of aerofoil
The ability to fly slowly is particularly important during the approach and landing
phases. For example, an approach with full flaps allows the aircraft to fly slowly and at a
fairly steep descent angle without gaining airspeed. (Figure 20)
This allows for touch down at a slower speed.
Figure 20 Full flaps approach
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Lift Augmentation - Slots

A stall occurs when the angle of attack becomes so great that the energy in the air
flowing over the wing can no longer pull air down to the surface. The boundary layer
thickens and becomes turbulent, and airflow separates from the surface. This separation
can be delayed until a higher angle of attack by increasing the energy of air flowing over
the surface.
One way to do this is by installing a slot in the leading edge of the wing. (Figure 21) This
slot is simply a duct for air to flow from below the wing to the top. Once there, it is
directed over the surface in a high-velocity stream. Slots are typically placed ahead of the
aileron to keep the outer portion of the wing flying after the root has stalled. This
maintains aileron effectiveness and provides lateral control during most of the stall.
Figure 21 Slot
Lift Augmentation Slats

A slot in the leading edge of the wing is a fixed duct and is not necessary at all angles of
attack. A slat extends to form a slot. (Figure 22)
Figure 22 Slat
Some slats can be automatically deployed at a predetermined angle of attack; other types
can be mechanically deployed by the pilot when needed.
Slots and slats can be placed ahead of the aileron to keep the outer section of the wing
flying after the root section of the wing has stalled.
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The graph below (Figure 23) shows how CL is affected by:

Trailing-edge flaps.
Leading-edge slat.
Flaps and leading-edge slat.
Figure 23 The affects of flaps and slats on CL
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TOPIC 8.4: FLIGHT STABILITY AND DYNAMICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Aircraft Stability ............................................................................................................3
Aeroplane Axes ..............................................................................................................6
Active Stability.............................................................................................................17

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Positive static stability ......................................................................................3
Figure 2 Negative static stability.....................................................................................4
Figure 3 Neutral static stability ......................................................................................4
Figure 4 Dynamic stability .............................................................................................5
Figure 5 Centre of Gravity (CG) ......................................................................................6
Figure 6 Lateral stability ................................................................................................6
Figure 7 Longitudinal stability .......................................................................................7
Figure 8 Stabilising forces ..............................................................................................7
Figure 9 Directional stability ..........................................................................................8
Figure 10 Directional stability sideslip or yawing ............................................................9
Figure 11 Asymmetric power ..........................................................................................9
Figure 12 Dihedral lateral stability and dihedral...........................................................10
Figure 13 Directional stability and dihedral..................................................................10
Figure 14 The pendulum effect.....................................................................................11
Figure 15 Longitudinal dihedral ...................................................................................11
Figure 16: Anhedral .....................................................................................................12
Figure 17 Directional stability sweptback wings ...........................................................12
Figure 18 Sweepback and sideslip................................................................................13
Figure 19 Torque effect ................................................................................................13
Figure 20 Counteracting torque effect ..........................................................................14
Figure 21 Ground effect ...............................................................................................14
Figure 22 Dutch roll.....................................................................................................15
Figure 23 Spinning ......................................................................................................16
Figure 24 Aircraft with active stability ..........................................................................17

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AIRCRAFT STABILITY
Although no aircraft is completely stable, all aircraft must have desirable stability and
handling characteristics. This quality is essential throughout a wide range of flight
conditions; during climbs, descents, turns, and at both high and low airspeeds.
The stability of an aeroplane means its ability to return to some particular condition of
flight (after having been slightly disturbed from that condition) without any effort on the
part of the pilot.
An aeroplane may be stable under some conditions of flight and unstable under other
conditions. For example, an aeroplane may be stable during straight and level flight and
unstable when inverted, and vice-versa. If an aeroplane is stable in a nose dive, it would
mean that it would resist efforts on the part of the pilot to return it to straight and level
flight. This stability is sometimes called inherent stability.
Stability should not be confused with the balance or trim of an aircraft. An aeroplane
which flies with one wing lower than the other may, when disturbed from this attitude,
return to it. This aeroplane is out of proper trim, but it is not unstable.
Aerodynamic stability is somewhat different from other types of mechanical stability in
that a stable aircraft does not necessarily try to keep its wings level with respect to the
earth, nor does it even try to keep its nose level with the horizon. It is not stable in its
attitude, with respect to the earth, but it is stable with regard to its relative airflow. A
stable aeroplane will return to the angle of attack for which it is trimmed any time it is
disturbed from this angle.
Static Stability
There are three types of static stability:
Positive
Negative
Neutral
Static stability is the initial tendency that an object displays after its equilibrium is
disrupted. An aeroplane with positive static stability tends to return to its original
attitude after displacement. A tendency to move farther away from the original attitude
following a disturbance is negative static stability. If an aeroplane tends to remain in its
displaced attitude, it has neutral static stability.
Static stability may also be termed as Passive Stability where no active control is needed
by the pilot or device to maintain aircraft stability.
Positive Static Stability
Positive static stability is the tendency of an aeroplane to return to its original attitude
after displacement. (Figure 1)
Figure 1 Positive static stability

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Negative Static Stability

Negative static stability is the tendency to move farther away from the original attitude
following a disturbance. (Refer Figure 2)
Figure 2 Negative static stability
Neutral Static Stability.

If an aeroplane tends to remain in its displaced attitude, it has neutral static stability.
(Refer Figure 3)
Figure 3 Neutral static stability

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Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability describes the time required for an aeroplane to respond to its static
stability. It is determined by its tendency to oscillate and damp out successive
oscillations after the initial displacement.
Although an aeroplane may have positive static stability, it could have positive, negative,
or neutral dynamic stability.
If the tendency of an aeroplane is to return to the original attitude directly, or through a
series of decreasing oscillations, it exhibits positive dynamic stability. With oscillations
increasing in magnitude as time progresses, the plane would exhibit negative dynamic
stability. The plane would exhibit neutral dynamic stability if it attempts to return to its
original state of equilibrium, and the oscillations would neither increase nor decrease in
magnitude as time passes. (Refer Figure 4)
Figure 4 Dynamic stability

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AEROPLANE AXES
An aircraft in flight is free to rotate about three axes. They are:
Longitudinal Axis
Lateral Axis
Vertical (or Normal) Axis
The pilot controls the rotation of the aircraft about each axis. The three axes pass
through a common reference point called the centre of gravity (CG), which is the
theoretical point where the entire weight of the aircraft is considered to be concentrated.
Figure 5 Centre of Gravity (CG)
Longitudinal Axis Lateral Stability

Motion about a longitudinal (fore and aft) axis is a lateral, or rolling motion. The
tendency to return to the original attitude from such motion is called lateral stability.
(Figure 6)
The lateral stability of an aeroplane involves consideration of rolling moments due to
sideslip. A sideslip tends to produce both a rolling and a yawing motion. If an aeroplane
has a favourable rolling moment, a sideslip will tend to return the aeroplane to a level
flight attitude.
Figure 6 Lateral stability

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Lateral Axis Longitudinal Stability

When an aeroplane has a tendency to keep a constant angle of attack with reference to
the relative airflow, that is, when it does not tend to put its nose down and dive or lift its
nose and stall - it is said to have longitudinal stability. Longitudinal stability refers to
motion in pitch. The horizontal stabiliser is the primary surface which controls
longitudinal stability. The action of the stabiliser depends upon the speed and angle of
attack of the aircraft. (Figure 7)
If the aircraft changes its angle of attack, a change in lift takes place at the aerodynamic
centre (centre of pressure) of the horizontal stabiliser.
Under certain conditions of speed, load, and angle of attack, the flow of air over the
horizontal stabiliser creates a force which pushes the tail up or down. When conditions
are such that the airflow creates equal forces up and down, the forces are said to be in
equilibrium. This condition is usually found in level flight in calm air.
Figure 7 Longitudinal stability
Longitudinal Stability
Longitudinal, or pitch stability of an aircraft determines its ability to be trimmed to fly
hands-off at any airspeed, or recover from a disturbance in pitch.
Because the wings centre of lift is behind the centre of gravity, the wing produces a
nose-down pitching moment. This pitching moment is counteracted by a down load
produced by the horizontal tail surface.
Elevator trim can be adjusted by the pilot to produce the required down load at any
speed or attitude, thereby balancing the aeroplane so that it will maintain the desired
flight path.
The stabiliser produces a similar force to counteract any disturbance in pitch. The
distance from CG to the tail is vital. (Figure 8)
Figure 8 Stabilising forces

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Vertical Axis Directional Stability

The vertical axis is a straight line passing through the CG at right angles to the
longitudinal and lateral axes. (Figure 9)
Figure 9 Directional stability
Stability about the vertical axis is referred to as directional stability. An aircraft should
be designed so that when it is in straight and level flight it remains on course even when
the pilot takes his/her hands and feet off the controls. If an aircraft recovers
automatically from a skid, it has been well designed and possesses good directional
balance. The vertical stabiliser is the primary surface which controls directional stability.
When an aircraft is in a sideslip or yawing, the vertical tail experiences a change in angle
of attack with a resulting change in lift (not to be confused with the lift created by the
wing). The change in this lift, or side force, on the vertical tail creates a yawing moment
about the centre of gravity which tends to return the aircraft to its original flight path.
Sweptback wings aid in directional stability. If the aircraft yaws from its direction of
flight, the wing which is farther ahead offers more drag than the wing which is aft. The
effect of this drag is to hold back the wing which is farther ahead, and to let the other
wing catch up.
Directional stability is also aided by using a large dorsal fin and a long fuselage.

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Directional Stability Sideslip or Yawing

The side force on the vertical tail creates a yawing moment which tends to return the
aircraft to its original flight path. On the other hand, if the pressure ahead of the CG is
greater the aeroplane will turn farther off its course. (Figure 10)
The turning moment is most important, not the actual pressure. It is not only how large
the side surface is, but also its distance from the CG. For example, a small vertical
stabiliser at the end of a long fuselage may be just as effective as a large vertical
stabiliser at the end of a short fuselage. All side surfaces of an aeroplane, including
wings with dihedral, affect directional stability.
Figure 10 Directional stability sideslip or yawing
Directional Stability and Asymmetric Power

The design of a multiengine aeroplane must account for the possibility of an engine
failure at low airspeed. The unbalance of thrust from a condition of unsymmetrical
power produces a yawing moment dependent upon the thrust unbalance and the lever
arm of the force.
The deflection of the rudder will create a side force on the tail and produces an opposite
yawing moment to balance the yawing moment caused by the unbalance of thrust. Since
the yawing moment coefficient from the unbalance of thrust will be greatest at low speed,
the critical requirement will be at a low speed with the one critical engine inoperative and
the remaining engines at maximum power.
Figure 11compares the yawing moment coefficient for maximum rudder deflection with
the yawing moment coefficient for the unbalance of thrust. The intersection of the two
lines determines the minimum speed for directional control, i.e. the lowest speed at
which the rudder control moment can equal the moment of unbalanced thrust.
Figure 11 Asymmetric power

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It is usually specified that the minimum directional control speed be no greater than 1.2
times the stall speed of the aeroplane in the lightest practical takeoff configuration. This
will provide adequate directional control for the remaining conditions of flight.
Lateral Stability and Dihedral
Dihedral is the positive acute angle between the wing and the lateral axis of the
aeroplane. This angle is considerable larger on a low wing aeroplane than on mid or high
wing models. (Figure 12)
Figure 12 Dihedral lateral stability and dihedral
The principal surface contributing to the lateral stability of an aeroplane is the wing. The
effect of the geometric dihedral of a wing is a powerful contribution to lateral stability. A
wing with dihedral develops stable rolling moments with sideslip. With the relative
airflow from the side, the wing into the airflow is subject to an increase in angle of attack
and develops an increase in lift. The wing away from the airflow is subject to a decrease
in angle of attack and develops less lift. The changes in lift effect a rolling moment
tending to raise the wing that is into the airflow. (Figure 13)
Figure 13 Directional stability and dihedral
The amount of effective dihedral necessary to produce satisfactory flying qualities varies
greatly with the type and purpose of the aircraft. Generally, effective dihedral is kept low,
since high roll due to sideslip can create problems.
Excessive dihedral effect can lead to dutch roll, difficult rudder coordination in rolling
manoeuvres, or place extreme demands for lateral control power during crosswind
takeoff and landing.
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The Pendulum Effect

The pendulum effect, caused by the fuselage being below the centre of lift on a high wing
aeroplane, provides a righting action when the aeroplane rolls. The need for a steep
dihedral angle is not as great as it is on a low wing aeroplane, whose centre of gravity is
above its centre of lift.
When an aeroplane is flying straight and level, the angle of attack is the same for both
wings. However, if a wing drops, the aeroplane will start to slip to the side, and the
upturned wing on the side to which the aeroplane is slipping will immediately have a
greater angle of attack than the wing opposite the direction of the slip. The increased
angle of attack will increase the lift on the downward moving wing and restore the
aeroplane to straight and level flight. (Figure 14)
Figure 14 The pendulum effect
Longitudinal Dihedral
The horizontal stabiliser is usually set at an angle less than that of the wings. The angle
between the chord of the horizontal stabiliser and the chord of the wings is known as
longitudinal dihedral.
Longitudinal dihedral is a practical characteristic of most types of aeroplanes. It is really
the angle of attack; the actual angle at which the horizontal stabiliser strikes the airflow
which matters. We must not, therefore, forget the downwash from the wings. This
downwash, if the horizontal stabiliser is in the stream, will cause the actual angle of
attack to be less than the angle at which the horizontal stabiliser is set. (Figure 15)
Figure 15 Longitudinal dihedral

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Anhedral
For rigging purposes the dihedral angle is taken as being the angle between each wing
and the horizontal, not the total angle between the two wings, which is really the
geometrical meaning of a dihedral angle.
If the planes are inclined upwards towards the wing tips, the dihedral is positive; if
downwards, it is negative and sometimes called anhedral. (Figure 16)
Many aircraft with high-mounted swept wings utilise significant amounts of anhedral.
This is primarily used to counteract the dutch roll tendency, a form of instability
involving coupled roll and yaw motions.
Figure 16: Anhedral
Directional Stability Sweptback Wings

Sweptback wings aid in directional stability. If the aircraft yaws from its direction of
flight, the wing which is farther ahead offers more drag than the wing which is aft. The
effect of this drag is to hold back the wing which is farther ahead, and to let the other
wing catch up. (Figure 17)
Figure 17 Directional stability sweptback wings

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Sweepback and Sideslip

When a wing is swept back, the effective dihedral increases rapidly with a change in the
lift coefficient of the wing. Sweepback is the angle between a line perpendicular to the
fuselage centre line and the quarter chord of each wing airfoil section. Sweepback in
combination with dihedral causes the dihedral effect to be excessive. The swept-wing
aircraft in a sideslip has the wing that is into the wind operating with an effective
decrease in sweepback, while the wing out of the wind is operating with an effective
increase in sweepback. The wing into the wind develops more lift, and the wing out of the
wind develops less. This tends to restore the aircraft to a level flight attitude. (Refer
Figure 18)
Figure 18 Sweepback and sideslip
Torque Effect
There is a tendency for an aircraft to rotate in the opposite direction to the propeller.
(Refer Figure 19)
Figure 19 Torque effect

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One method of counteracting this tendency involves the use of washout on one wing
(decreasing angle of incidence on the wing that tends to rise) and washin on the other
wing. (Figure 20)
The difference in lift between wings causes a rolling moment opposing the torque
reaction.
Figure 20 Counteracting torque effect
Ground Effect
There is tendency for an aircraft to float when close to the ground during landing.
The effects of the downwash and air trapped between the under surface of the wing and
ground causes a cushion effect.
This cushion effect; which reduces the stalling speed of the aeroplane, is affected by
several factors including:
Wing area
Height above the ground
Wing loading
(Figure 21)
Figure 21 Ground effect

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Oscillatory Instability
Oscillatory instability is commonly found to a varying degree in combinations of high
wing loading, sweepback (particularly at low Indicated Air Speed), and high altitude.
Oscillatory instability is characterised by a combined rolling and yawing movement, or
wallowing motion.
When the rolling predominates the motion is called Dutch roll; when the yawing motion
is predominant it is known as snaking.
When the aircraft is disturbed laterally the subsequent motion may be either of the two
extremes; but in both distances the aircraft is unwilling to settle down. This can merely
be unpleasant or possibly dangerous under instrument conditions. The aerodynamic
causes of oscillatory instability are complex but are broadly concerned with the amount
of dihedral and the keel surface (the size of the fin and rudder). The greater the dihedral
and the larger the fin, the greater the tendency towards this form of instability.
Dutch Roll
The effect of dihedral is to roll the aeroplane in the direction opposite that it is slipping,
and the vertical fin will try to yaw the aeroplane in the direction of the slip. Both of these
forces affect the lateral and directional stability of an aeroplane.
If the dihedral effect is greater than that of the fin, the aeroplane will have a tendency to
Dutch roll in flight.
If the vertical fin produces a greater aerodynamic force than the dihedral, the aeroplane
may be spirally unstable. The tail will yaw the nose of the aeroplane into the relative
airflow when a wing drops, and the dihedral effect will not be strong enough to roll it
back to straight and level flight. (Figure 22)
Figure 22 Dutch roll

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Spiral Instability
Spiral Instability is a result of negative static stability in roll and yaw. The tail will yaw
the nose of the aeroplane into the relative airflow when a wing drops.
If the dihedral effect is not strong enough to roll it back to straight and level flight the
aeroplane will continues to roll and yaw and spirals into a dive. (Figure 23)
Figure 23 Spinning

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ACTIVE STABILITY
Modern high speed, high altitude aircraft are designed to be aerodynamically unstable.
They rely upon active stability control systems to enable the pilot to fly them.
These aircraft are inherently unstable. At subsonic speeds their centre of pressure (lift)
may be ahead of their centre of gravity. Active control is applied to the three axes
through digital flight control systems. (Figure 24)
Figure 24 Aircraft with active stability

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Student Resource

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Physics of the Atmosphere

Flight Stability and Dynamics

Training Material Only

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Training Material Only

Training Material Only

Physics of the Atmosphere

Training Material Only

Flight Stability and Dynamics

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Training Material Only

TOPIC 8.1: PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Figure 1: Gas composition graph

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Many maintenance operations are also affected by atmospheric conditions:

Figure 2: Physical composition of atmosphere

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

The Pressure of the Atmosphere

Figure 3: Pressure of the atmosphere

Temperature Changes in the Atmosphere

Figure 4: Temperature v Altitude

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Figure 5: Effects of altitude on temperature

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Figure 6: Atmospheric conditions

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Figure 7: Effects of temperature on air density

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Figure 8: Molecule mass and altitude

Figure 9: Air density effect on aircraft in flight

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Figure 10: Water vapour

Humidity can be stated as:

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Figure 11: Morning dew

Training Material Only

B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

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B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

Changes in atmosphere can effect:

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B-8.1 Physics of the Atmosphere

TOPIC 8.2: AERODYNAMICS

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Figure 36 Induced Drag ...............................................................................................27

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